PROCESS

MAPPING
ROBERT DAMELIO
Productivity Press
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Copyright O 1996 Robert Damelio

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 Contents

Introduction vii
1. Why Map a Process?
2. Flowcharting
Flowcharting Symbols
How to Create a Flowchart
A Flowchart Example
3. Process Mapping
Collecting the Information Needed
to Create a Process Map
Tips for Creating Process Maps
Process Mapping Pitfalls
Selecting a Process to Map
4. Relationship Maps
How to Create a Relationship Map
Relationship Map Interview
Interpreting Relationship Maps
Interpreting the Map of Phil's Garage
5. Cross-Functional Process Maps
How to Create a Cross-Functional Process Map
Cross-Functional Process Map Interview
Interpreting Cross-Functional Process Maps
Interpreting the Map of the Muffler
Replacement Process
6. Analyzing a Process
Further Reading
 Acknowledgment

When people first discover process mapping, chances are ex-

cellent that they will soon come across the work of Geary
Rummler (if they haven't done so already). So it was with me
some ten years ago, and my professional life has been en-
hanced dramatically as a result.
I would be doing a disservice to Geary and all other systems
thinkers if I did not point out that this book is an introduction
to the tool of mapping, and as such represents the tip of the
process management iceberg, which is, itself, floating in the
"organizations as systems" sea.
Key terminology and the related conventions used in the
book, such as cross-functional process map, relationship map,
and disconnect owe their origin to Geary. All credit for these
important contributions belongs to him.
My purpose with this book is to help spread the word re-
garding this powerful tool, to add some lessons learned to the
evolving story that is mapping, and to perhaps in some small
way, thank Dr. Rummler for the profound influence that his
work is having on our organizations.
 Introduction

Suppose you are planning a cross-country trip by car. One of

the first things you might desire is a map to help plan and
guide your journey. A current and accurate map helps you
plan your route, highlights obstacles and opportunities along
the way, provides a way to gauge progress, and helps you
communicate and illustrate your intentions to others.
This book is for those who find themselves planning or un-
dertaking a different kind of journey, that of continuous (proc-
ess) improvement. For your cross-country trip, the path to
your destination is some combination of roads, cities, land-
marks, and terrain, which is what your map contains. The
path for your imprcvoement journey consists of the work proc-
esses your organization uses to create and transport goods
and services to its customers, whether those customers are in-
side the organization (as in another department, division, site,
etc.) or outside the business (someone who purchases or uses
your organization's products and senrices). Thus, the map you
use for your improvement journey must focus on the work
processes that make up your organization.
Just as there are a variety of maps you may use for your
cross-country trip-atlas, state, interstate, city-the same is
also true for your improvement journey. This book shows you
how to create and interpret three tools that help make work
visible: relationship maps, cross-functional process maps, and
flowcharts.
Relationship maps show the customer-supplier relation-
ships or linkages that exist between parts of an organization.
Though they are most often used to show the big-picture view

vii
Figure 1. Three Views of a Process.

Order Fulfillment Process-Relationship Map View

Order Fulfillment Process-Cross-Functional Map View

Order Fulfillment Process, "Order taken" stepFlowchart View

viii
 Introduction Ix

that portrays how the major functions of the business interact

with one another, you can draw a relationship map for any
level of the organization. The top chart in Figure 1 shows a re-
lationship map of the functions, inputs, and outputs of one or-
ganization's order fulfillment process. The flow of the process
is shown by the large arrows. The small arrows represent the
flow of other work processes.
Cross-functional process maps show how an organization's
major work processes cut across several functions. This type of
map reveals what goes on inside the black box of the organiza-
tion's functions, and shows the sequence of steps that make
up the work process, as well as the inputs and outputs associ-
ated with each process step. You can draw a cross-functional
process map for any level of the organization as well. In Fig-
ure 1, the middle chart shows a more detailed view of the or-
der fulfillment process. Whereas the relationship map does
not generally show the steps that make up a process, this is a
key feature of the cross-functional process map. Note that the
functions shown in the relationship map are represented by
horizontal bands in the cross-functional process map, as is the
all-important band which represents the external customer.
Flowcharts are perhaps the best-known tool for illustrating
work processes. Flowcharting has long been used to define,
document, and analyze processes, particularly at the most de-
tailed level-that of the individual performing the work, or to
develop procedures for accomplishing a specific job responsi-
bility. The bottom picture of Figure 1 shows how a flowchart
may be used to expand upon the step of "order taken." Note
that although this is a single step in the cross-functional proc-
ess map performed by the sales function, the flowchart por-
trays the tasks and decisions that a salesperson performs in or-
der to take the customer's order.
x The tlasics of Process Mapping

Since most readers may already have experience with flow-

charts, the main emphasis of this book will be on relationship
and process maps. The steps you should follow to create both
types of maps are included, as are examples, mapping tips
and pitfalls, and checklists to help you evaluate your com-
pleted maps.
The following table summarizes many of the key features of
each of these three tools.
 Cross-functional
Relationship Map Process Map Flowchart

P~ Shows supplier- Shows functions, Shows tasks,

customer steps, sequence of sequence of tasks,
relationships steps, inputs, and inputs, and
(which functions outputs for a outputs for a
or parts of the particular work particular work
organization process process
receive inputs
from and provide
outputs to one
another)
Level of Detail Least Medium Most
Focus Organization Process/People Process Detail
"Context" Interface
Key Points Does not show Shows processes Shows detailed
processes within and related steps, tasks that make
or between inputs, and UP a P-
functions; treats outputs as well as Does not show
these as a "black who performs who performs
box" each step the tasks
Relates pieces of Reveals what is in Does not show
the organization
to one another
Shows supplier-
. the "black box"
Shows supplier-
supplier-
customer
customer linkages linkages
customer for a single Answers the
linkages Process question, "How
throughout the Answers the does the work
organization questions, "What actually get
Answers the steps does the accomplished?"
question, "What organization
does the perform to
organization provide outputs
provide to its to its internal and
internal and external
external customers? And
customers?" who performs
each step?"
 Chapter I

Why Map a Process?

Maps and flowcharts help make work visible. Increased visi-

bility improves communication and understanding, and pro-
vides a common frame of reference for those involved with the
work process. Maps are often used to show how work cur-
rently gets done in an organization. When used in this way,
they represent a snapshot in time that shows the specific com-
bination of the functions, steps, inputs, and outputs that your
organization uses to provide value to its customers. Thus,
maps and flowcharts help you document your current path-
ways to customer satisfaction. Analysis of the processes which
the maps represent can help you increase customer satisfac-
tion by iden-g actions to reduce process cycle time, de-
crease defects, reduce costs, establish customer-driven process
performance measures, reduce non-value-added steps, and in-
crease productivity.
For example, an electrical products distributor created a
cross-functional process map of its current incoming material
receiving process. The resultant snapshot showed that the re-
ceiving process consisted of many more steps than anyone
had previously thought, and that few performance measures
were currently in place. Each manufacturer had its own way
of packing and shipping products. This caused the distributor
to adapt its process to each manufacturer, which, in essence,
established multiple processes for the same basic function-
that of receiving and verifying incoming orders. Examination
of the steps within the process showed many to be rework or
non-value-added. This prompted the warehouse manager to
initiate projects to reduce the non-value-added steps and to es-
2 The Basics of Process Mapping

tablish measures to track timeliness and accuracy of incoming

shipment data in order to provide feedback to the manufactur-
ers who shipped the incoming material.
Additionally, maps and flowcharts can be used to show
how you want work to be done in your organization. By ex-
amining a map of current process performance in light of
customer requirements and data on sources of customer-
perceived value, you can draw a different picture to help you
illustrate the pathways you will create to provide value to
your customers. Thus maps are also important prerequisites to
successful organization design, process reengineering, or
benchmarking projects.
In addition to using maps to show how work currently gets
done or how you want work to be done, you can also use
process maps to:

Orient new employees.

Evaluate or establish alternative ways to organize your
people to get the work done.
Quickly get up to speed on what your group, team, or
department provides to the rest of the organization and
vice versa.
Identlfy improvement opportunities.
Evaluate, establish, or strengthen performance measures.

Using Maps to Orient New Employees

Think back to your first day on the job-any job. What did
your boss use to show you how the department fits into the or-
ganization, or how your job fits into the department? Chances
 Why Map a Process? 3

are it was an organization chart (see Figure 21, and the conver-
sation went something like: "Here's where we are. We report in
to the Human Resources organization. My boss is the V.P.of
Human Resources, which is the name in this box here. . . ."

Figure 2. Human Resources-Organization Chart.

V. P. Human Rosourm
Charles Gomet

Companwtlon EEOIAf(irmstlve
Kim Taylor Action
Roberts Jones

All businesses have organization charts. They are useful

tools for communicating reporting relationships, or what is of-
ten referred to as the "chain of command." The next time you
get a chance to look at one, ask yourself these questions:
Where are the customers, or the products or services the or-
ganization produces? What work does the organization per-
form and how does that work get accomplished?These are not
idle questions. They are fundamental to success in any busi-
ness or organization, whether it is manufacturing or service,
government or healthcare, large or small.
Here is how you can use process maps to orient new em-
ployees. First show them a relationship map of your group, de-
partment, or area. This will provide a big-picture view or con-
text that shows how your part of the business relates to others
(see Figure 3). Now, the conversation might go like this: "Here
is the Human Resources organization. It provides a number of
key outputs to the rest of the business. The contribution that
we make here in staffing is represented by this box. . . ."
4 The Basics of Process Mapping

Figure 3. Human Resources-Relationship Map.

Next, after providing an overview via the relationship map,

you could zoom in on the job of your new employee by using
a cross-functional process map (see Figure 4). Continue your
orientation discussion: "As I said, the contribution that
staffing makes is to ensure that positions are filled in a timely
and accurate manner. The primary output of staffing is quali-
fied candidates. Your job as recruiter contributes directly to
that output via the hiring process."
 Why Map a Process? 5

Figure 4. Hiring Process-Cross-functional Map View.

Admlnstmtlve

Recruiter
Candcams

-- - - ---- ----------- -- --
Marketplace Job

Using Maps to Organize Work

Work gets done by people who are performing one or more

steps of a process. This principle allows you to consider various
alternatives for accomplishing work by using maps to visualize
what a given alternative looks like. Simply put, you can slice a
pmess in many different ways--group the steps that make up
one or more pmesses so that the functions or people required
to produce a particular output are on the same team or part of
the same work group, for example (see Figure 5). Many organi-
zations are doing this as part of reengineering projects.
6 The Basics of Process Mapping

Figure 5. Order Fulfillment Process--Alternate Work

Groupings.

Using Maps to Clarify Roles

and Contributions

Suppose you have just taken over a new organization, team,

or department. One of your first objectives might be quickly to
gain an understanding of the part of the business for which
you are now responsible. A relationship map of your organiza-
tion would provide you with the following information at a
glance:

The outputs (products and services) of your organization.

The customers for each of those outputs (other parts of
the business or other organizations that receive the out-
puts your organization provides).
The inputs your organization receives and transforms
into outputs.
The suppliers for each input (other parts of the business
or other organizations that provide the inputs your or-
ganization consumes or transforms).
 Why Map a Process? 7

The major functions within your organization that re-

ceive and transform each input.
The links between each function (the connections be-
tween the flow of inputs and outputs) within your part of
the organization and the critical interfaces your organiza-
tion has to the rest of the business.

Equipped with this information, you now know with whom

you should build or strengthen lines of communication-your
customers and suppliers-and at least two things that you
should address during that communication-the requirements
your customer has for the outputs your organization provides,
and the requirements you have for the inputs your suppliers
provide to you. You also know the nature of the contribution
(the outputs) your part of the business makes to the organiza-
tion as a whole, as well as the major functions within your
business involved in making that contribution.

Using Maps to Identify Improvement

Opportunities
Relationship and cross-functional maps can help you discover
opportunities to do work better, quicker, and with fewer re-
sources (refer to the section on analyzing maps for more infor-
mation). Frequently, you may identify significant opportuni-
ties for improvement by clarifying the requirements for inputs
and outputs, especially if many different functions or parts of
I the business are involved in producing the final output. Gen-
erally speaking, the more handoffs (inputs and outputs that
cross functional boundaries) present, the greater the opportu-
nity for improvement. Other opportunities show up in the
form of reducing the clutter of the map, for instance, by sim-
phfymg a process, or by eliminating redundancies or non-
8 The Basics of Process Mapping

value-added steps, and so on. Maps can also help you estab-
lish or assign clear accountability for overall process (rather
than department or function) performance by defining the
boundaries of the work required to produce a specific output
regardless of how many functions or departments the work
flow crosses to reach its ultimate destination.

Using Maps to Help Measure

Performance

Relationship and cross-functional maps both contain inputs

and outputs. In addition, cross-functional maps also show the
steps that transform those inputs into outputs. This informa-
tion helps you evaluate process performance by idenhfymg
what to measure and where to measure it, particularly at the
enterprise or companywide level.
As a minimum, most quality-conscious organizations seek
to measure end-of-process outputs. Process maps make it easy
for you to idenhfy these measurement points at a glance. More
importantly, cross-functional process maps depict visually the
value chain of the organization's major processes. In other
words, process A feeds process B and so on, until the final out-
put gets to the external customer. By using maps to illustrate
and understand how a given process impacts another process
downstream, you can establish a set of measures that can help
the entire organization manage its operations in real time,
rather than simply relying on a final output measure. This al-
lows you to focus managerial attention on those processes crit-
ical to overall operation performance.
Because they show you the steps that make up a process,
cross-functional process maps also help you determine where
to place in-process measures so that you can assure end-of-
 Why Map a Process? 9

output quality by controlling key variables associated with

steps in the process while the process is operating. This allows
you to prevent defects with your measurement system, rather
than merely detecting their presence (see Figure 6).
Each input and output has a set of associated requirements.
Once you know what these requirements consist of, you can
use that information to construct a set of measures to deter-
mine output quality and to assess customer satisfaction. You
can measure output quality by focusing on the quality charac-
teristics that cause your customers to value a particular out-
put. To measure customer satisfaction, you must collect cus-
tomer perceptions data and compare them to the expectations
data used to establish input, output, and process require-
ments. Refer to chapters 5, 7, 8, and 9 of An Action Guide to
Making Quality Happen (Quality Resources, 1995)for more in-
formation on measurement.

Figure 6. Order Fulfillment Process--Measurement Points.

Engineering

Dlstrlbutlon
Chapter 2

Flowcharting

A flowchart is a graphic representation of the sequence of

steps that make up a process. The author's experience is that
the more intelligence built into the flowchart, the greater its
usefulness. By intelligence, we mean the use of symbols to
represent what actually takes place in the work process. Most
users of flowcharts tend to rely on very few symbols and thus
limit the tool's usefulness. (It is not the number or variety of
symbols that makes the flowchart useful, it is whether you are
using enough symbols to help you recognize where waste, de-
lays, rework, and so on occur in a process.) A glance at Figures
7 and 8 on page 17 should help clarify this point.
During the introduction, we mentioned that flowcharting is
a tool with which many readers are already familiar. As a re-
sult, we will include a list of flowcharting symbols and pro-
vide you with a few key points only. You may wish to refer to
chapter 4, "Flowcharting: Drawing a Process Picture" in Busi-
ness Process improvement by H . James Harrington (McGraw-
Hill, 1991), or Cycle Time Reduction: Designing and Streamlining
Work for High Performance by Jerry L. Harbour (Quality Re-
sources, 1996) for more detailed discussions of flowcharts and
how they may be used to improve processes. Please be as-
sured that our intention is not to minimize the importance of
flowcharts, but rather to emphasize the usefulness of relation-
ship maps and cross-functional process maps since many
readers have yet to make use of these powerful tools for
process improvement.
 Flowcharting 11

FLOWCHARTING SYMBOLS

Here are the symbols you should expect to see in more com-
plete flowcharts.

Boundary (Start/End): Identifies the be-

ginning or end of a process. "Start ' or
f

" e n d may be written inside.

Operation: Identifies an activity or task
in the process which changes an in-
put. Usually, the name of the activity
or task is written inside.
Movement or Transportation: Indicates

D movement of the output between lo-

cations.
Inspection: Identifies that the flow has

0 stopped in order to evaluate the qual-

ity of the output or to obtain an ap-
proval to proceed.
Delay: Identifies when something must
D wait or is placed in temporary stor-
age.
Storage: Identifies when an output is in
storage waiting for a customer. Activ-
ities classified as Storage generally
differ from Delays according to the
duration of the wait and the need for
some type of authorization to retrieve
the item from storage.
12 The Basics of Process Mapping

Decision: Identifies a decision or branch

0 point in the process. Write the deci-

sion inside. Label each path emerging
from the Decision block with the op-
tions, such as yes, no, or complete, in-
complete, etc.
Document: Identifies when the output
of an activity is recorded on paper.
Write the name of the document in-

e
side.
Database: Identifies when the output of
an activity is electronically sbred(en-
t& info a database). Write the name
of the database inside.

Connector: Indicates that an output

0 from this flowchart will be an input to
another flowchart. Write a letter in-
side the circle to represent the out-
put/input. Sometimes an arrowhead
is used along with the circle to denote
whether the circle represents an input
or an output. An arrowhead pointing
at the circle shows that the circle is an
output. An arrowhead pointing away
from the circle shows that the circle is
an input.
 Flowcharting 13

-- Arrows (flow of inputs or outputs): In-

dicates the sequence and direction of
flow within the process and usually
the transfer of an output of one activ-
ity to the next activity (for which it
t becomes an input). Use m w s to
show movement from one symbol to
another.
14 The Basics of Process Mapping

HOW TO CREATE A FLOWCHART

\
\
1. Define the \
\
boundaries of
the process. \
fl Boundaria
/
/

I'

2. Keep the flow of the process from left to right and from
top to bottom.
 flowcharting 15

3. Build intelligence into your

flowcharts;make use of all
applicable symbols.
0. 6
0

4. Keep the symbols at about the same distance

from one another for ease of interpretation.
16 The Basics of Process Mapping

5. Inputs and outputs should pass over and

under one another, rather than intersect.

6 . Make sure the outputs of your deci-

sion symbols are labeled.
$-
Involve those who perform the work when you create the
flowchart; if this is impractical, ask them to venfy the com-
pleted flowchart.
 Flowcharting 17

A FLOWCHART EXAMPLE

Consider the two flowcharts below (see Figures 7 and 8). Both
illustrate correct applications of the tool, but the second exam-
ple leads to better analysis of improvement opportunities due
to its use of a complete symbol set.

Figure 7. Typical Flowchart.

Figure 8. Flowchart with Built-in Intelligence.

-047
Start
Chapter 3

Process Mapping

COLLECTING THE INFORMATION

NEEDEDTO CREATE A MAP

There are three basic methods to collect the process informa-

tion necessary to create a map:

Self-generate.
One-on-one interviews.
Group interview.

Method 1: Self-Generate

If you already know the work process, you can draw a map
yourself and ask others who work or interact with the process
to react to it. This method produces a map faster than the
other two ways, but its usefulness is limited by the amount of
work process knowledge you possess.

Method 2: One-On-One Interviews

A series of one-on-one interviews with suppliers, performers,

and customers of the work process will enable you to create a
straw model of the process map. You can then route the map
to those you have interviewed and others who are knowledge-
able of the process, and ask them to review it for completeness
 Process Mapping 19

and accuracy. This method works best when the interviewer

has good questioning and listening skills and is able to synthe-
size information rapidly. It also helps to be familiar with the
part of the business that you are mapping before you start the
interviews.

Method 3: Group Interview

The third method available to help you create a process map is

to arrange for the relevant individuals to participate as a
group to generate the map. This method provides the greatest
direct interaction among the suppliers, performers, and cus-
tomers of the work process. A high degree of participation in-
creases the sense of ownership that the group feels regarding
the map and, more importantly, the work process. This
method works best when a skilled facilitator works with the
group to help them identify and lay out the inputs, outputs,
and steps of the process. The facilitator does not need to be fa-
miliar with the work process. However, he or she should pos-
sess strong questioning and listening skills as well as sound
knowledge of mapping conventions. (See section on cross-
functional process maps.)
20 The Basics of P m s s Mapping

TIPS FOR CREATING PROCESS MAPS

Use the group interview method and a skilled mapping

facilitator whenever possible (see "Collecting the Infor-
mation Needed to Create a Process Map" for more infor-
mation).
Select the right people to create the map. Generally
speaking, the right people are those who are:
- Knowledgeable of the process;
- Interested in improving the process;
- Available and will stay in the room for the duration.
* Establish ground rules at the start and post them on a flip
chart:
- Map creation method and conventions;
- No comings and goings;
- Think rough draft; as author Robert Mager says, "First
get it down; then get it good!"
- Encourage communication;
- Discourage finger-pointing (no-fault rule applies);
- Go for quantity of information (breadth versus depth);
- Keep a bin list (a list of outstanding or unresolved
issues).
* Use a room large enough that people can easily move
around.
Have plenty of paper to write on.
Use Post-itTM Notes to generate initial steps, then catego-
rize information by steps, output, input, measure, func-
tion, and so on.
Sequence and rearrange based on the Post-itTM Notes.
 Process Mapping 21

Consider using a laptop or other computer to record in-

formation as you work, especially if you can project the
display on a large screen.
Do not let a particular technology or software package
hinder your group process or progress.
I
Keep the energy flowing (you know you are successful I
when people start spontaneously adding or changing
items on the map themselves).
The facilitator should act as a catalyst to jump-start the
group and help participants when they stray or start to
slow down.
Respect everyone's contribution.
22 The Basics of Process Mapping

PROCESS MAPPING PITFALLS

The table below lists typical pitfalls and possible remedies as-
sociated with process maps.
- -- - -.

Pitfall Possible Remedy

'Unbalanced" map (too much Compare to other parts of the
detail in some areas, not enough map; ask, "Does this step
in others). contain roughly the same
amount of effort as that step?"
Gaps (missing or uncertain steps). Ensure that those who help
create the map are knowl-
edgeable of the process, or
have others review the draft
for completeness and
accuracy.
Map too "busy." Use additional paper and
plenty of white space, or
expanded maps cross-
referenced to base map.
Takes too long, or people getting * Establish ground rules:
bogged down. -outstanding items list
-move on after five minutes
-follow rough draft
principle; first get it down,
then get it good
-use facilitator.
Unclear terminology, or cannot Take notes while mapping.
remember what was said about a Create glossary.
particular step.
- .

(continued)
 Process Mapping 23

PiM Possible Remedy

Group is mixed (some upper level, Stress that firsthand knowl-
some lower levels) or defers to edge of the work process is
designated decision maker. what matters.
Strive for equal participation,
even if it means redefining the
PUP.
Try to prevent this problem by
staffing the group with the
right mix up front and
explaining to management
that they should select those
closest to the work.
24 The Basics of Process Mapping

SELECTING A PROCESS TO MAP

The most important criterion to use to select a process to

map--that is, to idenhfy a process to improve--is its impact
on customer-perceived value. Specifically, you want the proc-
esses that most contribute to customer-perceived value to be
world-class or at least competitively superior. Thus, those are
the processes that you would benchmark, reengineer, or im-
prove, depending on the current level of process performance
as compared to customer expectations and perceptions of the
outputs of the process.
Additional criteria that you may use to decide which proc-
ess to map or which one to map first include:

Process as part of a core competency.

Cost reduction.
Cycle time reduction.
Defect reduction.
Bottlenecks.
Obsolete or changing technology, especially information
technology.
Competitive reasons.
Mergers or acquisitions.
 Chapter 4

Relationship M ~ D S

A relationship map is a picture of the input-output (customer-

supplier) connections among parts of an organization, such as
functions, departments, divisions, or sites. Relationship maps
show:

1. What the organization produces; that is, its products and

services-the inputs and outputs shown by arrows.
2. How work flows through functional boundaries-the
connections between the arrows and the boxes.
3. Internal or external supplier-customer relationships used
to provide or receive products and services-the relation-
ship between the functions represented by the boxes.

Figure 9. Relationship Map.

Your Group
26 The Basics of Process Mapping

Relationship maps are often used to provide a "high-level"

view, similar to an aerial view of the ground below, of func-
tions, inputs, and outputs. Once you have identified some-
thing of interest, you then zoom in for a more detailed view,
usually via a cross-functional process map.
The steps to follow to construct a relationship map are in the
next section.
 Relationship Maps 27

HOW TO CREATE A
RELATIONSHIP MAP

1. Identify the major outputs of your group or department.

2. Identify your immediate customers. These are the cus-

tomers, internal and external, who first receive your out-
puts.
28 The Basics of Process Mapping

3. List the major inputs your group or department requires

to produce each major output.

4. Iden* where the inputs come from (i.e., who supplies

them).
 Relationship Maps 29

5. What are the major relationships (inputs/outputs) inside

your group or department?

Your Group
30 The Basics of Process Mapping

RELATIONSHIP MAP INTERVIEW

The following scene takes place in the office of Phil Greene,

the owner of a discount-muffler-style garage. Phil has con-
tracted with Oscar Smith, a quality improvement consultant,
to help him better understand garage operations and improve
profitability. Oscar is using the one-on-one interview method
to generate a relationship map of the garage. Here is a tran-
script of the interview. The resultant relationship map follows
the interview.

Oscar: I need your help in understanding the big picture

of the work done here at your garage. In simple
terms, what type of work does the garage perform?
Phil: The garage does three main things: we service
brakes, mufflers, and shock absorbers. We have one
bay in the garage for each type of work.
Oscar: What starts a particular senrice, such as a muffler
replacement?
Phil: We use written work orders for all three services.
Nothing happens until there is a work order ap-
proved by the customer.
Oscar: What part of the garage is responsible for obtaining
the approved work order from the customer?
Phil: Sales. They work directly with the customer. They
talk with the customer to figure out what is
needed, write the work order, and when the work
is done they present the bill to the customer and
collect payment.
 Relationship Maps 31

Oscar: Besides work orders and bills, does Sales have any
other forms to complete?
PhiI: Yes, they generate material requests and send them
to Purchasing. Purchasing uses the material request
to generate purchase orders for the various s u p
plies we use.
Oscar: Here's what I've drawn so far. How does it look?
 Relatlonship Maps 33

INTERPRETING RELATIONSHIP MAPS

Relationship maps show how the parts of an organization are

"wired together. They can help you better understand who
does what to whom; that is, what the supplier-customer links
are throughout the organization. Every function, department,
or team is always a supplier-it produces one or more out-
puts-and a customer-it receives one or more inputs from
somewhere else. A relationship map helps you quickly iden-
tdy these supplier-customer connections and answer the fol-
lowing questions:

Who are the customers for my part of the business?

What outputs do they receive from me?
Who are the suppliers to my part of the business?
What inputs do I receive from them?
What major functions does my part of the business
perform?
How do the functions in my part of the business "fit in"
or contribute to the rest of the organization? I

What are the critical connections (the "interfaces")

between my area and the rest of the organization? I
!
Armed with the picture of the business that the relationship 1
map shows, you should determine whether and to what ex-
tent the requirements for each input and output are under-
stood between supplying and receiving organizations and are
being met. You should also assess how well each critical con-
nection or organizational interface is being managed.
34 The Basics of Prvcess Mapping

Additionally, you should idenhfy any "disconnects" present

on the map. A disconnect is a missing link between an input or
output and a function, or a process in a cmss-functional p m -
ess map. They usually show up in one of two ways. First, you
may see a function box with no arrows, or not enough arrows
(inputs or outputs) coming in or out. The second, and mom
subtle way to detect a disconnect is to trace the flow of inputs
and outputs through functions. If the flow is one way or seems
to lead nowhere, it is probably a disconnect. Disconneds are
most prevalent in cross-functional processes. The more func-
tions the process crosses, the more disconnects you are likely
to find. Major opportunities for quality improvement and cy-
cle time reduction lie in improving and managing these hand-
offs between functions.
36 The Basics of Process Mapping

INTERPRETINGTHE MAP
OF PHIL'S GARAGE

How might you interpret the map of the garage and informa-
tion you have gained thus far? Consider the following ques-
tions as you refer to Figure11.

1. What disconnects are apparent, if any?

The map shows the flow of work orders from Sales to
the three bays, but no link back to Sales. Recall from the
interview script that Sales presents the final bill and col-
lects payment from the customer. The customer receives
the outputs of the three bays (e.g., brake work complete)
but there is no link shown between the customer and
Sales. Materials come from suppliers to Purchasing, but
there are no links shown between Purchasing and any of
the three bays, nor is there a return link to Sales shown
(for example, to provide feedback that the requested ma-
terial is available, etc.).
2. What are the critical connections or organizational inter-
faces?
The two external interfaces are between the garage and
its customers and suppliers. Internal interfaces would be
between each major function within the garage, such as
between the bays and Sales, or Sales and Purchasing.
3. What are the major inputs and outputs?
Work orders, purchase orders, materials, material re-
quests, brake work complete, muffler work complete,
shock absorber work complete are examples of major in-
puts and outputs.
 Relationship Maps 37

4. What are the requirements for each input and output?

The interview does not provide us with this informa-
tion.
5. Do any other questions come to mind based on the infor-
mation provided in the interview or from reviewing the
completed map?
What happens to the payment collected by Sales from
the customer? How do suppliers get paid for the rnateri-
als they provide? Do the three bays work with each other
in any way? Do they share information? What informa-
tion is needed on a work order for work to begm?How
do you know that the work each bay performs is correct?

You may have identified other questions and disconnects.

Does that mean fkat this map is incomxt or useless? Not at all.
What it demonshates is that you should not ex@ the first
map you draw ro be complete and accurate. Maps often begin
as mugh drafts. Next, the draft should be review4 by those
cl-t to the work process for completeness and accuracy. FI-
nally, the map may be redrawn to lay out functions better so
that inputs and outputs do not cross so many lines.
Chapter 5

Cross-Functional Process Mans

Cross-functional process maps illustrate how work gets done

in organizations-the paths that inputs follow as they get
transformed into outputs that customers value. They show the
steps that make up a process, as well as:

1. Inputs and outputs of each step.

2. Sequence of steps.
3. People, functions, or roles that perform each step.

Figure 12. Cross-Functional Process Map.

 Cross-FunctionalProcess Maps 39

Use the following mapping conventions:

1. Use a box to show the steps that make up the process.

Shade the box if you have a separate map or flowchart of
this step.

E l Order Placed

u Order Placed

2. Draw a line with an arrowhead to show an input or an

output associated with each step. Label the inputs and
outputs. This helps with subsequent analysis so that you
can clearly see the transformation or value being added
by each process step.

Order Placed

Order Data Sales Order

40 The Baslcs of Pmcem Mapping

3. Keep general left-bright sequence of converting inputs

into outputs.

4. Inputs and outputs should pass over and under one an-
other, rather than intersect.
 Cross-Functional Process Maps 41

5. Use the diamond symbol to indicate a decision.

Yes Account
Customer History
Address Updated
Reviewed

No
'1

6. Draw horizontal bands using dotted lines to represent the

functions, departments, and roles crossed by the work
pmcess. Inputs and outputs pass through these bands.

I
ff
SelesOrder
Reviewed
Olda
PnxPssrd
E
0
No
*--------------------

11
42 The Basics of P m s s Mapping

7. When several functions jointly perform the same step

(e.g., Review Account), draw the box so that it includes
all the functions involved. Solid lines show shared in-
volvement. Dolted lines show that one or more functions
is not involved with the activity. Here, customer history is
reviewed by functions A, B, and C.

Next, customer history is reviewed by functions A, B, and

D. Function C is not involved.

- -
 Cross-Functional Process Maps 43

I
A -t --.) --C -
Customer
History
,,,,-- ------ Reviewed ,,,,--------

B \
I
L

7 (. . A . . -

8. Split the band if you want to show a subset of a function

(e.g., Sales).

22
ORfer Scheduled
W
a
0
A A
_ - - - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - - _ _ _ _ _ - - - - - - + * - + - - - - - - - - - - - -

ha~ltk
Otdw Ordet
Entered Confirmed

3
*(
V)
- - - - - - - - - - - - C C

InmlPul

Letter of Credit Obtained

Entered Confirmed
44 me Basics of Process Mapplng
HOW TO CREATE A CROSS-
FUNCTIONAL PROCESS MAP

1. Place a large (at least 3' X 6') piece of paper on a wall or

flat surface.
2. Draw one horizontal band for each function involved in
the process. Bands may also be used to represent roles,
such as manager, or job titles, such as production super-
visor. If the process involves only one function, skip this
step.
 Cross-Functional Process Maps 45

3. Label the functions, starting with the customer (internal

or external) at the top, and then the functions closest to
the customer.

Customer

- - - - - - - - -
Sales
I

- - - - - - - - -
Operations

4. Ask each group member to write on Post-itTM Notes the

steps that make up their function's portion of the process,
and place the Post-itTM Notes on the map.

Customer

Operations
n n
46 The Basics of Process Mapping

5. Resequence the Post-itsTM until the group is satisfied that

the process is accurately mapped.

Customer
u
Sales
I
IKl
- - - - - - - - - -
Operations
0

6. Add and label all inputs and outputs to complete the

map.

Customer

- - - - - - - -
Operations
 Cross-Functional Process Maps 47

CROSS-FUNCTIONAL PROCESS MAP

INTERVIEW

The following is a continuation of the discussion between Phil

Greene and Oscar Smith which began on page 30. There have
been no adjustments or changes to the relationship map (Fig-
ure 10) that first appears on page 32.

Oscar: Let's take a closer look at the work that takes place
in the muffler bay. Based on the information from
our earlier session, here is what I understand so far.
A customer drives in and speaks with someone in
Sales. After Sales and the customer have discussed
the work to be done, Sales writes a work order and
asks for the customer's approval. Is that right, so
far?
Phil: Yes.
Oscar: What happens next?
Phil: Sales gives the work order to the technician, who
reviews it and prepares to start the job.
Oscar: What does the technician do?
I
Phil: He pulls a new muffler from inventory. Then, he re-
moves the old muffler. Next, he installs the new
muffler. Then, he starts the car, and checks for leaks
and the proper exhaust. If everything is OK, he
turns off the car, and notifies Sales that the job is
complete. If the job is not OK, he begins trouble-
shooting by double-checking the clamps, seals, and
SO on.
4a The Basics of Pmcess Mapping

O s c a ~ Once Sales is notified by the technician' they pre-

pare the bill for the customer and collect payment,
right?
Phil: Right.
Oscar: Can you think of anything else that takes place as
part of a muffler replacement?
Phil: Not right now. I think we've about covered it.
Oscar: Let's take a look at the map of the muffler replace-
ment process.
50 The Basics of Process Mapping

INTERPRETING CROSS-FUNCTIONAL
PROCESS MAPS

Cross-functional process maps show the value-producing

chains of the business. They also depict the pathways to cus-
tomer satisfaction.
Whereas relationship maps focus more on the big-picture
supplier-customer links that make up a business, cross-
functional process maps show us in more detail how an organ-
ization uses processes to create value for its customers.
Cross-functional process maps answer the questions:

What steps are required to produce a particular output?

r What is the order in which the steps are performed?
Who (which function) performs each step?
What are the handoffs or interfaces between functions?
4 In what parts of the process do the handoffs occur?
What are the inputs required and the outputs produced
at each step of the process?

Like relationship maps, cross-functional process maps often

contain disconnects (missing or deficient inputs or outputs).
Since cross-functional maps show what takes place inside one
or more functions for a particular process, any disconnects
that were present in the relationship map of those functions
will also be present here.
As you review your map, you may discover inputs or out-
puts that do not feed into any other steps within the same
function, nor into steps within other functions. You may also
find missing or implied steps, inputs, or outputs. Each of these
is a form of disconnect that should be noted and resolved.
 I= dixcmo2
kgend

Figure 14. Muffler Replacement Process-Cross-Functional Process 2- inledace

3= pucaupaformer
Map with Interpretation. b-mpusoroluplll
52 The Basics of Process Mapping

INTERPRETING THE MAP OF THE

MUFFLER REPLACEMENT PROCESS

How might you interpret the map of the muffler replacement

process and the information you have gained thus far? Con-
sider the following questions as you refer to Figure 14.

1. What disconnects are apparent, if any?

Implied or missing steps might include: drive car into
muffler bay, return car to customer, obtain or verify
needed supplies and tools, and accumulate old mufflers
for recycling. Implied or missing outputs might be: car in
place at muffler bay, car in place at parking lot, supplies
and materials, old muffler,and payment.
2. What are the critical interfaces in the process, and where
do they occur?
The critical interfaces are between Sales and the cus-
tomer, and Sales and the muffler bay technician.
3. Who performs each step of the process?
By reading each band horizontally you can determine
this information at a glance. The customer requests the
work and pays the bill. Sales completes the work order,
receives notification that the job is complete, and pre-
pares the final bill. All other steps are performed by the
muffler bay technician.
4. What are the inputs required and outputs produced at
each step of the process?
The major inputs, those at the start of the process, are
the verbal request from the customer and the completed
work order from Sales. Major outputs, those at the end of
the process, are the completed job and the final bill. Ad-
 Cross-Functional Process Maps 53

ditional inputs required to complete the job are prepara-

tions, new muffler, old muffler, new muffler in place, en-
gine idling, exhaust quality data, and engine off.
5. What are the requirements for each input and output?
The interview does not provide us with this informa-
tion.
6. What additional questions might you ask?
How does the car get to the muffler bay? Who per-
forms this step? How is the car returned to the customer?
Who performs this step? What happens to the payment
made by the customer? What tools or supplies does the
technician need to perform each step of the process?
Where do these inputs come from?

You may have identified additional disconnects or ques-

tions. Like the relationship map of the garage, it is apparent
that additional information is required to produce a complete
and accurate map of the muffler replacement process. To ob-
tain the additional information, you should review the map
with representatives of each function involved with the muf-
fler replacement process. Better yet, try to observe the muffler
replacement process as it is being performed.
Chapter 6

Analyzing a Process

Initial analysis of a process begins with interpreting the com-

pleted maps. (See sections on interpreting relationship and
cross-functional process maps.)
Subsequent process analysis most often requires that you
collect or obtain process performance data, such as cost, time,
or defect data. The particular type of analysis is usually deter-
mined by the type of project you are working on and the rea-
son the process was selected to be mapped or improved.
For example, suppose you are working on a quality im-
provement project, and the work process was selected because
of customer complaints regarding errors on the process out-
put. In this case, you might collect and analyze defect data in
order to determine and eliminate the root causes of the de-
fects. Alternatively, if the customer was complaining that the
output took too long to receive, you would concentrate on cy-
cle time analysis, rather than defects, assuming that the out-
puts are defect-free.
Regardless of any other subsequent analysis you will per-
form, once you have reviewed and interpreted a completed
map or flowchart, you should ask the group to classlfy each
step as value-added or non-value-added, since elimination of
non-value-added steps always reduces cycle time and cost
and increases productivity.
According to the authors of The Reengineering Handbook
(Mangelli and Klein, AMACOM Books, 1994), a value-added
step usually has three characteristics:

It accomplishes something the customer cares about.

 Analyzing a Process 55

It transforms (physically changes) an input.

1
It is important to do it right the first time.
The important thing to remember is that maps are means,
I
not ends. Often, but not always, one or more steps of the proc-
ess that you mapped will require a more detailed breakdown
before you are able to recommend improvements.
The following pages show how each of the three tools-
Relationship Maps, Cross-functional Maps, and Flowcharts-
may be used in a variety of performance improvement appli-
cations. They contain the information listed below for each im-
provement application.
Typical analysis questions: This is a "thought-starter" list of
the questions to be answered as part of the analysis. They are
representative and by no means the only ones that will arise.
Additional data required: Generally speaking, maps do not
provide the process performance data needed for subsequent
analysis. This section lists the type of data required for a par-
ticular application.
Tool used: Some combination of the following three tools
will be used for each application: Relationship Maps, Cross-
functional Process Maps, or Flowcharts.
Map portions used: These are the specific parts of the maps
that are most relevant to the particular analysis.
Analysis methods: These are the methods of analysis that are
likely to be most useful for the specific application, and for
which the process maps provide the foundation.

Application: Cost Reduction

l)pical Analysis Questions:
What does it cost to operate the process?
56 The Basics of P m s s Mapping

Which steps cost the most? Why?

Which steps add value and which do not?
What are the causes of cost in this process?

Additional data required:

Cost for each input, output, and step
Determination of whether the step is value-added or
non-value added

Mapping Used:
Cross-functional Process Map
Flowchart

Map Portion Used:

Inputs
Outputs
Steps

Analysis Methods
Pareto charts
Activity-based costing
Activity-based management

Application: Cycle Time Reduction

m i c a l Analysis Questions:
Which steps consume the most time? Why?
 Analyzing a Process 57

Which steps add value and which do not?

Which steps are redundant, bottlenecks, or add complexity?
Which steps result in delays, storage, or unnecessary
movement?

Additional data required:

I
1

For each step determine:

Elapsed time
Whether the step is value-added or non-value-added
Complexity
Redundancy
Bottleneck
Delays
Storage
Transportation

I Mapping Used:
! Cross-functional Process Map
Flowchart

Map Portion Used:

Steps

Analysis Methods
Pareto charts
Work simplification
58 The Basics of Process Mapping

Application: Quality Improvement

(defect reduction)

Typical Analysis Questions:

Is variation due to common or special causes?
What are the causes of the defects?
Which variables must be managed to have the desired
effect on the relevant quality characteristics?
How should the process be changed to reduce or elimi-
nate variation?

Additional data required:

Process requirements
Common or special causes of variation
Desired quality characteristics
Defect categories and descriptions

Mapping Used:
Cross-functional Process Map
Flowchart

Map Portion Used:

Inputs
outputs
Steps
 Analyzing a Process 59

Analysis Methods
Statistical methods
Pareto charts
Cause & effect
Root cause analysis
Design for manufacturability
Design of experiments

Application: Measurement System Design

or Evaluation

Typical Analysis Questions:

Based on customer expectations data, what are the
requirements for the inputs and outputs of this process?
What should our measures be to assure that the require-
ments are met?
Do our current measures assess what is important to our
customers?
What happens to the measurement data we currently
collect?

Additional data required:

Process requirements

Mapping Used:
Relationship Map
60 The Basics of P m s s Mapping

Cross-functional Process Map

Flowchart

Map Portion Used:

Inputs
outputs

Analysis Methods
Measurement system analysis

Application: Customer Satisfaction

Measurement

Typical Analysis Questions:

How does process performance data compare to
customer expectations and perceptions data?

Additional data required:

Customer expectations data
Customer perceptions data
Process performance data

Mapping Used:
Relationship Map
Cross-functional Process Map
Flowchart
 Analyzing a Process 61

Map Portion Used:

Inputs
Outputs

Analysis Methods
Market research
Stratification:grouping data by categories and looking
for patterns in the data
Comparative analysis

Application: Horizontal Management

'Qpical Analysis Questions:

Who should be accountable for end-toend p~.ocess
performance?
How can we structure the organization to manage
pmesses in addition to functions?

Additional data required:

Customer expectations data
Customer perceptions data
Prwessquirements data

Mapping Used:
RelationshipMap
Cms-functional Process Map
62 The Besics of Process Mapplng

Map Portion Used:

Inputs
outputs

Analysis Methods
Organization design or analysis

Application: Benchmarking

m i c a l Analysis Questions:
What are the best-in-class practices, metrics, and
enablers?
What are the root causes of superior process perfor-
mance?
What makes a given practice so effective?
Why is one measure (metric) preferable to another?
Why is the process configured (designed) to operate this
way?

Additional data required:

Practices (your own process plus those of the benchmark
partners)
Metrics (your own process plus those of the benchmark
partners)
* Enablers (your own process plus those of the benchmark
partners)
 Analyzing a Process 63

Mapping Used:
Cross-functional Process Map
Flowchart

Map Portion Used:

Inputs
Outputs
Steps

Analysis Methods
Comparative analysis

Application: Reengineering

m i c a 1 Analysis Questions:
How can the function of this process be performed dif-
ferently?
How can we make the process more effective, efficient,
and adaptable?
How can we add value while reducing cost?
What will the jobs in the new process consist of?
How can we use information technology to empower job
performers?

Additional data required:

Cost of each input, output and step
64 lhe Basics of Process Mapping

Elapsed time
Customer satisfaction
Number of persons operating process
Information systems
Process requirements
New job tasks

Mapping Used:
Cmfunctional Process Map
Flowchart

Map Portion Used:

Inputs
Outputs
Steps

Analysis Methods
Any or all of the preceding
 Further Reading
An Action Guide to M&ng Quality Happen, Robert Damelio and
William Englehaupt, Quality Resources, 1995.

The Basics of Benchmarking, Robert Damelio, Wty Resources,

1995.

Business Process Improvement, H. James Harrington, McGraw-Hill,

1991.

Cycle Time Reduction, Jeny Harbour, Quality Resources, 1995.

Improving Performance: How to Manage the White Spce on the

Organization Chart, 2"* ed., Geary A. Rummler and Alan P.
Brache, Jossey-Bass, 1995.

Keeprng Score: Using the Right Metrics to Drive World-Class

Performance, Mark Oraham Brown, Quality Resources, 1995.

The Process Reengineering Workbook: Practical Steps to Working

Smarter and Faster Through Process Improvement, Jeny L.
Harbour, PhD., Quality Resources, 1995.