LimitState:GEO Manual

VERSION 3.4.a

LimitState Ltd
November 16, 2016

LimitState Ltd
The Innovation Centre
217 Portobello
Sheffield S1 4DP
United Kingdom
T: +44 (0) 114 224 2240
E: [email protected]
W: www.limitstate.com
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c LimitState Ltd
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LimitState:GEO 3.4.a

c LimitState Ltd

All rights reserved. No parts of this work may be reproduced in any form without the written permission
of LimitState Ltd.

While every precaution has been taken in the preparation of this document, LimitState Ltd assumes no
responsibility for errors or omissions. LimitState Ltd will not be liable for any loss or damage of any
kind, including, without limitation, indirect or consequential loss (including loss of profits) arising out of
the use of or inability to use this document and/or accompanying software for any reason.
This document is provided as a guide to the use of the software. It is not a substitute for standard
references or engineering knowledge. The user is assumed to be conversant with standard
engineering terminology and codes of practice. It is the responsibility of the user to validate the
software for the applications for which it is to be used.

c LimitState Ltd
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c LimitState Ltd
Contents

I Introduction and Quickstart 15

1 Introduction 17
1.1 General Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.2 Program Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3 LimitState:GEO Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.4 About LimitState . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.5 Using Help . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.6 System Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.7 Program Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.8 Contact Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.8.1 Sales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.8.2 Software Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.8.3 Website . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

2 Getting Started 23
2.1 Installation and Licensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.1.1 Thumbnails, Tags and File Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2 Starting LimitState:GEO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3 Guidance Available in this Manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

3 Quick Start Tutorial 27

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2 Getting Started . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.3 Analysis Modes and the Adequacy Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.4 Solving a Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.5 Viewing Mechanism Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.6 Viewing Stresses and Bending Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.7 Zooming In and Out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.8 Pan, Rotate and 3D Views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.9 Trying Different Problems and Parameter Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.10 The Property Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.10.1 Changing Material Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.10.2 Changing the Material Used in a Soil Layer (Solid Object) . . . . . . . . . 35
3.10.3 Changing the Material used in an Interface (Boundary Object) . . . . . . 36
3.10.4 Modifying Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.10.5 Resizing a Block of Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.10.6 Changing a Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.11 Solving a Collapse Problem by Factoring Soil Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.12 Modelling Layered Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.13 Solution Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.14 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

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6 CONTENTS

4 Wizards 45
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.2 Using a New Project Wizard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.2.2 General Project Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.2.3 Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.2.4 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.2.5 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.2.6 Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.2.7 Analysis Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

II Theory 53

5 Discontinuity Layout Optimization 55

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.2 Limit Analysis and Limit Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.3 DLO: How Does it Work? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.3.1 Basic Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.3.2 Adaptive Solution Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.3.3 Rotational Failure Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

6 Model components 67
6.1 Material Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
6.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
6.1.2 Mohr-Coulomb Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
6.1.3 Cutoff Material (Tension and/or Compression) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
6.1.4 Rigid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6.1.5 Engineered Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6.1.6 Combined Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
6.2 Representation of Water Pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
6.2.1 Modelling of Water Pressures using DLO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
6.2.2 Water Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
6.2.3 Water Regimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
6.2.4 Water Pressure Hierarchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
6.3 Seismic Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
6.3.1 Modelling of Seismic Loading Using DLO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
6.3.2 Modelling of Water Pressures During Seismic Loading . . . . . . . . . . 76
6.4 Soil Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

7 Limit Analysis: Advantages and Limitations 79

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
7.2 Simplicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
7.3 Stress States in Yielding and Non-yielding Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
7.4 Yield Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
7.5 Strain Compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
7.6 Non-associativity and Kinematic Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

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III Modelling 85

8 Generic Principles 87
8.1 Model Definition and Solver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
8.1.1 Model Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
8.1.2 Solver Specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
8.2 Adequacy Factor and Factors of Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
8.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
8.2.2 Method 1 - Factor of Safety on Load(s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
8.2.3 Method 2 - Factor of Safety on Material Strength(s) . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
8.2.4 Method 3 - Factor of Safety on Ratio of Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
8.2.5 Application of the Adequacy Factor on Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
8.2.6 Adequacy Factor Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
8.2.7 Adequacy Factor Direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
8.3 Use of Partial Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
8.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
8.3.2 Factoring of Actions (Loads) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
8.3.3 Factoring of Material Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
8.4 Solution Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
8.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
8.4.2 Benchmarking Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
8.4.3 Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
8.4.4 Small Solid Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
8.4.5 Singularities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
8.4.6 Model Extent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
8.4.7 Failure Mechanisms Dominated by Rotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
8.5 Adapting Plane Strain Results to 3D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
8.6 Troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
8.6.1 Insoluble Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
8.6.2 Troubleshooting Insoluble Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
8.6.3 Problems Giving Solutions That Appear Incorrect . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

9 Example Problems 111

10 Slope Stability Problems 113

10.1 Principles of Slope Stability Limit Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
10.2 Factor of Safety on Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
10.2.1 Slopes in Cohesionless Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
10.2.2 Slopes in Cohesive Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
10.3 Factor of Safety on Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
10.4 Unusual Failure Surfaces for Slopes in Cohesive Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

11 Reinforced Soil 117

11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
11.2 Soil Reinforcement with Specified Interface Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
11.3 Soil Reinforcement - Predefined Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
11.3.1 Predefined types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
11.3.2 Soil Nail - general parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
11.3.3 Soil Nail (Rigid) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
11.3.4 Soil Nail (Flexible) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
11.3.5 Soil Nail (Can Yield) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
11.3.6 Sheet Pile Wall - general parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

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11.3.7 Sheet Pile Wall (Rigid) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

11.3.8 Sheet Pile Wall (Can Yield) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
11.3.9 Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
11.4 Modelling soil nails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
11.5 Modelling flexible geosynthetic reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
11.5.1 General principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
11.5.2 Geotextiles - Method 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
11.5.3 Geotextiles - Method 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
11.5.4 Geotextiles - Method 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
11.6 Anchor tendons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
11.7 Example 1 - Simple Reinforcement Pullout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
11.8 Example 2 - Simple Reinforcement Tensile Rupture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
11.9 Example 3 - Simple Reinforcement Lateral Displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
11.10 Example 4 - Simple Reinforcement Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

12 Seismic Problems 131

12.1 Modelling of Seismic Loading Using DLO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
12.2 Example 1 - Modelling a Simple Mechanics Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
12.3 Example 2 - Checking the Mononobe-Okabe Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
12.4 Example 3 - Correct use of Adequacy Direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

IV User Guide 137

13 Introduction to the User Guide 139

14 The Graphical Interface 141

14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
14.2 Title Bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
14.3 Menu Bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
14.4 Toolbars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
14.5 Material Explorer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
14.6 Water Regime Explorer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
14.7 Viewer Pane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
14.8 Property Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
14.9 Geometry Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
14.10 Output Pane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
14.11 Status Bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
14.12 Vertex, Boundary and Solid Explorers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
14.12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
14.12.2 Vertex Explorer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
14.12.3 Boundary Explorer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
14.12.4 Solid Explorer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
14.13 Calculator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

15 Specifying the Problem Geometry 153

15.1 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
15.2 Setting the Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
15.3 Starting with an Empty Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
15.3.1 Project Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
15.3.2 Draw Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
15.4 Starting with a DXF Imported Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

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15.4.1 Permitted DXF Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

15.4.2 Tips for Modifying a DXF in an External CAD Package . . . . . . . . . . 159
15.4.3 Permitted DXF Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
15.4.4 Following DXF Import . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
15.4.5 Export to DXF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
15.5 Construction Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
15.5.1 Horizontal Construction Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
15.5.2 Vertical Construction Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
15.5.3 Custom Construction Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
15.6 Drawing Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
15.6.1 Rectangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
15.6.2 Polygon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
15.6.3 Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
15.6.4 Vertex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
15.7 Selecting Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
15.7.1 Single Click Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
15.7.2 Rectangle Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
15.7.3 Multiple Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
15.8 Snapping to Other Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
15.9 Modifying the Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
15.9.1 Using the Mouse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
15.9.2 Connecting Geometry Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
15.9.3 Overlapping Geometry Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
15.9.4 Changing the End Vertex of a Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
15.9.5 Creating One Object Inside Another . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
15.9.6 Using the Geometry Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
15.10 Undo/Redo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
15.11 Editing Geometry Object Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

16 Setting the Analysis Mode 171

16.1 Short and Long Term Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
16.2 Translational and Rotational Solution Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
16.3 Factor Load(s) vs Factor Strength(s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
16.3.1 Changing Analysis Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
16.3.2 Factor Strength(s) Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

17 Setting Material Properties 175

17.1 Material Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
17.1.1 Converting Yield Stress to Cohesion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
17.2 Assigning a Material to a Solid or a Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
17.3 Post-Solve Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
17.4 Standard Mohr-Coulomb Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
17.4.1 Setting Soil/Material Strength Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
17.4.2 Setting Short Term/Long Term Behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
17.4.3 Mohr-Coulomb Material with Linear Variation of Strength with Depth . . . 181
17.4.4 Mohr-Coulomb Material with Spatial Variation of Strength . . . . . . . . . 183
17.5 Derived Mohr-Coulomb Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
17.6 Cutoff Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
17.7 Rigid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
17.8 Setting Soil/Material Unit Weight (Weight Density) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
17.9 Engineered Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

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17.9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

17.9.2 Defining Engineered Element Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
17.9.3 Post Solve Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
17.10 Creating and Deleting User Defined Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
17.10.1 Materials Explorer Context Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
17.10.2 Creating a New Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
17.10.3 Creating a Duplicate Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
17.10.4 Deleting a Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
17.11 Exporting and Importing Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
17.12 Previewing Strength Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

18 Setting Boundary Conditions 199

19 Setting Applied Loads 201

19.1 Specifying Boundary Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
19.2 Specifying Self Weight Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
19.3 Adequacy Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
19.4 Favourable/Unfavourable Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

20 Setting Water Pressures 205

20.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
20.2 Enabling and Disabling Water Pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
20.3 Drawing a Water Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
20.4 Use of an ru Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
20.5 Localized Water Pressures (Regimes) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
20.5.1 Defining a New Water Regime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
20.5.2 Creating a Duplicate Water Regime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
20.5.3 Deleting a Water Regime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
20.5.4 Exporting and Importing Water Regimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
20.5.5 Viewing Water Regime Affected Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
20.6 Previewing Modelled Water Pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

21 Setting Seismic Parameters 217

22 Analysis 219
22.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
22.2 The Solver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
22.2.1 Pre-Solve Checks and the Diagnostics Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
22.3 Analysis Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
22.3.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
22.3.2 Setting and Previewing the Nodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
22.3.3 Setting Nodal Distribution within Geometry Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
22.3.4 Optimizing Nodal Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
22.4 Solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
22.5 Analysis Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
22.5.1 Collapse Adequacy Factor Found . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
22.5.2 No Solution Found . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
22.5.3 Aborting an Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
22.5.4 Lock and Unlock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

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23 Post-Analysis Functions 231

23.1 Adequacy factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
23.2 Animation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
23.3 Slip-lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
23.4 Pressure Distributions around Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
23.4.1 Post-Solve Display Dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
23.4.2 Block Context Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
23.5 Force Distributions along Engineered Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
23.5.1 Post-Solve Display Dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
23.5.2 Engineered Element Context Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

24 Report Output 239

24.1 Viewing the Report Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
24.2 Saving the Report Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
24.3 Customizing the Header or Footer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

25 Exporting Graphical Output 243

25.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
25.2 Geometry Export . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
25.3 Image Export . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
25.4 Animation Export . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
25.5 Animations and Multiple Scenario Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246

26 Opening and Saving Projects 247

26.1 Opening and Saving Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
26.2 Auto-recovery Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

27 Thumbnails, Tags and Searching 249

27.1 Thumbnails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
27.2 Tags and Searching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
27.2.1 Tags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
27.2.2 Searching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250

28 Preferences 253
28.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
28.2 Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
28.3 Startup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
28.4 Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
28.5 Solve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
28.6 Export . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258

29 License Information Dialog 259

30 Scenario Manager and Partial Factors 261

30.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
30.2 Specification of Partial Factors for a Single Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
30.3 Specification of Long and Short Term Analysis Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
30.4 Specifiying Multiple Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
30.5 Using the Partial Factor Set Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
30.6 Exporting and Importing Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
30.7 Solving with Multiple Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

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V Appendices 267

A Verification 269
A.1 Verification Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
A.2 Academic Papers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

B Menu and Toolbar Reference 271

B.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
B.1.1 Scrollbars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
B.1.2 Current Mouse Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
B.1.3 Scrolling Wheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
B.2 Menus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
B.2.1 File Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
B.2.2 Edit Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
B.2.3 Select Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
B.2.4 View Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
B.2.5 Draw Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
B.2.6 Tools Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
B.2.7 Analysis Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
B.2.8 Help Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
B.3 Toolbars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
B.3.1 Default Toolbars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
B.3.2 Optional Toolbars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
B.4 Context Menus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
B.4.1 Viewer Pane Context Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
B.4.2 Toolbar / Property Editor Context Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
B.4.3 Geometry Object Explorer Context Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283

C Accessing Example Files 285

D Derivation of Theory 287

D.1 Work Done by Cohesion by Rotation of a Log Spiral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287

E Interpolated Grid 289

E.1 Grid Square Interpolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

F Command-Line Interface 291

F.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
F.2 License Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
F.3 File Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
F.3.1 Uncompressing Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
F.4 Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
F.5 Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
F.6 Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
F.7 Running . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
F.8 Help . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
F.9 Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
F.9.1 Options Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
F.9.2 Object Keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
F.10 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
F.10.1 Project Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
F.10.2 Scenario Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299

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F.10.3 Material Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300

F.10.4 Water Regime Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
F.10.5 Boundary Object Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
F.10.6 Solid Object Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
F.10.7 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
F.11 Creating and Running a Batch File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306

G Benchmark Solutions 307

G.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
G.2 Simple Soil Nail in Retaining Wall (Undrained) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

H Frequently Asked Questions 309

Bibliography 313

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c LimitState Ltd
 Part I

Introduction and Quickstart

15
Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 General Description

LimitState:GEO is a general purpose software program which is designed to rapidly analyse

the ultimate limit state (or ‘collapse state’) for a wide variety of geotechnical problems.

The software can be used to model 2D problems of any geometry specified by the user (includ-
ing slopes, retaining walls, foundations, pipelines, tunnels, anchors etc. and any combination
of these).

It directly determines the ultimate limit state (ULS) using the computational limit analysis tech-
nique Discontinuity Layout Optimization (DLO, see Section 5.3), and is designed to work with
modern design codes such as Eurocode 7 by providing full support for partial factors and the
ability to solve multiple scenarios.

1.2 Program Features

LimitState:GEO is designed to be general, fast and easy to use. The main features of Limit-
State:GEO are summarized below:

• LimitState:GEO utilizes Discontinuity Layout Optimization (DLO) to directly identify the

critical collapse mechanism. The DLO procedure effectively relies on the familiar ‘mech-
anism’ method of analysis originally pioneered several centuries ago by workers such as
Coulomb (1776), but posed in a modified form to allow modern-day computational power
to be applied to the problem of finding the critical solution from billions of possibilities.

• The solution is presented as an ‘adequacy factor’ (applied to one or more loads or ma-
terial strengths in the problem). This in effect allows the software to determine either a
factor on load or a factor on strength for any problem. The solution is also displayed vi-
sually as a failure mechanism involving a number of blocks which will slide and/or rotate
relative to one another. To facilitate rapid interpretation of the mode of response the failure
mechanism can be animated. The distribution of stresses around the edges of any con-

17
18 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

stituent block can also be displayed. In addition the variation of tensile force, shear force
and bending moment can be displayed along reinforcing elements or sheet pile walls.

• Many types of problems can be solved, including those involving slopes, foundations,
gravity walls, soil reinforcement and any combination of these. The problem geometry
can be specified using Wizards for common problems or alternatively by:

– drawing the geometry on-screen using the mouse,

– importing from an AUTOCAD DXF file.

The geometry can subsequently be edited using the mouse or by editing coordinates.

• The following Materials are available:

– Mohr-Coulomb (strength defined in terms of cohesion intercept and angle of shear-

ing resistance). A linear variation of undrained shear strength cu with depth may also
be specified.
– Rigid (i.e. no yield conditions are applied).
– Cutoff (allows modelling of a tension and/or compression cutoff).
– Engineered element (e.g. for modelling a soil nail or sheet pile wall).

• A wide range of Wizards are provided to permit rapid modelling of common geotechnical
problems, including slope stability, retaining wall, and foundation problems.

• The user may switch between long term and short term (drained and undrained) analy-
sis modes by changing a single setting.

• The ground water conditions may be defined using:

– a water level (phreatic surface) with hydrostatic pore pressures,

– an overall value of the pore pressure coefficient ru .
– constant potential or constant pressure
– a spatially varying function based on user defined grid values

• Soil reinforcement/Engineered elements and pre-existing slip surfaces may be mod-

elled at any location within the geometry.

• Seismic loadings may be modelled using the pseudo static method by specifying Hori-
zontal and Vertical accelerations.

• Choice of Translational or Translational and Rotational analysis modes.

• LimitState:GEO provides extensive support to users wishing to use Partial Factors:

– user specified partial factor sets can be defined,

– commonly used partial factor sets are built-in (e.g. Eurocode 7 Design Approach 1
partial factor sets),
– different partial factors can be defined for permanent, variable, accidental and favourable
/ unfavourable loads (see Section 19),
– automatic post-analysis checks are performed to verify that Favourable/Unfavourable
load specifications are in fact correct.

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• LimitState:GEO provides a comprehensive and easy to use GUI interface with fully se-
lectable geometry objects, a Property Editor, Materials Explorer and drag and drop facil-
ities. It also provides users with full Undo/Redo facilities and ability to recover lost work
via an auto-saved recovery file.

• A comprehensive Report can be generated, with user control over what is included, and
the unique ability to output free body diagrams for all blocks of material identified in the
critical failure mechanism, with equilibrium equations to permit easy hand validation (see
Section 24).

• Comprehensive guidance within the program in the form of messages, warnings and text
descriptions. Where appropriate these are hyperlinked direct to relevant sections within
the online help file.

• Choice of working in Metric or Imperial units.

1.3 LimitState:GEO Terminology

LimitState:GEO is designed to rapidly identify the critical failure mechanism in any geotechnical
stability analysis problem. The annotated image in Figure 1.1 highlights the most important
objects the user will encounter when using LimitState:GEO.

Figure 1.1: The main objects encountered in LimitState:GEO

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1.4 About LimitState

LimitState Ltd was spun out from the University of Sheffield in 2006 to develop and market cut-
ting edge ultimate analysis and design software for engineering professionals. These include
the LimitState:RING, LimitState:GEO, and LimitState:YIELD products, with applications in the
structural, geotechnical and mechanical engineering sectors. Our aim is to be a world lead-
ing supplier of computational limit analysis and design software. LimitState maintains close
links with the University of Sheffield, enabling it to draw on and rapidly implement the latest
innovations in numerical and theoretical limit state analysis.

1.5 Using Help

Pressing F1 at any time, or pressing the Help button, gives users access to the online help facil-
ity, providing users with a convenient means of accessing material contained within the manual
whilst using the software. The software also includes hyperlinks which link directly to relevant
parts of the online help material (e.g. from within messages, dialogs and text descriptions), to
provide users with rapid access to relevant explanatory material.

1.6 System Requirements

LimitState:GEO runs on the Windows XP, Vista, Windows 7 and Windows 8 operating systems
(support for Mac OSX and Linux operating systems is available on request, subject to demand).
Recommended minimum system specifications are as follows:

• 1.5+ GHz Intel (or compatible) processor

• 200+ Mb free hard disk space

• 1+ Gb RAM

1.7 Program Limits

The program uses a ‘Single Document Interface’ which means that one project file can be open
in LimitState:GEO at any given time. However, several instances of LimitState:GEO can be
opened simultaneously if required and each of these may contain a separate project file.

When using LimitState:GEO with a ‘full’ license, problem size is limited only by available com-
puter power.

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1.8 Contact Details

1.8.1 Sales

To request information on pricing, a formal quotation, or to purchase the software please contact
LimitState, at [email protected].

1.8.2 Software Support

Software support for LimitState:GEO is available to all users with a valid support and mainte-
nance contract. Additionally we are happy to help users with time-limited ‘trial’ or ‘evaluation’
licenses. All queries should be directed to [email protected].

1.8.3 Website

For the most up-to-date news about LimitState:GEO, please visit the LimitState:GEO website:
www.limitstate.com/geo.

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c LimitState Ltd
Chapter 2

Getting Started

2.1 Installation and Licensing

Full details regarding installation and licensing issues are provided in the ‘LimitState:GEO
Installation and Licensing Guide’.

2.1.1 Thumbnails, Tags and File Search

For users running Windows 7 or above, the ability to include thumbnails and tags with the saved
project is available1 . Careful use of these features allows different LimitState:GEO files to be
categorized and later searched for on a computer, without the need to open and inspect each
one individually. Additionally, other properties from the Project details dialog can be searched
if the system properties are set appropriately.

2.1.1.1 Enabling Thumbnails

To allow a system to take advantage of the thumbnail feature it may be necessary to set it to
display these instead of the program icon. To do this:

1. Open Control Panel on the PC.

2. Select Folder Options.
3. Select the View tab.
4. Ensure that Always show icons, never thumbnails is NOT selected.
5. Click OK.

For further information see Chapter 27. Note that uninstalling LimitState:GEO may require a
reboot to remove the thumbnails feature from Windows registry.
1
For Windows Vista users, thumbnails may be available depending on the system configuration.

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2.1.1.2 Enabling File Property Searching

To allow a system to search within the Project details it may be necessary to change the
default search settings. To do this:

1. Open Control Panel on the PC.

2. Select Folder Options.

3. Select the Search tab.

4. Ensure that Always search file names and contents... IS selected.

5. Click OK.

For further information see Chapter 27. Note that searching for file properties in a folder that
is included in the Windows ”Index” may not work at first. This is because the system requires
time to register the file properties in the index and, during this period, will not return matches.
The expected behaviour will return once indexing has occurred.

2.2 Starting LimitState:GEO

To start LimitState:GEO, on the Start menu, point to All Programs, then click on LimitState:GEO.
On starting LimitState:GEO the following welcome screen should appear (Figure 2.1)

Figure 2.1: LimitState:GEO welcome screen

You then have three options:

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1. Create a new project - select this option and click OK to bring up the New Project Dia-
log. You may then select either an Empty project (which provides you with full flexibility
to define the geometry of your problem), or one of the many application-specific prede-
fined projects (e.g. the Simple Footing Project), each of which will activate a wizard to
guide you through the process of specifying your problem.

2. Open an existing project - select this option and click OK to display the open file dialog.

3. Open a recently accessed project - select this option, choose a file from the list and
click OK to return to a recent project.

2.3 Guidance Available in this Manual

Guidance is available as follows:

1. For a quickstart introduction to LimitState:GEO refer to Chapter 3.

2. For an explanation of how to use the Wizards to rapidly set up and solve common prob-
lems refer to Chapter 4.

3. For a description of the theory underlying the solutions generated by LimitState:GEO

refer to the Theory chapters in Part II. It is assumed that users are fully familiar with the
advantages and limitations of limit analysis which is the basis of the analysis technique
utilised by LimitState:GEO. A short summary of key points is given in Chapter 7.

4. For guidance on using LimitState:GEO to model a range of problem types refer to the
Modelling chapters in Part III.

5. For full instructions on use of the program user interface and description of its features
refer to the User Guide in Part IV.

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Chapter 3

Quick Start Tutorial

3.1 Introduction

This chapter gives an overview of the capabilities of LimitState:GEO. It is recommended reading

for new users and is designed to give users the confidence to subsequently make use of some
of the more sophisticated features of the program.

However, for the sake of brevity some important issues are not discussed in this chapter and the
reader is referred to the Modelling Guide (Part III) and User Guide (Part IV) for fuller information.

Note that for sake of simplicity all examples in this tutorial involve undrained (cohesion only)
problems.

3.2 Getting Started

It is assumed that the user is starting from the Welcome to LimitState:GEO dialog.

 Select Create a new project and click OK to bring up the New Project dialog (see Figure
3.1).

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Figure 3.1: The New Project dialog

If Cancel is selected, the user is free to define their own problem geometry. However it is easier
to learn how the program works by initially using one of the predefined problem wizards. The
wizards permit rapid definition of common problem geometries. The geometry can be easily
amended subsequently.

 Select Simple Footing and click OK .

The wizard then appears. Project data is entered in six stages as follows (the icons in the
navigation bar on the left hand side of the wizard will be highlighted during each stage of the
problem definition):

Project Background details to the project may be entered here. Click Next to accept defaults.

Geometry The problem geometry may be amended here. Click Next to accept the defaults.

Materials Material properties may be entered here. Note the default value of undrained shear
strength (cu ) for the soil of 50.0 kN/m2 . Click Next twice to accept defaults.

Loads Loads may be entered here. Note the default value, QV (the applied line load on the
foundation) is set to a unit value of 1.0 kN/m. Change this to 200.0 kN/m. Click Next to
accept this.

Scenarios Scenarios describe the different partial factor sets that are applied during analysis
and whether each is a short or long term analysis. The partial factors, which are treated
by LimitState:GEO as multipliers on applied loads or divisors on material properties, may
be modified to suit different design codes. Click Next to accept the default User factors,
which are all set to unity.

Analysis The type of analysis and the solution accuracy (defined by the Nodal Density) may
be modified here. Click Finish to accept the default settings, which specify that the anal-
ysis determines a Factor on Loads and uses a Medium density of nodes (500).

The problem geometry will be displayed in the main viewer (see Figure 3.2).

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Figure 3.2: Geometry generated by the Simple Footing Wizard. Note that all visual objects are
fully interactive, and their geometry can be changed by selecting these with the mouse.

3.3 Analysis Modes and the Adequacy Factor

Following an analysis the critical collapse Adequacy factor will be displayed in the Output
pane. The Adequacy factor is the factor by which specified loads must be increased, or
material strengths decreased, in order for the system under consideration to reach a collapse
state. There are two types of Adequacy factor that can be reported:

• Adequacy factor on load

• Adequacy factor on soil strength

This quickstart starts with a number of examples that report the Adequacy factor for loads
before moving on to examples where material strength is factored.

Further information regarding the Adequacy factor and different modes of analysis is available
in Section 8.2.

3.4 Solving a Problem

With the default values set in the wizard, the defined problem for a short term (undrained)
analysis is equivalent to the simple problem of a footing of width B = 1.0m on a semi-infinite
layer of weightless cohesive soil of undrained shear strength cu = 50.0 kN/m2 .

While it is not possible to model a semi-infinite layer of soil, it is sufficient to model a finite size
layer providing it is large enough (generally the critical mechanism should not touch a fixed
boundary unless it is known that failure is unlikely to occur beyond this point).

To determine whether the specified load of 200.0 kN/m2 can be carried by the foundation,

 either use the menu: Analysis / Solve, click on the icon or press F5.

Upon Solve, LimitState:GEO will carry out a number of pre-solve diagnostic checks to ensure
that the model geometry definition is valid. Errors or settings that may lead to invalid or non-
credible solutions will be displayed in the Diagnostics window (see Section 22.2.1).

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The program will first display a series of nodes, superimposed on the geometry objects in the
problem, and will then rapidly try out all possible combinations of slip-lines interconnecting the
nodes to find the optimum solution. The program will gradually refine the failure mechanism
until an optimal slip-line mechanism is found (see Figure 3.3), together with an associated
Adequacy factor (margin of safety) on the specified load.

Figure 3.3: Simple Footing problem displayed in the main viewer (after analysis and before
animation)

Note that occasionally a problem can be found where several equally critical failure mechanisms
exist. The Simple Footing is one such problem and a slip line mechanism involving the right
or left side, or both, can be returned. However the numerical solution remains the same in all
cases.

With the specified parameters, an Adequacy factor of 1.301 should be obtained (displayed in
the Output window at the bottom of the screen). This means that the foundation is safe against
collapse by a factor of 1.301. The actual load that would cause failure is 200 × 1.301 = 260.2
kN/m.

In general,

Adequacy factor > 1.0 The problem is safe against collapse

Adequacy factor < 1.0 The problem is unsafe against collapse.

However, note that there is not necessarily any margin of safety in the above definition.

In order to analyse the ultimate limit state, at least one load in the problem must be increased
until the collapse state is reached. This may be an applied load or the self-weight of a solid
body. In order to indicate to LimitState:GEO which load is to be increased, the Adequacy
property must be set for at least one load.

For the Simple Footing Project, the wizard automatically sets the Adequacy property for the
load applied to the footing. The returned Adequacy factor is the factor by which that load
must be increased in order to cause collapse. Further details may be displayed by clicking
on the displayed Adequacy factor. This displays the dialog shown in Figure 3.4. For further
information on the Adequacy factor and its usage, see Section 8.2.

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Figure 3.4: Detailed information on the solution relating the adequacy factor to applied loadings.

This example problem is the well known Prandtl punch solution for which the true
analytical collapse load QU LS is given by:

QU LS
= (2 + π)cu + q (3.1)
B
where B is the width of the footing, cu is the undrained shear strength, and q is the
surcharge load on the adjacent soil surface. Note that the solution is unaffected by
the soil self weight.

The adequacy factor F is given by:

F = QU LS /Qd (3.2)

where Qd is the specified design load.

In this example, with q = 0, the theoretical adequacy factor is 1.285. The overesti-
mate by LimitState:GEO is thus ∼1.2%, utilizing the default Medium nodal refine-
ment.

3.5 Viewing Mechanism Deformation

By default the software will automatically animate the solution after solve (see Figure 3.5),
by magnifying the instantaneous displacements at failure. Note that though the solution is
strictly only valid for infinitesimal displacements, large displacements are displayed to assist
visualization of the collapse mode. For direct control over magnification of the mechanism

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displacements, the slider bar can also be used. The Play Animation button can be
clicked to replay the animation.

Figure 3.5: Deformation of the Simple Footing problem (after deformation)

3.6 Viewing Stresses and Bending Moments

After the software has solved a problem, the user is able to select any of the Solids (rigid
block identified in the collapse mechanism) or Engineered Elements (e.g. soil reinforcement)
in the failure mechanism (by clicking with the mouse). (Note that Engineered Elements are not
further discussed or used in the examples in this Quick Guide chapter. The theory behind En-
gineered Elements is discussed in Section 6.1.5. The practical use of Engineered Elements
in LimitState:GEO is discussed in Chapter 11).

For Solids, clicking will display a diagram of the Normal Stress (default) or Shear stress acting
upon that object. To switch between types, right-click on the solid to bring up the context menu
and then select the desired diagram type.

For Engineered Elements, clicking will display the default diagram type specified in the cor-
responding material property. Tensile Force, Shear Force and Bending Moment can all be
displayed. To switch between types, right-click on the appropriate boundary element to bring
up the context menu and select the desired diagram type.

In all cases, hovering over part of the diagram will display the magnitude of these stresses next
to the mouse cursor (see Figure 3.6). For further information on displaying boundary stresses,
see Section 23.4.

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Figure 3.6: Viewing normal stress information after solving, plotted as a bar chart, together with
specific values for a selected bar.

3.7 Zooming In and Out

To zoom in and out, use the magnifying glass toolbar buttons (Zoom In , Zoom Out ,
Zoom All ). If a scroll wheel mouse is being used, the wheel can be used to zoom in and out.
Alternatively the keyboard buttons +, - and * will zoom in, out and to the extents of the problem
geometry respectively.

Note that with the mouse, zooming takes place centred on the current position of the mouse
pointer (the Select button must be on for this feature to work). Zoom All resizes the image
to display optimally in the viewer. This is useful if the image has become too large or small.

3.8 Pan, Rotate and 3D Views

To pan, select the cross arrows toolbar button ( ) and hold the left mouse button while drag-
ging inside the Viewer Pane. Alternatively, if a scroll wheel / 3 button mouse is being used,
click and hold the central button. The arrow keys on the keyboard will also change the view.
Note that panning takes place centred on the current position of the mouse pointer.

To rotate the view in 3D, select the rotate toolbar button ( ) and hold the left mouse button
whilst moving the cursor in the Viewer Pane. To return the view back to the default, right-click
in the Viewer Pane to bring up the context menu. From here, select View >Front to return the
display to the default viewing angle. Using the context menu, or the View 3D toolbar (Appendix
B.3.2), it is also possible to snap the viewer to a number of pre-defined 3D viewing angles.
These can be particularly effective when examining the solved problem.

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3.9 Trying Different Problems and Parameter Sets

Perhaps the simplest way to vary problem parameters is to simply re-run the wizard (File>New
or ) and enter different parameters; alternatively a different wizard can be tried.

However, the current problem may be modified in any way required after a wizard has been
run. Making use of this capability will give the user a good feel for what the software is capable
of, and how problems can be created without using the wizards.

Note that if there is a previously solved problem, the Unlock icon must be clicked to allow
modification of any of the parameters (this is to prevent inadvertent alterations being made
once a solution has been obtained).

3.10 The Property Editor

The Property Editor (PE), displayed on the right hand side of the display, allows the user to
quickly read and / or modify the attributes of one or more objects within the current project.
Figure 3.7 shows the typical parameters displayed in the Property Editor when a Material is
selected.

Figure 3.7: Typical parameters displayed in the LimitState:GEO Property Editor when a Mate-
rial object is selected.

The Property Editor is visible by default when LimitState:GEO is started for the first time, but
can be hidden and shown using the View menu described in Appendix B.2.4.

Some of the functions in LimitState:GEO are only accessible via the Property Editor. These are
described in more detail in this section. Other functions and attributes can be accessed and
modified elsewhere, but are shown for convenience in the Property Editor.

Generally when an object is selected on the screen it will be highlighted and its properties will
be displayed in the PE - where they can be viewed or edited as required. Single clicking on
any item in the Property column of the PE gives an expanded explanation of the parameter
in the window at the base of the PE. A sign next to an item in the PE indicates that there
are additional sub-parameters relating to that item that may be viewed. Click on the sign to

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access these. Clicking on a value in the PE allows it to be modified by typing or selecting the
required choice, unless it is a read only value or the project is Locked.

3.10.1 Changing Material Properties

By default the Materials Explorer is located on the left hand side of the screen. This contains
a list of available material types. Click on any icon to view the properties of the material in the
Property Editor. The soil material used in the Simple Footing Project is called ‘Footing Soil’.
When selected, its (default) properties are displayed as follows:

• Shear strength parameters:

– Drained cohesion, c0 = 0 kN/m2
– Drained phi, φ0 = 30◦
– Undrained shear strength, cu = 50 kN/m2
• Unit weights (weight densities):
– Unit weight, γ = 20.0 kN/m3
– Unit weight (saturated), γsat = 20.0 kN/m3 .

Change the value of the Undrained cohesion, cu to 75.0 kN/m2 (click on the box with the value
50.0 in it, enter the new value then press Enter or click elsewhere in the Property Editor to
accept the value) and then Solve again. A new solution of Adequacy factor = 1.951 (approxi-
mately 1.5 times the previous solution discussed in Section 3.4) should be obtained.

Now try changing the unit weight to 10 kN/m3 and click Solve (remember to click Unlock first).
The solution should remain as 1.951. Self weight does not affect bearing capacity problems
involving cohesion only when the soil surface is horizontal.

3.10.2 Changing the Material Used in a Soil Layer (Solid Object)

Unlock and click anywhere in the soil mass below the footing in the viewer frame (to use single
selection, ensure that toolbar buttons and are set to on).

Figure 3.8: Problem geometry with lower soil body highlighted following selection

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Once selected with the mouse the Solid Object representing the soil layer will be highlighted in
pink (as shown in Figure 3.8), and its properties displayed in the Property Editor. To change
the allocated material three options are available:

1. If a material defined by the user (e.g. in a wizard) has been selected, its properties
may be freely edited directly in the Property Editor in the same way as described in
Section 3.10.1. (It is necessary to click the sign next to the caption ‘Footing soil’ in
the Property column of the Property Editor to access the material properties.)

2. If it is necessary to allocate an already defined material to the Solid Object representing

the soil layer, ‘drag and drop’ may be used. Using the mouse, drag a material from the
Materials Explorer onto the Solid Object representing the soil layer. A dialog box will be
displayed and the user asked whether the user wished to Add to the material(s) already
present, or Replace them.
Click Replace and the new material will be used in place of the previous material. The
colour of the solid object should also change to reflect the change in material (this will
not be seen while the soil mass is still selected). Try replacing the default soil with Very
Stiff Clay. After solving, the same failure mechanism as before should be obtained, but
an adequacy factor of 3.902 will be obtained (this is 3.0 times the original value obtained
with cu = 50 kN/m2 since the cohesion of the Very Stiff Clay is 150 kN/m2 ).

3. The third option, which is an alternative to drag and drop, is to click on the Value cell
in the Materials row in the Property Editor (this should read 1 Material assigned...). A
Change button will appear. Click this and the Edit Object Material(s) dialog will allow
the selection of a material (or set of materials) that can be used in the zone.

Note that the system defined material properties (indicated by a padlock symbol on the material:
) are read only and may not be changed. User editable copies may however be made or
new materials created (see Section 17.10).

3.10.3 Changing the Material used in an Interface (Boundary Object)

As well as being able to assign material types to a Solid Object (soil layer), it is also possible to
add materials to a boundary or interface (termed a Boundary Object). With a few exceptions
(e.g. foundation / soil interfaces or elements such as soil nails) the wizards will assign no
materials to boundaries by default.

Material properties assigned to a Boundary Object are often related to the material allocated
to an adjacent Solid Object. Thus if the material allocated to the Solid Object is changed,
it is usually necessary to change the material in the adjacent boundary (if set), otherwise an
unexpected solution may be obtained. For example, Unlock the project and drag Very soft clay
onto the bottom boundary of the soil (whilst retaining Very stiff clay in the main soil layer). The
boundary should be highlighted in pink when the mouse is exactly over it, and will change colour
to the material colour if the material has been successfully assigned to it. After solving, you
will see that the solution changes to utilize this weak layer of soil - the mechanism is attracted
to the base of the soil (see Figure 3.9) and a lower adequacy factor of 3.546 is obtained. To
remove this material from the line, click Unlock , select the boundary line and in the Property

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Editor click the cell opposite Materials to show the Change button. Click this button, uncheck
Very Soft Clay in the Edit Zone Material(s) dialog and click OK .

Figure 3.9: Change in critical failure mechanism caused by modification of boundary material
in the Simple Footing problem. (Compare with the mechanism in Figure 3.5.)

Note that the default list of materials contains a Frictionless material that has zero shear
strength and zero self weight. This is particularly useful for modelling smooth interfaces be-
tween solid zones.

3.10.4 Modifying Loads

Unlock the project and remove the Very soft Clay material from the bottom surface. Now select
the upper right hand surface of the soil. View the load parameters by clicking the adjacent
to the Loading parameter label in the Property Editor, and then click the adjacent to the
Loads parameter label. The three load types Permanent, Variable and Accidental will be
displayed. Loads for each of these load types may be defined and they can attract different
partial factors depending on the partial factor set chosen (recall that the default User set in
which all parameters were set to be unity was chosen earlier).

Now click on the adjacent to the Permanent parameter label to see the Shear and Normal
applied loads. These should both be zero. Change the Normal value to 10.0, ensure Adequacy
is set to false, and then repeat for the upper left hand surface. It can be seen that non-zero
loads (with no adequacy factor applied to them) are displayed graphically in the viewer as green
arrows. Click Solve, and a solution of 3.952 should be obtained. This is higher than the solution
with zero surface load (3.902) as expected.

Note that if Adequacy had been applied to these surface surcharge loads, the program would
try to find the factor by which these loads and the load on the footing would have to be simul-
taneously increased to cause collapse and would generate a very different factor to that which
might be initially expected.

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In this example, with q = 10 kN/m2 and cu = 150 kN/m2 , the theoretical adequacy
factor is given by:

QU LS ((2 + π)cu + q) B
F = = = 3.91 (3.3)
Qd Qd

The overestimate by LimitState:GEO is this case is now ≈1.06%, utilizing the de-
fault Medium nodal refinement.

3.10.5 Resizing a Block of Soil

Changing the geometry of a problem is straightforward. For example, re-run the Simple Footing
wizard, (click New to display the New Project dialog again) check the Model as symmet-
rical half space box on the Geometry page and accept all the other defaults (or simply click
Finish after checking the half space box). This will produce a half space model. Solve to ob-
tain the baseline Adequacy factor of 258.5. Now Unlock and click on the top right hand Vertex
of the soil block and with the left hand mouse button held down, drag this Vertex downwards
to form a slope (see Figure 3.10). Note that pressing F8 or clicking ORTHO will toggle ‘Ortho
mode’, which restrains the movement of selected items to the Cartesian directions.

Now Solve and a smaller value of adequacy factor should be obtained. Points may also be
moved more precisely by typing in their coordinates. The Geometry Editor (located below the
Property Editor) can be used for this purpose. Again click on the same point and the x and
y coordinates will be displayed in the Geometry Editor. Set x = 1.75 and y = 0.4 and Solve
again. An Adequacy factor of 208.6 should be obtained.

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Figure 3.10: Dragging a vertex by clicking and dragging in the viewer

3.10.6 Changing a Boundary Condition

The current boundary conditions for the problem are displayed graphically. They may also be
viewed in the Property Editor by selecting any boundary. In the Property Editor it is possible
to set the boundary type, and the permanent, variable and accidental loads independently. Try
selecting the upper right hand surface of the soil. It will be seen in the Property Editor that
this has a Support Type of Free. This can be changed to Fixed or Symmetry (though this latter
setting may not be appropriate here).

Change the Support Type on this boundary (upper right hand soil surface ) to Fixed. Then
select the vertical right hand edge of the soil zone and set its Support Type to Free. Solve
again to obtain a radically altered failure mechanism (depicted in Figure 3.11) in which the soil
can only flow out of the right hand side free edge.

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Figure 3.11: Solution mechanism caused by modification of support types in the Simple Footing
problem (soil is ‘extruded’ through the opening at the right hand side free edge)

3.11 Solving a Collapse Problem by Factoring Soil Strength

When conducting a slope analysis and other similar situations it is often preferable to deter-
mine the adequacy factor on soil strength rather than loading. This can be achieved simply in
LimitState:GEO:

Run the slope stability wizard (click File>New or and choose Slope Stability and click OK).
Accept the defaults and click Finish. Note that the analysis mode is set by default to Factor
Strength(s). This setting will cause the software to automatically determine the factor by which
the soil strengths need to be reduced in order to initiate collapse.

Click on the icon to solve. The failure mechanism depicted in Figure 3.12 and a solution of
Adequacy factor = 2.471 should be obtained. This means that the material strength needs to
be reduced by a factor of 2.471 to cause failure.

Figure 3.12: Deformed slope solution using default parameters in the Slope Stability Wizard

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This solution may be compared with that derived by Taylor (1948). For a 68◦ slope
the Taylor stability chart gives the stability number N = cu /F γH ≈ 0.2. For this
problem with cu /γH = 0.5, F ≈ 2.5.

Note that for some problems such as a slope of frictional soil, it only possible to bracket the
Factor on Strength solution, and a collapse mechanism cannot be directly identified. For more
information on solving problems using a factor on material strength, see Section 8.2.

3.12 Modelling Layered Soils

Frequently it is required to model several layers of soil in a problem. Layers may be built up
individually or existing bodies of soil split into layers. The latter will be covered in this example,
for further information on the former, see see Section 15.6.

Using the slope from Section 3.11, click on the Line icon on the left hand tool bar. Then
click on the vertex at the toe of the slope (A in Figure 3.13) and then drag the line that appears
across to the far right hand vertical boundary (B in Figure 3.13) and click here. This adds a
new Boundary object and splits the existing Solid into two layers. By default these new layers
receive the same properties as the original one, however these may be modified as required.

Figure 3.13: Splitting a Solid by adding a line (Boundary)

For example, change the material in the lower layer to a Soft Clay (e.g. by using drag and drop
as described in Section 3.10.2). Clicking solve should generate a significantly changed failure
mechanism similar to that depicted in Figure 3.14.

An important point to note here is that the critical mechanism intersects the boundaries of the
problem domain (in this case in four places). It is thus unlikely to be the correct solution for a
problem where the soil in reality extends much further to the left, right and below. In general it
is necessary to move the boundaries outwards until the mechanism lies fully within the problem

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Figure 3.14: Failure mechanism for a two layer slope problem

domain. However, for some classes of problem, the mechanism is in theory semi-infinite and
will always touch one or more boundaries.

3.13 Solution Accuracy

As with any numerical method, solution accuracy is dependent on the resolution of the under-
lying model. With DLO this relates to the distribution of nodes within Solid and Boundary
objects. The method will provide the most critical sliding block mechanism that can be gener-
ated using slip-lines connecting any of the nodes present. In many cases a sufficiently accurate
solution will be generated for a Coarse or Medium distribution of nodes (250 and 500 nodes
respectively).

The number of nodes in the problem1 may be set using the Nodal Density setting in the the
Project level parameters accessible in the Property Editor. The basic settings are Coarse (250
nodes), Medium (500 nodes), Fine (1000 nodes) and Very Fine (2000 nodes). In addition, a
Custom option allows the user to assign a specific number of nodes (although care should be
taken not to provide a number that requires excessive computational resources).

To investigate the effect of nodal distribution on the basic slope problem shown in Section 3.11,
run the Slope Stability wizard once more. Click anywhere in an empty part of the Viewer pane
(the part of the screen where the problem geometry is displayed). This will display the project
level properties in the Property Editor. Change the value in the Nodal Density entry to Fine,
and then solve the problem again. This time a similar but more detailed collapse mechanism is
found with a slightly lower adequacy factor of 2.456.

Further information on solution accuracy may be found in Section 8.4 and on setting the Nodal
Density in Section 22.3.

1
Due to the way in which nodes are distributed by the program, the nodal density is actually a target number
rather than a set value.

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3.14 Conclusion

This brief quick start tutorial has been designed to familiarize users with the basic functionality
of LimitState:GEO. It is recommended that users experiment with the various wizards, and
modify the various parameters involved, before constructing problems from scratch.

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Chapter 4

Wizards

4.1 Introduction

LimitState:GEO provides a number of Wizards which allow the user to rapidly create models
of commonly encountered problems. Variants on these geometries are easily generated by
modifying the basic geometry created by the Wizard (see Section 15.9). To use a Wizard,
select Create a new project in the Welcome to LimitState:GEOdialog and click OK . The New
Project dialog (Figure 4.1) will then start. A number of different project types are available, all
of which initiate a Wizard.

Figure 4.1: The New Project dialog

Empty Creates an empty project for the user to draw their own model. Includes options for
specifying an underlying grid. Solves for factor on applied loads.
Simple Footing Creates a model of a basic rectangular footing, loaded vertically and sitting
on a single layer of soil. Solves for factor on applied loads.
Vertically Loaded Footing Creates a model of a vertically loaded footing embedded in a layer
of soil and overlying a second layer of soil. Solves for factor on applied loads.

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46 CHAPTER 4. WIZARDS

Laterally Loaded Footing Creates a model of a footing embedded in a layer of soil and over-
lying a second layer of soil. Both horizontal and vertical loading can be applied. Solves
for factor on applied loads.

Gravity Wall Creates a model of a trapezoidal gravity retaining wall holding back a slope with
surcharge load. Solves for factor on applied loads.

Stem Wall Creates a model of a T-shaped stem wall holding back a slope with surcharge load.
Solves for factor on applied loads.

Slope Stability Creates a model of a simple, single material slope with a potential surcharge.
Solves for factor on material strengths.

Pipeline Creates a model of a buried pipeline subject to horizontal and vertical applied loading.
Solves for factor on applied loads.

Gabion Wall Creates a model of a gabion wall, optionally tilted, holding back a slope with
surcharge load. Solves for factor on applied loads.

Reinforced Soil Wall Creates a model of a wall constructed from facing blocks and strip rein-
forcement, retaining backfill and soil with a surcharge load. Solves for factor on applied
loads.

Sheet Pile Wall Creates a model of an embedded sheet pile wall retaining a body of soil with
potential surcharge load. Solves for factor on applied loads.

Select the required Project Wizard and click OK . If the Wizard has been run before and the
previously entered values are to be used as defaults, ensure the Use previously entered
values as defaults box is checked. Otherwise the system defaults will be used.

For further information on starting with an Empty Project see Section 15.3.

4.2 Using a New Project Wizard

4.2.1 Introduction

The Wizards in LimitState:GEO are designed to help the user quickly generate a model of their
problem.

Each Wizard guides the user through the process of defining the model:

• Project description (Section 4.2.2)

• Geometry (Section 4.2.3)

• Materials (Section 4.2.4),

• Loads (Section 4.2.5)

• Scenarios (Section 4.2.6)

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• Analysis Options (Section 4.2.7)

It should be noted that, at any point whilst running a Wizard, it is possible to click Finish.
LimitState:GEO will automatically fill in any information that has not been explicitly supplied (by
using default values together with information already provided by the user up until that point).

In most cases, information is entered in a sequential manner, the user clicking Next after each
step. However, it is possible to move backwards through the various steps by using the Back
button. The left-hand pane of the Wizard dialog serves as a reference point, with the current
section being highlighted in blue as shown for the Project description stage in Figure 4.2.

Figure 4.2: Wizard dialog (Project tab)

All parameters with dimensions should be entered in either Metric or Imperial units depending
on the program preferences set by the user (see Section 15.2). When a data entry box is
selected, data entry via a calculator is also available by clicking on the calculator button .
The Calculator (see Section 14.13) also incorporates a unit converter for many commonly used
units, including Metric and Imperial units.

4.2.2 General Project Settings

This dialog allows entry of the Project name, Reference number, Location, Map refer-
ence,Engineer name, Organization, general Comments and Tags. This information may
be included in the Report output (Section 24). For further details on the Tags functionality, see
Chapter 27.

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4.2.3 Geometry

The next stage is to describe the geometry of the problem. Figures in the dialog clearly indicate
the meaning of the parameters to be entered, e.g. as shown in Figure 4.3.

Figure 4.3: A typical wizard geometry dialog

On some Geometry dialogs, it is possible to select Model as symmetrical half space. This
option is available for problems that have a natural plane of symmetry. Modelling only half the
problem increases computational efficiency and accuracy of the solution. However the option
to model the full problem is available to a user who may wish to subsequently add asymmetrical
loading or make the geometry asymmetrical.

The geometry data entry is normally designed to prevent unrealistic/impossible geometries

being entered. However this is not feasible in all cases. If a combination of parameters is en-
tered that would result in an unrealistic geometry being generated, a warning message will be
displayed on pressing Finish and the software will adjust the geometry to produce a feasible
result. The user may then either edit the final geometry directly (see Section 15.9), or, alterna-
tively re-run the wizard and adjust the initial settings appropriately. To ensure the data entered
previously is retained, ensure the Use previously entered values as defaults box is checked
in the New Project dialog (see Section 4.1)

4.2.4 Materials

Each tab in this dialog allows the user to specify the basic properties of the materials used in
the problem or to select a material from a predefined list as shown in Figure 4.4.

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CHAPTER 4. WIZARDS 49

Figure 4.4: A typical Wizard materials dialog

For materials such as soils, the shear strength parameters cu , c0 , φ0 , and the unit weights (weight
densities) may be entered as well as the material drainage behaviour (in LimitState:GEO Unit
Weight and Saturated Unit Weight designate the unit weight of the material above and below
the water table respectively).

For materials representing engineered ‘mass’ structural elements such as footings or walls,
they are assumed to behave as a rigid material by default and generally only the unit weight
will be requested, together with multipliers that define the soil/structure interface properties.
These multipliers are applied to any adjacent soils to define a Derived material. For further
information on Derived materials see Section 17.5.

For materials representing other types of engineered element, such as soil nails or sheet pile
walls, the properties requested will relate to the material strength (e.g. Plastic Moment and
Rupture Strength) and interaction with the surrounding soil (e.g. Pullout and Lateral factors).
For further information on Engineered Element materials see Chapter 11.

In order to keep the Wizards straightforward to use, only basic material properties are entered,
and default values are used for the other properties. To edit other available properties it is
necessary to use the Property Editor (see Chapter 17) once the Wizard has been exited.

4.2.5 Loads

Specify the required loads here as shown in Figure 4.5. Loads specified as Variable will gen-
erally by default have a margin of safety or Adequacy factor computed for them. For such
loads, you may either enter the actual applied load and a margin of safety will be computed.
Alternatively a value of 1.0 may be entered and the Adequacy factor will equal the collapse
load. For further discussion of the Adequacy factor see Chapter 19.

Line loads (in kN/m) are typically specified for loading on structural elements (such as a footing
or pipeline) while surface surcharge pressures (in kN/m2 ) are specified for distributed surface

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loads. Note that LimitState:GEO internally represents loads on Boundary objects as stresses.
Line loads will thus automatically be converted to stresses acting over the width of the relevant
boundary and will be displayed in the Property Editor as both a stress and a line load (see
Chapter 19).

Figure 4.5: A typical Wizard loads dialog

4.2.6 Scenarios

This stage displays the Scenario Manager as shown in Figure 4.6. For a description of the
full functionality of the Scenario Manager and for guidance on defining Partial Factors, see
Chapter 30 and Section 8.3. By default a Single scenario is active and the required partial fac-
tor set (multipliers on applied loads or divisors on material properties) can be defined manually,
or a set of pre-defined factors can be selected using the drop down box.

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CHAPTER 4. WIZARDS 51

Figure 4.6: A typical Wizard scenario manager dialog

4.2.7 Analysis Options

This stage displays the Analysis tab, as shown in Figure 4.7. Here the user can set the
Analysis Type to either Factor Load(s) or Factor Material(s) (see e.g. Section 3.3) and alter
the nodal density of the problem.

By default the Analysis Type is generally set to Factor Load(s) and the Nodal Density is set
to Medium (500 nodes). The Target Number field will display the number of nodes associ-
ated with the selected density and, when a custom density is specified, the value can be set
manually.

For particular types of problem (e.g. Gravity Retaining Walls) an option to Optimize nodal
layout is provided. This allows for increased accuracy when rotational failure mechanisms are
likely to be present and is set to true by default. More information regarding this setting can be
found in Section 22.3.4.

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Figure 4.7: A typical Wizard analysis options dialog

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Part II

Theory

53
Chapter 5

Discontinuity Layout Optimization

5.1 Introduction

At the heart of LimitState:GEO is a solution engine which uses the Discontinuity Layout Opti-
mization (DLO) numerical analysis procedure to find a solution. The procedure was developed
at the University of Sheffield and was first described in a paper published in the Proceedings
of the Royal Society (Smith & Gilbert 2007a). In essence DLO can be used to identify critical
translational sliding block failure mechanisms, output in a form which will be familiar to most
geotechnical engineers (for example see Figure 5.1 for a Coulomb wedge analysis of a retain-
ing wall, or for a method of slices solution for a slope stability analysis problem see Figure
5.2). However while traditional methods can typically only work with mechanisms involving a
few sliding blocks, DLO has no such limitations. It can identify the critical translational failure
mechanism for any geotechnical stability problem, to a user specified geometrical resolution.
This can be illustrated by examining the critical solution to the vertical anchor uplift problem in
cohesive soil problem, as shown in Figure 5.3.

Figure 5.1: Example of Coulomb wedge analysis of a gravity retaining wall

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56 CHAPTER 5. DISCONTINUITY LAYOUT OPTIMIZATION

Figure 5.2: Example of slope stability by method of slices

Figure 5.3: Example of the DLO solution of vertical anchor uplift in a cohesive soil

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CHAPTER 5. DISCONTINUITY LAYOUT OPTIMIZATION 57

5.2 Limit Analysis and Limit Equilibrium

Determination of the ultimate limit state (ULS) or ‘collapse state’ of any geotechnical problem
has traditionally been carried out using a range of approaches. The most commonly used
approaches are Limit Equilibrium and Limit Analysis.

Limit Analysis procedures are rigorously based upon the theorems of plasticity while Limit Equi-
librium typically involves a similar form of calculation but relaxes one or more of the conditions
of plasticity theory to make the problem easier to solve. For example the method of slices used
to analyse slope stability problems is a Limit Equilibrium method. The sliding mass is divided
up into a number of independent blocks. Equilibrium of each block is not fully determined; in-
stead an assumption is made concerning inter-slice forces. This may result in a solution that
does not fully satisfy equilibrium, or the yield condition for all blocks, but is typically found to
give reasonable results.

Limit Analysis is used to determine many of the bearing capacity and retaining wall formulae
typically used by geotechnical engineers.

DLO is a limit analysis method that effectively allows free choice of slip-line orientation, and the
critical solution identified may involve the failing soil mass being divided into a large number
of sliding blocks. Accuracy can be assessed by determining the influence of nodal refinement.
DLO also readily handles variation of soil parameters, and heterogeneous bodies of soil.

5.3 DLO: How Does it Work?

5.3.1 Basic Principles

Discontinuity Layout Optimization (DLO), as its name suggests, involves the use of rigorous
mathematical optimization techniques to identify a critical layout of lines of discontinuity
which form at failure. These lines of discontinuity are typically ‘slip-lines’ in planar geotechnical
stability problems and define the boundaries between the moving rigid blocks of material which
make up the mechanism of collapse. Associated with this mechanism is a collapse load factor,
which will be an upper bound on the ‘exact’ load factor according to formal plasticity theory.
Thus in essence the procedure replicates and automates the traditional upper bound hand
limit analysis procedure which has been used by geotechnical engineers for many years. DLO
is general, and can be applied to a wide range of geotechnical stability problems involving
cohesive and/or frictional soils.

In order to allow a wide range of different failure mechanisms to be identified, a large number
of potential lines of discontinuity must be considered. In order to achieve this, closely spaced
nodes are distributed across the problem domain and potential lines of discontinuity are created
to connect each node to every other node, thereby providing a very large search space. In
numerical terms, if there are n nodes, there are approximately n(n − 1)/2 possible slip-lines
and approximately 2n(n−1)/2 possible slip-line mechanism topologies. Thus for example 500
nodes give rise to ≈125,000 possible slip-lines and of the order of 1038000 possible mechanism
topologies.

A simple example involving the bearing capacity of a footing is given in Figure 5.4. The thin

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black lines indicate the set of potential discontinuities to be considered and these connect
an initial set of nodes (for sake of clarity very coarse nodal refinement has been used, and
only near-neighbour nodes have been inter-connected). Whilst there is no restriction on the
pattern of nodal distribution utilized, square or triangular grids are generally most convenient.
In LimitState:GEO uniform square grids aligned to the global x and y axes are utilized. The
solution will clearly be restricted to sets of discontinuities that connect these nodes, and is thus
the solution will be influenced by the starting positions of the nodes. However when fine nodal
refinement is used, the exact positions of individual nodes will have relatively little influence on
the solution generated.

In the DLO procedure the problem is formulated in entirely in terms of the relative displace-
ments along discontinuities, e.g. each potential line of discontinuity can be assigned a variable
that defines the relative slip displacement along that discontinuity. When relative displacements
are used, compatibility can be straightforwardly checked at each node by a simple linear equa-
tion involving these variables. Finally an objective function may be defined in terms of the total
energy dissipated in sliding along all discontinuities. This is a linear function of the slip displace-
ment variables. A linear optimization problem is thus defined, the solution of which identifies
the optimal subset of discontinuities that produce a compatible mechanism with the lowest en-
ergy dissipation (thick lines in Figure 5.4). The accuracy of the solution obtained depends on
the prescribed nodal spacing. As is evident from Figure 5.4, a key benefit of the procedure,
compared with comparable ‘element based’ procedures, is that singularities can be identified
without difficulty (potential fan zones centred on a given node can be identifies if critical by
linking multiple lines of discontinuity to that node). Finally, while the fact that discontinuities
are clearly free to ‘cross over’ one another might appear problematic, it can be shown that
compatibility is implicitly enforced at ‘cross over’ points, and their presence is very beneficial
as the search space is dramatically increased. Further discussion of this issue and a detailed
description of the DLO procedure is given in Smith & Gilbert (2007a).

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Figure 5.4: DLO analysis of the undrained stability of a footing

5.3.2 Adaptive Solution Procedure

While LimitState:GEO utilizes the core methodology described above, it also makes use of an
adaptive solution procedure described by Gilbert & Tyas (2003) in order to significantly reduce
memory requirements and also reduce the time needed to obtain a solution. The procedure
makes use of the fact that the solution identified by the linear programming solver can be used
to determine the forces on any slip-line connecting any pair of nodes, even if the solver did not
explicitly consider that slip-line in determining its solution. In essence the procedure operates
as follows:

1. Set up an initial ‘ground state’ in which nodes are connected by slip-lines only to nearest
neighbour nodes vertically, horizontally and diagonally.

2. Solve this problem utilising the DLO procedure. This will give a valid upper bound solution,
but of relatively low accuracy, utilising only these short slip-lines.

3. Utilizing this solution, search through all potential slip-lines connecting every node to
every other node and determine whether yield is violated on any potential slip-line.

4. If yield is violated on a potential slip-line, add this slip-line to the linear optimization prob-
lem set and re-solve. Repeat from Stage 3.

5. If yield is not violated on any slip-line then the correct solution has been arrived at, as if
all possible slip-lines had been included in the original linear programming problem.

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5.3.3 Rotational Failure Mechanisms

5.3.3.1 Implementation

The current implementation of DLO in LimitState:GEO generates solutions based on transla-

tional mechanisms. In order to model mechanisms involving rotation of structural elements such
as cantilever retaining walls, it is necessary to set the Model Rotations value in the Project
level Property Editor to Along Edges. (If this value is reset to False then a purely translational
solution will be found.)

With Along Edges set, LimitState:GEO allows rotations to be modelled along Boundaries.
This allows Solids to rotate as rigid bodies and to transmit these rotations into translational
deforming bodies by modelling localized rotational deformations along the boundary. This is an
approximation to modelling rotational and translational failure everywhere, but is generally ac-
curate enough for most problems while keeping the size of the numerical problem smaller. The
approach is depicted in Figure 5.5, where a series of small rotational elements are modelled
along the length of the boundary. This maintains the upper bound status of the solution. How-
ever in some cases modification to the boundary properties are required to ensure collapse
loads are not overestimated (see following subsection).

Figure 5.5: Modelling of rotational elements along a rotating boundary

Figure 5.6: Geometry of log-spiral

In the following analysis c and φ may represent either c0 and φ0 for drained parameters or cu

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CHAPTER 5. DISCONTINUITY LAYOUT OPTIMIZATION 61

(and φu = 0) for undrained parameters. The geometry of each rotational element is depicted in
Figure 5.6. In general the shape of the slip surface in this element will be a log-spiral. From the
geometry of the log-spiral, the following expression can be obtained for r0 :

l
r0 = (5.1)
(1 + eπ tan φ )

where l is the length of segment along the boundary. If the boundary rotates by an angle ω, then
the resultant effect is an equivalent rotation about the segment midpoint M by ω, accompanied
by an additional dilation:

nω = ulω (5.2)

where

1
u = 0.5 − (5.3)
(1 + eπ tan φ )

Outside the small rotational element, movement is purely translational and equal to the trans-
lation of the segment midpoint. If there is also a cohesion c present, then the work done W on
the arc AB overcoming the cohesion c for a relative body rotation of ω is given by the following
expression:
cωul2
W = (5.4)
tan φ

The derivation of this equation may be found in Appendix D.1.

Examination of equation 5.4 and equation 5.2 indicates that l gets smaller, both the dilation and
work done associated with the rotational elements tends to zero. A reduction in l corresponds
to an increase in nodal density on the rotating boundary. However any sliding on the boundary
is not coupled to the rotations, thus a relative slip s will give rise to an additional dilation com-
ponent of n = s tan φ, and the overall dilation or normal displacement is given by the following
equation:

n = s tan φ + ulω (5.5)

Only the material properties in the solid are used for parameters in the (edge) rotational equa-
tions. If a separate material is defined on the boundary then LimitState:GEO utilizes the weak-
est of the solid and boundary material to determine dilation and energy dissipation due to sliding
along this boundary.

It should be noted that LimitState:GEO assumes that the boundary segments and thus rota-
tional elements are small. LimitState:GEO makes no checks to see whether the modelled ro-
tational elements remain within the adjacent solid and do not extend into adjacent solids which
may have different properties. Hence this mode should only be used with high nodal densities.
It should also be noted that in circumstances where the actual true failure mechanism hap-
pens to be similar to the modelled rotational mechanism for a few nodes, then increasing the

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nodal density may cause a increase in collapse load rather than decrease as would normally
be expected.

Additionally any work done against gravity by the soil within the rotational elements is neglected.
As the size of the elements reduces (as nodal density increases), this work term tends to zero.

5.3.3.2 Accuracy of edge rotations model

The edge rotations model is an approximation to modelling rotational and translational failure
everywhere, but is generally accurate enough for most problems while keeping the size of
the numerical problem smaller. It works well for problems that are dominated by translational
displacements in the soil (even if rigid elements are undergoing significant rotation, see for
example the case in Figure 5.7).

Figure 5.7: Mechanism involving rigid body rotation, but translation (shear) deformation of soil

However for problems where strong rotational soil displacements occur such as in eccentrically
loaded footings, the method tends to overestimate collapse loads because in the process of
modelling the collapse mechanism beneath the footing, it models additional sliding between
the soil and the boundary interface. This leads to extra work either against cohesion or against
gravity (due to additional dilation). Examples of measures that may be used to remove this
effect in the Edge Rotations model are described below:

1. For problems with internal corners on the rotating solid, the solver can be assisted by
linking the adjacent vertices either side of the corner as shown in Figure 5.8. This allows
all the soil ‘internal’ to the corner to fully rotate. A common problem where this should be
undertaken is that of a stem wall analysis as shown in Figure 5.9. The LimitState:GEO
Stem Wall Wizard automatically generates these lines.

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Figure 5.8: Modelling rotation of a footing with rigidly connected sheet pile below. Note con-
nection across internal corners by internal Boundaries in order to allow soil adjacent to the
footing/pile to rotate freely with the footing/pile when using the edge rotations model.

Figure 5.9: Modelling rotation of a stem wall. Note connection across internal corners by
internal Boundaries, in order to allow soil adjacent to the wall to rotate freely with the wall
when using the edge rotations model.

2. Delineation of a block of soil immediately adjacent to a rotating rigid body has been found
to significantly improve results. An example of an eccentrically loaded footing is shown
in Figure 5.10. The additional boundaries allow rotation within the material and permit a
‘rigid’ block of material adjacent to the foundation to rotate. Such a situation could also
arise for example with a slope stabilised with a concrete facing and a similar approach is
recommended.

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Figure 5.10: Modelling rotation of a eccentrically loaded footing. Provision of delineated bound-
aries below the footing allows rotational mechanism to be more closely modelled when using
the edge rotations model.

3. For problems where structural elements such as beams or walls are modelled using a
Soild block rather than an Engineered Element, then shear failure only would normally
be modelled within the block (assuming a ’cohesion’ only Mohr-Coulomb model has been
used to represent the beam/wall material). To enable failure by bending it is necessary
to introduce a number of boundary divisions perpendicular to the main axis within the
beam/wall as shown for example in Figure 5.11, which has employed 5 divisions. In this
simply supported example only a central hinge is identified as shown. However if the
beam had fixed supports at the ends then hinges would also be identified at the end
divisions. The more vertical division employed, the more possible hinge locations can be
modelled.
The edge rotation model will closely represent simple engineering beam bending theory
and will correctly account for the effects of axial force on the bending capacity. However
to capture this to a good accuracy it is necessary to ensure that sufficient nodes are
employed in the beam. Normally it would only be required to place nodes around the
beam boundaries (including the vertical divisions) and it is not generally necessary to use
nodes within the beam itself unless more complex failure is anticipated.

Figure 5.11: Modelling bending failure of a beam using a rigid block. Provision of vertical
boundary divisions along the beam provide positions where hinges can be modelled when
using the edge rotations model.

In all cases it is recommended that calibration tests are carried out where strong rotational
displacements are dominant.

The verification tests (see Appendix A) available on the LimitState website may assist in as-
sessing this issue for a range of problem types. solution for a slope stability analysis problem

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see Figure 5.2.

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Chapter 6

Model components

6.1 Material Models

6.1.1 Introduction

LimitState:GEO is an ultimate limit state analysis program. Thus only the parameters defin-
ing the yield surface are required for the material models used by LimitState:GEO. In Limit-
State:GEO the following models are available:

• Mohr-Coulomb

• Tension and/or compression cut off

• Rigid

• Engineered Element

In addition, material models may be combined to generate more complex yield surfaces. Note
that while Engineered Elements (e.g. soil nails) are defined by setting a material property,
they are a special case. Engineered Elements are discussed further in Section 6.1.5.

6.1.2 Mohr-Coulomb Material

The yield surface is defined as depicted in Figure 6.1 in terms of parameters c and φ where c
is the intercept on the shear stress (τ ) axis and φ the angle of shearing resistance.

For drained analysis the values c0 and φ0 are used, while for undrained analysis the parameter
cu is used. A linear variation of cu with depth may be specified, as can strengths interpolated
using a regular grid of points and associated multipliers on the cohesive material properties.
While it is possible to derive a value of φu from a shear box or triaxial test, interpretation and
use of this parameter requires care. The parameter φu is typically taken as zero, and this is
assumed in LimitState:GEO. If an analysis using a non-zero value of φu is required then it

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68 CHAPTER 6. MODEL COMPONENTS

is recommended that the user defines the problem in LimitState:GEO as if it was a drained
problem but used the undrained parameters cu and φu .

Figure 6.1: Mohr-Coulomb yield surface

6.1.3 Cutoff Material (Tension and/or Compression)

The yield surface is defined as depicted in Figure 6.2 in terms of a limiting tensile stress σT and
a limiting compressive stress σC . The limiting tensile stress is typically used to model tension
cutoff so that tension cracks may be modelled by LimitState:GEO or to indirectly represent
tensile yield in adjacent structural elements without fully modelling the structural element. The
limiting compressive stress is typically used to represent crushing of materials, or to indirectly
represent compressive yield in adjacent structural elements (e.g. a retaining wall prop) without
fully modelling the structural element.

No distinction is made in these values for drained or undrained analyses. This material model
may be utilized on its own, or in conjunction with a another material e.g. Mohr-Coulomb (see
Section 6.1.6). Additionally no partial factors are defined for these parameters.

Note that if the yield condition lies on this surface, then a shear stress may still be maintained.
It is only the normal stress that is limited. To avoid this, a more rounded yield surface may be
defined using multiple materials (see Section 6.1.6).

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Figure 6.2: Tension cutoff and crushing yield surface

6.1.4 Rigid

This simple material type is fully rigid. No slip-line can pass through it at any load. Use of this
material type for solids for which it is known that they will not deform, should enhance the solver
efficiency, since it reduces the number of nodes and slip-lines that need to be considered.

6.1.5 Engineered Element

An Engineered Element is a special one dimensional element that may be assigned to a

Boundary object. It is commonly used to model items such as sheet pile walls, soil nails,
and geotextiles. They have the following attributes:

1. When an Engineered Element is assigned to a Boundary, three parallel components

are generated: a top boundary interface, the Engineered Element itself and a bottom
boundary interface. The interfaces may be assigned Mohr Coulomb or Cutoff materials.
The Engineered Element itself is sandwiched between these boundary interfaces. Note
that depending on the orientation of the Engineered Element the top and bottom boundary
interfaces may be designated right and left.

2. The Engineered Element may translate and/or rotate relative to the top and bottom bound-
ary interfaces. This is controlled by pullout and lateral factors. The top and bottom bound-
ary interfaces themselves are locked to eachother.

3. Within the model formulation, the relative slip displacement (si ) and the normal displace-
ment (ni ) between the Engineered Element and the top and bottom boundary interfaces

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for each segment i of the Engineered Element is computed. These values may vary along
its length due to variations in soil displacement and or element displacement.

4. The Engineered Element itself is treated as a rigid object between each Vertex along the
element, but is allowed to rotate (bend), rupture (break) and fail in compression at each
vertex. The rotation (θj ) and axial force at each vertex j is computed.
If the user sets Subdivide at nodes to True in the Material Properties then additional
vertices will be added at nodes along the Engineered Element during solve. If this value
is set to False then the only the original Vertices defined in the problem geometry are
used. The default value is True.

5. The additional work done within the system, due to the movement ofPan Engineered El-
ement relative to the top and bottom boundaries is calculated from gi=1 (T si + N ni ) +
P v
j=1 Mp θj , where T is the pullout resistance per unit length per unit width, N is the resis-
tance per unit length per unit width to lateral displacement, g is the number of segments,
v is the number of vertices and Mp is the plastic moment resistance of the element per
unit width.

6. If an Engineered Element lies on a soil surface, then one half of the relative slip s is used
in the energy equation.

7. Where the relative normal displacement n is different on either side of an element seg-
ment, then the average of the two values is used in the energy equation. This circum-
stance arises only when the Engineered Element lies on the surface of a soil.

8. The optimizer will determine the absolute displacement of the Engineered Element that
minimizes the energy dissipated within the problem.

Note that if an Engineered Element is used to represent an effectively one dimensional object
such as a soil nail that has a pullout resistance T1 per unit length, a resistance N1 per unit
length to lateral displacement and a plastic moment of Mp1 , then if there are m objects present
per unit width the following values should be used. T = mT1 is the pullout resistance per unit
length per unit width, and N = mN1 is the resistance per unit length per unit width to lateral
displacement of the objects and Mp = mMp1 .

Suitable values for T and N will normally be selected based on experimental evidence, or on
appropriate theory for the situation. In certain circumstances, the resistances T and N will be
a function of the normal stress and pore pressure around the element. In common with many
approaches in the literature, LimitState:GEO allows T and N to be computed as linear functions
of the nominal vertical effective stress at the element as follows:

T = Tc + Tq σv0 (6.1)

N = Nc + Nq σv0 (6.2)

where Tc , Tq , Nc , and Nq are constants defined in the Engineered Element material. The
vertical effective stress σv0 is computed by LimitState:GEO prior to solving based on the weight
of overburden per unit area above the element midpoint minus the pore pressure at the element
midpoint. This is computed separately for each straight line portion of element (i.e. section
between vertices).

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Note that if a water table is present that intersects the element, then the solver automatically
adds a vertex at the intersection and will therefore compute separate stresses for the parts of
the element above and below the water table.

Also note that it is very likely that the vertical effective stress along the element is modified
by the overall failure mechanism. While the vertical effective stress and pore pressure may
be derived from the final solution determined by LimitState:GEO, they cannot be used in the
solution procedure due to the indirect representation of the element in the numerical model.
If required the element parameters could be refined iteratively using the results of a previous
solution.

Finally if element rotation occurs, it is necessary to employ are relatively high nodal density
along the element to ensure accuracy.

If an Engineered Element is used to represent a two dimensional object such as a sheet pile or
geotextile, then the special features of the element (pullout and lateral resistance) that are used
to allow soil to flow past 1D elements are not required. In this case they may be modelled by
setting the pullout and lateral resistances Tc and Nc per unit length per unit width to infinity (in
LimitState:GEO any number > 1 × 1030 is regarded as infinity). This prevents any flow through
or past the Engineered Element as required for e.g. a sheet pile.

Instead of being determined by T , the pullout resistance and surface sliding properties of the
element are determined by the boundary interface properties that can be independently defined
above and below the element.

More about the use of Engineered Elements can be found in Chapter 11, and about how they
are specified in Section 17.9.

6.1.6 Combined Materials

Any number of materials may be combined by assigning them simultaneously to soil layers
(Solid objects) or interfaces (Boundary objects).

It is therefore effectively possible to build up any convex yield surface as a series of individual
linear yield surfaces. Typical example uses of this facility are:

1. To model an undrained material with zero tension cutoff. Specify the undrained shear
strength cu in a Mohr-Coulomb model and combine with a Tension cutoff material with
σT =0.0 and a limiting compressive stress σC =1.0E30. (It is not possible to specify
infinity in LimitState:GEO so a very large value is specified instead.)
2. To model a material with a non-linear but convex yield surface. Such a yield surface may
be approximated by two or more linear yield surfaces. LimitState:GEO will always work
with the yield surface that produces the lowest adequacy factor. An example of such an
application is in modelling the non-linear Hoek-Brown yield surface for rock masses.
3. To model uncertainty in soil parameters. In many circumstances the properties of a given
soil will be uncertain. Normally the most conservative shear strength values would be se-
lected. However for soils with both c and φ values, the most conservative shear strength
mobilized will depend on the prevalent normal stress. To be sure of a conservative re-
sult, the lowest values of c and of φ might separately be selected, which may result in

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an unnecessary degree of conservatism. With LimitState:GEO this is unnecessary and

multiple soil models may be assigned to a body. LimitState:GEO will automatically utilize
the weakest material consistent with the prevalent normal stresses.

Note that when combined materials are used which have different specified unit weight,
it will be necessary to indicate which values are to be used (minimum, average or maxi-
mum).

6.2 Representation of Water Pressures

6.2.1 Modelling of Water Pressures using DLO

The effect of water pressures is readily incorporated into the DLO computations. As shown
by Smith & Gilbert (2007b), the presence of water requires an additional work term in the
Linear Programming formulation equal to the average water pressure multiplied by the dilation
occurring on any slip-line. This has the same effect as implementing the principle of effective
stress in the analysis.

In LimitState:GEO, the presence of water can be represented by one or both of:

1. A Water Table which affects the whole model, or

2. Water Regimes which can be assigned on a per-zone basis

It is generally advisable that a model containing water exhibits continuity of water pressures over
the boundaries separating solid zones. Without this, the results obtained in the analysis stage
will be unreliable. Thus, a pre-solve diagnostic check (see Section 22.2.1) is conducted by the
software to ensure that there is no mismatch at each node along the separating boundary and
a warning message is displayed if the check is failed. This may also be determined by using
the Preview Water Pressure menu item (see Section 20.6).

However, this does not prevent the model from being solved. Where some discontinuity in
water pressures is to be expected (e.g. in problems containing retaining walls or similar) then
an Aquiclude pressure regime can be applied to a particular zone to suppress the continuity
check in that area (see Section 6.2).

Where a water table and one or more water pressure regimes have been specified in the same
model, the water regime will take precedent in the analysis.

The water pressure on a free surface is always assumed to be due to a water table (and is thus
zero if the water table is not present or is below the free surface).

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6.2.2 Water Tables

6.2.2.1 Water Tables with Hydrostatic Water Pressures

A water table (or phreatic surface) combined with an assumption of hydrostatic water pressures
below this provides a commonly used representation of the water pressure conditions within a
body of soil, without resorting to full seepage computations. With this idealization a water table
is defined for the problem and the water pressure u at any point is given by the hydrostatic
pressure as follows:

u = γw d (6.3)

where γw is the unit weight (weight density) of water and d is the depth of the point vertically
below the water table. The water pressure is taken as zero above the water table. This method
of determining water pressures provides a reasonable approximation for engineering purposes,
especially for water tables of shallow gradient.

The water pressures are thus governed by the rule given in Table 6.1.

Position Pressure (kN/m2 )

Above water table 0 (dry)

Below water table γw d

Table 6.1: Determination of water pressure (where γw is the unit weight of water, and d is the
vertical depth below the piezometric surface)

Note that in the software it is possible to draw a water table with a vertical edge. This requires
careful interpretation. With a water table of any gradient less than vertical, the water pressure
on the inclined surface would be taken as zero. The software maintains this assumption at the
limit where the water table has a vertical edge. Thus the water pressure is zero on the vertical
edge, but a small distance to the side it is computed as normal according to the depth of water
vertically above. Exactly below the vertical edge the water pressure is computed according to
the depth below the base of the edge. These definitions are illustrated in Figure 6.3. If it is
required to model a water pressure on for example a concrete dam face, but not continue the
same water pressures beyond the dam, then the vertical (or steeply inclined) face of the water
table should be drawn inside the dam itself as illustrated in Figure 6.4. The software will give a
warning on Solve if a near vertical water table has been drawn.

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Figure 6.3: Computation of water pressures at a vertical edge

Figure 6.4: Example of how to define water table to act with hydrostatic pressure on the outer
face of a dam.

6.2.2.2 Water Tables Using ru Values

An alternative approach to representing water pressures is to utilize the average pore pressure
ratio ru . This may be is defined as:

u
ru = (6.4)
γh

and thus the water pressure u at any point may be given by

u = ru γh (6.5)

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where γh is the overburden pressure which may be represented by the defining h as the vertical
depth of the point in question below the ground surface.

6.2.3 Water Regimes

Where a more detailed water table is required, LimitState:GEO is able to assign water pressure
distributions on a per-Solid basis. In zones where a regime has been assigned, the properties
of the regime will always be used in preference to those of any water table present in the
problem.

The following water regimes are available:

Constant Potential The affected zone is subject to a water pressure defined by a specified
constant water potential h. This potential is defined relative to a global datum level y0
which is set in the Property Editor (default value = 0.0m). A multiplication factor f on the
unit weight of water can also be specified.
The water pressure u at any point is therefore given by

u = γw f (h − (y − y0 )) (6.6)

where y is the height of the point.

Using this regime type it is also possible to define areas containing negative pressures
(e.g. to represent capillary rise). However note that at a free surface the water pressure
is assumed to be zero (or defined by a water table if present above the surface) and thus
there would be a mismatch of pressures if capillary rise was modelled in the soil below. To
model the effect of a water meniscus at a surface would require the additional application
of a surcharge (see Smith & Gilbert 2007b).

Constant Pressure The affected zone is subject to a specified constant water pressure.
This regime is typically used to assign areas of zero pressure or constant suction.

Interpolated Grid The affected zone is subject to spatially varying water pressures defined by
a series of user-specified points and associated pressure values.
Intermediate pressures are calculated using a bilinear interpolation algorithm (see Ap-
pendix E). The points comprising an interpolated grid are not restricted to any particular
zone, allowing a single grid to be applied to multiple areas or the entire model.

Aquiclude The affected zone is subject to zero water pressure.

The assignment of an aquiclude regime (a) prevents the software from checking the con-
tinuity of pressures at the boundaries of that zone (b) allows the full water pressures in
adjacent zones to act on the boundary of the body as a mass.
This provides a convenient approach for modelling undrained or impermeable objects
(e.g. mass concrete) subject to differential water pressures, without having to specifically
define a gradient in water pressure across the body in question.

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6.2.4 Water Pressure Hierarchy

As there are several methods by which water pressures can be defined in LimitState:GEO,
an order of precedence is enforced. With the Property Editor setting Water set to True, the
hierarchy by which pressures are used in the calculations is as follows:

1. Water regime

2. Water table (or ru surface)

3. None (zero water pressure)

For example, if a water table is defined but a solid below the water table also contains a water
regime, the pressures of the latter will be assumed when calculating a solution (even if these
are lower than the pressures that would be provided by the water table).

6.3 Seismic Loading

6.3.1 Modelling of Seismic Loading Using DLO

In common with most Limit Analysis procedures, the DLO method can be extended to handle
pseudo-static accelerations to enable analysis of problems subject to seismic or earthquake
loading. If the accelerations are as follows:

kh = horizontal acceleration / g

kv = vertical acceleration / g

where g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2 ) , then additional inertial body forces of
magnitude kh W and kv W are imposed on a body of weight W .

The adopted sign convention is that positive kh acts in the negative x-direction (i.e. right to left)
and positive kv acts in the negative y-direction (i.e. downwards).

6.3.2 Modelling of Water Pressures During Seismic Loading

The effects of horizontal and vertical accelerations on free and pore water pressures in pseudo
static calculations often require consideration of other factors in addition to kh and kv , and
it is up to the engineer to decide how to incorporate these appropriately into a limit analysis
approach as taken by LimitState:GEO.

Within LimitState:GEO the effect of seismic accelerations are only assumed to modify the unit
weight of water used in the water pressure calculations to (1 + kv )γw . The horizontal accelera-
tion kh is assumed not to affect water pressures. This has the effect of correctly modelling lateral
earth pressures on a retaining wall according to the method of Matsuzawa et al. (1985), for low
permeablity backfill soils. To address highly permeable soils by the method of Matsuzawa et al.

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(1985) it would be necessary to modify kh by the ratio of γdry to γsat of the soil being modelled.
If more than one soil is modelled then a representative or average kh factor would need to be
utilised. In addition an additional horizontal dynamic water pressure cannot be modelled di-
rectly. Note also that the ‘static’ water pressure would be computed as u = (1 + kv )γw z where
z is the depth below the water table.

If required, water pressures can be additionally modified using the approaches described in
Section 6.2.

6.4 Soil Reinforcement

In LimitState:GEO soil reinforcement may be modelled directly as e.g. a long thin Solid or using
the special material type Engineered Element. The latter is recommended in LimitState:GEO.

The advantage of the latter approach over the former, for a plane strain analysis program such
as LimitState:GEO, is that it is implemented such that it can allow soil to flow around or ‘through’
the reinforcement - as would be expected for e.g. a soil nail. This behaviour can, however, be
suppressed for sheet reinforcement such as a geotextile fabric (if appropriate). Modelling of
bending and / or tensile failure is also much more straightforward for an Engineered Element
than for a solid zone.

The theory behind Engineered Elements is discussed in Section 6.1.5. The practical use of
Engineered Elements in LimitState:GEO is discussed in Chapter 11.

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Chapter 7

Limit Analysis: Advantages and

Limitations

7.1 Introduction

The analytical method utilised in LimitState:GEO is based on the core principles of limit anal-
ysis. Limit analysis is a powerful analytical technique with a long history of application in
geotechnical engineering, and has been used to determine many of the ultimate limit state
(ULS) bearing capacity and retaining wall formulae typically used by geotechnical engineers. It
features in many standard undergraduate geotechnical engineering textbooks.

In common with all models, the model of soil behaviour utilised in limit analysis is an approxi-
mation of the true behaviour of soil. Utilised by engineers who have a clear understanding of
soil mechanics and the nature of the limit analysis approximation, it provides a powerful, yet
simple analytical tool for the determination of the collapse state of a wide range of geotechnical
constructions.

The following subsections discuss some of the advantages and limitations of limit analysis. This
is not intended to be an exhaustive list. For a more in depth treatment, the reader is referred to
the literature e.g. Chen & Liu (1990) and Chen (2008).

7.2 Simplicity

Unlike elasto-plastic FE analysis which typically requires many iterations in order to arrive at a
ULS solution, numerical limit analysis seeks out the solution directly by coupling optimization
techniques and rigorous plasticity theory. Limit analysis thus has the advantage that it can
directly determine a solution and normally suffers from no numerical instabilities. Formulated
as a linear programming problem, it is also guaranteed to find the global optimum (for a given
nodal discretization).

Limit analysis also has the advantage that it typically only requires two strength parameters
for any material modelled, the cohesion (c) and the angle of shearing resistance (φ). However
more complex yield surfaces may be specified.

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80 CHAPTER 7. LIMIT ANALYSIS: ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS

7.3 Stress States in Yielding and Non-yielding Zones

In the context of DLO the aim is to find a mechanism that results in collapse under the lowest
load. The corollary of this is to find a network of discontinuities where the stress state is on
the point of yielding. Solutions can thus be used to correctly represent force distributions in
yielding (failing areas). Outside these areas the solver needs only to find a set of forces that
does not cause yield, no other conditions being stipulated. If these are examined, then erratic
distributions may be observed. This is not an error, but an inherent result of the application of
plasticity theory which is only concerned with the collapse state.

Thus LimitState:GEO will generate suitable force distributions that can be used to check the
ultimate limit state in a structural element, but it should not be used (or expected) to generate
force distributions for determining deflections in structural members that are not yielding or
adjacent to yielding material.

7.4 Yield Surface

The most common yield surface utilised in standard textbook limit analysis problems is the
linear Mohr-coulomb model as shown by the solid line in Figure 7.1, and defined by parameters
c0 and φ0 for drained analysis. Use of a linear yield surface facilitates the simple derivation of
closed form solutions.

In reality uncemented soils do not possess shear strength at zero normal stress (σ 0 ). In these
cases the linear yield surface (solid line in Figure 7.1) is an approximate fit to the true yield
surface e.g. the dashed line in the figure. This provides a good approximation at higher stress
levels, but not a lower stress levels, and can lead to over-prediction of collapse load in certain
problems.

A non-zero value of c0 is often associated with a yield surface defined in terms of the peak
strength of a dense soil. A yield surface defined in terms of the critical state strength typically
has a cohesion intercept of c0 = 0 .

Figure 7.1: Linear Mohr-Coulomb yield surface

Computational limit analysis methods such as DLO as used in LimitState:GEO are not re-

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stricted to modelling linear yield surfaces. However for simplicity in LimitState:GEO curved
yield surfaces are defined by combinations of linear surfaces. For example the Hoek-Brown
yield surface (solid line in Figure 7.2) is closely approximated by three linear yield surfaces
(dashed lines in the figure). The solver will always choose the lowest point of any set of yield
surfaces.

Such combined yield surfaces may be defined in LimitState:GEO using the multi-material facility
described in Section 6.1.6.

Figure 7.2: Approximating a Hoek-Brown yield surface by three linear Mohr-Coulomb yield
surfaces

7.5 Strain Compatibility

The inherent assumption in limit analysis that collapsing bodies mobilize the same strength
everywhere at the same time. In reality strains are likely to differ within the problem domain
and thus different soil strengths will be mobilized in different locations at collapse. This may be
exacerbated where there are two or more materials present in the problem with very different
stress-strain characteristics. For example consider the problem of a footing founded on a layer
of dense sand, overlying soft clay as depicted in Figure 7.3. In the collapse mechanism it is
likely that the strains in each layer will be of broadly similar magnitude. However If the peak
strengths of each material are used in the model then these can correspond to very different
strain levels as depicted by the circles in Figure 7.4. This will in turn is likely to lead to an over
prediction of the collapse load.

Figure 7.3: Collapse mechanism for a footing founded on a layer of dense sand overlying soft
clay.

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Figure 7.4: Example stress-strain responses for dense sand and soft clay (y-axis representation
is not necessarily to scale for each material).

This is an issue that has always required consideration by geotechnical engineers when using
any form of limit analysis solution. A conservative recommendation often made is to assume
the critical state strength for all materials. At sufficiently high strains most soil materials should
reach their critical state (or ultimate) strengths thus rendering the limit analysis assumption valid
as long as excessive geometry change has not occurred in the process of mobilising this critical
state strength everywhere. It may be reasonable to assume strengths higher than critical state
but this requires the judgement of the engineer.

An alternative approach is to use the concept of mobilised strength, where the problem is
analysed as a limit analysis problem with the ‘yield’ strength of the material set to the strength
mobilised at a specified shear strain e.g. x% (as indicated by the vertical bar in Figure 7.4).
If the ‘collapse’ load is determined on this basis using limit analysis, then it is argued that
shear strains everywhere within the problem domain must be lower than x%. The method can
in principle be used as an approximate control on deformation. Further information on this
approach may be found in BS8002 (BSI 1994). BS8002 recommends that assumed mobilised
strengths should always be less than or equal to the critical state strength to avoid the risk of
localised strain softening.

For soil-structure interaction problems such as multi-propped sheet pile walls, caution is also
required when assessing bending failure of the walls between props. The software will model
the ULS state with full mobilisation of the retained soil strength and associated arching. This
may give predicted ULS bending moments significantly lower than an SLS calculation would
determine.

7.6 Non-associativity and Kinematic Constraints

The upper and lower bound theorems of limit analysis require that the materials modelled obey
the associative flow rule. In effect this requires that all shearing resistance is modelled as dila-
tion rather than a combination of dilation and friction as occurs with real soils. This is normally
accurate for undrained problems where the angle of shearing resistance is zero, however for
drained problems it typically leads to a small overestimate of load capacity. In extreme cases it

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can lead to volumetric locking and no collapse.

Experience has shown that for moderately unconstrained problems, the increase in load esti-
mate is minor. However it is not possible to give guidance on its effect on all problems and the
user is referred to the literature for specific guidance. It may be noted that limit analysis and
therefore an assumption of associative flow is commonly used for typical geotechnical problem
types in geotechnical textbooks and design codes. For example the formula for bearing capac-
ity recommended by Eurocode 7 implies use of a limit analysis model. For further information
on the effects of non-associativity for specific problem types, reference may be made to the
following:

Slopes Manzari & Nour (2000), indicate that non-associative results for cohesive-frictional
slope stability problems typically give values 3-10% lower than for the associated flow
rule case (pure plasticity model). To put this into context, this corresponds to using an
angle of shearing resistance in an associated flow model approximately 3% lower than
the actual angle. This is of the order of 1◦ .

Footings Loukidis et al. (2008) indicate that non-associative results for the Nγ problem (i.e.
a rigid rough footing on the surface of a cohesionless soil) typically give values 15-30%
lower than for the associated flow rule case (pure plasticity model). To put this into context,
this corresponds to using an angle of shearing resistance in an associated flow model
approximately 3% lower than the actual angle. This is of the order of 1◦ .

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 Part III

Modelling

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Chapter 8

Generic Principles

8.1 Model Definition and Solver

8.1.1 Model Definition

Problem geometries are built up using Geometry objects (see Section 15.1). The two key
geometry objects relevant to model definition are:

Solid This is a 2D polygon defining a body of soil or other material. Its extent is defined by the
surrounding Boundary objects.
Boundary This is a straight line that defines the edge or boundary of a Solid, or an interface
between two Solids.

Generally the problem will be defined in terms of Solid objects. Boundary objects are auto-
matically generated around Solid objects. Single Solid objects should be used for bodies of
one material type. A problem such as a simple slope stability problem may thus consist of one
solid, while a simple bearing capacity problem might consist of two solids, the footing and the
underlying soil.

Boundary objects are used to define interface properties and set boundary conditions. In
the example of the footing and the underlying soil, the soil/footing interface properties may
be independently defined within the Boundary object that is the interface between the Solid
objects representing the soil and the footing. A Boundary can also be used to describe a 1D
Engineered Element such as a soil nail or sheet pile wall.

8.1.2 Solver Specification

The specification of the LimitState:GEO solver is as follows:

1. The software is designed to generate the optimal layout of slip-lines that make up the
critical or failure translational sliding block mechanism for a specified plane strain problem.

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88 CHAPTER 8. GENERIC PRINCIPLES

2. The slip-lines are restricted to those that connect any two nodes within a predefined grid.

3. Slip-lines are restricted to those that connect nodes within a single Solid object, or be-
tween a node within a Solid object, and a node lying on an adjacent Boundary object.

4. The solution is given in the form of an Adequacy factor. This is the factor by which
specified load, material self weight or body acceleration must be multiplied by to cause
collapse.

5. In LimitState:GEO problems involving rotational kinematics are modelled by permitting

Solid objects to rotate as a single body. If such bodies rotate into a deformable body,
then the rotational kinematics are modelled as equivalent translational kinematics at the
interface between these bodies.

Solutions are generated using the upper bound theory of plasticity. Plasticity theory is a very
common technique utilized in geotechnical engineering. It is assumed that the user is fully
familiar with the advantages and limitations of plasticity theory. Discussion of some of the
advantages and limitations may be found in Chapter 7.

8.2 Adequacy Factor and Factors of Safety

8.2.1 Introduction

Many different definitions of factors of safety (FoS) are used in geotechnical engineering. Three
in common usage are listed below:

1. Factor on load.

2. Factor on material strength.

3. Factor defined as ratio of resisting forces (or moments) to disturbing forces (or moments).

The calculation process used to determine each of these factors for any given problem will in
general result in a different failure mechanism, and a different numerical factor. Each FoS must
therefore be interpreted according to its definition.

In general any given design is inherently stable and will be well away from its ultimate limit
state. Therefore, in order to undertake an ultimate limit state (ULS) analysis it is necessary to
drive the system to collapse by some means. This can be done implicitly or explicitly. In many
conventional analyses the process is typically implicit. In a general numerical analysis it must
be done explicitly.

There are three general ways to drive a system to ULS corresponding to the FoS definitions
previously mentioned:

1. Increasing an existing load in the system.

2. Reducing the soil strength.

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CHAPTER 8. GENERIC PRINCIPLES 89

3. Imposing an additional load in the system.

LimitState:GEO solves problems directly using either Method 1 or 2, by means of the Adequacy
factor. However, it is also relatively straightforward to find a Factor of Safety appropriate for
Method 3.

The Adequacy factor is defined as the factor by which specified loads must be increased, or
material strengths decreased, in order for the system under consideration to reach a collapse
state. There are thus two types of Adequacy factor used in the software:

• Adequacy factor on load

• Adequacy factor on soil strength

In principle both may be defined for any given problem, though typically an Adequacy factor
on load would be found with the Adequacy factor on strength = 1.0, or an Adequacy factor
on strength found with the Adequacy factor on load = 1.0. (Note that these factors are applied
over and above any pre-applied partial factors).

By default, ‘empty’ problems are set to solve for a factor of safety on the applied load(s) (Section
8.2.2) and problems generated using one of the built-in wizards (see Chapter 4) will automati-
cally suggest the type of analysis based on the particular model being generated. However, this
can be altered by selecting the desired method from a dropdown box in the Analysis toolbar.

In general:

Adequacy factor ≥ 1.0 the problem is safe against collapse

Adequacy factor < 1.0 the problem is unsafe against collapse.

However, note that there is not necessarily a margin of safety in the above definition. A margin
of safety may be incorporated by additionally applying partial factors to the input parameters,
such as soil strength or applied load (as in Eurocode 7).

Alternatively the problem can be considered in terms of deformations. LimitState:GEO utilises

a rigid-plastic model of material behaviour. In this framework, if the Adequacy factor is greater
than 1.0, there is no movement, if the Adequacy factor is less than 1.0, the system displaces
without limit.

However in real materials it would be anticipated that there is progressively increasing displace-
ment as the Adequacy factor decreases towards 1.0. The principle of mobilised strength is
useful in this context. As the Adequacy factor decreases towards 1.0, it may be assumed
that a soil is mobilising a greater and greater percentage of its full strength until an Adequacy
factor of 1.0 is attained. Thus in principle a ULS analysis can be used to approximately control
displacements in design by using a reduced mobilised strength in the analysis. Use of a re-
duced strength implies that the soil undergoes a correspondingly reduced strain, thus leading
to small overall deformations. This is the principal utilised in e.g. BS8002.

Note that partial factor based design codes such as Eurocode 7 do not explicitly compute a
factor of safety, but pre-apply factors to problem parameters. Application of this approach in
LimitState:GEO is described in more detail in Section 8.3.

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8.2.2 Method 1 - Factor of Safety on Load(s)

Consider the problem in Figure 8.1. The question that is posed here is as follows:

”How much bigger does the load need to be to cause collapse?”

or,

”By what factor, a, does the load need to be increased to cause collapse?”

This factor a is the same as the Adequacy factor on load as reported by LimitState:GEO when
in Factor Load(s) mode.

Figure 8.1: Factor of Safety on Load (Method 1)

A Factor Load(s) analysis can be conducted by selecting the appropriate option in the Analy-
sis tab of any wizard or by choosing it from the drop-down menu in the Analysis Toolbar . In
this mode the Adequacy factor on strength = 1.0.

The user may select which load or load(s) have the Adequacy factor on loads applied to them
by setting the property Adequacy in the Property Editor to true. This property is available for
Loads, Solid self weights and Seismic accelerations.

Where the Adequacy factor is applied to more than one action then it is important to be clear
about the interpretation of the result. The presented solution is that for which all the actions that
have Adequacy applied to them, are multiplied by the Adequacy factor. This means that any
displayed stress distributions (including tensile/compressive stresses, and bending moments in
engineered elements) correspond to these factored actions.

Detailed information about the actions that have been factored and the corresponding factored
values can be obtained by clicking on the displayed Adequacy factor. This will display the
dialog displayed in Figure 8.2.

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CHAPTER 8. GENERIC PRINCIPLES 91

Figure 8.2: Example of detailed information about application of the adequacy factor in Factor
Load(s) mode

8.2.3 Method 2 - Factor of Safety on Material Strength(s)

Consider the problem in Figure 8.3. The question that is posed here is as follows:

”How much weaker does the soil need to be under the design load to cause col-
lapse?”

or,

”By what factor F does the soil strength need need to be reduced to cause col-
lapse?”

This factor F is the Adequacy factor on soil strength(s) reported by LimitState:GEO when in
Factor Strength(s) mode

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Figure 8.3: Factor of Safety on Material Strength (Method 2)

A Factor Strength(s) analysis can be conducted by selecting the appropriate option in the
Analysis tab of any wizard or by choosing it from the drop-down menu in the Analysis Toolbar .

In this analysis, the software will automatically vary F, using an interpolation bisection algorithm,
to obtain a solution that results in collapse with the Adequacy factor on load = 1.0.

The value of F that produces this is the Adequacy factor (or factor of safety) on soil strength.
This factor is applied to all Mohr-Coulomb materials in the problem and therefore to values of c0 ,
tan φ0 , and cu as appropriate. This factor is not applied to Cutoff, Rigid and Engineered Element
material properties.

Detailed information about the soil strengths that have been factored and the corresponding
factored values can be obtained by clicking on the displayed Adequacy factor. This will display
the dialog displayed in Figure 8.4.

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Figure 8.4: Example of detailed information about application of the adequacy factor in Factor
Strength(s) mode

The presented solution is that for which all the soil strengths are divided by the Adequacy fac-
tor. This means that any displayed stress distributions (including tensile/compressive stresses,
and bending moments in engineered elements) correspond to these factored strengths.

The relationship between F and the the Adequacy factor on load can be smooth or highly
non-linear. The returned Adequacy factor on strength therefore corresponds to either:

1. A solution where the Adequacy factor on load is within 0.0001% of the specified target
value (normally 1.0).

2. A bracketed solution where values of the Adequacy factor on strength are found that
generate Adequacy factor on load that bracket the target value (normally 1.0). If the
higher value is within the specified tolerance of the lower value then the search terminates
and the average value is returned as the solution.

The tolerance on the bracketed solution is governed by the Analysis Options > Factor Strength(s)
> Solution Tolerance (%) (set at Project level in the Property Editor or via the Analysis
menu).

Note that for the bracketed solution, it is possible that one or both of the two bracketed results
could be a Locked or Unstable result. In such a case no actual solved result (i.e. mechanism)
may be available.

If one of the last bracketed values solved as normal, then this result will be available. However
it may not correspond to an Adequacy factor on load of exactly 1.0 and this must be borne in

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mind when e.g. interpreting internal stresses in the result. To generate an Adequacy factor
on load closer to 1.0, the solution tolerance should be reduced.

Alternatively if the final result of the iteration process does not produce a solution, then it can
be re-run as a Factor Load(s) analysis with the identified factor on strength applied via the
Scenario Manger. For purely frictional problems such as a simple slope, it may additionally be
necessary to introduce a small cohesion into the problem.

Advanced Features

By default, when the Analysis Type is set to Factor Strength(s), all actions in the system
(loads, weights of material and seismic body forces) are set to have Adequacy equal to true
This approach will automatically apply overall unfavourable conditions to the system in order to
allow the correct factor on strength to be identified.

The default settings can be overridden by setting the advanced feature Automatic Adequacy
on Load(s) to False in the Property Editor and then assigning Adequacy to only the areas
of interest (e.g. Loads or self weight of Solids). Solving again should then result in a solution
being obtained. Toggling the setting back to True will revert all Adequacy settings to True.

The target Adequacy factor on load(s) may also be changed from 1.0 using the advanced
feature Factor on Load(s) in the Property Editor. For example when using Adequacy only
on seismic accelerations, it can be useful to set the target Adequacy factor on load(s) to 0.0
to find the correct Adequacy factor on strength (i.e. when the seismic accelerations are zero).

In problems containing purely frictional materials, a Factor Strength(s) analysis can cause
slow convergence towards an answer or an Unknown solution being returned. This can gener-
ally be alleviated by the provision of a small Artificial Cohesion value, which improves conver-
gence and has the added effect of ensuring that a failure mechanism is identified. By default
the value of this cohesion is set to 0.1kPa, but this can be modified by the user if appropriate.
Typically a small value of 0.1kPa will have a minor effect on the value of the Adequacy factor
identified, but certain problems (e.g. of small dimensions) may be affected more significantly.

8.2.4 Method 3 - Factor of Safety on Ratio of Forces

Consider the problem in Figure 8.5. The question that is posed here is as follows:

”If the soil is failing around the structure, what is the ratio R of resisting forces to
disturbing forces?”

In this example, the factor R = (P + S)/A is the factor of safety of interest.

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Figure 8.5: Method 3 Factor of Safety

Note that if R > 1:

• The passive earth pressure and base friction significantly exceed the active earth pres-
sure.

• The system is therefore out of equilibrium.

• The assumed earth pressures are not possible without some external disturbing agent.

In a numerical analysis, equilibrium is required at all times. Therefore in order to undertake a

‘Method 3’ type analysis, it is necessary to apply a ‘hypothetical’ external force H in the direction
of assumed failure (as depicted in Figure 8.6) and increase this force until failure occurs. It is
then possible to determine the ratio of other resisting to disturbing forces as before (but H itself
is ignored in this calculation). For this method it is therefore necessary to pre-determine the
mode of failure.

Figure 8.6: Method 3 usage of hypothetical external force to determine Factor of Safety

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8.2.5 Application of the Adequacy Factor on Load

8.2.5.1 Typical Usage

The Adequacy factor on load may be applied to one or more of the following parameters that
result in a force within a problem:

1. an applied load (see Section 19.1),

2. a material self weight (see Section 19.2),

3. a seismic acceleration (see Section 21).

The reference in brackets refers to the part of the manual that details how the Adequacy factor
is set on the given parameter.

In most problems, the Adequacy factor will be applied to a load. For problems such a slope
stability problem where there is no externally applied load, then the Adequacy factor may be
applied to a material self weight or a body acceleration. This is discussed further in Chapter
10. In such cases, and where the Adequacy factor is applied to material self weight, it is
recommended that adequacy should be applied to all materials in the problem and not to a
single isolated block of soil, as discussed in Section 8.2.3.

For seismic problems, it is often most convenient to apply the adequacy factor to a body accel-
eration. This is discussed further in Chapter 12.

Where the Adequacy factor is applied to more than one parameter, then it is applied equally
to each.

Note that when the Adequacy factor is applied to a material self weight and this material lies
below the water table, then adequacy is also applied to the water pressure. In effect this means
that for static groundwater conditions the Adequacy factor is applied to the buoyant weight of
the soil.

8.2.5.2 Non-standard usage

In some cases it may be desirable to apply the Adequacy factor to the self weight of a single
body e.g. a buried foundation or pipeline, in order to determine the factor of safety on weight
for that object.

However it should be noted that where this is undertaken in a zone where water pressures
are also applied the principle outlined earlier applies i.e. adequacy is also applied to the water
pressure. This will mean that in the Report the free body diagrams for the single body will
include factored water pressures while adjacent blocks of soil will not. It will thus appear as if
adjacent blocks are not in equilibrium with the single body.

In practice, for static groundwater conditions, the results are equivalent to applying the Ade-
quacy factor to the buoyant weight of the single body. For non-static groundwater conditions

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there is no simple equivalent interpretation. For simplicity and clarity it is therefore recom-
mended that:

1. The Adequacy factor is applied to all bodies in a problem in which a water table is
present (or preferably the Adequacy factor is applied to a global body acceleration).

2. If it is desirable to apply the Adequacy factor to the self weight of a single body, then
where possible, it is applied instead as an Adequacy factor on an additional load on that
body (for solid bodies that may mean ‘cutting’ a hole in the body to allow application of
the load).

Where the above is not possible, then the Adequacy factor should be applied to the self weight
of the body and care should be applied in the interpretation of the results in cases of non-static
groundwater. However it should be noted that in all cases where the Adequacy factor equals
1.0, then all quantities require no special interpretation.

8.2.6 Adequacy Factor Sensitivity

As has been previously mentioned, LimitState:GEO provides solutions in terms of Adequacy

factor. An Adequacy factor may be applied to any load or to the self weight of any body
of material. The Adequacy factor that is returned by LimitState:GEO when it has completed
solving is either:

• the factor by which all the specified loads/self weights/seismic accelerations must be mul-
tiplied by to cause collapse, or

• the factor by which the material strengths must be divided by to cause collapse.

It is important to note that if there are several actions driving collapse, yet an Adequacy factor
is applied only to one of them, then the Adequacy factor may seem to have a misleadingly
high sensitivity to parameter changes.

For example in the Gravity Wall problem in Figure 8.7, both the surface load and weight of
soil behind the wall are driving it to collapse. If the Adequacy factor is applied only to the
surface load, but the load on the wall is dominated by the soil self weight, then large changes
in Adequacy factor will be required to cause any change in collapse state. Indeed if the wall
would collapse due to the soil self weight alone, then no value of Adequacy factor could be
found to (just) cause collapse and a value of Unstable will be returned.

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Figure 8.7: Gravity Wall Problem

8.2.7 Adequacy Factor Direction

Occasionally, LimitState:GEO may generate a failure mechanism that is unexpected by the

user. This can sometimes relate to how the Adequacy factor is used.

When an Adequacy factor is applied to a load or self weight or acceleration, then associated
with the factor is an Adequacy Direction (AD) . This direction is defined as follows:

Load The AD is in the direction of application of the load and relates to the area of application
of the load only.

Material Self Weight The AD is directed vertically downwards and relates to the entire zone
to which the Adequacy factor is applied.

Acceleration The AD is in the direction of the seismic acceleration (horizontal or vertical)

taking into account the sign. This AD relates to the entire problem geometry.

The mathematical formulation of DLO utilised in LimitState:GEO requires that the identified
critical failure mechanism must result in net positive work being done by the parameter to
which the Adequacy factor is applied. In simple terms it means that the failure mechanism
must result in collapse that involves net movement in the AD.

For example the movement of a load on a rigid foundation at collapse must be in the direc-
tion of the AD. Note that the component of movement of the load perpendicular to the AD is
unrestricted.

For investigating the collapse of a slope in a single zoned body of homogeneous soil , the
Adequacy factor is often applied to the soil self weight. In this case the identified collapse
mechanism must involve more of the soil moving in the direction of the AD than away, i.e. more
must move downwards than upwards.

This principle will normally give rise to intuitively expected solutions and does not normally re-
quire further consideration. However consider the issues involved in determining the active and

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passive collapse loads for the rigid wall (with smooth base) depicted in Figure 8.8. Active col-
lapse of the wall would result in a required force on the wall less than that for passive collapse.
However even though LimitState:GEO finds the smallest Adequacy factor that will result in
collapse, it will find the larger passive value because only this mechanism results in the applied
load moving in the direction of its application (the AD) as shown in Figure 8.8. Intuitively this is
what would normally be expected.

Figure 8.8: Investigating passive failure of a gravity wall. Base of wall is modelled as smooth,
utilising the ’symmetry’ boundary condition.

The challenge does however remain as to how to determine the active force required for col-
lapse. It is not possible to simply reverse the direction of the force to which the Adequacy
factor is applied. In this case LimitState:GEO will return ‘Unstable’ since there is no positive
value of the force that would bring the problem just to the point of collapse (only positive values
of Adequacy factor can be found).

In order to find the active force, it is necessary to additionally apply a passive dead load DH
against the wall (where D is the applied stress in kN/m2 , and H is the height of the wall in m)
that exceeds the expected active force (any value will do) as depicted in Figure 8.9. In this
figure the green arrows represent the dead load (D) while the red arrows represent the load to
which Adequacy factor is applied. Let this be a unit stress (1 kN/m2 ). The solver will thus find
the maximum value of Adequacy factor to cause collapse in the AD (i.e. active direction) as
shown in Figure 8.9. The required active load may be computed as a force of (D − AF × 1) × H.

Figure 8.9: Investigating active failure of a gravity wall

A further example illustrating the effect of AD in problems involving seismic actions is given in
Section 12.4.

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Finally it should be noted that where an Adequacy factor is applied to more than one pa-
rameter, then the identified collapse mechanism must involve movement in at least one of the
specified Adequacy directions.

8.3 Use of Partial Factors

8.3.1 Introduction

LimitState:GEO is designed to work closely with the Eurocode 7 approach to Ultimate Limit
State design. It has therefore adopted the Eurocode 7 definitions of actions and partial factors,
which may be used if required in any analysis. These are sufficiently broad based enough to
cover the needs of most other design codes.

In any design code it is important to distinguish whether factors are to be applied before (input
factoring) or after (output factoring) the analysis phase. The LimitState:GEO partial factoring
system is designed to facilitate input factoring which is typical for material factoring approaches
such as Eurocode 7 Design Approach 1 Combination 2 and Design Approach 3, and is fre-
quently adopted for action factoring approaches such as Eurocode 7 Design Approach 1 Com-
bination 1. In general, input factoring makes the best use of the power of numerical modelling
(see for example Smith & Gilbert (2011a) and Smith & Gilbert (2011b)). Action and resistance
factoring approaches such as Eurocode 7 Design Approach 2 will generally adopt output fac-
toring. Such an approach may be achieved using LimitState:GEO, by specific designation and
comparison of actions and resistances acting on a specific body. This at the choice of the
user. Once designated, such actions and resistances can be determined from the analysis and
factored as appropriate.

For input factoring, partial factors are pre-applied to loads (as multipliers) and/or material prop-
erties (as divisors) prior to analysis. Assessment of safety is then undertaken by testing whether
in the subsequent analysis, the available resistance to collapse exceeds the actions causing
collapse. In LimitState:GEO this is equivalent to checking whether the Adequacy factor (ap-
plied to any unfavourable load or self weight, or to strength), is greater than 1.0. (Note that the
Adequacy factor is applied over and above any pre-applied partial factors).

The setting of Partial Factor values is carried out using the Scenario Manager. The available
factors that may be set are depicted in Figure 8.10. Further details about the Scenario Manager
may be found in Chapter 30.

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Figure 8.10: Available Partial Factors in the Scenario Manager

The general principles implemented in LimitState:GEO are described below. However with
respect to Eurocode 7, the following is not to be taken as a definitive guide. The engineer is
expected to apply their own understanding of Eurocode 7, especially with regard to some of
the subtleties that can arise in certain situations. If there are any inconsistencies between what
is described below and the documented Eurocode, then the documented Eurocode should be
followed.

8.3.2 Factoring of Actions (Loads)

Eurocode 7 specifies three different types of actions (loads) to which multiplying partial factors
can be applied. These are all available within LimitState:GEO:

1. Permanent

2. Variable

3. Accidental

The relevance of each action is the nature of the partial factor to be applied to it, with the
corresponding values taken from the Scenario Manager. A Variable action will typically have
a higher partial factor applied to it in comparison to a Permanent action.

Actions may be loads applied to external boundaries or may arise from the self weight of a block
of material. The above settings can thus be applied to both Boundary loads and to Solids.
Self weights are regarded as Permanent actions in LimitState:GEO.

Eurocode 7 also requires that each action is assessed as to its effect on the overall stability
calculation. If it contributes to stability then it is Favourable, if it contributes to collapse then it

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is Unfavourable. Its Loading Type affects the value of partial factor to be applied to it. The
following Loading Types may be applied to any Solid or Boundary:

Favourable: Apply the favourable partial factors to any loads on a boundary or to the self
weight of the materials within a solid.

Unfavourable: Apply the unfavourable partial factors to any loads on a boundary or to the self
weight of the materials within a solid.

Neutral: Do not apply any factors to the loads on this boundary or to the self weight of the
materials within a solid. (NB the type of action, permanent, variable or accidental has no
relevance in this case.)

By default all Boundaries and Solids are set to Neutral when first created. It is up to the user
to explicitly set them to Favourable or Unfavourable if required.

The purpose of the Neutral setting is to:

1. ensure that settings for any new problems that do not require analysis with partial factors,
remain unambiguous and unaffected by partial factors.

2. ensure that for any problem that is to be analysed using partial factors (such as when
using Eurocode 7), that the user must make explicit decisions about the nature of the
actions i.e. change the setting to either Favourable or Unfavourable.

3. to facilitate modelling of problems where partial factors are to be applied to effects of

actions rather than to the source actions themselves. In these cases Neutral might be
used for the self weights of certain bodies.

Automatic factoring of source actions only is implemented in the current version of Limit-
State:GEO. To factor effects of actions a procedure similar to that described in Section 8.2.4
may be followed manually.

Note that in the Wizards, external loads are preset to Favourable or Unfavourable as appropri-
ate. The self weight of structural elements such as footings may also be set to Unfavourable
where they are unambiguous unfavourable actions.

For certain problems it can be a matter of debate as to whether the self weight of a soil body acts
favourably, unfavourably or both. Thus in the LimitState:GEO Wizards, soil body self weights
are always set to Neutral and should be amended by the user as appropriate.

In Eurocode 7, Neutral is equivalent to Favourable in Design Approach 1, Design Combination

1. In Design Combination 2, the factors on permanent actions are the same for both Favourable
and Unfavourable effects, and therefore the setting is irrelevant.

For certain problems it can be unclear at the start whether a particular load is Favourable
or Unfavourable. LimitState:GEO provides additional assistance in these cases. Following
determination of the collapse load LimitState:GEO performs a check on all external actions to
determine whether they acted favourably or unfavourably. If these are inconsistent with the
original specifications, then the user is alerted to this (see Section 19.4) and may alter the
specification and re-solve.

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In a very small number of cases it is possible that the amended Favourable / Unfavourable set-
tings may result in a different collapse mechanism and another set of inconsistent Favourable
/ Unfavourable settings. This is not a inherent problem with LimitState:GEO but simply a con-
sequence of the Partial factor values. As always in these cases it is up to the engineer to apply
their own judgement consistent with the principles underpinning the design code.

8.3.3 Factoring of Material Properties

Partial factors may also be applied as divisors on material properties. Different factors are
applied to the key parameters controlling collapse: the drained cohesion intercept (c0 ), the
tangent of the angle of shearing resistance (tan φ0 ) and the undrained cohesion (cu ). In general
self weight (regarded as a material property rather than as contributing to an action) is not
factored.

8.4 Solution Accuracy

8.4.1 Introduction

This section discusses solution accuracy within the context of the DLO numerical method itself.
For discussion of the accuracy of limit analysis in general, refer to Section 7.

As with any numerical method, solution accuracy is dependent on the resolution of the under-
lying model. With DLO this relates to the distribution of nodes within Solid and Boundary
objects. The method will provide the most critical sliding block mechanism that can be gener-
ated using slip-lines connecting any of the nodes. In many cases a sufficiently accurate solution
will be generated for a coarse distribution of nodes. To assess solution accuracy, it is recom-
mended that the nodal resolution be progressively refined, thereby allowing an assessment of
the convergence characteristics to be made (towards the ‘exact’ solution).

8.4.2 Benchmarking Results

When comparing LimitState:GEO results with known analytical solutions, it is important to in-
terpret them with regard to the sensitivity of the result to parameter variation.

For example, the bearing capacity problem is notoriously sensitive to small changes in the angle
of friction. The predicted bearing capacity of a surface footing on a cohesionless soil of high
strength can double with an increase of friction angle of ≈ 3◦ .

In these circumstances it is logical to think about the problem in terms of the input values
rather than the output values which is the philosophy taken, for example, by Eurocode 7 Design
Approach 1.

To illustrate this, consider the example of a simple footing problem, with 1m wide footing, soil
parameters: c0 =5 kPa, φ=30 degrees, γ = 20 kN/m3 , smooth base, and soil domain 0.75m

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high by 2.25m wide. The exact benchmark solution for the collapse load is 268 kN. The re-
sults obtained from LimitState:GEO using a symmetrical half space model, and the listed nodal
densities are as follows:

• Coarse 286 kN (6% variation from 268kN)

• Medium 282 kN (5% variation from 268kN)
• Fine 277 kN (3% variation from 268kN)

However if c0 and tan φ are decreased by 1% to give c0 = 4.95kP a and φ = 29.75◦ then the
solution at a fine nodal resolution is the same as the exact benchmark solution. Thus the error
in input parameters is 1%. It would be hard to predict c0 and φ to an accuracy of 1% from site
investigation/lab test data.

For the medium nodal density the error is 1.5% : c0 =4.925 kPa, φ = 29.63◦ . For the coarse
nodal density the error is 1.66% : c0 =4.917 kPa, φ = 29.50◦ .

LimitState:GEO is regularly benchmarked against a known set of limit analysis solutions from
the literature. These tests are described in more detail in Appendix A and may be accessed
via the internet. Reference to these results can provide useful guidance as to the expected
accuracy of the software over a range of problem types.

Other factors that can affect accuracy are described in the following sections.

8.4.3 Interfaces

To maximize computational efficiency, the solver does not model slip-lines that cross the in-
terface (Boundary object) between one solid and another. The smoothness of the solution in
the vicinity of the boundary is thus dependent on the nodal density on that boundary. Limit-
State:GEO automatically assigns a higher nodal density on boundaries and the net effect on
the solution is usually very small. However for coarse nodal resolutions, the effect can be no-
ticeable. Thus if a Solid object is split in half by a new Boundary object, then the value of
the solution may increase slightly. The user may individually set the nodal density on bound-
aries (see Section 22.3.3). The software will provide a warning in the Diagnostics window if
Boundary nodal densities are mismatched with adjacent Solid nodal densities.

When using Engineered Elements it is also necessary to ensure a high nodal density is
present on the relevant boundaries to ensure accuracy.

8.4.4 Small Solid Areas

As with all numerical software, numerical tolerance issues can cause the generation of unex-
pected results. This can occur when the software attempts to compute solutions based on
numerically very small problem sizes. To assist users, LimitState:GEO undertakes a pre-solve
check (see Section 22.2.1) and issues a warning when the total area of the problem is below
0.25 m2 . If the problem is below 0.25x10−4 m2 then solve is prevented and an error is displayed
in the Diagnostics window.

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8.4.5 Singularities

The DLO procedure is particularly suited to identifying singularities, i.e. fan zones. However
it must be noted that for frictional soils, stress levels can increase exponentially around the
fan. This means that solutions with singularities may be particularly sensitive to the number
of slip-lines and thus nodal resolution in these areas. To improve the accuracy of a solution,
increasing the number of nodes within Solid objects which contain dense patterns of slip-lines
is likely to be beneficial.

8.4.6 Model Extent

In many cases, the problem domain is not of finite size, but is typically of semi-infinite extent,
e.g. a footing on horizontal soil. In this case the user must specify a suitable domain that is
large enough not to influence the solution. Since LimitState:GEO generates mechanism based
solutions, it is straightforward to determine if the boundaries do or do not influence a solution;
if the mechanism intersects or touches any of the boundaries, then it is likely that they have an
influence, and may lead to a significant increase in load capacity. If the intention is to model an
infinite or semi-infinite body of soil , then the boundaries should be moved outwards until the
mechanism does not intersect or touch the given boundary.

8.4.7 Failure Mechanisms Dominated by Rotations

In problems where significant rotational displacements of the soil occur (e.g. if modelling a vane
test), the Edge Rotations model employed by LimitState:GEO can produce a mechanism that
dissipates too much energy. Refer to Section 5.3.3 for further discussion of this issue and
approaches that may be employed to minimize its effect.

8.5 Adapting Plane Strain Results to 3D

It is not possible to give specific guidance on adapting plane strain results to three-dimensional
cases, since the situation will vary for any given geometry.

Shape factors are generally available for converting plane strain bearing capacity results to 3D
geometries. However these are generally only valid for surface footings on homogenous soil
bodies . It is not necessarily valid to utilize these factors for other soil geometries e.g. layered
soils .

However it can generally be said that in most cases any 3D collapse mechanism will be more
unfavourable (will require a higher load to fail) than an equivalent plane strain mechanism
(though defining the equivalence of mechanisms requires careful consideration). Thus a plane
strain analysis such as is provided by LimitState:GEO will in general be conservative.

However it should be noted that there are exceptions to this principle. This is clearly illustrated
by comparing the plane strain and axisymmetric collapse pressures for a footing founded on the
surface of a cohesionless soil with angle of shearing resistance φ and on a soil of undrained

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shear strength cu0 at the ground surface and undrained shear strength gradient k. Example
results (from limit analysis) for rough and smooth footings are given in Table 8.1 and Table 8.2.
It can be seen that the axisymmetric collapse pressure is lower than the plane strain collapse
pressure for values of φ less than ∼ 30◦ in the drained case and for values of kB/cuo greater
than ∼ 2.5 respectively.

q/γB
Rough Smooth
φ0 (degrees) plane strain axisymmetric plane strain axisymmetric
10 0.217 0.161 0.140 0.103
15 0.591 0.466 0.350 0.267
20 1.42 1.21 0.79 0.64
25 3.25 3.04 1.73 1.49
30 7.38 7.76 3.83 3.56
35 17.2 21.0 8.79 9.02
40 42.8 61.9 21.6 25.1
45 117 209 58.8 79.9
50 371 855 186 309

Table 8.1: Comparison of plane strain and axisymmetric collapse pressures (q) for a footing of
width or diameter B, founded on soil of unit weight (weight density) γ, and angle of shearing
resistance φ0 .

q/cu0
Rough Smooth
kB/cu0 (degrees) plane strain axisymmetric plane strain axisymmetric
0 5.14 6.05 5.14 5.69
0.5 5.97 6.54 5.59 5.98
1 6.61 6.95 5.98 6.25
2 7.60 7.63 6.66 6.72
2.5 8.02 7.93 6.97 6.94
5 9.80 9.23 8.34 7.94
10 12.7 11.4 10.7 9.64

Table 8.2: Comparison of plane strain and axisymmetric collapse pressures (q) for a footing of
width or diameter B, founded on soil of undrained shear strength cu0 at the ground surface and
undrained shear strength gradient k.

Further discussion of the relationship between plane strain and 3D collapse pressures for foot-

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ings may be found in Salgado et al. (2004) and Lyamin et al. (2007).

8.6 Troubleshooting

8.6.1 Insoluble Problems

Normally when a model is set up, it is preferable to carry out initial modelling utilising a Coarse
or Medium nodal distribution in order to check that the material models, geometry and boundary
conditions have been correctly set up. Any error in these will become apparent in the nature
of the solution or will be highlighted by the pre-solve diagnostic checks are carried out by the
software (see Section 22.2.1). However, certain circumstances can lead to no solution being
found. These include the following:

8.6.1.1 Unstable Solutions

Parts of the problem are Unstable, and the computed Adequacy factor on load can be reduced
down to zero (or beyond). Examples of such situations include:

1. Slopes in cohesionless soils steeper than the angle of shearing resistance of the soil. This
can include even short sections of over steep slope on a generally shallow but undulating
slope. This can also apply if the slope is at a greater angle than the material shearing
resistance, but the resistance is decreased due to the use of Partial Factors.

2. Zero or insufficient fixed boundaries to hold the soil in place.

3. Zero strength soil.

4. Free floating or or partially supported blocks of soil within the problem. This can some-
times not be immediately apparent if there is a narrow gap between blocks. Zooming in
on suspect blocks may assist in identifying such areas. Alternatively select the suspect
solid and drag it with the mouse. If it does not drag the adjacent solid with it, then it is not
fully connected and there is a gap.

8.6.1.2 Locked Solutions

No solution will be found if the problem is Locked. In this case no value of the Adequacy factor
on load will induce failure. Examples of such situations include:

1. Slopes in frictional or cohesive-frictional soils shallower than the angle of shearing resis-
tance of the soils .

2. Problems where the adequacy factor is applied to both disturbing and restoring forces.
For certain problems, failure cannot be induced if each force is increased simultaneously.

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108 CHAPTER 8. GENERIC PRINCIPLES

3. Problems where boundary conditions are set such that deformation of a body of soil
is fully constrained, for example attempting to indent a soil contained within fully fixed
boundaries.

4. Problems where frictional soils are modelled with boundary conditions that are highly
restricted (but not necessarily fully fixed everywhere). This is due to geometrical locking.
In plasticity models of frictional soil , shear deformation is accompanied by dilation. i.e. if
there is no room available for the dilation to take place, then no solution will be found.

5. Problems where a partial factor of zero is applied to a load/action to which the Adequacy
factor is also applied.

8.6.1.3 Unknown Solutions

The solver used in LimitState:GEO is generally stable. Occasionally, however, due to the nature
of the way in which it works, it will fail to find a valid solution and an Unknown solution will be
reported. In such instances it is prudent to modify the problem very slightly and Solve again.
Aspects to modify include the geometry (e.g. move a vertex by a small distance) and the
material properties (e.g. change the unit weight or strength by a small amount).

8.6.2 Troubleshooting Insoluble Problems

1. Consult the Diagnostics information to assist with checking that the problem is set up as
required. Use of the Solid Explorer and the Boundary Explorer can also help to rapidly
clarify how common properties have been set in the problem.

2. If not immediately obvious, it is recommended that the soil properties in all or suspected
zones are changed to increase the influence of cohesion by increasing cu or c0 as appro-
priate. If a solution is then found, try gradually reducing cu or c0 until no solution is found.
The cause of the problem should then be much clearer.

3. If the above does not work for a drained material, try also setting the friction to zero when
first increasing the value of c0 and then as c0 is gradually reduced, simultaneously increase
φ0 back to its original value.

4. An alternative to the above is to reduce the soil self weight, or set it to zero. This should
help to identify cases where the soil is collapsing under its own self weight.

5. Be aware that if the problem had arisen due to a small part of the problem geometry being
unstable (e.g. a small section of steep slope), then the animated mechanism may not be
immediately obvious since it will be small. It may be necessary to zoom in on the screen
to identify it.

8.6.3 Problems Giving Solutions That Appear Incorrect

On occasion LimitState:GEO can find a solution, with an accompanying adequacy factor and/or
collapse mechanism, that does not lie within the anticipated values. This can occur if the
adequacy factor is inadvertently applied to parts of the problem that were not initially intended.

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CHAPTER 8. GENERIC PRINCIPLES 109

Commonly this occurs with the adequacy factor applied to Solids. It is worth checking that the
adequacy factor is applied as required by interrogating the settings in the Solid Explorer.

In some circumstances the problem may relate to the issue of adequacy direction (see Section
8.2.7).

in long solve times or an Unknown solution being returned. This

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Chapter 9

Example Problems

LimitState:GEO comes supplied with a range of example files covering a broad range of applica-
tions. These present recommended approaches to modelling these problem types. If guidance
is being sought on modelling a specific type of problem then following the method used in these
files or modifying these files to represent the required problem can be an effective approach.

Additional information on particular modelling issues associated with each example file is given
in the Project Details box (accessible under the Tools menu item).

The example files may be accessed via the LimitState:GEO program menu:

Start > All Programs > LimitState:GEO 3.4.a > Example Files.

Examples types include problems involving:

• Slope stability

• Foundations on heterogeneous soils

• Embankment stability

• Reinforced earth walls

• Propped excavation

• Quay wall

• Tunnel

• Pipeline

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112 CHAPTER 9. EXAMPLE PROBLEMS

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Chapter 10

Slope Stability Problems

10.1 Principles of Slope Stability Limit Analysis

This section outlines the principles applied when performing a slope stability analysis using
LimitState:GEO.

In a conventional slope stability analysis (e.g. using the method of slices) a pre-determined
slip surface is assumed and the stability of the failing soil mass is evaluated by comparing
resisting and disturbing forces/moments. Usually many trial slip surfaces are investigated and
the most critical one identified. This typically requires specification of a search zone and entry
and exit points, and can be very sensitive to the shape of slip surfaces used (e.g. circular or
non-circular).

In contrast the general purpose limit analysis procedure used by LimitState:GEO does not
require the form of the collapse mechanism to be pre-specified. However, the use of a general
purpose procedure does mean that an particular approach must be adopted by the software to
identify the critical failure mechanism.

10.2 Factor of Safety on Strength

In the majority of cases, the aim of a slope stability analysis will be to determine a factor of
safety on the strength of the constituent materials. LimitState:GEO makes this easy for the
user by providing the option to undertake a Factor Strength(s) analysis (see Section 8.2.3).
This essentially provides the user with the facility to ‘set up and go’, without having to concern
themselves with any further adjustment to the problem parameters.

In a Factor Strength(s) analysis, the software searches for a suitable factor on soil strengths
that results an Adequacy factor on load of 1.0. Dependant on the types of materials present
in the slope, a number of things should be taken into consideration.

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114 CHAPTER 10. SLOPE STABILITY PROBLEMS

10.2.1 Slopes in Cohesionless Soils

In a purely cohesionless soil, geotechnical theory indicates that the slope is:

• stable for any friction angle greater than, or equal to, the slope angle, and

• unstable for any friction angle less than the slope angle.

Collapse is therefore entirely independent of the self weight of the soil (crudely speaking, as
the self weight of the material goes up, the normal stresses go up, but frictional resistance
also goes up in exact proportion). For the above reasons, in a slope that is shallower than
the angle of friction, factoring up the self weight on a frictional soil will not cause collapse and
LimitState:GEO will return a *locked* result. Conversely, if the slope is steeper than the angle
of friction then it will be found to be *unstable* under its own self weight.

For this reason, in a slope containing cohesionless soil(s) the bisection algorithm can some-
times jump between *locked* and *unstable* solutions as it converges on a solution that pro-
vides an Adequacy factor on load of 1.0. Mainly this process will be quick and an answer
returned in a few iterations. However, on rare occasions this process will be extended and
require rather more computation time. In such cases it can be prudent to override the default
settings of the Factor Strength(s) analysis in order to expedite a solution (see Section 8.2.3).

Note that the changeover from *locked* to *unstable* is sudden in theory and this is mirrored in
LimitState:GEO. For example imagine a brick lying on a plank (Figure 10.1). If one edge of the
plank is lifted and the plank’s angle to the horizontal is gradually increased, the brick will remain
stable until the plank angle reaches the angle of friction between the brick and the plank. At
this point the brick slides. Beyond this point the situation is inherently unstable. The situation is
either stable or unstable, and is entirely unaffected by the weight of the brick i.e. applying the
Adequacy factor to the self weight of the brick will not drive the problem to failure.

If however there is cohesion and friction between the brick and the plank, then weight will have
an effect, but only when the angle of the plank ≥ the friction angle. By analogy, in this type
of problem LimitState:GEO will give solutions of *locked* for the type of case where the slope
angle is less than the friction angle, but will give an adequacy factor for problems with slope
angle greater than the friction angle.

(a) Stable (α < φ) (b) Unstable (α > φ)

Figure 10.1: Stability of a brick on an inclined plank with brick/plank interface friction angle φ.

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CHAPTER 10. SLOPE STABILITY PROBLEMS 115

An alternative method by which to drive a cohesionless slope problem to failure is to use an

adequacy factor applied to a horizontal pseudo static acceleration (see Chapter 12).

10.2.2 Slopes in Cohesive Soils

In a slope containing purely cohesive soil, a numerical value of Adequacy factor will always
be returned (i.e. *locked* and *unstable* results should not occur) when undertaking a Factor
Strength(s) analysis.

10.3 Factor of Safety on Load

It is generally expected that a slope stability problem will be solved using a Factor Strength(s)
analysis (see Section 8.2.3) . However, it is possible to obtain a solution using the alternative
Factor Load(s) approach.

As an alternative to the tilting plank example described in Section 10.2.1, consider a laboratory
model of a slope stability problem with the model contained within a tank, such that the tank
may be pivoted about one end (Figure 10.2). In order to establish how close to the point of
instability the slope is, the tank can be slowly tilted from the horizontal to a steeper and steeper
angle αcrit until failure occurs. The larger this angle, the more stable the slope.

(a) Model as constructed (stable, α = 0) (b) Model tilted until failure occurs (α > 0)

Figure 10.2: Laboratory slope stability model.

Tilting the tank is analogous to modifying the body forces exerted by any mass of soil or struc-
ture. Within the frame of reference of the tank, the vertical body force becomes mg cos α and a
horizontal body force is introduced mg sin α, as shown in Figure 10.2, where m is the mass of
the body and g the acceleration due to gravity.

In LimitState:GEO, horizontal body forces can be introduced using the Seismic Actions facility
in the Property Editor. By setting the Horizontal Accel. kh (g) to 1.0, Adequacy (on kh ) to
True (and ensuring Adequacy is not set on any other parameter), this requires the software
to find the horizontal acceleration required to cause collapse. This will be returned as the
Adequacy factor (AF ).

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116 CHAPTER 10. SLOPE STABILITY PROBLEMS

This can be converted to an equivalent value of αcrit using the expression αcrit = tan−1 (AF ).
Thus the problem is stable if AF ≥ 0.0.

It is important to note that:

1. Whereas in normal usage stability normally corresponds to AF ≥ 1.0 (e.g. for a founda-
tion stability problem), in this special case a value of AF ≥ 0.0 is required.

2. The significance of the order of magnitude of AF will differ from conventional usage. For
example, a 24.8◦ slope of soil of friction angle 30◦ is just stable with a factor of safety of
1.25 on soil strength. This corresponds to a value of αcrit = 5.2◦ (or AF = 0.091). It is
thus recommended to conceptually interpret the Adequacy factor as an angle αcrit =
tan−1 (AF ).

10.4 Unusual Failure Surfaces for Slopes in Cohesive Soils

In a purely cohesive soil, for certain slope geometries, the failure surface will always touch
the edge of the domain (see for example Figure 10.3). While counter-intuitive it is entirely in
accordance with slope theory which predicts a failure mechanism of semi-infinite extent for e.g.
finite shallow slopes in a semi-infinite domain of purely cohesive soil .

Thus changing the distance to the outer boundary of the problem (whether in the wizard or by
dragging a boundary in the viewer) will not succeed in bringing the mechanism fully within the
boundaries. However it will be found that the adequacy factor will converge to a fixed value.

Figure 10.3: Slope failure mechanism in a cohesive soil, touching boundaries at the left and
right edges.

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Chapter 11

Reinforced Soil

11.1 Introduction

Soil reinforcement is typically modelled using the Engineered Element material. This is a ma-
terial that can be applied to Boundaries to provide essentially one dimensional (in section)
objects such as soil nails, geotextiles, and sheet pile walls. Specific properties of an Engi-
neered Element can be set to allow soil to flow through or past it if required as would be
expected of e.g. a soil nail. This would otherwise not be possible in a plane strain program
such as LimitState:GEO.

In other modelling approaches, soil reinforcement is often only modelled by its effect such as
an imposed point force on a slip surface. This makes it challenging to model complex failure
mechanisms and requires the user to pre-judge to some extent the effect of the reinforcement.
In LimitState:GEO the software is given full freedom to determine the critical failure mechanism
involving soil reinforcement. The parameters required for the soil reinforcement may thus not
be familiar to users familiar with other approaches. However these parameters are typically
required when estimating e.g. an imposed point force on a slip surface.

The parameters defining the behaviour of an Engineered element are:

Pullout factor, Tc The contribution of the material cohesion to the pullout resistance of the
element.

Pullout factor, Tq Used to determine the contribution of the overburden to the pullout resis-
tance of the element.

Lateral factor, Nc The contribution of the material cohesion to the lateral resistance of the
element.

Lateral factor, Nq Used to determine the contribution of the overburden to the lateral resis-
tance of the element.

Plastic moment, Mp The plastic moment of resistance of the element. (If rigid joints are being
modelled then this parameter should be set to 1E+30).

Rupture strength, R The maximum tensile force that can be carried by the material.

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118 CHAPTER 11. REINFORCED SOIL

Compression strength, C The maximum compressive force that can be carried by the mate-
rial.

Advanced > Subdivide at nodes? Specifies whether failure of the element between end ver-
tices is permitted at nodes (e.g. plastic hinge formation and/or tensile failure). This should
be set to False for compatibility with earlier versions of LimitState:GEO. The default and
recommended value is True.

The theoretical background to these parameters is given in Section 6.1.5. Guidance on defining
Engineered element geometry using LimitState:GEO is given in Section 17.9.2.

11.2 Soil Reinforcement with Specified Interface Materials

As outlined in Section 17.5 it is often appropriate, in problems of soil/structure interaction to

assign properties to the interface between a solid body and the surrounding soil that are some
function of the properties of the soil. Similarly, where soil reinforcement is specified in a model,
it can be appropriate to specify interface properties that are distinct on either side of the element
itself. This is anticipated to be useful primarily in cases where ‘flow through’ does not occur (e.g.
for a sheet pile wall or a geotextile), as the materials applied at the interfaces will be applied
across the full width of the model (and will insert a potentially unintentional ‘wound’ through the
model if used in conjunction with e.g. a soil nail).

When creating a new Engineered Element material, the user specifies only those properties
that relate to the element itself (see Chapter 17). This material can then be applied to 1D
boundaries in the usual manner. However, when associated with a Boundary Object, the
viewer will display three lines, as shown in Figure 11.1:

Figure 11.1: Section of a reinforced soil wall problem, showing an Engineered Element material
(red) on a 1D boundary. Note the dark borders to the element, which signify that edge materials
have not been applied.

The inner line depicts the Engineered Element itself while the darker outer lines represent
the boundary interfaces on either side of the element. These interfaces can be assigned one
or more materials so that the interaction of the reinforcement with its surroundings along the

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CHAPTER 11. REINFORCED SOIL 119

interfaces can be closely modelled. For example, see the sheet pile wall depicted in Figure
11.2, where the Engineered Element (Sheet Pile) is bordered by Frictionless and No-Tension
interface materials.

Figure 11.2: Section of a sheet pile wall problem, showing an Engineered Element material
(red) on a 1D boundary with frictionless (green) and no-tension (yellow) materials applied to
the two outer faces.

11.3 Soil Reinforcement - Predefined Types

11.3.1 Predefined types

When defining a new Engineered Element, LimitState:GEO provides five predefined parame-
ter sets, representing different common soil reinforcement types. Dependant upon usage, each
parameter set contains fixed and editable properties taken from those listed in Section 11.1.

• Soil Nail (Rigid)

• Soil Nail (Can Yield)

• Soil Nail (Flexible)

• Sheet Pile Wall (Rigid)

• Sheet Pile Wall (Can Yield)

• Other

11.3.2 Soil Nail - general parameters

For a Soil Nail, the pullout properties Tc , Tq , Nc , and Nq (which are user-defined) are ideally
determined by field tests. However estimates using theory may be made. For example if a nail
of diameter B is embedded in a cohesive soil of undrained shear strength cu then plasticity
theory could be used to estimate the ‘Pullout Factor’ Tc as πBcu and the ‘Lateral Factor’ Nc
as ∼ 9cu B based on laterally loaded pile theory for widely spaced piles. Both values might

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then be factored. For an undrained cohesive soil the pullout and lateral factors Tq and Nq are
independent of depth and therefore would be set to zero.

Certain current alternative analysis methods do not take account of the lateral resistance of soil
nails and so Nc and Nq could be set to zero when comparing with these analyses. However in
this situation, LimitState:GEO may occasionally identify a failure mode where the nails simply
‘float’ out of the ground because they have no lateral resistance. It is therefore recommended
that a small value of Nc is set, of the order of 1 kN/m2 .

When modelling a soil nail, no materials should be assigned to the boundary interfaces.

11.3.3 Soil Nail (Rigid)

A rigid soil nail has its plastic moment (Mp ) set to 1E+30 kNm/m (effectively infinite) to ensure
that the element behaves as a rigid body and cannot form any plastic hinges. The rupture and
compression strengths are also set to be effectively infinite (1E+30 kN/m).

11.3.4 Soil Nail (Flexible)

This type of soil nail behaves in the same way as the rigid soil nail except that the plastic
moment capacity is set to zero so that the nail may hinge freely at locations along the nail.
These locations can either be user-defined Vertices or, if the Subdivide at nodes? material
property is set to true, Nodes along the length of the element. (By default, LimitState:GEO will
set Subdivide at nodes? to true when creating any material that is designated as being able
to yield. This can be modified in the Property Editor).

11.3.5 Soil Nail (Can Yield)

This type of soil nail behaves in the same way as the flexible soil nail except that finite values
can be set for the axial (rupture and compression) strengths.

11.3.6 Sheet Pile Wall - general parameters

To represent a rigid Sheet Pile Wall the values of Tc , Nc and Mp are all set to 1E+30 i.e.
effectively infinity. The values of Tq and Nq are set to zero.

Setting the Pullout Factor Tc and Lateral Factor Nc to infinity locks the Engineered Element
to its boundary interfaces and essentially prevents the flow of soil through the wall. The shear
interaction of the Sheet Pile Wall with the adjacent soil is thus controlled by the boundary
interfaces as would be expected. If these are not assigned any Materials then the wall/soil
interface strength is modelled the same as the adjacent soil.

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CHAPTER 11. REINFORCED SOIL 121

11.3.7 Sheet Pile Wall (Rigid)

Setting the Plastic moment Mp to infinity ensures that the element behaves as a rigid body
and cannot form plastic hinges along its length.

Setting the Rupture strength R and the Compression Strength C to infinity prevents axial
failure of the element.

11.3.8 Sheet Pile Wall (Can Yield)

This type of sheet pile wall behaves as the rigid sheet pile wall except that a finite value of plastic
moment can be set so that the sheet pile may form plastic hinges at locations along the length.
These locations can either be user-defined Vertices or, if the Subdivide at nodes? material
property is set to True, Nodes along the length of the element. (By default, LimitState:GEO will
set Subdivide at nodes? to True when creating any material that is designated as being able
to yield. This can be modified in the Property Editor)

The plastic moment per metre width (into the diagram) can be estimated from a knowledge of
the wall thickness and the yield strength of the wall material.

11.3.9 Other

This ‘Application’ type is used for user defined reinforcement properties which do not fit the pre-
defined values of the other types. All parameters are freely editable. By default, LimitState:GEO
will set Subdivide at nodes? to True when creating a material of this type.

11.4 Modelling soil nails

Conventionally only the tensile reinforcement action of soil nails is modelled. This is specified
using the pullout capacity of the nails and is ideally determined from field tests. The capacity
can be split into the constant component TC and a component that depends on the prevailing
vertical effective stress Tq . These values are per metre length of nail. The value for one nail
should then be multiplied by the number of nails per metre width (perpendicular to the plane of
modelling) to give the value entered in the software. No boundary interface materials should
be set for a soil nail.

Conventionally the lateral resistance of the nail is neglected. To do this the parameters Nc and
Nq should be set to zero. However in practice it is preferable to set Nc to a small nominal value
e.g. 1 kN/m2 . This avoids the nail ’floating’ out of the ground in the model.

If required, tensile failure of a nail can be represented using the Rupture Strength R. Bend-
ing failure can also be specified by specifying a plastic moment Mp , but may only be relevant if
non-zero lateral factors Nc and Nq are used. Note that if both bending and tensile failure are an-
ticipated then combined bending/tensile action needs to be accounted for and lower strengths

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may need to be specified. Again the values calculated for one nail should be multiplied by the
number of nails per metre width.

11.5 Modelling flexible geosynthetic reinforcement

11.5.1 General principles

This type of reinforcement is not provided as a predefined type. However it is possible to model
it using the Engineered Element generic model. To determine if this is the case it is necessary
that the engineer compare the theoretical model that they wish to use for the geotextile with
that provided by LimitState:GEO.

The recommended parameters to be used are the same as for a sheet pile wall, but with the
Plastic moment Mp set to zero and Subdivide at nodes? set to True to allow the modelling
of many possible ‘hinge’ locations on the element to allow full flexibility. The boundary inter-
faces would normally be assigned material properties that are a percentage of the adjacent soil
material strengths. This percentage is commonly termed the α factor for the geotextile.

Note that it is not recommended to use Engineered Elements with infinite lateral resistance to
model fully enclosed volumes of frictional soil e.g. a sand bag. Due to the dilational represen-
tation of friction in plasticity theory (see Section 7.6), such enclosed volumes will not be able to
deform and will behave like rigid blocks.

11.5.2 Geotextiles - Method 1

The recommended approach to modelling a geotextile using an Engineered element, is to set

parameters as follows:

Pullout factor, Tc = ∞ This locks the geotextile to its boundaries. In practice the value ∞
should be represented in the software by the value 1E30.

Pullout factor, Tq This can be set to any value since pullout behaviour is determined by Tc .

Lateral factor, Nc = ∞ This prevents the flow of soil through the geotextile. In practice the
value ∞ should be represented in the software by the value 1E30.

Lateral factor, Nq This can be set to any value since lateral behaviour is determined by Nc .

Plastic moment, Mp = 0 This allows fully flexible movement at any node.

Rupture strength, R This should be set to the tensile strength of the geotextile.

Compression strength, C = 0 It is assumed that the geotextile has zero compressive strength.

Advanced > Subdivide at nodes? This should be set to True to allow the modelling of many
possible ‘hinge’ locations on the element and/or rupture failure.

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The Engineered element representing a geotextile should normally be used in conjunction

with Boundary materials (see Section 11.2 ) on each side of the geotextile to model the geo-
textile/soil interface friction. These boundary interfaces would normally be assigned material
properties that are a percentage of the adjacent soil material strengths. This percentage is
commonly termed the α factor for the geotextile. Use of a Derived Mohr-Coulomb Material
(see Section 17.5 ) facilitates straightforward modelling of the α factor.

Note that this geotextile model assumes the principles of limit analysis, i.e. rigid-plastic be-
haviour and ductility. Where it is required to model complex deformation, it may be necessary
to employ a high nodal density along the element to fully capture the behaviour.

11.5.3 Geotextiles - Method 2

An alternative approach to modelling a geotextile may be achieved by directly using the Pullout
Factor and by omitting boundary interface materials. This has the following differences from
Method 1:

• In circumstances where the geotextile and, for example, the underlying soil remain static
and the overlying layer slides along the geotextile, the interface skin friction modelled will
be the full soil strength.

• The pullout strength is calculated based on the indicative vertical stress pre-computed
before the solution stage as described in Section 6.1.5. Since it is very likely that the
vertical effective stress along the element is modified by the overall failure mechanism,
this may not be as precise as Method 1, particularly if a Factor Load(s) analysis is
undertaken with the Adequacy factor applied to items that load the geotextile. However
it is likely to be closer to conventional hand calculations that utilise indicative vertical
stresses.

To use this approach, set parameters as follows:

Pullout factor, Tc See below.

Pullout factor, Tq Factors Tc and Tq should be set such that T = Tc + Tq σv0 gives the pullout
resistance per unit length per unit width,

Lateral factor, Nc = ∞ This prevents the flow of soil through the geotextile. In practice the
value ∞ should be represented in the software by the value 1E30.

Lateral factor, Nq This can be set to any value since lateral behaviour is determined by Nc .

Plastic moment, Mp = 0 This allows fully flexible movement at any node.

Rupture strength, R This should be set to the tensile strength of the geotextile.

Compression strength, C = 0 It is assumed that the geotextile has zero compressive strength.

Advanced > Subdivide at nodes? This should be set to True to allow the modelling of many
possible ‘hinge’ locations on the element and/or rupture failure.

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124 CHAPTER 11. REINFORCED SOIL

Boundary interface materials are not required.

Note that this geotextile model assumes the principles of limit analysis, i.e. rigid-plastic be-
haviour and ductility.

11.5.4 Geotextiles - Method 3

An alternative that may give a mechanically equivalent model is to represent the geotextile as a
fully rigid Engineered Element and with zero lateral resistance. LimitState:GEO will then allow
soil to flow ‘through’ the element. This can be considered equivalent (for small displacements)
to letting the geotextile freely deform with the soil, while still providing transmission of tensile
forces. However the resulting deformations seen in an animation may not look intuitively correct
and caution should be exercised to ensure that the scenario modelled is not kinematically
restricted by the rigid representation of the geotextile.

To use this approach, set parameters as follows:

Pullout factor, Tc = ∞ This locks the geotextile to its boundaries. In practice the value ∞
should be represented in the software by the value 1E30.

Pullout factor, Tq This can be set to any value since pullout behaviour is determined by Tc .

Lateral factor, Nc = 0 This allows the ‘flow’ of soil through the geotextile.

Lateral factor, Nq = 0 This allows the ‘flow’ of soil through the geotextile.

Plastic moment, Mp = ∞ This models the geotextile as fully rigid.

Rupture strength, R This should be set to the tensile strength of the geotextile.

Compression strength, C = 0 It is assumed that the geotextile has zero compressive strength.

Advanced > Subdivide at nodes? This should be set to True to allow the modelling of many
rupture failure along the element.

11.6 Anchor tendons

In certain circumstances is it necessary to model and element that can transmit tension and/or
compression, but not interact with the surrounding soil. This can be achieved using an Engi-
neered Element and setting the values of Tc , Tq , Nc and Nq to zero. With these settings any
materials assigned to the boundary interfaces will have no effect, and the element can freely
displace through the soil. The bending, rupture and compressive resistance of the element can
be controlled by the parameters Mp , R and C. To allow modelling of a flexible anchor tendon,
the moment of resistance Mp can be set to zero.

Note that an engineered element representing a flexible anchor tendon (with Mp = 0) should
not be directly connected to an engineered element representing a retaining wall or anchor
plate. If this occurs then the bending strength modelled at the junction will be the lowest of
the engineered elements meeting at that junction i.e. zero. This has the effect of introducing a

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frictionless hinge into the wall or anchor plate and thus the possibility of an unintended failure
mode.

The correct approach to linking a low bending strength anchor tendon to a wall element is
illustrated in Figure 11.3 where a short stub of wall material is modelled to which the anchor
tendon attaches. This leaves the main wall bending strength unaffected.

Figure 11.3: Connection of a flexible anchor tendon to a retaining wall modelled using Engi-
neered Elements.

11.7 Example 1 - Simple Reinforcement Pullout

The simple pullout test modelled in Figure 11.4 illustrates the functioning of the parameter Tc .
The input file is available in the Example Files folder.

The reinforcement (coloured red in the diagram) is embedded in both a weightless rigid block
(height 1m) on the left and a body of clay of undrained strength cu = 30 kN/m2 and of length L
= 2m on the right (with zero tensile strength specified on the interface between block and soil).
It is assumed that it has a pullout resistance of 10 kN/m2 in the soil.

The aim of the test is to determine what force is required to displace the rigid block to the left,
thus pulling the reinforcement out of the soil.

To ensure the reinforcement remains embedded in the rigid block but can pull out of the soil it
is necessary to define two Engineered Element materials. The first is given a high value of
Tc (e.g. 1E+30 kN/m2 ) and is assigned to the portion of the reinforcement in the rigid block
(dark red in the diagram). The second is given a value of Tc of 10 kN/m2 and is assigned to the
portion of the reinforcement in the soil block (light red in the diagram). Both materials are given
high values of plastic moment of resistance (e.g. 1E+30 kNm/m) and tensile rupture strength
(e.g. 1E+30 kN/m).

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A unit stress with Adequacy factor (red arrows) is applied to the left hand edge of the rigid
block. On solving the block displaces to the left and the light red portion of the reinforcement
pulls through the soil. An Adequacy factor of 20 is returned, indicating that a force of 20 kN/m
is required to pull out the 2m of reinforcement, with Tc = 10 kN/m2 . Displaying the tensile force
diagram confirms that the maximum tensile force experienced in the soil reinforcement is 20
kN/m.

Figure 11.4: Simple reinforcement pullout test.

11.8 Example 2 - Simple Reinforcement Tensile Rupture

The simple test modelled in Figure 11.5 illustrates the functioning of the tensile Rupture strength
parameter. The input file is available in the Example Files folder.

The problem is identical to that of the pullout test (Section 11.7) except that the reinforcement
embedded in the body of soil (light red) has a tensile capacity of 40 kN/m and a Tc value of
1E+30 kN/m2 . This value will ’lock’ the Engineered Element to its boundary interfaces. The
force required for the Engineered Element to pullout along its boundary interfaces is equal to
2 × cu × L = 2 × 30 × 2 = 60 kN/m which exceeds the tensile capacity.

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The aim of the test is to show that the force required to displace the rigid block to the left and
cause the reinforcement to rupture in tension is equal to the rupture strength of the nail. On
solving the block displaces to the left and the light red portion of the reinforcement does not pull
through the soil. Instead the nail is seen to lengthen. An Adequacy factor of 40 is returned,
indicating that a force of 40 kN/m was required to rupture the reinforcement.

Figure 11.5: Simple reinforcement tensile rupture test.

11.9 Example 3 - Simple Reinforcement Lateral Displacement

The simple lateral displacement test modelled in Figure 11.6 illustrates the functioning of the
parameter Nc . The input file is available in the Example Files folder.

The reinforcement, for example a soil nail, (coloured red in the diagram) is embedded in a body
of soil of width 3m and attached to two weightless rigid blocks (width 0.5m) either side of the
soil body (with frictionless interface between the soil and the blocks). It is assumed that it has
a lateral displacement resistance of Nc =25 kN/m2 in the soil.

The aim of the test is to determine what force is required to displace the rigid blocks upwards,
thus displacing the reinforcement through the soil. To ensure that the reinforcement remains
fixed to the rigid blocks but can displace through the soil it is necessary to define two Engi-
neered Element materials. The first is given a high value of Nc (e.g. 1E+30 kN/m2 ) and is
assigned to the portion of the reinforcement embedded within the rigid blocks (dark red in the

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diagram). The second is given a value of Nc of 25 kN/m2 and is assigned to the portion of the
reinforcement in the soil block (light red in the diagram).

A unit stress with Adequacy factor (red arrows) is applied to the base of each rigid block (i.e.
over a total width of 1m). On solving the blocks displace upwards and the light red portion of
the reinforcement diaplaces through the soil. An Adequacy factor of 75 is returned, indicating
that a force of 25 × 3 = 75 kN/m is required to displace the 3m of reinforcement upwards, with
Nc = 25 kN/m2 .

Figure 11.6: Simple reinforcement lateral displacement test.

11.10 Example 4 - Simple Reinforcement Bending

The simple bending test modelled in Figure 11.7 illustrates how the parameter Mp functions.
The input file is available in the Example Files folder.

A reinforcement frame surrounds a body of soil of width 1m and height 1m. On top of the
frame is attached a weightless rigid block (height 0.5m) to which a lateral pressure of 2 kN/m
is applied (resulting in a 1kN/m force). It is assumed that the frame has a plastic moment of

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resistance of 10 kN/m/m.

The aim of the test is to determine what force is required to displace the rigid block and cause
bending failure in the frame.

The Engineered Element material defining the frame (red in the diagram) is set with high
values of Tc and Nc (e.g. 1E+30 kN/m2 ) and an Mp value of 10 kNm/m. All of the soil properties
are set to zero except the undrained cohesion (cu ) which is assigned a value of 10 kN/m2 .

The Adequacy factor is applied to the lateral load acting on the rigid block (red arrows). A
coarse nodal discretization is set (target number of nodes = 250).

On solving, the block displaces to the right and reinforcement frame displaces to form a trape-
zoidal shape, with bending occurring at the corners. An Adequacy factor of 50.63 is returned,
indicating that a stress of 50.63 kN /m/m is required to shear the soil and cause sufficient plastic
hinges in the frame to form a failure mechanism. The analytical solution for this problem can
be easily determined using a simple work equation:

1λθ = 4Mp θ + 1cu θ (11.1)

hence:
λ = 4Mp + cu = 40 + 10 = 50 (11.2)

where λ is equal to the factor on load required to cause failure and θ is equal to the rotation at
the yielding positions. Therefore, using a coarse nodal discretization, the solution has an error
of approximately 1.2%. Note that the higher the number of target nodes set for the problem,
the closer the value will be to the analytical solution.

Figure 11.7: Simple reinforcement bending test.

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Chapter 12

Seismic Problems

12.1 Modelling of Seismic Loading Using DLO

In LimitState:GEO horizontal and/or vertical pseudo static acceleration may be applied to any
problem. These may be applied with or without Adequacy applied to them. Often it may be
required to check a design against seismic loading and the question may be posed as follows:

‘What value of horizontal acceleration is required to cause collapse?’

This may be straightforwardly done by applying adequacy to the horizontal acceleration (details
of how to enter seismic parameters via the user interface in LimitState:GEO are given in Section
21).

In general it is recommended that Adequacy be applied to horizontal acceleration only or to

both horizontal and vertical acceleration. Use of Adequacy on vertical acceleration only should
be done with caution as it may result in correct but unexpected results as described in Section
12.4)

12.2 Example 1 - Modelling a Simple Mechanics Problem

Consider the sliding block problem in Figure 12.1. The rigid block is of dimensions 1m × 1m
and of unit weight 1 kN/m3 . It rests on a rigid platform separated by a frictional interface with
tan φ = 0.5. A fixed unit stress (green arrows) of 1 kN/m3 is applied to the left hand face of the
block. The question is:

‘What horizontal acceleration kh applied right to left will cause failure?’

To determine this using LimitState:GEO the geometry and parameters are entered as de-
scribed. An example file of this problem (SlidingBlockSeismic.geo) is included in the Limit-
State:GEO ‘example files’ directory (see Appendix C for further information on accessing ex-
ample files).

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Figure 12.1: Simple sliding block example under horizontal seismic loading.

To find the required horizontal acceleration to cause failure, set Horizontal Accel. kh (g) to
1.0, Adequacy (on kh ) to True and solve. LimitState:GEO will return an Adequacy factor of
1.5 and show a sliding failure. This means that the horizontal acceleration must be 1.5g to
cause failure. (Note that the Horizontal Accel. kh (g) could have been set to e.g. 0.3, in which
case an Adequacy factor of 5 would have been returned, still giving a required horizontal
acceleration of 1.5g to cause failure). This can be checked by simple mechanics:

Resolving horizontally,

kh W = P + W tan φ (12.1)

where W is the weight of the block and P is the applied fixed force. For the given units this
gives:

kh × 1.0 = 1.0 + 1.0 × tan φ = 1.5 (12.2)

12.3 Example 2 - Checking the Mononobe-Okabe Equation

Consider the simple retaining wall problem in Figure 12.2. The wall is modelled as a weightless
rigid block of height 1m resting on a smooth base. It retains soil of angle of shearing resistance
30◦ , and the soil/wall interface angle of shearing resistance is also set to 30◦ . The seismic
active earth pressure acting on the wall due to a horizontal acceleration of 0.1g is required.

To determine this using LimitState:GEO the geometry is entered as described. An example file
of this problem (SeismicRetainingWall1.geo) is included in the LimitState:GEO ‘example files’
directory (see Appendix C for further information on accessing example files).

To find the required active pressure, set Horizontal Accel. kh (g) to 0.1 and the Adequacy
(on kh ) to False. To determine an active earth pressure it is necessary to set one of the
normal loads (e.g. the Permanent load) on the left hand face of the wall to 1.0 kN/m2 without
Adequacy and another (e.g. the Variable load) on the left hand face of the wall to -1.0 kN/m2

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with Adequacy (see Section 8.2.7 for an explanation of why this is required to obtain active
earth pressures). On solving with a medium resolution, LimitState:GEO will return an Adequacy
factor of 0.8377 and show a compound wedge failure mechanism.

This means that the active earth pressure is the sum of the applied loads i.e. 1.0 - 0.8377
= 0.1623 kN/m. This is slightly higher than the value of 0.1611 kN/m given by Mononobe-
Okabe equation for this problem. The reason for the discrepancy is that the Mononobe-Okabe
equation is based on the assumption of a single wedge failure mechanism whereas in fact for
a rough wall the true mechanism differs slightly from this.

Figure 12.2: Simple retaining wall example under horizontal seismic loading (1).

It is possible to pose this problem in an alternative form asking:

‘What horizontal acceleration is required to give a resultant active earth pressure on

the wall of 0.1611 kN/m’?

This is modelled by the example file SeismicRetainingWall2.geo as depicted in Figure 12.3. In

this case the Horizontal Accel. kh (g) is set to 1.0 and the Adequacy (on kh ) to True. One
of the normal loads (e.g. the Permanent load) on the left hand face of the wall is set to 0.1611
kN/m2 without Adequacy.

On solving with a medium resolution, LimitState:GEO will return an Adequacy factor of 0.09665
and again show a compound wedge failure mechanism. This implies that the wall will fail at a
horizontal acceleration of 0.09665. This is close to the expected horizontal acceleration of 0.1,
but again LimitState:GEO has found a slightly more optimal failure mechanism.

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Figure 12.3: Simple retaining wall example under horizontal seismic loading (2).

12.4 Example 3 - Correct use of Adequacy Direction

Consider again the sliding block problem in Figure 12.1 with the same parameters as used in
Example 1. In this case the question posed is:

‘What value of horizontal acceleration kh applied right to left in combination with a

vertical acceleration kv = 0.5kh applied downwards will cause failure?’

To find the required solution, set Horizontal Accel. kh (g) to 1.0, Adequacy (on kh ) to True ,
Vertical Accel. kv (g) to 0.5, Adequacy (on kv ) to True and solve. LimitState:GEO will return
an Adequacy factor of 2.0 and show a sliding failure similar to Example 1.

This can again be checked by simple mechanics:

kh W = P + (1 + kv )W tan φ (12.3)

where W is the weight of the block and P is the applied fixed force. For the given units this
gives:

kh × 1.0 = 1.0 + (1 + 0.5kh ) × 1.0 × tan φ (12.4)

and

0.75kh = 1.5 (12.5)

or kh = 2.

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To facilitate simple comparison of several solutions, it is helpful to model the scenario such that
the Adequacy factor returned is a value of 1.0. To do this set Horizontal Accel. kh (g) to 2.0,
and Vertical Accel. kv (g) to 1.0.

If now the acceleration on which Adequacy is applied is changed then the results in Table 12.1
are obtained. The anomalous result in the final row relates to the issue of Adequacy Direction
(see Section 8.2.7). In the first two cases the failure mechanism involves sliding in the direction
of the applied horizontal acceleration and, due to dilation, a small upward movement of the
block, against the direction of the applied vertical acceleration. In the third case, the solver is
restricted to finding a failure mode in the specified direction of the applied vertical acceleration
only. The sliding mode is thus not possible and since both blocks are rigid, a bearing type
failure cannot be found and a result of *locked* is returned.

Adequacy on kh Adequacy on kv Result (Adequacy factor)

Yes No 1.0
Yes Yes 1.0
No Yes *locked*

Table 12.1: Result of applying Adequacy to different parameters

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 Part IV

User Guide

137
Chapter 13

Introduction to the User Guide

This part of the manual contains the primary program reference guide for LimitState:GEO. The
following topics are described:

• The graphical user interface,

• Setting up and solving a problem

– specifying the problem geometry,

– setting the analysis mode (long or short term,translational or rotational),
– setting material properties,
– modelling soil reinforcement/Engineered Elements,
– setting boundary conditions,
– setting loads,
– modelling water pressures
– modelling seismic accelerations,
– setting adequacy factor,
– solving,
– viewing and animating the solution,
– interrogating the solution,

• Generating a report ,

• Solving for multiple scenarios

The sequence listed under ‘setting up and solving a problem’ is the recommended order to
follow when defining and solving a problem.

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Chapter 14

The Graphical Interface

14.1 Introduction

The LimitState:GEO graphical interface is designed to give the user maximum flexibility over
defining the problem and setting problem parameters while providing new users a clear frame-
work for setting up problems. The default LimitState:GEO screen is divided into a number of
areas as shown in Figure 14.1.

Figure 14.1: Areas of the Graphical User Interface utilized in LimitState:GEO

The areas shown by default are as follows:

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• Title bar,

• Menu bar

• Top toolbar

• Left hand toolbar

• Materials Explorer / Water Regime Explorer (tabbed),

• Viewer pane,

• Property Editor,

• Geometry Editor,

• Output pane / Boundary Explorer / Solid Explorer (tabbed)

• Status bar.

A brief overview of each area is given in the following sections. A fuller description is given in
later Chapters. A full list of toolbar and menu items may be found in Appendix B.

Additional items not shown by default are the:

• Vertex Explorer

• Calculator

14.2 Title Bar

The Title bar (Figure 14.2) displays the name of the software an the name of the file currently
being edited. At the right hand side are the Minimize, Restore Down and Close buttons, which
may be accessed by left-clicking the relevant icons. These functions may also be accessed via
the Title bar context menu, by right clicking anywhere along the bar.

Figure 14.2: The LimitState:GEO Title Bar

14.3 Menu Bar

Menu items (Figure 14.3) may be expanded by left-clicking on the relevant heading. This will
bring up a list of functions available for the chosen menu entry. More about the options available
in each menu is available in Appendix B.2.

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Figure 14.3: The LimitState:GEO Menu bar

14.4 Toolbars

The toolbars (e.g. Figure 14.4) allow direct access to the main functionality of the software.
The function relating to each toolbar button may be activated by left-clicking on the relevant
icon. Right clicking on any part of a toolbar, brings up the explorer and toolbar selection context
menu, which allows toggling the display of interface entities, as depicted in Figure 14.5.

Figure 14.4: The top Toolbars in LimitState:GEO

Tooltips describing to each button are available by hovering the mouse over the icon for a short
period. Further description of the toolbars may be found in Section B.3.

The default and optional toolbars are outlined in Appendix B.3.

Figure 14.5: Explorer and toolbar selector

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14.5 Material Explorer

This pane (Figure 14.6) is, by default, available on the left side of the screen as a tab along
with the Water Explorer. It displays the materials available to the user. These are divided
into two sets: built-in (read only) materials, which are identified by a padlock, and user defined
materials, which are freely editable. The user defined materials are displayed at the top of the
explorer.

Figure 14.6: The LimitState:GEO Material Explorer

The following actions are possible:

Select Materials may be selected by single clicking the icon with the left mouse button. When
selected, material properties appear in the Property Editor (Section 14.8), where they
can be edited if allowed.

Drag & Drop Materials may be dragged from the explorer and dropped onto objects in the
Viewer pane by clicking on them with the left hand mouse button and then, with this
button held down, dragging them with the mouse to the required location. The object to
which the material will be assigned will turn magenta. For further information see Section
17.2.

Material Context Menu Right-clicking on any material brings up a material specific context
menu. From here, the following options are available:

• Delete user defined material - removes a user-defined material from the Explorer

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• Duplicate material - creates an editable copy of the selected material

• New material... - opens a dialog to create a new user-defined material
• Export materials... - exports the current materials to CSV
• Import materials... - imports pre-defined materials from CSV

14.6 Water Regime Explorer

This pane (Figure 14.7) is, by default, available on the left side of the screen as a tab along with
the Material Explorer. It displays the water regimes available to the user. These are divided
into two sets: built-in (read only) water regimes, which are identified by a padlock, and user
defined regimes, which are freely editable. The user defined regimes are displayed at the top
of the explorer.

Figure 14.7: The LimitState:GEO Water Regime Explorer

The following actions are possible:

Select Water regimes may be selected by single clicking the icon with the left mouse button.
When selected, material properties appear in the Property Editor (Section 14.8), where
they can be edited if allowed.

Drag & Drop Water regimes may be dragged from the explorer and dropped onto objects in
the Viewer pane by clicking on them with the left hand mouse button and then, with this
button held down, dragging them with the mouse to the required location. The object to
which the regime will be assigned will turn magenta. For further information see Section
20.5.

Water Regime Context Menu Right-clicking on any water regime brings up a water specific
context menu. From here, the following options are available:

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• Delete user defined water regime - removes a user-defined water regime from the
Explorer
• Duplicate water regime - creates an editable copy of the selected water regime
• New water regime... - opens a dialog to create a new user-defined water regime
• Export water regimes... - exports the current water regimes to CSV
• Import water regimes... - imports pre-defined water regimes from CSV

14.7 Viewer Pane

This pane (Figure 14.8) displays the current problem geometry. It provides access to user
editable geometry objects.

Object properties may be freely edited using the mouse or keyboard or both depending on
their nature. A full description may be found in Chapter 15. Specific geometry objects may be
selected by left-clicking with the mouse. The properties of the objects are then displayed in the
Property Editor (Section 14.8).

The geometry of the model may be freely edited in the viewer by selecting and modifying
existing objects or adding new ones.

Figure 14.8: The LimitState:GEO Viewer Pane

To scroll the view, use the arrow keys on the keyboard or use the mouse to pan (see also
Section 3.8). Similarly, the + and - keys can be used to zoom in and out, while pressing * will
zoom to the extents of the model geometry (see also Section 3.7).

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14.8 Property Editor

The Property Editor provides core access to problem parameters in a direct and intuitive way.
In general the properties of any material, water regime or geometry object may be displayed
simply by selecting it in the an Explorer or the Viewer pane. In addition, global project level
parameters may be displayed at any time by left-clicking on an empty part of the Viewer pane
with the mouse. The Property Editor is shown in Figure 14.9 and is generally located at the
right of the user interface.

Single clicking on any item in the Property column of the Property Editor gives an expanded
explanation of the parameter in the window at the base of the Property Editor. In turn this
expanded explanation may contain one or more hyperlinks to the manual to take the user to a
more comprehensive source of information. An ‘expand’ symbol (+ or arrow) next to an item
in the Property Editor indicates that there are additional sub-parameters relating to that item,
that may be viewed. Click on the expand symbol to access these. Left-clicking on a value
in the Property Editor allows you to modify it by typing or selecting your choice (unless it is
read only). For specific parameters a clickable button may also appear which gives access to
a further dialog to provide additional functionality.

The calculator (see Section 14.13) may be used in any numeric data entry cell.

Right clicking on items that have been selected, brings up a context menu relevant to that item.

Figure 14.9: Project properties displayed in the Property Editor

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14.9 Geometry Editor

The Geometry Editor (Figure 14.10) provides direct access to the co-ordinates of any geome-
try object. When a geometry object is selected, for example by left-clicking on it in the Viewer
Pane, the Geometry Editor displays the (x, y) coordinate of each vertex associated with that
object.

Any value in the Geometry Editor may be altered by:

1. Clicking on the value

2. Typing a new value

3. Pressing Enter

4. When all new parameters have been entered to the user’s satisfaction, clicking the Apply
button.

The arrow or tab keys may also be used to navigate through the coordinates.

Figure 14.10: The LimitState:GEO Geometry Editor

Any or all values may be selected and copied and pasted to another application. Conversely a
table of coordinates may be copied and pasted from another application to the geometry table.
To copy, select any rectangular block of data (i.e. single cell, column, row or block of cells) and
then right-click with the mouse to display the context menu. Then select Copy.

To paste data, copy one or more cells from another application and Paste to a cell in the
geometry editor. The data will be pasted relative to this cell. Any data extending beyond the
bounds of the geometry editor table will be ignored.

14.10 Output Pane

This pane (Figure 14.11) is, by default, available at the bottom of the interface as a tab along
with the Boundary Explorer and Solid Explorer. It is used to display solution information
(including the Adequacy factor) and messages to the user. Any portion of text may be copied
and pasted to another window/text box or other application.

To select text, perform the following steps:

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• left-click on the text and drag with the mouse to select a specific block of text,

• double click on a word to select it,

• triple click on a line to select it.

To copy, press CTRL-C or right click and select Copy from the context menu.

Right clicking anywhere on the window, brings up the context menu.

Figure 14.11: The LimitState:GEO Output Pane

The amount of information displayed in the Output Pane may also be increased to include the
iteration data by ticking the checkbox Display iteration information in the output window .
This is available in the Solve tab of the Preferences Dialog (see Chapter 28).

14.11 Status Bar

The Status Bar (Figure 14.12) is used to provide:

• Short term progress messages to the user (at the left side).

• Drawing settings (described further in Section 14.12, Section 15.8, and Section 15.9 ):

– TRACK - Zooms the viewer to highlight objects selected in Explorers

– DRAG - Allows on-screen objects to be moved using the mouse.
– ORTHO - Restricts on-screen movement of objects to the Cartesian directions
– SNAP - Snaps objects to points of interest in the model (e.g. Vertices)

• Display of the (x, y) coordinates of the current mouse position, when the mouse pointer
is within the Viewer pane.

Figure 14.12: The LimitState:GEO Status Bar

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14.12 Vertex, Boundary and Solid Explorers

14.12.1 Introduction

The explorers provide lists of all the geometry objects present in the current problem according
to type. the Boundary and Solid explorers also display specific properties of the Geometry
objects which may be adjusted here in the same way as in the Property Editor.

Clicking on any item in the explorer will cause it to be selected and highlighted in the Viewer
pane. In addition if the TRACK setting is active (see Section 14.11) then the Viewer pane will
zoom and highlight the selected geometry object.

14.12.2 Vertex Explorer

The Vertex Explorer (Figure 14.13) lists the Vertices present in the problem. If the TRACK
setting is active (see Section 14.11), clicking on a row in the explorer will select that vertex and
cause the viewer to zoom in on it. Additionally, the Geometry Editor will display the coordinates
of the selected object.

The Vertex Explorer is not displayed by default, but may be activated using the View > Ex-
plorers > Vertex Explorer menu function.

Figure 14.13: The Vertex Explorer

14.12.3 Boundary Explorer

The Boundary Explorer (see Figure 14.14) is displayed by default as a tab alongside the
Output Pane and Solid Explorer. It lists all the Boundaries present in the problem and can
be used to quickly determine or modify the following properties:

Support Type Free, Fixed or Symmetry (see Chapter 18).

Loading Permanent, Accidental or Variable (see Chapter 19).

Loading Type Favourable, Unfavourable or Neutral (see Section 19.4).

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Adequacy True or False (see Section 8.2).

If the TRACK setting is active (see Section 14.11), clicking on a row in the explorer will select
that boundary and cause the viewer to zoom in on it.

Figure 14.14: The LimitState:GEO Boundary Explorer

14.12.4 Solid Explorer

The Solid explorer (see Figure 14.15) is displayed by default as a tab alongside the Output
Pane and . It lists the Solids present in the problem and can be used to quickly determine or
modify the following properties

Adequacy True or False (see Section 8.2).

Loading Type Favourable, Unfavourable or Neutral (see Section 19.4).

Water Regime Lists the type of Water Regime applied to the zone, if any (see Section 6.2.3).

Clicking on a row in the explorer will select that solid and cause the viewer to zoom in on it.

Figure 14.15: The LimitState:GEO Solid Explorer

14.13 Calculator

The calculator is used to facilitate entry of data into the Property Editor and the Wizards in the
following circumstances:

• When the parameter needs computing from several source parameters.

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• When the parameter needs to be converted from different units.

If the mouse is clicked on any wizard or Property Editor numeric data entry cell, the calculator
button appears in the right hand end of the cell. Click on this to display the calculator. The
calculator (see Figure 14.16) has all the normal functionality of a standard calculator plus the
ability to convert units. The units conversions are displayed according to the parameter type in
the cell. The value appearing the the results window of the calculator automatically appears in
the data entry cell. There is no need to copy and paste to the cell in question.

Figure 14.16: The calculator window

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Chapter 15

Specifying the Problem Geometry

15.1 Terminology

Problem geometries are built up using Geometry objects. There are three types of geometry
object:

Solid This is a 2D polygon defining a body of soil or other material. Its extent is defined by the
surrounding Boundary objects.

Boundary This is a straight line that links two vertices and defines the edge or boundary of a
Solid. If a Boundary object separates two Solids then it is shared by those solids and
forms an interface.

Vertex This is a point where two or more Boundary objects meet. A vertex may lie on a
straight line. A Vertex is shared by the Boundary objects that meet at that vertex.

In LimitState:GEO all geometry is defined in terms of straight lines. Curves may be represented
by a series of short straight line segments. Boundary and Solid objects can both be assigned
material properties.

In general most geometry will be built up using the draw Rectangle and Polygon functions. If
a polygon is added adjacent to an existing polygon, LimitState:GEO automatically ensures that
each polygon shares the interface Boundary object.

15.2 Setting the Units

The LimitState:GEO interface can display either Metric (kN, m) or Imperial (lb, ft) units.

To set the units used, open the Preferences... dialog in the Tools menu. Go to the Units
tab and select the units that you wish to use (see Figure 15.1). Changes will take effect when
LimitState:GEO is next restarted.

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Figure 15.1: Changing units in LimitState:GEO

The default units used in each setting are given in Table 15.1.

Measurement Metric Imperial

Length m ft
Area m2 f t2
Volume m3 f t3
Force kN lb
Weight kN lb
Force per unit width kN/m lb/f t
Unit weight (weight density) kN/m3 lb/f t3 (pcf)
Pressure kN/m2 (kPa) lb/f t2 (psf)
Angle degrees degrees
Bending moment kN m lb.f t (pf)
Cohesive strength kN/m2 (kPa) lb/f t2 (psf)

Table 15.1: Default units used in Metric and Imperial modes

Imperial conversions of Metric measurements can result in values with many significant figures,
which can be difficult to work with. The option to use ‘tailored’ default Imperial values in the
Wizards and built-in materials is therefore also provided. By selecting this option, the pre-
defined values for problem geometries and material properties are rounded to an appropriate
number of significant figures.

15.3 Starting with an Empty Project

While problem geometries may be rapidly built for common scenarios using the Wizards (see
Section 4), here it is assumed that the user is starting with an empty project.

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To start with an empty project, select Create a new project in the Welcome to LimitState:GEO
dialog and click OK . The New Project dialog (see Figure 4.1) will then start. Select the Empty
Project and click OK to display the the Empty Project dialog shown in Figure 15.2.

15.3.1 Project Details

The first tab on the Empty Project dialog (Figure 15.2) is for the input of project data. None
of the fields are mandatory, but a default name of New Project will be displayed and used
unless changed by the user. Once all the necessary fields have been filled in, clicking Next will
advance on to the next stage of problem definition.

Figure 15.2: The Empty Project dialog (Project Details tab)

15.3.2 Draw Settings

The second tab in the Empty Project dialog displays the options for setting up the drawing
environment. It is concerned with establishing a suitable grid geometry and snap settings to
enable a model to be produced in a quick and efficient manner. The grid is a useful aid to
modelling and, when set up correctly in conjunction with the snaps, can save the user much
time and effort.

15.3.2.1 Grid Settings

To display the grid from the start of modelling, simply ensure that the Grid check box is ticked
in the Draw Settings tab (this is done by default). There are then several variables that may be
altered in order to tailor the size, spacing and behaviour of the grid:

Auto-calculate extents Ticking this check box causes LimitState:GEO to automatically adjust
the extents of the grid during modelling so that it is always slightly bigger than the objects

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being drawn. When enabling this feature in the wizard, the initial size of the grid is deter-
mined by the values entered for the Minimum and Maximum project extents and Major
gridline spacing.

Minimum Sets the initial minimum x and y coordinates of the grid (note that this value will be
overridden if Auto-calculate extents is enabled).

Maximum Sets the initial maximum x and y coordinates of the grid (note that this value will be
overridden if Auto-calculate extents is enabled).

Major gridline spacing Sets the initial distances (in metres) between the major x and y grid-
lines.

Minor gridlines Determines the initial number of minor intervals between the major gridlines.

15.3.2.2 Snap Settings

Object snap in LimitState:GEO is very similar to that found in many CAD and drawing packages
- it causes the cursor to become attracted to certain features of the model, such as points or
intersections between lines.

Figure 15.3: The Empty Project dialog (Draw Settings tab)

To use the snap functionality from the start of modelling, simply ensure that the Snap check
box is ticked in the Draw Settings tab (see Figure 15.3). This is done by default. You can then
fine-tune the size of the snap markers and select the type of snaps that you wish to use:

Snap Marker Size Use the slider to make the snap marker larger (+) or smaller (-).

Snap Sensitivity This determines how close the cursor needs to be to a particular feature in
order to snap to it. Use the slider to make the distance smaller (+) or larger (-).

Point Causes the cursor to snap to Points / Vertices .

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Perpendicular When drawing a line or polygon, this will cause the cursor to snap to a point on
an existing line that forms a right angle between that and the line being drawn.

Line Causes the cursor to snap to Line Objects.

Grid Causes the cursor to snap to points of intersection between the gridlines.

Intersection Causes the cursor to snap to points of intersection between the gridlines and the
Line Objects of the model.

Clicking Finish will end the setup process and display the modelling environment. The grid can
subsequently be adjusted and toggled on or off at any time during modelling via the Settings
(see Section 15.8) dialog of the Draw menu and the icon respectively. Similarly, the snap
functionality can be quickly toggled by clicking the SNAP button on the status bar.

15.4 Starting with a DXF Imported Geometry

The user may often find it useful to import a problem geometry that has already been pre-
defined using a CAD package. This can be accomplished in LimitState:GEO by using the
Import... > Geometry... function, found under the File menu as shown in Figure 15.4

Figure 15.4: Importing geometry (DXF) via the File menu

Clicking this will bring up a dialog that allows you to browse for a pre-saved DXF file.

Once a DXF file has been selected, the DXF Import dialog will appear (Figure 15.5). This offers
the user several options:

1. TRANSFORMING THE GEOMETRY Sometimes the model within a DXF file will be cen-
tered far away from the origin. If LimitState:GEO detects that this is the case, the option
to translate the model (and potentially also scale at the same time) is presented to the
user. First the bounding box is determined. The bottom-left corner will then be moved
according to the settings provided in the ’Translate’ fields. Finally, if a scale factor is also
specified, the whole model will be resized using (0, 0) as the reference point.

2. HOW TO INTERPRET CLOSED LOOPS

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Figure 15.5: The DXF Import Dialog

LimitState:GEO deals with solid bodies and the interfaces between them; therefore, by
default, the DXF import function recognizes lines that form a closed loop and interprets
them as being a solid object (Figure 15.6). Lines that do not form a closed loop will
be imported as construction lines so that the user is able to still use them when defin-
ing the model geometry. Alternatively, there is the option to interpret all lines within the
DXF file as being construction lines. If this option is selected, LimitState:GEO solids and
boundaries will not be generated and the user must draw them. In all cases, imported
DXF construction lines appear as solid grey lines in order to easily differentiate them from
those defined within the program.

Figure 15.6: Solid object identification using DXF import: (a) Original DXF file contents, (b)
Solid object, boundaries, construction lines and vertices as imported with closed loops inter-
preted as solid objects and (c) construction lines as imported with closed loops interpreted as
construction lines.

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3. THE CHOICE OF LAYERS TO IMPORT

DXF files can sometimes be composed of several layers and the user may not always
wish to import all of them into their LimitState:GEO model. All layers present in a file
are listed in the DXF Import dialog; to prevent one or more from being imported, simply
un-check the box next to the name of the appropriate layer (N.B. where a layer has not
been given a name, ‘Unnamed Layer’ will appear in the import dialog).

15.4.1 Permitted DXF Commands

The following commands can be used to create a DXF file that is readable by LimitState:GEO
(other commands, including those used to generate 3D objects, will not be recognized):

• Point

• LWPolyline

• Line

• Polyline

• XLine

• Spline

• Vertex

Closed loops of lines forming ‘islands’ within other closed loops will be recognized and im-
ported without difficulty. However, additional lines will be automatically generated to connect
these ‘islands’ to the surrounding geometry (to allow LimitState:GEO to analyse the problem
properly).

15.4.2 Tips for Modifying a DXF in an External CAD Package

Whilst working on a DXF file for import into LimitState:GEO it is useful to bear in mind the
following points:

ENSURE LOOPS ARE PROPERLY CLOSED In most CAD packages it is possible to work to
a very fine precision. This can sometimes lead to situations where lines that appear
to intersect do not actually meet in reality. Whilst not necessarily causing a problem
in the CAD model, if two lines of a loop do not intersect when importing a DXF into
LimitState:GEO, a solid object will not be formed. Care should therefore be taken to
ensure that, where objects are expected to be converted to solids, these are properly
drawn in the CAD model before exporting to DXF (working with a grid or object snap
turned on can help with this).

REMOVE UNNECESSARY OBJECTS Only those types of drawing object listed in Section
15.4.1 will be recognized and imported into LimitState:GEO. If a CAD file is being worked
on specifically for import into LimitState:GEO then text, hatching and other similar ob-
jects should be removed before the DXF file is generated. Failure to do this may lead

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to unwanted objects being created or to a loss of program efficiency as LimitState:GEO

processes the superfluous data.
KEEP THE DRAWING AS SIMPLE AS POSSIBLE When importing from a DXF file, every in-
tersection of two or more lines will be converted to a LimitState:GEO vertex. These ver-
tices are, in turn, regarded as nodes along the boundaries of solid elements at the time of
analysis. As LimitState:GEO normally works with a fixed number of nodes, excessive de-
tail (leading to large numbers of boundary nodes) will reduce the number of nodes inside
solid elements and potentially reduce the accuracy of the solution obtained. Wherever
possible, the user is advised to appropriately simplify the ground profile of any problem
before importing and try to achieve a suitable balance of boundary and internal nodes in
the LimitState:GEO model. This advice is particularly relevant when working with DXF
files containing multiple layers.
WORK AT THE CORRECT SCALE LimitState:GEO is set to work in either metres or feet (de-
pendant upon the choice of units in the Preferences menu). It should therefore be en-
sured that all imported DXF files are drawn to an appropriate scale.
BE AWARE THAT LAYERS ARE FLATTENED Since LimitState:GEO works with planar mod-
els, when multi-layered DXF files are imported, all layers are first flattened. Any overlap-
ping lines that were distinct in the original file will no longer be separate, which may result
in undesired problem geometries. It is recommended that such DXF files are simplified to
a single layer representing the problem the user wishes to model.
WORK IN THE XY PLANE Care should be taken to ensure that the correct viewpoint is being
used when preparing a DXF file for import. LimitState:GEO works in the xy plane, which
corresponds to the ‘Plan’ or ‘Top’ 3D viewpoint in most CAD packages. Objects that lie
predominantly in the xz or yz planes may be imported in a way that is not desirable. It
is recommended that DXF files containing 3D components are simplified to a single (2D)
layer representing the problem the user wishes to model.

15.4.3 Permitted DXF Types

DXF files can be produced in either ASCII or binary format. LimitState:GEO will only recognize
those files that have ASCII encoding. It is therefore recommended that the user checks the
type of any DXF file before attempting an import.

15.4.4 Following DXF Import

Following a successful DXF import, it will be necessary to apply the requisite material proper-
ties, loading and support conditions to the model before an analysis can be attempted.

15.4.5 Export to DXF

The Export... > Geometry... command (also found in the File menu) will save the geometry of
any LimitState:GEO project to a suitably formatted DXF file. If the project is in a solved state, it
is possible also to save the entities generated during the solution process, such as nodes and
slip-lines, to different layers in the DXF (see also Section 25).

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15.5 Construction Lines

In addition to the Grid, construction lines can provide a useful tool when setting up a problem
geometry. These lines appear as dotted grey lines in the viewer pane and possess the same
snap functionality as the standard geometry objects but, like the grid, construction lines are not
counted as part of the problem during analysis.

Construction lines can be dragged and deleted, just like standard drawing objects. In addition,
to clear all of the construction lines at the same time, simply choose Clear all construction
lines from the Construction lines section of the Draw menu or right-click in the viewer to bring
up the viewer context menu and select Clear all construction lines from there.

There are three types of construction line available: Horizontal, Vertical and Custom (angled):

15.5.1 Horizontal Construction Lines

To draw a horizontal construction line, click the button in the toolbar. When hovering over
the Viewing Pane, the cursor will be accompanied by a solid, horizontal black line that denotes
the current position of the construction line; to place this in an approximate position, simply
use the cursor position to choose an appropriate y coordinate and left-click the mouse. For a
more accurate positioning, right-click the mouse and choose the Set y coordinate option. A
dialog will then appear that allows a precise y coordinate to be entered. The option to continue
placing construction lines will remain until the user presses the ESC button on the keyboard or
right-clicks the mouse and chooses the Cancel option.

15.5.2 Vertical Construction Lines

To draw a vertical construction line, click the button in the toolbar. The procedures for adding
vertical construction lines are the same as for adding horizontal construction lines except that
the x coordinate is now set instead of the y.

15.5.3 Custom Construction Lines

To draw a custom (angled) construction line, click the button in the toolbar. The next left
click of the mouse will then set the first point of the construction line - this will be taken as the
origin of rotation. Alternately, right-click the mouse and choose Add point to set the origin
more precisely.

A solid black line will now appear that rotates around the origin point with any movement of the
cursor. To set the angle by specifying a second point, simply left-click the mouse in the Viewing
Pane or right-click and choose Add point to set the destination more precisely. Should it be
necessary to enter an angle of rotation instead of a second point, right-click the mouse and
choose the Set angle option. A dialog will then appear that allows an angle (in degrees) to be
entered. This is measured around the origin point, from the horizontal axis in an anti-clockwise
direction.

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15.6 Drawing Functions

15.6.1 Rectangle

Click on the toolbar button , or from the menu select Draw , Rectangle. Left click with the
mouse anywhere on the geometry window and then with the mouse button held down, drag a
rectangle. This function is used to draw horizontal soil layers and structural elements.

15.6.2 Polygon

Click on the toolbar button , or from the menu, select Draw , Polygon. Left click with the
mouse anywhere on the geometry window to draw the first vertex of the polygon. Then move
the mouse to the position of the next vertex and left click to draw this. Continue until all vertices
of the polygon have been drawn. To complete the polygon, right-click to display the context
menu and select Finish. This will connect the last vertex drawn to the first vertex (there is no
need to click on the first vertex again).

To exit from drawing the polygon and clear the currently drawn vertices, press ESC.

When drawing a Polygon, it is permissible to utilize existing Vertex objects as part of the
polygon. LimitState:GEO can be set to snap to existing geometry objects to facilitate this (see
Section 15.8). This is the normal way in which polygons are added adjacent to existing poly-
gons.

15.6.3 Line

Lines (Boundary objects) are not allowed to exist in isolation in LimitState:GEO and are used
to split existing Solid objects. To draw a line, click on the toolbar button , or from the menu,
select Draw , Line. Now left-click on any existing Line or Vertex and then using the mouse
connect it to another Line or Vertex by clicking on it. The Line so drawn must pass across an
existing Solid object. If this is not the case then a warning message is displayed. If the line is
legitimate then a message appears in the output pane stating that the Solid object has been
split.

When a Line is drawn from a point on one Line to a point on another across an existing Solid
object, additional Vertices will automatically be created where required.

15.6.4 Vertex

Vertex objects are not allowed to exist in isolation in LimitState:GEO but may be used to split
existing Boundaries. To add a Vertex, click on the toolbar button , or from the menu,
select Draw , Vertex. and left-click on any existing Boundary. To specify multiple vertices

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at different locations in the same action, hold down the CTRL button while left-clicking at the
desired locations.

If the vertex is legitimate then a message appears in the output pane stating that the boundary
has been split.

15.7 Selecting Objects

15.7.1 Single Click Selection

Single selection mode may be activated by using the toolbar buttons ‘Select’ and ‘Click’
. In this mode any object may be selected by clicking on it with the mouse. As soon as it
is selected it will be highlighted and its properties will appear in the Property Editor. If it is a
Geometry Object, then its coordinates will also appear in the Geometry Editor.

15.7.2 Rectangle Selection

Rectangle selection mode may be activated by activating the toolbar buttons ‘Select’ and
‘Rectangle’ . In this mode any object or set of objects may be selected by dragging a
rectangle around them with the mouse. The rectangle must fully enclose the required items.
As soon as they are selected they will be highlighted and common properties shared by all the
selected items will appear in the Property Editor. To select only specific types of objects, use
the Selection Filter dialog (Figure 15.7) from the main menu (Select - Filters...).

Figure 15.7: The Selection Filter dialog

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15.7.3 Multiple Selection

Once a selection has been made using ‘Rectangle’ or ‘Click’, additional objects may be added
to the selection by holding the CTRL key down while making additional selections using either
‘Rectangle’ or ‘Click’. Already selected objects may also be removed from the selection by
re-selecting them using either ‘Rectangle’ or ‘Click’.

15.8 Snapping to Other Objects

It is possible to snap to most other geometrical objects on the screen. Extensive control is
provided via the Snap tab in the Preferences dialog accessible via the Draw > Settings menu
as shown in Figure 15.8.

Figure 15.8: The settings dialog in the Draw menu

Global control over snap is also provided by the SNAP button on the Status bar.

15.9 Modifying the Geometry

15.9.1 Using the Mouse

Any geometry object (Solid, Boundary, Vertex) may be selected and then dragged using the
mouse (hold down the left button while moving the mouse). This provides a quick and flexible
way to modify the geometry. If the modification should distort the geometry into an invalid form
(e.g. turn a polygon inside out) then a warning message is displayed and the original geometry
is restored.

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The following actions are possible:

• Dragging a Solid object will drag the solid and its adjacent Boundary objects and Ver-
tex objects.
• Dragging a Boundary object will drag the boundary and its end point Vertex objects.
• Dragging a Vertex object will drag the vertex and the ends of the adjacent Boundary
objects.

Dragging is enabled by clicking on the DRAG button on the Status bar. Dragging may be
constrained to orthogonal directions only by clicking the ORTHO button on the Status bar or
by pressing F8.

To Delete, the following methods are recommended for the listed object types:

Vertex and Boundary drag the Vertex at one end point of the Boundary onto the Vertex at the
other end point of the Boundary. The Vertex objects will be merged and the Boundary
object deleted.

Vertex Select the Vertex and click Delete . The Vertex and one of the adjacent Boundary
objects will be deleted. It is not defined which of the two Boundary Objects will be deleted.
If this would result in an ambiguous or illegal geometry this action is not permitted. To
ensure a specific Boundary Object is deleted, use the method for deleting a Vertex and
Boundary.

Boundary Select the Boundary and click Delete . The outcome for this action depends on
the location of the Boundary:

• If the Boundary object is an internal interface between two Solids, then the Boundary
object is deleted and the Solids are merged.
• If the Boundary object is an external Boundary, it will be deleted together with its
adjacent Vertex objects and one of the adjacent Boundary objects. The Vertex ob-
jects at the other end points of these deleted Boundary objects will be linked by the
remaining Boundary. It is not defined which of the two Boundary Objects will be
deleted. If this action would result in an ambiguous or illegal geometry this action is
not permitted.

Solid Select the Solid and click Delete . The Solid is then deleted together with all adjacent
Boundary and Vertex objects that are not shared with other Solids.

It is usually preferable to delete objects by dragging and merging so that the properties of the
remaining amended objects are retained.

15.9.2 Connecting Geometry Objects

To connect a Solid object to another Solid object, it is best to work with the relevant vertices.
Ensuring that Snap to Point is activated (see Section 15.8) will make certain that the objects
share common vertices rather than simply having vertices in very close proximity to each other.

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For the example in Figure 15.9, two initially unconnected square solid zones are to be modified
so that, after the process is completed, they share a common boundary:

a The first vertex is selected. It is then clicked and the left mouse button held down.

bi The selected vertex is dragged over the target vertex (a red rectangle signifies that the
two will be merged upon release the left mouse button). The left mouse button is then
released.

bii and c The above steps are repeated for the second vertex.

Figure 15.9: Connecting two solids by merging their vertices

15.9.3 Overlapping Geometry Objects

To overlap one Solid object with another, drag the former over the latter. This process will then
split the original two Solid objects into three new Solid objects. If a Solid object is dragged
over more than one other Solid object then a multiple split will be carried out.

For the example in Figure 15.10, two initially unconnected square solid zones are to be modified
so that, after the process is completed, they overlap one another:

a The first solid is selected. It is then clicked and the left mouse button held down.

b The selected solid is dragged over the target solid and the left mouse button is then released.

c A new zone is created by the overlapping areas of the two solids. Should the two original
solids have different associated materials (as in this case), the new zone will contain a
combination of all the materials and will be displayed with a ‘checkerboard’ pattern (for
more information on assigning materials to zones see Section 17.2).

Figure 15.10: Overlapping two solids using drag and drop: a) selection of the first solid; b)
dragging the solid and c) dropping the solid and creation of a new zone.

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15.9.4 Changing the End Vertex of a Boundary

There are several ways in which the end vertex of a line can be changed. However, in situations
where the geometry is perhaps rather complex, the following method may be used (Figure
15.11):

a Using the Line function (see Section 15.8) draw a new boundary line in the desired position.

b Use the mouse pointer to select the original boundary line then press the Delete button to
remove it.

c If the zone created in step 2 now contains a mixture of materials (c), you can alter this by
setting the materials as described in Section 17.2.

d If desired / appropriate, the original vertex may now be deleted.

Figure 15.11: Moving a Boundary

Easier methods in the above case would have been to edit the coordinates of the vertex in the
Geometry Editor or drag and drop the original endpoint of the line using the mouse (possibly
with ORTHO enabled). However, these shortcut approaches are not always suitable in practice,
for example where the vertex also defined the geometry of another Solid which was to be left
unchanged.

15.9.5 Creating One Object Inside Another

It is often useful to create a zone that lies entirely within another solid (for example to model a
material lens or large void). To achieve this, simply draw the new zone in the required position
using the rectangle ( ) or polygon ( ) draw functions. Additional boundary lines will be
created in order to link the new zone to the rest of the model and the new zone will automatically
be assigned the material of the surrounding solid. To create a lens of material from the new
zone, change the material as described in Section 17.2. To create a void, select the new zone
with the mouse and press the Delete button (Figure 15.12).

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Figure 15.12: Creating Zones Within a Solid. a) Lens and b) Void

15.9.6 Using the Geometry Editor

Instead of utilising the mouse, the coordinates of points making up any geometry object may
be directly edited within the Geometry Editor (see Section 14.9). Select the required object and
its coordinates will appear in the Geometry Editor. When all changes have been made, click
the Apply button in the Editor to commit the changes.

15.10 Undo/Redo

Many specific modifications may be undone utilising the Undo button or the menu Edit,
Undo. Any undone actions may be redone using the Redo button or the menu Edit, Redo.
Redo may only be carried out if no intervening modifications to the geometry have been made.
If Undo or Redo are not available then the toolbar buttons and menu items are disabled (appear
in grey). Hovering the mouse over the Redo or Undo button will display a tooltip describing the
last action.

15.11 Editing Geometry Object Properties

In addition to displaying the coordinates of a Geometry Object in the Geometry Editor, se-
lecting any object displays its properties in the Property Editor and these may be edited. The
properties available for a Vertex, Boundary and Solid are depicted in Figure 15.13, Figure 15.14
and Figure 15.15.

Figure 15.13: Property Editor display for Vertex

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Figure 15.14: Property Editor display for Boundaries

Figure 15.15: Property Editor display for Solids

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Chapter 16

Setting the Analysis Mode

16.1 Short and Long Term Stability

In geotechnical analysis, it is a common requirement to check both the short term and long
term (undrained and drained) stability of a problem.

LimitState:GEO provides the facility to rapidly switch between short and long term analysis
mode via the Property Editor. To change the mode, click anywhere on an empty part of the
Viewer pane to bring up the Project properties in the Property Editor. Then select the Long
Term Analysis entry and choose True or False from the drop down selection box.

Specifying the mode causes LimitState:GEO to select either drained or undrained parameters
for each material in the problem according to Table 16.1.

Example material Drainage behaviour Short term mode Long term mode

Sand / gravel always drained drained drained

Clay drained/undrained undrained drained

Solid rock always undrained undrained undrained

Table 16.1: Selection of drained/undrained parameters for long and short term analysis modes

The Drainage behaviour is a parameter defined for each material and described further in
Section 17.4.2. The behaviour of drained materials is affected by the prevalent pore water
pressure which in turn is determined by the location of the Water table, ru value (if present), or
an assigned Water regime as described in Chapter 20 .

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16.2 Translational and Rotational Solution Mode

The current implementation of DLO in LimitState:GEO generates solutions based on transla-

tional mechanisms. In order to model mechanisms involving rotation of structural elements
such as cantilever retaining walls or eccentrically loaded footings,LimitState:GEO can allow
rotations to be modelled along Boundaries as an approximation to modelling rotational and
translational failure everywhere. Further information on the theory underlying this process may
be found in Section 5.3.3

To change the mode, click anywhere on an empty part of the Viewer pane to bring up the
Project properties in the Property Editor. Then select the Model Rotations entry and choose
False or Along Edges from the drop down selection box.

If this value is reset to False then a purely translational solution will be found. With Along
Edges set, LimitState:GEO allows rotations to be modelled along Boundaries. This is the
recommended default value.

16.3 Factor Load(s) vs Factor Strength(s)

16.3.1 Changing Analysis Type

LimitState:GEO is set up to conduct analyses that either calculate an Adequacy factor for
loads within the problem (Factor Load(s)) or material strengths (Factor Strength(s)). Control
over the type of analysis to be conducted is provided in a number of places:

Analysis Toolbar This is generally located at the top of the window and also includes the
Solve and Animate buttons. In the drop-down menu, select the type of analysis to be
undertaken before solving.

Wizard Analysis Tab The final tab in each wizard allows the user to specify the analysis type
and Nodal resolution. In the drop-down menu, select the type of analysis to be under-
taken before solving.

For more information on the differences between the Factor Load(s) and Factor Strength(s)
analysis types, see Section 8.2.

16.3.2 Factor Strength(s) Settings

A Factor Strength(s) analysis has a number of associated settings. These are accessible in
the Property Editor at Project level, under Analysis Options > Factor Strength(s) and from
the Analysis menu under Options... (Figure 16.1):

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Figure 16.1: The Analysis Options dialog (accessed from the Analysis menu)

Solution Tolerance This is the relative percentage tolerance on the factor of strength solution
when in Factor Strength(s) solution mode (default value is 1.0). For example, set the
value to 0.5 to terminate the analysis when the solution is bracketed such that the upper
solution is within 0.5% of the lower solution.

Automatic Adequacy on Load(s) When True true, the software will use the automatic global
‘adequacy on load’ settings to search for a factor on strength. When set to False, the
software will use the existing user-defined ‘adequacy on load’ settings, so Adequacy
should be assigned to only the Loads or self weight of Solids that are of interest.

Factor on Load(s) Defines the target Adequacy factor on load(s). This should generally be
set to 1.0 but, for example when using Adequacy only on seismic accelerations, it can be
useful to set the target Adequacy factor on load(s) to 0.0 to find the correct Adequacy
factor on strength (i.e. when the seismic accelerations are zero).

Artificial Cohesion Adds a (generally small) cohesion to purely frictional soils when undertak-
ing a Factor Strength(s) analysis. This has the effect of improving convergence towards
a solution ensuring that a failure mechanism is identified. By default the value of this
cohesion is set to 0.1kPa.

For more information on the settings used in a Factor Strength(s) analysis, see Section 8.2.3.

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Chapter 17

Setting Material Properties

17.1 Material Types

LimitState:GEO provides a selection of built in materials primarily based on the Mohr-Coulomb

failure envelope. This encompasses the majority of soil types likely to be encountered and
also allows many structural materials to be reasonably represented. Additionally, a Frictionless
material, with zero weight and shear strength, is provided to allow the modelling of smooth
interfaces. Later on it will be seen that more sophisticated material models can be generated
using the ’multi-material’ technique. These materials may be assigned to Solids and also
interfaces i.e. Boundary Objects.

In addition LimitState:GEO provides a special Engineered Element material which may only
be assigned to Boundary Objects.

LimitState:GEO comes with a number of predefined materials. These may be viewed in the
Materials Explorer as shown in Figure 17.1.

Figure 17.1: The Materials Explorer

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176 CHAPTER 17. SETTING MATERIAL PROPERTIES

The materials provided have typical properties according to their type and are provided to allow
an easy introduction to LimitState:GEO and may be used as templates for user defined ma-
terials. The properties are not intended to correspond to those in any specific soil description
standard (these could be defined by the user if required). It is not anticipated that these ma-
terials will be used for any ‘real’ design calculations. Note that the set of predefined materials
provided is determined by the chosen system of units to be used in the software. If the software
has been set to work in Imperial units, then a separate set of predefined ‘Imperial’ materials
are provided. The reason for this is simply convenience in terms of providing materials with
typical properties with rounded values. Thus a Soft Clay [Imperial] will not have quite the same
properties as a Soft Clay.

A material may be modelled as a:

1. Standard Mohr-Coulomb material with directly defined cohesion (c) and friction (φ),

2. Derived Mohr-Coulomb material whose cohesion (c) and friction (φ) properties are defined
with reference to another standard Mohr-Coulomb material

3. Mohr-Coulomb material for which the cohesion varies linearly with depth.

4. Mohr-Coulomb material for which the cohesion varies spatially.

5. Cutoff material (tension and/or compression),

6. Rigid material.

7. Engineered Element.

Click on any material in the Materials Explorer to bring its properties up in the Property Editor.
Values may be interrogated and edited as described in Section 14.8.

17.1.1 Converting Yield Stress to Cohesion

It is evident that, in LimitState:GEO, material strengths are generally represented in terms of

cohesion (c). However, users may be more familiar with the representation of material strength
in terms of limiting tensile and / or compressive yield stresses. To convert a yield stress (σy ) to
a suitable cohesion, the Von Mises yield equation for shear can be employed, i.e.:

√ σy
σy = c 3 ∴ c = √ (17.1)
3

Alternatively, users may wish to use the (slightly more conservative) Tresca yield equation:

σy
σy = 2c ∴ c = (17.2)
2
Ultimately, however, the choice of a suitable conversion factor is left up to the user.

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17.2 Assigning a Material to a Solid or a Boundary

Materials may be assigned to a Solid object or Boundary Object by the following methods:

Drag and drop Select a material in the Materials explorer and drag it onto the required Geom-
etry Object (which will turn pink when hovered over).

The ‘Change’ dialog Select the required Geometry Object. In the Property Editor click on the
right hand box in the row ‘Materials’ to display the ‘Change’ button (see Figure 17.2). Click
this to display the ‘Edit Object Material(s)’ dialog (see Figure 17.3). Check or uncheck the
relevant boxes to include or remove materials from the object.

Figure 17.2: Displaying the ’Change’ material button in the Property Editor

Figure 17.3: Edit Object Material(s) dialog box

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If a material is assigned to an object which already has one or more materials assigned to it,
a warning message appears asking if the material is to replace the existing one, or be added
to the materials in the object. For further information on the use of multi-materials see Section
6.1.6.

17.3 Post-Solve Diagrams

The stresses acting on Solid objects and Boundaries with assigned Engineered Element
materials can be queried and / or displayed once a solution has been obtained (see Figure
23.3 and also Section 23.4).

Figure 17.4: Shear stress diagrams for a solid object selected after solve

In some instances, it can be useful to display a particular stress diagram by default after solve
whilst in others the user may wish to display diagrams only after clicking on the desired object
with the mouse. The behaviour of LimitState:GEO materials can be tailored to show the dia-
grams of most use to the user by selecting the appropriate options in the Post-Solve Display
dialog which is accessed through the Property Editor in the following manner:

Select the desired material in the Material Explorer.

Click in the Value field to show the Change button. Click this to open the Post-Solve Display
dialog (Figure 17.5 for Solids and Figure 17.6 for Boundaries).

Select After Click to cause a zone containing the chosen material to display the chosen diagram
type after being selecting in the viewer. Select After Solve to cause a zone containing the
chosen material to display the chosen diagram type after the analysis is completed. Note that,
in order to prevent the viewer from becoming crowded with multiple overlapping diagrams, the
option to display post-solve diagrams After Solve is unavailable for Solids.

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Figure 17.5: The Material - Post-Solve Display dialog for Solids

Figure 17.6: The Material - Post-Solve Display dialog for Engineered Elements

For Solids, the options are to display the Normal Stress or Shear Stress on each edge. For
Boundaries containing an Engineered Element material, the options are to display the Ten-
sile Force, Shear Force or Moment along the object. Alternatively, select None to display no
diagram after solve.

In the Viewer Pane, the animation slider can be altered freely and the diagrams will move
accordingly. To switch between diagrams of different types, right-click on an object and select
the new diagram type from the available selection (for more information see Section 23.4).

17.4 Standard Mohr-Coulomb Material

17.4.1 Setting Soil/Material Strength Properties

For a standard Mohr-Coulomb material the properties depicted in Figure 17.7 and listed below
may be edited:

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Figure 17.7: Mohr Coulomb material properties dialog box

ID A unique identifier given to all objects in the project.

Type The underlying material type.
Color The color as displayed in the viewer, click in the Value field to show the Change button.
Click this to modify the color.
0
Drained Cohesion Intercept (c ) Drained material strength property - see Section 6.1.2.
0
Drained Angle of Shearing resistance (φ ) Drained material strength property - see Section
6.1.2.
Undrained shear Strength (cu ) Unrained material strength property - see Section 6.1.2.
Unit Weight Unit weight (weight density) of material located above the water table and in a
zone where no water regime is applied). In general this is synonymous with dry unit
weight. However if a saturated material lies above the water table, then its saturated unit
weight should be entered here.
Saturated Unit Weight Unit weight (weight density) of material located below the water table
or within a zone containing a water regime. In general this is synonymous with saturated
unit weight. However if a saturated material lies above the water table, then its saturated
unit weight should also be entered under Unit Weight.
Drainage Behaviour Determines the behaviour of the material in long and short term analysis
modes. If the behaviour is set to Drained / undrained, then drained properties will be used
in long term analyses and undrained properties used in short term analyses.
Advanced Access advanced material property specifiers:
cu Gradient The change in cu value per m increase in depth below the datum. This pa-
rameter is used for a material with linear variation of undrained strength with depth.
If the functionality of this parameter is not required, it should be reset to its default
value of 0.0.

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Datum cu Elevation The elevation (y coordinate) at which cu is equal to its datum value.
The datum cu value is that entered in the Property Editor as cu . This parameter is
used for a material with linear variation of undrained strength with depth.
Override Strength Override the strength properties assigned for use in the selected
zone using a spatially varying grid function multiplier (see Section 17.4.4).

Post-Solve Display Specify the diagrams to display following a solve. Click in the Value field
to show the Change button. Click this to open the Post-Solve Display (Solids) dialog
(Section 17.3). Select After Click to display the chosen diagram type after selecting a
solid or After Solve to display the chosen diagram type immediately after solving.

It can be seen that it is possible to enter drained and undrained properties for each material.
The Long Term Analysis project setting (Chapter 16) allows the user to switch between long
and short term (drained and undrained) analyses without having to redefine all the material
properties in the problem.

For clay soils, typically undrained shear strength cu would be entered for the undrained cohe-
sion. The effective stress properties of the clay, c0 and φ0 , are entered for the drained cohesion
and drained angle of shearing resistance.

17.4.2 Setting Short Term/Long Term Behaviour

For each material it is necessary to define how it behaves when subjected to short or long term
loading. Table 16.1 indicates the scenarios that might arise. It must be emphasized that this
table is indicative and the user is free to choose the behaviour as they see fit. In the context
of unfissured rock, the behaviour would be undrained in that its deformation up to the point
of failure is unaffected by water pressure and thus undrained. At failure the rock may fracture
and water, if present, would affect the analysis. How this would be modelled depends on the
specific scenario.

Note that water pressures only affect soil behaviour where soils have a non-zero angle of shear-
ing resistance. Thus an undrained material with zero φu behaves in the same way irrespective
of the pore pressures.

The Drainage behaviour setting is provided for clarity and to avoid unnecessary pore pressure
computations for undrained materials.

17.4.3 Mohr-Coulomb Material with Linear Variation of Strength with Depth

Frequently it is found that the undrained shear strength of clay soils varies with depth and that
in many cases this variation can be approximated as a linear function of depth.

It is necessary to enter the datum level for where the baseline undrained strength is found,
and in addition the strength gradient (kN/m2 /m). These values are found under the Advanced
setting in the Property Editor as shown in Figure 17.7. Partial factors are applied to both the
baseline strength and the strength gradient to give the correct factored strength at any depth.
The baseline undrained strength is the value of cu used for constant strength bodies of soil.

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If the baseline undrained strength and the strength gradient are defined such that the average
undrained shear strength on any given slip-line is less than zero, then a zero value of average
undrained shear strength is assigned to that slip-line.

For step changes in strength properties, it is necessary to define separate zones with differing
materials.

17.4.3.1 Zero and negative strengths within a solid

It is possible to apply materials with linearly varying undrained shear strength to any Solid
zone. Depending on the location of the zone, the combination of initial material strength, datum
level and gradient may mean that the Solid could possess a zero or negative strength at certain
points, which will result in an *unstable* solution being obtained upon solve. This is demon-
strated graphically in Figure 17.8. Here a solid measuring 3m x 5m and centered at (1.5, 2.5)
includes a material where the datum is set at y = 3m and the cu gradient is 20 kPa per metre.
The initial undrained shear strength of the material is 20 kPa.

Below the datum level, the material strength increases from 20 kPa to a value of 80 kPa at the
base. However, above the datum, the material strength reduces at 20 kPa per metre. Hence,
at a height of 4m the material has zero strength and at the top of the solid (y = 5m) the strength
is -20 kPa. A zero or negative material strength within a solid will cause it to become unstable.

The pre-solve diagnostic function (Section 22.2.1) will warn the user when such a case is
present in a model.

Figure 17.8: Negative undrained shear strength in a solid containing a material with linearly
varying strength with depth.

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17.4.4 Mohr-Coulomb Material with Spatial Variation of Strength

This section describes a feature that is available as an add-in for LimitState:GEO.

Please contact LimitState for purchasing details.

Sometimes it may be desirable to model the cohesive strength properties of clay soils as varying
spatially with depth and width. This can be achieved by selecting to Override Strength for a
0
particular material, where the cohesion parameters c and cu are multiplied by the spatially
varying factor defined in a grid. The drained angle of shearing resistance is unaffected. Any
0
factors applied to c and cu will therefore automatically be applied to the overridden strength.
The cu Gradient parameter has no effect on the values calculated.

With a material selected, click in the Value field of the Property Editor to show the Change
button. Click this to define the override grid parameters using the Grid Interpolation dialog
(Figure 17.9).

• First, set the Origin of the grid. This is the coordinate corresponding to the top-left point
of the grid and does not have to be a located within any particular zone (in this way you
can specify a single grid for the entire problem rather than having to repeat on a per-zone
basis).

• Second, set the desired Spacing of the grid points. For the spacing in the vertical direc-
tion, positive values relate to upwards spacing and negative downwards. Therefore it is
convenient to specify a negative value for dy.

• Third, set the Number of divisions of the grid in the x and y directions using the scroll
boxes. The table will grow such that the appropriate number of fields are present.

• Last, populate the table with the desired multiplier values. This can be done manually or
by copying and pasting from a spreadsheet program such as Excel. To paste copied data
press CTRL + V. Note that the size of the copied data must match the size of the table.

When the Grid Interpolation dialog is displayed then a contour/gradient plot of the grid factors
will be automatically displayed n the Viewer Pane at the correct coordinates. An example is
shown in Figure 17.10. Note that if the grid does not fully encompass a zone to which the ma-
terial is applied, then zero strength multipliers will be modelled in the areas not defined by the
grid. By default the contour plot will update dynamically as values in the grid are adjusted. How-
ever this process can be disabled by unchecking the ’Update graphical view on value change’.
tickbox. This can be faster if many values are being altered in one go.

The Grid Interpolation may be disabled by unchecking the Override strength? checkbox in
the Grid Interpolation dialog. The vales entered are retained so that re-enabling the grid will
use the most recently entered values. Click Reset to set the grid to the default values. More
about the grid interpolation method used is given in Appendix E.

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Figure 17.9: The Grid Interpolation dialog for defining spatially varying Mohr-Coulomb mate-
rial strengths

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Figure 17.10: Contour display for a material using a Grid Interpolation. Note that the extent
of the grid can exactly fit a zone as shown here or extend beyond the zone. If the grid does not
fully cover the zone then the undefined areas will be modelled with a zero strength multiplier.

17.5 Derived Mohr-Coulomb Material

Often when dealing with soil/structure interaction problems, it is desirable to define a soil/structure
interface property that is a function of the adjacent soil. A typical example is a retaining wall
where the interface adhesion and friction will be some multiple of the adjacent soil strengths.
This may be achieved using a Derived material type and entering values for cohesion c and
shear resistance (tan φ) multipliers in the Property Editor as depicted in Figure 17.11. The
other fields allow you to modify the properties of the Parent Material, Drainage Behaviour
and Post-Solve Display behaviour of the material as discussed for standard Mohr-Coulomb
materials in Section 17.4.1.

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Figure 17.11: A Derived Material shown in the Property Editor

Note that in many design codes the interface friction property is often set to be a function of
tan φcrit , the critical state angle of shearing resistance. If this is not the actual φ value entered
e.g. a peak value is entered, then it will be necessary either to make an additional modification
to the multiplier or to use a ‘standard’ material instead of a ‘derived’ material type. The main
advantage of the Derived material is that if the soil properties are altered, then the interface
properties are automatically adjusted.

17.6 Cutoff Material

When a cohesive material is modelled using the Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope, the mathe-
matical representation may give the material an unrealistically large tensile strength. For many
problems dominated by compressive forces this is not an issue. However for e.g. slope stabil-
ity or retaining wall problems, tensile stresses may arise. To model such cases, it is possible
to specify a tension cutoff. The property defined is the normal stress at which tensile failure
occurs and may be specified in the Property Editor as depicted in Figure 17.12.

A tension cutoff material is typically used on its own at the interface between a solid body e.g. a
concrete block or rock and another solid or material with high cohesion. This allows the blocks
to separate or undergo rocking displacement. The tension cutoff material is also often used
in combination with other materials. For further information on this topic refer to the use of
multi-material zones in Section 6.1.6.

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Figure 17.12: Cutoff material Properties Editor

Additionally a compressive cutoff can be specified e.g. for materials with a finite crushing
strength (see Section 6.1.3).

17.7 Rigid

This material type may only be assigned to Solids, but not Boundaries. If it is the only material
present in a Solid, it prevents the solver from assigning any nodes to that solid. Thus no
deformation can take place within that solid. Where it is known that the solid will not deform
(e.g. for a retaining wall or footing), use of a Rigid material ensures efficient use of nodes in
the overall problem.

Additionally nodes will not be assigned to Boundaries that lie between two Rigid Solids or
between a Rigid Solid and an external boundary unless the Boundary also has a material
assigned to it.

The user is able to assign dry and saturated Unit Weight values to a Rigid material.

17.8 Setting Soil/Material Unit Weight (Weight Density)

Unit weights corresponding to material above and below the water table, or within a zone that
includes a water regime (including Aquicludes), may be entered for each material.

Whether the Unit Weight or Saturated Unit Weight is used in an analysis depends on a
number of factors:

The corresponding Property Editor entries are listed in Table 17.1. Note that the term ‘unit
weight’ is used in LimitState:GEO and is synonymous with ‘weight density’.

For drained materials such as sands, different values of Unit Weight and Sat. Unit Weight
will normally be specified. The Unit Weight will typically correspond to the dry unit weight.

For materials such as rock, concrete or steel, represented as an undrained material, the unit

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Water table Water regime Label in Property Editor

Above No regime applied Unit Weight
Below No regime applied Saturated Unit Weight
Above Water regime applied Saturated Unit Weight
Below Water regime applied Saturated Unit Weight

Table 17.1: Unit weight (weight density) parameters used according to zone location

weight is normally unaffected by the location of the water table and the Unit Weight and Sat.
Unit Weight values should be set to be the same.

Similarly, clay soils are often saturated above the water table due to capillary action and thus
the Unit Weight and Sat. Unit Weight values would normally be set to be the same.

Unit weights are always defined as resulting in Permanent loads or actions. They may be set
to act in a Favourable, Unfavourable or Neutral way within a problem. It is also possible to find
an Adequacy factor in terms of a unit weight. These parameters may be set in the Property
Editor values for the Solid containing the material, under the entry Self Weight Loading.
Click on the to display the entries Loading Type and Adequacy. Further information on
modelling with the Loading Type settings may be found in Section 8.3.

17.9 Engineered Element

17.9.1 Introduction

In LimitState:GEO Engineered Elements such as soil nails are modelled as a special material
that may be assigned to a Boundary object. The theory behind their implementation in the
software is given in Section 6.1.5 and guidance on their use in modelling in Section 11.

For the Engineered element type, the following properties (also depicted in Figure 17.13) may
be edited.

Pullout factor, Tc The contribution of the material cohesion to the pullout resistance of the
element.

Pullout factor, Tq Used to determine the contribution of the overburden to the pullout resis-
tance of the element.

Lateral factor, Nc The contribution of the material cohesion to the lateral resistance of the
element.

Lateral factor, Nq Used to determine the contribution of the overburden to the pullout resis-
tance of the element.

Plastic moment, Mp The plastic moment of resistance of the element. (If rigid joints are being
modelled then this parameter should be set to 1E+30).

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Rupture strength, R The maximum tensile force that can be carried by the material.

Compression strength, C The maximum compressive force that can be carried by the mate-
rial.

Advanced > Subdivide at nodes? Specifies whether failure of the element between end ver-
tices is permitted (e.g. plastic hinge formation and/or tensile failure). This should be set
to False for compatibility with earlier versions of LimitState:GEO.

Post-Solve Display The diagrams that are displayed by default following solve.

Engineered element pullout and lateral resistance properties are given in kN per metre length
of element per metre width in the problem and may be specified absolutely and/or as a linear
function of the nominal effective stress acting at the element midpoint (see Section 6.1.5).

The bending resistance is given in kNm per metre width in the problem. The plastic moment
can be set so that the element may form plastic hinges at locations along their length. These
locations can either be at user-defined Vertices or, if the Subdivide at nodes? material prop-
erty is set to True, at Nodes along the length of the element. (By default, LimitState:GEO will
set Subdivide at nodes? to True when creating any material that is designated as being able
to yield.) Note that partial factors (if defined) are not applied to the properties of any Engineered
element.

Figure 17.13: Engineered element material properties

Note that when an Engineered Element is assigned to a Boundary object, additional bound-
ary interfaces are created that can also determine the overall behaviour of the element in a soil
body. Further guidance on this is given in Section 11.

Engineered elements may represent items such as soil nails or reinforcing strips around which
surrounding materials may flow, or items such as sheet piles walls through which soil does
not flow. Individual elements may be connected to each other. With appropriate choice of
parameters, an Engineered elements material can be used to represent:

1. Soil nails.

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2. Soil reinforcement, such as within a reinforced earth wall (see Figure 17.14).

3. Connecting rods.

4. Soil anchor (the tendon and anchor may be modelled by two connected elements with
differing properties)

5. A pile such as within a non-contiguous pile wall used to stabilise a slope.

6. A sheet pile wall.

7. A geotextile.

However it is necessary to be take account of the constraints of the Engineered element

model when representing these types. When creating a new Engineered element material
LimitState:GEO provides pre-programmed and suggested values for common types of soil re-
inforcement. This feature is described further in Section 11.

Figure 17.14: Example of reinforced earth wall modelled using the Engineered element ma-
terial

17.9.2 Defining Engineered Element Geometry

A simple example of an Engineered element modelled within a soil and an adjacent wall
element is depicted in Figure 17.15.

To model an engineered element within the wall solid, it is first necessary to draw a bound-
ary element, such as AB, and then drag and drop an Engineered element material onto this
boundary.

To continue the engineered element into the soil, draw the boundary element BD and then draw
the vertex C onto this boundary. Then drag and drop an Engineered element material onto
the boundary BC. The engineered element now runs from A through B to C.

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Appropriate pullout and lateral resistances then need to be assigned to the engineered ele-
ments. Since these properties are likely to be a function of the material in which the Engineered
element is embedded, it will usually be necessary to specify more than one Engineered el-
ement material - each with the appropriate properties - and assign these to appropriate seg-
ments of the element. For example, the pullout and lateral factors for the element embedded in
the wall will typically be much higher than for the element in the soil.

For elements to connect to each other, it is not necessary for the same material to be used in
each element, as long as they are both Engineered element materials.

Note that it is necessary for the boundary element CD to be present to satisfy the geometrical
constraints of LimitState:GEO. For purely visual purposes it can be simply ’hidden’ by assigning
the same soil type to it as the surrounding soil. This has no effect on the analysis.

Figure 17.15: Example of Engineered element modelled within a soil an anchored within a
wall solid

Also note that when Engineered Elements do connect, they are modelled with a joint that may
rotate with plastic moment Mp . There is no restriction as to the initial angle of the joint. This
means that several connected elements are modelled as an object that may pull through the
soil as an undeformed rigid object if Mp is set to a high value, or that may bend if Mp is set to a
lower value.

17.9.3 Post Solve Information

17.9.3.1 Force and Moment Diagrams

The forces acting on engineered element objects can be queried and / or displayed in the
Viewer Pane once a solution has been obtained (see Section 23.4). In some instances, it
can be useful to display a particular force (or moment) diagram by default after solve whilst
in others the user may wish to display diagrams only after clicking on the desired element
type with the mouse. The behaviour of LimitState:GEO materials can be tailored to show the
diagrams of most use to the user by selecting the appropriate options in the Post-Solve Display
(Engineered Elements) dialog (Figure 17.16) which is accessed through the Property Editor
in the following manner:

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Select the desired material in the Material Explorer. Click in the Value field to show the
Change button. Click this to open the Post-Solve Display (Engineered Elements) dialog.
Select After Click to display the chosen diagram type after selecting a solid or After Solve to
display the chosen diagram type immediately after solving.

Figure 17.16: The Material - Post-Solve Display dialog for Engineered elements

17.9.3.2 Property Editor Data

Additional information relating to all Engineered Elements of a specific material type may be
obtained via the Property Editor and the Viewer Pane after solving (but before Unlocking).
To obtain this data it is necessary to switch off any force or moment diagram display. If the
mechanism has been animated, it is also recommended to revert to an unanimated display by
dragging the animation slider bar back to the left.

To obtain the information in the Property Editor it is necessary to select one of the required
Engineered Elements in the Viewer Pane. The properties depicted in Figure 17.17 will then
be displayed for that particular element (note that depending on other display settings, more
elements that the one selected may be highlighted). This permits checking of the stresses
assumed by the software in the computation of the lateral and pullout resistances for the En-
gineered Elements. Note that these are not displayed if the corresponding coefficients are
zero.

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Figure 17.17: Post solve Property Editor information available for an Engineered Element

ID The identifier (name) of the Engineered Element.

Nominal Total Vertical Stress, σv This is based on the weight of material and any surface
load vertically above the midpoint of the engineered element, and the water pressure at
the Element midpoint. Note that this value is computed assuming all partial factors and
the adequacy factor equal 1.0.

Nominal Pore Water Pressure, u This is based on the water pressure at the midpoint of the
Engineered Element.
0
Nominal Effective Vertical Stress, σv This is based on the weight of material and any surface
load vertically above the midpoint of the engineered element. Note that this value is
computed assuming all partial factors and the adequacy factor equal 1.0.

Pullout Factor, Tc See Section 17.9.1.

Pullout Factor, Tc See Section 17.9.1.

Lateral Factor, Tc See Section 17.9.1.

Lateral Factor, Tc See Section 17.9.1.

Working Pullout Resistance, T This is the working value of pullout resistance based on the
0
nominal effective vertical stress. It is calculated from T = Tc + Tq σv .

Working Lateral Resistance, N This is the working value of lateral resistance based on the
0
nominal effective vertical stress. It is calculated from N = Nc + Nq σv .

Rupture Strength, R See Section 17.9.1.

Compression strength, C See Section 17.9.1.

Moment of Resistance, Mp See Section 17.9.1.

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17.10 Creating and Deleting User Defined Materials

17.10.1 Materials Explorer Context Menu

LimitState:GEO pre-defined materials are not editable (though those additional materials pro-
vided via wizards are editable).

To access material specific functions, with the mouse over a material in the Materials Explorer,
right click to bring up the context menu depicted in Figure 17.18.

Figure 17.18: Materials Explorer context menu

17.10.2 Creating a New Material

Select New material... in the context menu (or from the main menu, select Tools - Create New
Material...) to display the Create New Material dialog as shown in Figure 17.19.

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Figure 17.19: Create New Materials Dialog

Enter the required parameters and click OK . Note that only the core material parameters are
requested in this dialog. Other parameters may be set subsequently using the Property Editor.

To set the type of diagram that is displayed for the new material after solve, click the Change...
button next to the Post-Solve Display Settings field. This will open a dialog where the default
post-solve diagrams (e.g. Normal Stresses, Shear Stresses etc.) can be modified.

When Engineered Element (1D) is entered in the Type drop down box, it is possible to select a
specific ‘Application’ as shown in the Create New Material dialog in Figure 17.20

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Figure 17.20: Create New Materials Dialog (Engineered Element)

The different applications are primarily concerned with the ability of soil to flow around the ele-
ment. Thus the Nail type applications have low cohesive Lateral Factor values (Nc ) while the
Sheet Pile materials have effectively infinite values for the same parameter. Further information
regarding the Engineered Element material type is available in Section 6.1.5 and Chapter 11.

17.10.3 Creating a Duplicate Material

To duplicate a material, select the appropriate icon by left-clicking with the mouse in the Mate-
rial Explorer. Now right-click to bring up the context menu and select Duplicate material. A
new material will be created with the name ‘Copy of X’ (where ‘X’ is the parent material). All
the properties of the new material will be the same as those of the parent. The user can then
modify the properties as required.

17.10.4 Deleting a Material

To delete a material, select the appropriate icon by left-clicking with the mouse in the Material
Explorer. To delete it from the project, select Delete material in the context menu. {rovided
that it is not used in any Solid or Boundary object within the project, this action will delete the
selected material. If the material is being used, a suitable warning message will be displayed.

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17.11 Exporting and Importing Materials

The materials in the Materials Explorer can be exported to a a .CSV (comma separated val-
ues) file for import in to other projects.

To export materials, right click the mouse in the Materials Explorer and select Export materi-
als... in the context menu. You will be prompted for a name under which to save the exported
file. Alternatively, the same functionality can be accessed from the menus by selecting File >
Export... > Materials...

The CSV file format allows the data to be easily edited within a text editor or spreadsheet if
required.

To import materials into a project, right click the mouse in the Materials Explorer and select
Import materials... in the context menu. You will be prompted to search for and select the
desired CSV file. After doing this, the saved materials will appear within the Materials Ex-
plorer. Alternatively, the same functionality can be accessed from the menus by selecting File
> Import... > Materials...

17.12 Previewing Strength Distributions

The distribution of the cohesive strength component of the Mohr Coulomb materials within the
model may be previewed using the Preview Strength  menu item on the Analysis menu.
Either Short term or Long term values of cohesion may be specified. Either cu or c0 will
then be displayed according to the material settings (see Section 16.1). The variation of the
relevant strength across the model is then displayed graphically in the Viewer Pane as shown
in Figure 17.21. This allows variations of non-uniform materials, either due to a linear variation
of undrained strength with depth or due to a grid multiplier to be displayed.

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Figure 17.21: Preview of strength distribution across a model.

If the cursor is positioned over any part of the model, then the value of the relevant strength
will be displayed in the top left hand corner of the Viewer Pane, below the cursor co-ordinates.
The legend will display the relevant range for that material. If any given material is used in more
than one zone within the model, then the legend range will be displayed across the range of all
used instances of the material in the model.

If more than one material is allocated to any Solid, then the following process is followed in
order to determine what is displayed:

• if a mix of uniform and non-uniform materials are used with only one non-uniform material
present, then its properties are displayed graphically;
• if more than one non-uniform material is used then a warning message is displayed and
the relevant Solid will be highlighted in purple;
• if more than one uniform material is used then the last one applied to the Solid is dis-
played graphically and the previous ones ignored. It should be clear from the values and
colour shown which material is being displayed.

If an interpolated grid is used to define a material strength that does not fully cover a Solid to
which it is assigned then a warning message is also displayed and the relevant Solid(s) are
highlighted in purple.

Note that it is necessary to click Unlock afterwards to edit the problem parameters.

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Chapter 18

Setting Boundary Conditions

In LimitState:GEO the following boundary conditions may be set on any external Boundary
(Figure 18.1):

Free The boundary is free to displace in any direction.

Symmetry This provides a symmetry condition. It is implemented as a fixed boundary with a

smooth interface. Thus it may also be used to represent this condition if desired.

Fixed Only displacements parallel to this boundary are permitted. The shear conditions along
this boundary will be determined by the materials in the adjacent solid and/or any ma-
terials specified on the boundary. Sliding will always take place in the weakest material
present.

Figure 18.1: Boundary conditions in LimitState:GEO

All internal Boundary Objects i.e. boundaries that are at the interface of two solids may only
have a boundary condition of Free.

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200 CHAPTER 18. SETTING BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

Select a boundary object by left-clicking with the mouse. In the Property Editor, click Support
Type to expand the data as shown in Figure 18.2. To change the support condition, simply
chose an alternative option to the current one.

Figure 18.2: Setting boundary conditions

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Chapter 19

Setting Applied Loads

19.1 Specifying Boundary Loads

In LimitState:GEO loading may be specified on any external Boundary Object. To set the
values, select the required Boundary Object, and then using the Property Editor, click loads
to expand the loads data as depicted in Figure 19.1.

Figure 19.1: Loads, displayed in the Property Editor for a selected Boundary

In LimitState:GEO, loads may be specified as Permanent, Variable, and Accidental. The

purpose of these labels is purely to permit correct application of Partial Factors (see Scenario
Manager, Chapter 30) to obtain a design load. No additional meaning is given to these labels.
Each load may have an Adequacy factor applied to it and may be designated as Favourable,
Unfavourable or Neutral (see Section 19.4).

On the Viewer pane, loads are displayed as a series of coloured arrows:

1. Loads with Adequacy = false : green

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202 CHAPTER 19. SETTING APPLIED LOADS

2. Loads with Adequacy = true : red

19.2 Specifying Self Weight Loading

In LimitState:GEO loads also inherently arise from the self weight of Solid Objects. Each self
weight load may have an Adequacy factor applied to it and may be designated as Favourable,
Unfavourable or Neutral (see Section 19.4). To set these values select the required Solid
Object, and modify the values in the Loading Type field of the Property Editor as depicted in
Figure 19.2.

Figure 19.2: Modifying the self-weight loading type of a Solid object

Note that when the Adequacy factor is applied to a material self weight and this material lies
below the water table, then adequacy is also applied to the water pressure. In effect this means
that for static groundwater conditions the Adequacy factor is applied to the buoyant weight of
the soil. Further discussion of the implications of this may be found in Section 8.2.5.1.

19.3 Adequacy Factors

In order that the solver can find a solution that causes collapse, it is necessary to apply an
Adequacy factor to one or more of the loads or self weights. Consider a simple example of a
vertically loaded footing with a permanent load of 1000kN and suppose that the soil resistance
is 2000kN. To find a solution an adequacy factor must be applied to the permanent load. The
solver will then find the factor that causes collapse, which in this case is 2. An adequacy
factor > 1 means that the geotechnical design is safe against collapse (within the scope of the
analysis technique), an adequacy factor < 1 means that the geotechnical design is unsafe.

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19.4 Favourable/Unfavourable Setting

In design codes such as Eurocode 7, different partial factors are applied to loads dependent
on whether they are favourable or unfavourable (i.e. help resist collapse or help cause collapse
respectively). LimitState:GEO provides a facility to specify whether loads applied to a boundary
are favourable or unfavourable. This specification only affects the choice of partial factor to be
applied. The setting is applied to all loads (Permanent, Variable, and Accidental) applied to
that boundary and may be specified under the Loading Type entry in the Property Editor. In
addition to Favourable and Unfavourable, a Neutral setting may also be specified. With this
latter setting no factors are applied to the load. Further information on modelling with these
settings may be found in Section 8.3.

For certain problem scenarios, especially those involving several soil/structure interactions, it
may not be obvious whether a given load is favourable or unfavourable from the start.

LimitState:GEO assists the user in this case by carrying out a post analysis diagnostic test,
checking whether a given load dissipated or added energy into the problem. In most scenarios,
input of energy is indicative of an unfavourable load, dissipation of energy is indicative of a
favourable load. After each analysis a message is displayed in the console indicating on which
Boundary objects the favourable/unfavourable settings did not match the sign of the energy
dissipation in the actual solution.

The displayed Boundary objects are hyperlinked. If a hyperlink is clicked the boundary is
selected and its properties displayed in the Property Editor, where they can be edited if desired.

Note that this diagnostic assessment of favourable/unfavourable is carried out using the com-
bined design load after partial factors have been applied. If the favourable and unfavourable
partial factors are identical then no diagnostic assessment is output. Also note that it is the
responsibility of the user to decide the final unfavourable/favourable setting. The output from
LimitState:GEO is only provided as guidance.

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Chapter 20

Setting Water Pressures

20.1 Introduction

Water pressures may be specified in several ways:

• By drawing a water table.

• By specifying an ru value.

• By assigning a water regime to a Solid.

Water pressures are determined according to the theory described in Section 6.2.2.

In LimitState:GEO, pressures defined by a Water Regime override any that may be defined by
a Water Table. The water pressure at a free surface is always defined by the Water Table (and
will thus be zero if the water table is below the free surface, or is not defined).

The distinctive difference between a Water Table and a Water Regime is that if a water table
crosses a Solid, it automatically splits that Solid so the part of the Solid above the water table
uses the Unit weight of any materials contained within it and is modelled with zero pore water
pressure, while the part below the water table uses the Sat. Unit weight and is modelled with
linear variation of pore water pressure with depth.

In contrast a Water Regime uses the Sat. Unit weight and the specified water pressure
variation for the whole Solid. Thus Water Regimes are normally used in confined bodies of
soil.

20.2 Enabling and Disabling Water Pressures

The setting Water in the project Property Editor is used to define whether water pressures
are taken into consideration during an analysis.

To turn on water pressures, change the setting to True and to disable them, set it to False.

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206 CHAPTER 20. SETTING WATER PRESSURES

When set to False, all materials are assumed to lie above the water table and are treated as
dry (i.e. zero pore pressure conditions for drained materials). The unit weights of all materials
used is the specified Unit Weight. Any water table is then displayed in a faint grey.

20.3 Drawing a Water Table

To draw a water table, click on the water table toolbar button , and then with the mouse click
on a series of points across the geometry to define the water table. To finish, right click the
mouse to bring up the context menu and select Finish. The water table will then be displayed
as shown in Figure 20.1. It is displayed in light blue if the Water setting in the project Property
Editor is set to true. If not enabled, it is displayed in faint grey.

Figure 20.1: Example water table added to a simple footing problem

To select the water table, click on any part of the water table. The entire water table or indi-
vidual vertices may be selected and moved using the mouse. When selected, the water table
coordinates also appear in the Geometry Editor where they may be edited. Vertices for the
water table must be specified with monotonically increasing x-coordinates.

To clear the water table, right click anywhere in the Viewer Pane to display the context menu
and select Clear Water Table.

Note
In versions prior to LimitState:GEO 3.0, if a water table caused a solid to be split by a new
boundary, nodes on the new boundary were counted towards the overall specified Target Num-
ber of nodes. In Version 3.0 nodes on the new boundary are not counted towards the specified
Target Number. This means that solution accuracy should be broadly consistent regardless of
the location of the water table, or whether it is disabled. In some cases, this will mean a larger
overall number of nodes is used in a solution. In general it would be expected that files solved in
Version 3.0 should therefore return slightly lower (more accurate) results than the identical file

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solved in previous versions, though with a slightly longer solution time. An information message
will be issued by the software if a version 1.0 or 2.0 file is solved with a water table. To avoid
seeing the message again, save the file (which will save it as a Version 3.0 file) and re-open it.

20.4 Use of an ru Value

An ru value may be utilised in place of a water table. In this case the water pressure u at any
point is given by

u = ru γh (20.1)

where γh is the overburden pressure which may be represented by the defining h as the vertical
depth of the point in question below the ground surface.

To give additional flexibility in LimitState:GEO, the nominal ground surface, when using an ru
value, is defined using the water table. For conventional use, the user will draw the water table
along the soil surface.

To enable the use of ru , click the next to the Water entry in the Property Editor. Three new
values will appear as shown in Figure 20.2. Set Use ru Coefficient to True.

Figure 20.2: ru parameters displayed in the Property Editor

The Average Fill Unit Weight is the value of γ to be used in equation 20.1, and the required
ru value is entered adjacent to ru Coefficient.

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20.5 Localized Water Pressures (Regimes)

A localized water pressure may be applied to any individual block of material (Solid) by defining
and assigning a Water Regime.

Water regimes work in a similar manner to Materials in that they can be user-defined according
to type and are assigned using an Explorer or the Property Editor.

LimitState:GEO comes with a number of predefined water regimes. These cannot be edited
and are displayed with a padlock on the icon. They may be viewed in the Water Explorer as
shown in Figure 20.3. By default, display of the Water Explorer is achieved by clicking the tab
at the base of the Material Explorer, although it may be dragged to other areas of the screen.

Figure 20.3: The Water Explorer

Water regimes may be assigned using the following two methods:

Drag and drop Select a regime in the Water Explorer and drag it on to the required object.

The ‘Change’ dialog Select the required object. In the Property Editor, click on the right
hand box in the row Water Regime to display the ‘Change’ button (see Figure 20.4).
Click this to display the Edit Water Regime(s) dialog. Check or uncheck the relevant
boxes to include or remove materials from the object.

When a regime is applied to a zone, it’s colour will change to include that of the selected regime.

Unlike with materials, an object can only contain a single water regime. Therefore, if the user
attempts to assign a second regime, a warning will be displayed.

Any solid to which a water regime has been applied (including Aquiclude) will use the defined
saturated unit weights (Sat. Unit Weight) of any materials within that solid.

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Figure 20.4: Assigning a water regime using the Property Editor

20.5.1 Defining a New Water Regime

By default, two water regimes are provided in LimitState:GEO:

Zero Pore Pressure A Constant Potential

Aquiclude This models zero water pressures in the solid, but is intended to be used for imper-
meable materials that are internally unaffected by water pressure.

Additional water regimes may be specified by right-clicking the mouse in the Water Explorer
to bring up the context menu, then selecting New water regime... This will cause the Create
New Water Regime dialog to appear (e.g. Figure 20.6).

To create a new regime, first select the type from the Type dropdown.. Each new regime can
be assigned a Name and Color as well as properties particular to the type chosen:

20.5.1.1 Constant Potential

In a Constant Potential regime, the affected zone is subject to water pressures determined
from a specified water potential. The datum level against which this potential is measured is
global for the entire project (i.e it is the same for all zones containing a potential) and is therefore
set outside the Create New Water Regime dialog in the Property Editor Figure 20.5.

Two properties are required when defining a Constant Potential regime:

Water potential The assumed height of water above the global datum level.

Factor on unit weight of water A multiplier on the unit weight of the water in the affected
zone(s).

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Using this regime type it is possible to define areas containing negative pressures (e.g. to
represent capillary rise).

Figure 20.5: Definition of a the Water potential datum level in the Property Editor

Figure 20.6: Definition of a new Constant Potential water regime

20.5.1.2 Constant Pressure

In a Constant Pressure regime, the affected zone is subject to a specified constant pressure
(Figure 20.7):

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Figure 20.7: Definition of a new Constant Pressure water regime

This regime type might typically be used to assign areas of zero pressure or constant suction.

20.5.1.3 Interpolated Grid

In an Interpolated Grid regime, the affected zone is subject to spatially varying water pressures
defined by a series of user-specified points and associated pressure values. (Figure 20.8):

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Figure 20.8: Definition of a new Interpolated Grid water regime

After setting the Name and Color, a grid of pressures must be defined. To do this, click the
‘Set Grid’ button to bring up the Grid Interpolation dialog (Figure 20.8):

• First, set the Origin of the grid. This is the coordinate corresponding to the top-left point
of the grid and does not have to be a located within any particular zone (in this way you
can specify a single grid for the entire problem rather than having to repeat on a per-zone
basis).

• Second, set the desired Spacing of the grid points. For the spacing in the vertical direc-
tion, positive values relate to upwards spacing and negative downwards. Therefore it is
usual to specify a negative value for dy.

• Third, set the Number of divisions of the grid in the x and y directions using the scroll
boxes. The table will grow such that the appropriate number of fields are present.

• Last, populate the table with the desired pressure values. This can be done manually or
by copying and pasting from a spreadsheet program such as Excel or from the grid itself.
To paste copied data press CTRL + V. To copy data press CTRL + C.

Intermediate pressures, between the defined points, are calculated using a bilinear interpolation
algorithm (see Appendix E).

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When the Grid Interpolation dialog is displayed then a contour/gradient plot of the grid factors
will be automatically displayed n the Viewer Pane at the correct coordinates. An example is
shown in Figure 20.9. Note that if the grid does not fully encompass a zone to which the material
is applied, then zero strength multipliers will be modelled in the areas not defined by the grid. By
default the contour plot will update dynamically as values in the grid are adjusted. However this
process can be disabled by unchecking the ’Update graphical view on value change’. tickbox.
This be faster if many values are being altered in one go.

Figure 20.9: Contour display for a material Water Regime using a Grid Interpolation. Note
that the extent of the grid can exactly fit a zone or extend across several zones as shown here.
If the grid does not fully cover the zone then the undefined areas will be modelled with a zero
water pressure.

20.5.1.4 Aquiclude

In an Aquiclude the affected Solid zone (Aquicludes can not be applied to Boundary objects)
is internally subject to zero water pressure and is treated as being ‘Dry’. There are no additional
properties to set for this particular type.

Assigning an aquiclude regime to a zone prevents LimitState:GEO from checking the continuity
of pressures at the boundaries of that zone but allows the water pressure in adjacent zones to
act on the body represented by that zone. It should generally only be used for undrained or
impermeable objects such as mass concrete.

For more information on Aquicludes see Section 6.2.3.

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20.5.2 Creating a Duplicate Water Regime

To duplicate a Water Regime, hover over the icon of the target regime with the mouse and
right-click to bring up the context menu. Select Duplicate water regime to create a copy of the
selected regime. Click the icon for this new regime to bring up it’s properties in the Property
Editor, where they can then be edited.

20.5.3 Deleting a Water Regime

To delete a Water Regime, hover over the icon of the taget regime with the mouse and right-
click to bring up the context menu. Select Delete user defined water regime to remove the
selected regime from the project. Note that a warning message will be shown if the regime is
currently assigned to an object

20.5.4 Exporting and Importing Water Regimes

To export or import the regimes listed in the Water Explorer in a .csv (comma separated values)
file, select Export water regimes... or Import water regimes... in the context menu.

20.5.5 Viewing Water Regime Affected Objects

To quickly gain an overview of the solids that are affected by water regimes, click on the tab for
the Solid Explorer (by default this is located at the bottom of the screen along with the Output
Pane). Columns in the selected explorer will list the applied regimes. Clicking on any row will
cause the object to be highlighted in the Viewer Pane and, if TRACK is also selected, the
object will be zoomed in to.

20.6 Previewing Modelled Water Pressures

The distribution of water pressures specified in the problem may be previewed using the Pre-
view Water Pressure menu item on the Analysis menu. The variation of water pressure
across the model is then displayed graphically in the Viewer Pane as shown in Figure 20.10.

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Figure 20.10: Preview of water pressure distribution across a model.

If the cursor is positioned over any part of the model, then the value of the water pressure will
be displayed in the top left hand corner of the Viewer Pane, below the cursor co-ordinates.

If there is a mismatch in any water pressures across any boundary, then a warning text is
displayed and any affected boundaries are displayed in red. A mismatch in water pressures
can lead to inaccuracy in the solution provided (see Section 6.2.1).

If an interpolated grid is used to define water pressure that does not fully cover a Solid to which
it is assigned then a warning message is displayed and the relevant Soild(s) are highlighted in
purple.

Note that it is necessary to click Unlock afterwards to edit the problem parameters.

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Chapter 21

Setting Seismic Parameters

LimitState:GEO is able to apply horizontal and/or vertical pseudo static accelerations to any
problem. These may be applied as fixed accelerations or it is possible to apply an adequacy
factor to one or both of these parameters. Further information on modelling with these param-
eters may be found in Section 12.

To set seismic accelerations, click the next to the Seismic Actions entry in the project level
Property Editor. Four new values will appear as described below and shown in Figure 21.1.

Horizontal Accel. kh (g) Horizontal base acceleration. Specify a positive value for a left-to-
right base acceleration (i.e. likely to lead to right-to-left soil movements).

Adequacy (on kh ) State whether or not the adequacy factor is to be applied to the specified
horizontal base acceleration. Note: when in ’Factor strength(s)’ mode this value may be
overridden.

Vertical Accel. kv (g) Vertical base acceleration. Specify a positive value for a upward base
acceleration (i.e. likely to lead to downward soil movements).

Adequacy (on kv ) State whether or not the adequacy factor is to be applied to the specified
vertical base acceleration. Note: when in ’Factor strength(s)’ mode this value may be
overridden.

To set a horizontal acceleration of e.g. 0.3g (i.e. 0.3 × 9.81 m/s2 ), set Horizontal Accel. kh to
0.3. To apply this as a fixed acceleration set Adequacy (on kh ) to False. Positive values are
modelled as resulting in a horizontal right to left acceleration on the problem. (This corresponds
to an equivalent base acceleration in the opposite i.e. positive x-direction).

Frequently the user may wish to ask the question:

‘At what horizontal acceleration will the modelled soil construction collapse?’

In order to get LimitState:GEO to answer this question set Horizontal Accel. kh (g) to 1.0, and
Adequacy (on kh ) to True, while ensuring that Adequacy is not set on any other parameter

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218 CHAPTER 21. SETTING SEISMIC PARAMETERS

Figure 21.1: Seismic parameters displayed in the Property Editor

e.g. a load. On solving, LimitState:GEO will return an Adequacy factor equal to the required
horizontal acceleration. This procedure will also work with a fixed vertical acceleration.

An exactly equivalent procedure is applicable to the vertical acceleration. Positive values are
modelled as resulting in an additional vertical downward acceleration on the problem. (This
corresponds to an equivalent base acceleration in the opposite i.e. positive y-direction).

Additionally, if it is required to answer the question:

‘At what horizontal acceleration will the modelled soil construction collapse such
that the vertical acceleration equals 0.2 times the horizontal acceleration?’

then set Horizontal Accel. kh (g) to 1.0, Adequacy (on kh ) to True, Vertical Accel. kv (g)
to 0.2, and Adequacy (on kv ) to True. On solving, LimitState:GEO will return an Adequacy
factor equal to the required horizontal acceleration.

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Chapter 22

Analysis

22.1 Overview

To perform an analysis, on the Analysis menu click Solve. Alternatively this command can be
accessed via the button on the toolbar; the keyboard shortcut for the command is F5.

The analysis procedure first allocates nodes to all zones and generates a list of potential slip-
lines.

An initial analysis is then undertaken and the solver iterates towards the optimal solution by
progressively adding slip-lines at critical positions (see Chapter 5). Stages in the solution are
displayed on the Status bar.

By default, the output displayed in the Output pane from an analysis is restricted to the critical
load case and failure adequacy factor only. To enable the display of all iteration data, go to the
Preferences dialog in the Tools menu,select the Solve tab and check the option to Display
iteration information in output window .

22.2 The Solver

A solver is required to find the critical collapse load factor and associated collapse mechanism.
The internal forces in the structure must satisfy all specified yield constraints; these are set up
for a particular problem by LimitState:GEO.

The solver used by LimitState:GEO is Mosek, a powerful interior point linear programming
solver. In LimitState:GEO, Mosek is called as a subroutine and, to maximize efficiency, the
problem data is passed via memory.

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220 CHAPTER 22. ANALYSIS

22.2.1 Pre-Solve Checks and the Diagnostics Tool

During model generation and prior to solving, LimitState:GEO runs a number of checks to
ensure the integrity and rationality of the model.

Some checks are carried out continuously and result in singular warning or error messages
being displayed to the user. These pertain to issues such as invalid licenses and geometries
and are provided in Table 22.1.

Check Warning
Check if a license was held then lost The connection to the network license
server or hardware dongle was lost. You
need to restart the application to be able
to solve again.
Check if license does not have permis- Cannot solve as the following feature(s)
sion to solve for certain features in this project are not supported by this
<LICENSE TYPE> license:’
Check for two coincident vertices Two coincident points encountered
Check for a zero length line Zero length boundary encountered
Check for two coincident boundaries Two coincident boundaries encountered
Check for two intersecting lines without a Vertex missing at boundary object inter-
vertex at the crossover point section.
Check for an ‘invalid’ polygon Illegal solid geometry.
Check for a zero area polygon Zero area solid.
Check for a problem where the overall Total area of problem is too small, which
area is too small may lead to numerical tolerance problems
- for more details, see here.
Check for solids overlapping without ver- Solids are overlapping (see output win-
tices on their coincident points dow for details.)

Table 22.1: Continuous checks carried out by LimitState:GEO and their associated warnings.

Other messages are collated and shown at solve-time, or when the user opens the Diagnostics
tool dialog (as shown in Figure 22.1) by going to the Analysis menu and selecting Diagnos-
tics... These messages are categorized according to severity as follows:

Information Useful reminders about the problem set-up that require no user action prior to
solve.

Warning Messages regarding the problem set-up that may require user action prior to solve,
but which do not prevent solving.

Error Messages regarding the problem set-up that must be resolved by the user prior to solve.

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Figure 22.1: The LimitState:GEO Diagnostics Tool

The Display this dialog drop-down menu at the base of the Diagnostics tool allows the user
to specify the circumstances under which the dialog is displayed:

Always Displays the dialog before every Solve, irrespective of whether there are any warnings
or errors to report.

Warnings & Errors only Displays the dialog before Solve only when there are warnings or
errors to report.

Errors only Displays the dialog before Solve only when there are errors to report.

If the setting is changed to Errors only then any warnings encountered will instead be high-
lighted in the Output Pane by a hyperlink. Clicking the hyperlink will open the Diagnostics
dialog with the warnings present.

A list of the messages provided by the Diagnostics tool and their interpretation is provided in
Table 22.2.

Severity Check Warning

Information Check which objects have Adequacy Adequacy applied to:
applied to them (total number is 20 or
fewer). - Self weight of #NUM Solid(s) (LIST)
- Seismic body forces in the (x/y) direction(s)
- #NUM Boundary load(s) (LIST)

Has adequacy been applied as required (normally to one

or more Boundary load(s) or Solid(s))?
Information Check that no solids have zero unit #NUM Solid(s) with zero self weight (LIST). Have correct self
weight. weights been set for all Solids?
Continued on next page...

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Information Check to see whether a Water Table is A water table is active and is set to use an ru coefficient in pore
using an ru coefficient in pore pressure pressure calculations (rather than hydrostatic pressures). Aver-
calculations. age fill unit weight = VALUE, ru coefficient = VALUE.
Information List the different loading types applied The following ’Loading Types’ have been specified on Boundary
to Boundary and Solid zones. loads:

Unfavourable: LIST
Neutral: LIST
Favourable: LIST

The following ’Loading Types’ have been specified on Solid

self weights:

Unfavourable: LIST
Neutral: LIST
Favourable: LIST

Note that the Boundary and Solid Explorers can also be

used to quickly identify and edit the above settings.
Information Check for the inclusion of purely fric- A Factor Strength(s) analysis has been specified. Detected ma-
tional materials in a Factor Strength(s) terial(s) with zero cohesion that will be used in one or more sce-
analysis narios. ‘Artificial cohesion’ will be added to these materials to
improve convergence. This may have a small effect on the solu-
tion obtained.
Warning Check which objects have Adequacy Adequacy applied to self weight or seismic body force of #NUM
applied to them (total number is above Solid(s) (LIST) and to #NUM Boundary load(s) (LIST). Has ade-
20). quacy been applied as required (normally to a single property or
group of properties)?
Information Check to see whether non-unit par- Non unit load factors have been specified in one or more of the
tial factor sets have been used and to scenarios to be modelled. Have all load types been specified
prompt user to set loading type accord- as Unfavourable, Favourable or Neutral as required? Note that
ingly. Neutral loads are not factored in any situation.
Information Check to identify Engineered Element Engineered Element material(s) LIST have been specified with
materials with zero pullout interaction. Pullout Factors Tc and Tq both set to zero. This will lead to no
pullout (longitudinal) interaction of the engineered element with
the soil and therefore no conventional reinforcement action by
these elements.
Information Check to identify Engineered Element Engineered Element material(s) LIST have been specified with
materials with zero lateral interaction. Pullout Factors Nc and Nq both set to zero. This will lead to
no lateral ) interaction of the engineered element with the soil
and therefore no conventional reinforcement action by these ele-
ments.
Information Check that rotational failure mecha- Model rotations has been set to ’False’. This means that rota-
nisms can be identified. tional failure mechanisms will not be identified. Is this intentional?
Warning Check that the problem size is sufficient Defective geometry encountered - the total area of problem is
to avoid numerical tolerance issues. small, which may lead to numerical tolerance issues.
Warning Check for a single Vertex joining two or Found only single vertex connection(s) between solids at VER-
more Solids. TEX. This may make the problem unstable.
Warning Check for loading applied to an internal Loads should only be applied to free boundaries; loads on other
Boundary. types of boundary will now be removed.
Warning Check for interfaces between Solids of Found materials with different strengths separated by interface
different strength materials where no without material, at LIST.
material is set.
Warning Check for zero strength material within Found Mohr Coulomb material with zero strength within the fol-
a Solid. lowing Solid(s):
(LIST)
It is strongly recommended that all materials used in Solids have
non-zero drained and/or undrained strength properties.
Warning Check that the water table (if present) The Water Table has been defined with one or more vertical (or
does not include any vertical sections. near vertical) faces. The water pressure on the vertical faces
is defined as zero. This may give unintended results where, for
example, water pressure is required to act on a concrete dam
wall and the water table has been drawn along its face.
Continued on next page...

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CHAPTER 22. ANALYSIS 223

Warning Check that adjacent Water Regimes in One or more Water Regimes have mismatched water pressures
the problem do not contain mismatched along the following zone boundaries: LIST This will lead to un-
properties across their common bound- predictable results.
aries.
Warning Check for Solids without any set mate- #NUM Solid(s) with no material applied (LIST). A Solid with no
rial type. material applied will be modelled as rigid with zero self-weight.
Warning Check that Boundarie do not have sig- One or more zone boundaries have significantly higher nodal
nificantly higher nodal spacing than the spacings than their adjacent solids: LIST. This can lead to poor
solids to either side results.
Warning Check that Engineered Element objects Subdivide at nodes has been set as ’False’ for LIST. This means
are able to fail or articulate at intermedi- that the chosen post-solve diagram(s) will be misleading (unless
ate positions between end vertices. a sufficient number of intermediate Vertices have been manually
added).
Warning Check to determine whether an En- Only material strengths, cohesion and friction are factored in
gineered Element exists in a Factor factor strength mode. Engineered element parameters (pullout
Strength(s) analysis. strength, rupture strength, bending moment) are unaffected in
this mode.
Warning Check to determine whether cutoff ma- Warning: Only material strengths, cohesion and friction are fac-
terial exists in a Factor Strength(s) anal- tored in factor strength mode. Cutoff tensile and compressive
ysis. strengths are unaffected in this mode.
Warning Check to identify Engineered Element The Engineered Element material(s) LIST have been specified
materials with zero rupture and com- with rupture and compression strengths both set to zero. This is
pressive strengths. likely to lead to an unstable solution.
Warning Check to identify any linked (joined) se- The linked series of Engineered Elements consisting of LIST
ries of Engineered Elements that has have all been specified with pullout factors Tc and Tq and lateral
been specified to have no interaction factors Nc and Nq all set to zero. This will lead to no interaction
with the surrounding zone. of the linked series of engineered elements with the soil.
Warning Check to identify any straight line series The straight line linked series of Engineered Elements consist-
of Engineered Elements that has been ing of LIST have all been specified with lateral factors Nc and Nq
specified to have no lateral interaction both set to zero. This will lead to no lateral interaction of the en-
with the surrounding zone. gineered element with the soil. This may lead to unusual and un-
realistic failure mechanisms involving large lateral displacements
of the engineered elements.
Warning Check to identify Cutoff materials The Cutoff material(s) LIST have been specified with zero com-
with zero rupture and compressive pressive and tensile limiting stresses. This is likely to lead to an
strengths. unstable solution.
Warning Check to see if an interface material has An Engineered Element has been detected on a free boundary
been applied to the free surface of an with different interface properties applied to each side. In the cur-
Engineered Element. rent version of the software all interface materials will be applied
to the side in contact with the Solid geometry object.
Warning Check to see if the problem con- Found material(s) that have linear variation of undrained strength
tains materials with a linearly varying with depth giving a zero or negative strength within the following
strength with depth and that these do Solid(s): LIST
not create a zero or negative strength
within any Solid objects that they are
applied to (thus promoting an *unsta-
ble* solution).
Warning Check to see that a sensible value of An Artificial Cohesion has been specified for use in Factor
artificial cohesion has been specified for Strength(s) analyses. The value (VALUE) is greater than the de-
Factor Strength(s) analyses fault value (VALUE) - are you sure that this is intended?
Warning Check to see that any derived materi- Found a boundary that contains a derived material, but is not
als applied to boundaries are adjacent adjacent to a solid containing the parent material: LIST
to zones containing the parent material
Error Check that the problem size is greater Defective geometry encountered - the total area of problem is too
than 0.25x10−4 m2 . small.
Error Check that at least one Solid has an ap- No materials have been applied, drag and drop a material onto a
plied Material. geometry object.
Error Check that at least one Boundary is No support has been applied.
acting as a Support.
Error Check that a geometry has been de- No geometry objects have been defined.
fined.
Continued on next page...

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Error Check that Adequacy has been defined An adequacy factor needs to be applied to either a load or to a
as True for at least one load or weight. solid object with non-zero self weight.

Table 22.2: Checks carried out by the LimitState:GEO Diagnostics Tool.

22.3 Analysis Settings

22.3.1 Overview

A number of the top-level project Property Editor parameters (as shown in Figure 22.2) provide
key control over the type and accuracy of the solution to be obtained.

Figure 22.2: Project properties

Nodal Density This setting controls the nodal resolution and accuracy of the solution obtained
(Section 22.3.2).

Water This setting controls whether water pressures are enabled or disabled during the analy-
sis (Section 20.2) as well as providing control over the global Water potential datum and
Water table ru settings.

Long Term Analysis This setting controls whether the problem solves as either a long term
(typically drained) or short term (typically undrained) problem as described in Chapter 16.
If multiple scenarios (see Chapter 30) are defined with differing individual long term/short
term settings, then this parameter will display Varies. Changing this setting to True or
False will change the long term/short term setting for all the scenarios.

Analysis Options The settings in this section control the parameters of a Factor Strength(s)
analysis (Section 8.2.3).

Model Rotations This setting controls whether the analysis is carried out as a translational
analysis or with rotations permitted at Solid edges (Section 8.1.2).

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Seismic Actions This setting controls whether pseudo static horizontal and or vertical accel-
erations are applied to the problem (Chapter 21) . One or both accelerations may have
an Adequacy factor applied to them.

22.3.2 Setting and Previewing the Nodes

Solution accuracy is determined by the number of nodes utilised in the solution as described in
Section 5. The number of nodes to be used may be set using the Nodal Density setting in the
the Project level parameters accessible in the Property Editor. The settings are Coarse (250
nodes), Medium (500), Fine (1000) and Very Fine (2000). It is recommended that initial scoping
calculations are carried out in Coarse or Medium mode which typically generates solutions
within a few seconds. For determination of the solution for final accuracy, the setting should be
changed to Fine, Very Fine or higher using the Custom setting described below.

At any time, it is possible to view the arrangement of nodes prior to solve to check that these
are as required. To do this, first select the Preview Nodes menu item on the Analysis menu.
It will then be possible to toggle on and off the view of nodes using the Show Nodes button
. Note that it is necessary to click Unlock afterwards to edit the problem parameters.

For advanced use, the Nodal Density may be set to Custom . The user has two options on
how to control the Nodal density:

Target Number Set this to the total number of nodes that the software will attempt to use when
solving the problem. The software will normally be able to meet this target within a few
percent. Altering this value will cause the Scale Factor on the Baseline Nodal Spacing
to change, thus altering the Actual Nodal Spacing:
Actual Nodal Spacing = Baseline Nodal Spacing / Scale Factor
Note: The Actual Nodal Spacing is calculated by the software to determine the spacing
required to achieve the Target Number of nodes and cannot be directly modified by the
user. Modifying the Target Number will automatically cause the Scale Factor to change.

Scale Factor A global factor used to scale the Baseline Nodal Spacing to achieve (or alter)
the Target Number of nodes.
Actual Nodal Spacing = Baseline Nodal Spacing / Scale Factor
i.e. doubling the Scale Factor causes the number of nodes used along boundaries to
double and the number of nodes used in solids to quadruple.
Note: Modifying the Scale Factor will automatically cause the Target Number to change.

Setting the Baseline Nodal Spacing is described in Section 22.3.3.

22.3.3 Setting Nodal Distribution within Geometry Objects

The baseline nodal spacing within Geometry objects may be set by selecting the required
object and modifying the following parameter(s) in the Property Editor:

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Boundary object Nodal spacing: this is the baseline spacing along the Boundary object.

Solid object Linear nodal spacing: Expand to view the x-spacing and y-spacing. These spec-
ify the baseline spacing on a rectangular grid within the solid object. The software will
position the grid within the solid appropriately.

If it is expected that failure will not occur in certain geometry objects (e.g. concrete ele-
ments)then setting a large nodal spacing in these objects will ensure computational resources
are not wasted.

22.3.4 Optimizing Nodal Layout

For classes of problem where the failure mechanisms are likely to involve some degree of soil
body rotation (e.g, gravity retaining walls) the Analysis tab of the wizards includes the option
to Optimize [the nodal layout] for problem type. By checking this box, extra nodes will
be allocated to the Boundaries where rotations are likely to occur, thus improving the solution
obtained. However, if significant rotations are anticipated then it is better to adopt the procedure
for dealing with rotational failure mechanisms described in Section 5.3.3.2.

22.4 Solving

To solve a problem, select the solve icon or press F5.

LimitState:GEO is set up to conduct analyses that either calculate an Adequacy factor for
loads (Factor Load(s)) or material strengths (Factor Strength(s)). To switch between analysis
types, select the required option from the drop-down menu in the Analysis toolbar (alternatively,
the final tab in each wizard allows the user to specify the analysis type).

Advanced settings for a Factor Strength(s) analysis are available in the Property Editor.

For more information on the differences between the Factor Load(s) and Factor Strength(s)
analysis types, see Sections 8.2 and 16.3.

22.5 Analysis Results

22.5.1 Collapse Adequacy Factor Found

Following an analysis the critical collapse Adequacy factor will be displayed in the Output
pane.

The Adequacy factor is the factor by which specified loads must be increased, or material
strengths decreased, in order for the system under consideration to reach a collapse state.
Depending upon the type of analysis selected prior to solve (chosen using the dropdown menu

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in the Analysis Toolbar or the Analysis Tab in a wizard) there are two types of Adequacy
factor that can be reported:

• Adequacy factor on load

• Adequacy factor on soil strength

When assessing a design using a design code analysis with partial factors applied to loads, a
value of this factor of greater than or equal to 1.0 indicates that the design is safe. A value less
than 1.0 indicates that it is unsafe.

22.5.2 No Solution Found

22.5.2.1 ‘Locked’ Result

It is possible that the applied load can be increased without limit. In this case the problem can
be described as being geometrically ‘locked’. This result can occur in the following scenarios:

1. Where a highly constrained body of soil is modelled with a large angle of shearing resis-
tance (or using a Rigid material).

2. In a problem involving a sloped frictional material, when the adequacy factor is applied to
the self weight; here it will often be found that the self weight can be increased without
affecting stability. (As an analogy consider a book resting on a slightly sloping table; if the
book is initially in stable equilibrium then simply making the book progressively heavier
will never lead to the book sliding off the table.) Further discussion of these issues may
be found in Section 8.6.1.

3. Where the partial factor that is applied to the load or loads that also have the Adequacy
factor applied to them is set to zero. Partial factors are set in the Scenario Manager,
see Section 30.

22.5.2.2 ‘Unstable’ Result

It is possible that no solution can be found because material in the problem is ‘unstable’ under
its own self weight and/or other applied forces. i.e. no viable equilibrium state can be identified.
This result will typically occur if a body of soil is loaded, but has no viable means of resisting
the load. For example, the ‘unstable’ result will occur in a slope problem involving a frictional
material when the slope angle is greater than the angle of friction. (As an analogy consider
a book resting on a steeply sloping table; if the book is not initially in stable equilibrium then
increasing or reducing the weight of the book will not affect this, and the book will slide off the
table.) Further discussion of these issues may be found in Section 8.6.1.

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22.5.2.3 ‘Terminated’ Result

If the user aborts the analysis (see below for details on how to do this) then a ‘terminated’
status message will be reported. Note also that the software will internally abort an analysis if
the number of iterations required is excessive (though this should very rarely happen).

22.5.2.4 ‘Unknown’ Result

The solver used by the software is very robust but can occasionally encounter numerical dif-
ficulties, leading to failure to find a solution of definite status (i.e. it will fail to find a value for
the ‘adequacy factor’ or the ‘locked’, ‘unstable’ or ‘terminated’ results). If this occurs then an
‘unknown’ status will be reported.

In such cases, it is often beneficial to try to solve the problem again, initially in completely
unchanged form, and subsequently after very minor changes have been made to one or more
of the following:

• nodal density

• material properties

• loading regime

However, in the rare instance that a solution is still not found, please contact LimitState support
for assistance.

22.5.2.5 ‘Always Locked’ Result

In a Factor Strength(s) analysis, a problem that continually returns a ‘locked’ solution will not
fail for any value of factor on material strength. For example, this may occur if attempting to
determine the Adequacy factor on the strength of a rigid material.

22.5.2.6 ‘Always Unstable’ Result

In a Factor Strength(s) analysis, a problem that continually returns an ‘unstable’ solution will
fail for all values of factor on material strength. For example, this may occur if attempting to
determine the Adequacy factor on the strength of a material zone lying on a sloped, frictionless
interface.

22.5.2.7 ‘Slow Progress’ Result

The solver is encountering difficulties in converging to an optimum solution. The solution re-
turned in the current iteration may or may not be of acceptable quality. Therefore a subsequent

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iteration is undertaken in order to attempt to fix the problem and return a good solution. If two
”Slow Progress” messages are returned by the solver then the solve is terminated.

22.5.2.8 ‘Out of Space’ Result

The solver has exhausted all the available memory without achieving a converged solution. In
such cases, it may be necessary to reduce the complexity of the problem or, more generally,
increase the amount of RAM in the PC or switch to an operating system that provides a higher
limit on the amount of memory that a process can utilize.

Note that, to use LimitState:GEO in 64-bit mode1 , you will require a special ‘add-in’ license -
please contact [email protected] for more information.

22.5.3 Aborting an Analysis

After the Mosek solver is started, LimitState:GEO then waits for a solution to be found. To abort
this process, the user should click on the red stop button on the toolbar or press the Esc
key to abort the analysis and return control to the user.

22.5.4 Lock and Unlock

After a solution is found, the slip-line mechanism is displayed in the viewer window, and the
solution is ‘locked’. A ‘locked’ solution prevents any modification to the problem geometry or
properties, but allows access to the properties of individual slip-lines, pressure distributions on
individual blocks and animation of the mechanism. It is possible to animate the mechanism (see
Section 23.2), click on individual slip-lines to determine normal and shear forces or stresses on
the line (see Section 23.3), and display pressure diagrams for individual blocks (see Section
23.4).

To unlock the problem to allow editing of the problem parameters, click the unlock button or
select Unlock on the Analysis menu.

1
By default, LimitState:GEO will run as a 32bit process on 64bit operating systems

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Chapter 23

Post-Analysis Functions

23.1 Adequacy factor

Further information concerning the parameters to which the Adequacy factor has been applied
may be obtained by clicking on the displayed Adequacy factor.

Further details concerning the data displayed may be found in Section 8.2.2 for Factor Load(s)
mode and in Section 8.2.3 for Factor Strength(s) mode.

23.2 Animation

LimitState:GEO provides a useful facility to animate any failure mechanism to facilitate inter-
pretation. This is achieved by magnifying the instantaneous displacements of each block of
material at failure. Note that though the solution is strictly only valid for infinitesimal displace-
ments, large displacements are displayed to assist visualization of the collapse mode.

To animate the mechanism following solve, use one of two options:

• Use the slider bar

• Click on the animate button

The animation may also be saved as an .avi or .gif file or as a series of still images (Chapter
25). The preferences controlling the size and content of the file may be accessed via the Tools
> Preferences menu under the Export tab (see Section 25.4).

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232 CHAPTER 23. POST-ANALYSIS FUNCTIONS

Figure 23.1: An animated LimitState:GEO failure mechanism

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CHAPTER 23. POST-ANALYSIS FUNCTIONS 233

23.3 Slip-lines

Following Solve and display of the solution, individual slip-lines may be interrogated by selecting
them with the mouse for the following information:

• Normal displacement

• Stress displacement

• Normal force (per unit width into the diagram)

• Shear force (per unit width into the diagram)

• Normal stress

• Shear stress

This information is displayed in the Property Editor for any selected slip-line (as depicted
in Figure 23.2). Note that any given slip-line may be split into contiguous small segments.
Forces and stresses are displayed as total (not effective) values i.e. inclusive of water forces
(or pressures).

Figure 23.2: Interrogation of slip-line properties

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23.4 Pressure Distributions around Blocks

Following Solve and display of the solution, in addition to interrogation of individual slip-lines, it
is possible to display the pressure distributions around rigid Blocks of any material (i.e. blocks
delineated by slip-lines). This is achieved by left-clicking with the mouse on the chosen object.

The distribution is displayed as a bar plot with each bar indicating the magnitude of the average
stress on the relevant part of the selected object in the collapse mechanism as shown in Figure
23.3 . The bar width is defined by the nodal spacing on that slip-line. Specific values of average
stress and water pressure corresponding to each bar may be viewed by hovering the mouse
over the relevant part. Note that compressive values are displayed as negative.

Also note that in some cases apparently erratic stress distributions may be displayed by the
solver. This is not an error but results from the nature of the solution method. For further
discussion of this issue refer to Section 7.3.

Figure 23.3: Display of post-solve pressure distribution diagrams for a selected Block object

Control over the type of diagram that is displayed is provided in several ways:

23.4.1 Post-Solve Display Dialog

The Post-Solve Display dialog (Figure 23.4) is accessible from a number of locations:

New Material Dialog When creating a new material, the option to set the default diagram dis-
play types is presented at the bottom. Clicking the Change... button will display the
dialog.

Property Editor After selecting a material in the Material Explorer, a Post-Solve Display
field is presented. Clicking the Change... button will display the dialog. This is available
for both user-defined and pre-existing materials.

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CHAPTER 23. POST-ANALYSIS FUNCTIONS 235

Figure 23.4: The Post-Solve Display dialog

Select After Click to display the chosen diagram type after selecting an object or After Solve
to display the chosen diagram type for all objects containing that material immediately after
solving. Note that the After Solve option applies only to Engineered Element material types
(see Section 23.5).

23.4.2 Block Context Menu

The type of post-solve diagram being displayed can also be changed using the context menu.
To bring up the menu, solve the problem then hover the cursor over the desired Block and
right click the mouse. The menu will appear, with options to display the Normal Stress or Shear
Stress on each edge (Figure 23.5):

Figure 23.5: The Blocks post-solve display context menu

The Export Selected Block Forces... option in this menu also allows the force distribution
around the selected block to be exported as a .csv file. Note that, to avoid the coordinates
being displaced in the output, this should be done while the solution is in a non-animated state.

The values exported are:

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236 CHAPTER 23. POST-ANALYSIS FUNCTIONS

• Face

• Angle (degrees clockwise from x-axis)

• Start Point x (m)

• Start Point y (m)

• End Point x (m)

• End Point y (m)

• Mid Point x (m)

• Mid Point y (m)

• Length (m)

• Normal Stress (kN/m (kPa))

• Shear Stress (kN/m (kPa))

• Normal Force (kN/m)

• Shear Force (kN/m)

• Horizontal Equilibrium Term (kN/m)

• Vertical Equilibrium Term (kN/m)

• Water Pressure (kN/m (kPa))

• Normal Effective Stress (kN/m (kPa))

• Water Force (kN/m)

• Normal Effective Force (kN/m)

The (average) stresses, pressures, and forces are those act on the at the Block between the
Start and End Points. The force values are equal to the equivalent (average) stress multiplied by
the length of the line segment. Mid point values are provided to facilitate simple graph plotting
if required.

23.5 Force Distributions along Engineered Elements

Following Solve and display of the solution, it is also possible to display the force and moment
distributions along a boundary containing an Engineered Element. This is achieved by left-
clicking with the mouse on the chosen object.

The distribution is displayed as a bar plot with each bar indicating the linearised variation of the
magnitude of the force or moment between nodes on the selected object as shown in Figure
23.6. The bar width is defined by the nodal spacing on that boundary. Specific values of the
force/moment variation on each bar may be viewed by hovering the mouse over the relevant
part.

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Also note that in some cases apparently erratic force distributions may be displayed by the
solver. This is not an error but results from the nature of the solution method. For further
discussion of this issue refer to Section 7.3.

Figure 23.6: Display of post-solve pressure distribution diagrams for a selected Engineered
Element

Control over the type of diagram that is displayed is provided in several ways:

23.5.1 Post-Solve Display Dialog

The Post-Solve Display dialog (Figure 23.7) is accessible from a number of locations:

New Material Dialog When creating a new material, the option to set the default diagram dis-
play types is presented at the bottom. Clicking the Change... button will display the
dialog.
Property Editor After selecting a material in the Material Explorer, a Post-Solve Display
field is presented. Clicking the Change... button will display the dialog. This is available
for both user-defined and pre-existing materials.

Figure 23.7: The Post-Solve Display dialog for Engineered Elements

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238 CHAPTER 23. POST-ANALYSIS FUNCTIONS

Select After Click to display the chosen diagram type after selecting an object or After Solve
to display the chosen diagram type for all objects containing that material immediately after
solving. Note that the After Solve option applies only to Engineered Element material types.

23.5.2 Engineered Element Context Menu

The type of post-solve diagram being displayed can also be changed using the context menu.
To bring up the menu, solve the problem then hover the cursor over the desired Engineered
Element and right click the mouse. The menu will appear, with options to display the Tensile
Force, Shear Force or Moment per unit length at each node along the object (Figure 23.8):

Figure 23.8: The Engineered Elements post-solve display context menu

The Export All Engineered Element Forces... option in this menu also allows the force/moment
distribution of the selected object to be exported as a .csv file. Note that, to avoid the coordi-
nates being displaced in the output, this should be done while the solution is in a non-animated
state.

The values exported are:

• Point x (m)

• Point y (m)

• Engineered Element ID

• Axial Force (kN/m)

• Shear Force (kN/m)

• Moment (kNm/m)

The forces and moments are those which act in the element at coordinates (x, y).

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Chapter 24

Report Output

24.1 Viewing the Report Output

Following an analysis a customizable report can easily be generated. LimitState:GEO can

output a report in Microsoft Rich Text (.rtf) format which can then be edited if required by the
user using a word processor. It is also possible to save the report in HTML format, e.g. for
company intranet usage. To generate the report, on the Analysis menu click Report...: The
following Report options dialog (Figure 24.1) allows full control over what is displayed in the
Report.

Figure 24.1: LimitState:GEO Report options dialog

About Include an introductory section containing information about LimitState:GEO, the DLO
analysis method and the Adequacy Factor.
Summary Include an overview of the project details, main analysis settings and an image of
the critical collapse mechanism.
Geometry Include information about the geometry of the problem (boundaries and solids) in-
cluding the constituent vertices, support type, nodal spacing and applied materials / water
regimes.

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240 CHAPTER 24. REPORT OUTPUT

Water Include information about the geometry of any defined water table or regime.

Materials Include property data for the materials defined in the project.

Partial factors Include information on all the partial factor sets defined in the project.

Loads Include information on loads applied in the project, whether on Boundaries or the self-
weight of a Solid object.

Free-body diagrams Include free body diagrams for the solid objects delineated by slip lines
in the analysed problem.

An example first of the report output is shown in Figure 24.2.

Figure 24.2: Example of LimitState:GEO report output

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24.2 Saving the Report Output

The report output from LimitState:GEO can be saved to one of the following formats:

PDF Portable Document Format (.pdf)

RTF Rich Text Format (.rtf) - editable in most word processing software

HTML Hypertext Markup Language (.html)

To save the report, select File > Save As... in the report dialog.

24.3 Customizing the Header or Footer

Custom header and footer images can be included in the report by selecting the Tools menu,
clicking Preferences and selecting the Report tab as shown in Figure 24.3.

Figure 24.3: LimitState:GEO report preferences

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Chapter 25

Exporting Graphical Output

25.1 Overview

LimitState:GEO provides a number of options for exporting graphical output of the problem and
the identified collapse mechanism. These may all be accessed from the main File/Export...
menu as follows:

Geometry... This allows the geometry of the problem to can be saved as a Drawing Exchange
Format (DXF) file for use in an external CAD package or import into a new LimitState:GEO
project. Alternatively the geometry can be saved as an Encapsulated PostScript (EPS) or
Asymptote (ASY) file.

Image... This allows the image displayed in the Viewer pane to be saved as either a Portable
Networks Graphics (PNG), Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPG), Tagged Image File
Format (TIFF), Encapsulated PostScript (EPS) or Postscript (PS) file.

Animation... This allows an animation of the solved problem to be saved in either Audio Video
Interleave (AVI) or Graphics Interchange Format (GIF) file formats.

25.2 Geometry Export

The original (unsolved) problem geometry may be saved as a DXF file for subsequent modifica-
tion in a CAD package or for re-importing to LimitState:GEO. This process is further described
in Section 15.4.5.

The mechanism generated following solve may also be exported, along with the original ge-
ometry, as a line only vector graphics image (rather than a full colour image) in either DXF -
AutoCAD (.dxf), EPS - Encapsulated Postscript (.eps) or ASY - Asymptote (.asy) formats. Ex-
ample output is shown in Figure 25.1 and may be contrasted with the Image output as shown
in Figure 25.2. Where allowable, the different entities (nodes, geometry, failure mechanism etc.
will be output to separate layers).

The latter Asymptote format is a script based graphical programming language. The output

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244 CHAPTER 25. EXPORTING GRAPHICAL OUTPUT

file provides a number of options for customising the image which can then be converted by
Asymptote to a wide range of graphical output formats (e.g. EPS). The Asymptote file format
can be viewed in any text editor and includes comments that may be consulted for further
information.

Figure 25.1: Example of line only vector graphics output for a Simple Footing problem

25.3 Image Export

This function allows the image displayed in the Viewer pane (including displaced solutions) to
be saved in one of the following formats:

PNG Portable Network Graphics raster image (.png)

JPG Joint Photographic Experts Group raster image (.jpg)
TIFF Tagged Image File Format (.tiff)
EPS Encapsulated Postscript vector image (.eps)
PS Postscript vector image (.ps)

An example raster image (.png) is shown in Figure 25.2.

Figure 25.2: Example of image graphics output for a Simple Footing problem

For raster images, the image size width in pixels may be controlled using the Export tab in the
Preferences dialog (accessed from the Tools menu) (see Figure 25.3).

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25.4 Animation Export

An animation of the failure mechanism (as seen in the Viewer pane) can be exported to either:

AVI Audio Video Interleave (.avi)

GIF Graphics Interchange Format (.gif)

Both formats are readily incorporated into most modern Presentation packages.

To export an animation, go to the File menu and select Export... >Animation... Here you can
select the format of the file and save location.

In addition to the slip line mechanism, other visual aspects of the solution can be included in
the exported animation. These are controlled via the Export tab of the Preferences dialog in
the Tools menu (see Figure 25.3).

Figure 25.3: Export settings for animation output

Width (pixels) Controls the width of the image / animation (to a maximum width of 1200 px).

Show initial geometry Insert frames showing the starting geometry of the model (pre-analysis).

Show interim solutions Insert frames showing the failure mechanisms associated with each
iteration of the analysis.

Show final solution (undeformed) Insert frames showing the critical failure mechanism with-
out deformation.

Show deformation animation Insert frames showing each step of the deformation animation.

Show nodes Insert frames outlining the distribution of nodes in the model.

An example animation (.avi) is shown in Figure 25.4.

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Figure 25.4: Animated failure mechanism from LimitState:GEO

25.5 Animations and Multiple Scenario Problems

Where a problem involves more than one scenario, the critical case is selected by default after
solving and the image or animation relating to this will be exported. However, in some situations
it may be desirable to export data relating to a non-critical case. To do this, simply select the
tab at the bottom of the Viewer pane that relates to the case in question before exporting.

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Chapter 26

Opening and Saving Projects

26.1 Opening and Saving Projects

The standard load and save functions are available:

Save This saves the file in the default directory using the current name. If a name has not been
specified by the user then a default name: ‘Projectn’ is used where n is set to 1 unless
this name already exists in which case it is set to 1 more than the largest existing value.
The Save function may also be accessed using the toolbar button.
For users running Windows 7 or above, a thumbnail image of the model and a number of
descriptive tags can also be saved with the project. These help to identify individual files
without the need to open them. More information is provided in Sections 2.1.1 and 4.2.2

Save as... The user is prompted for a filename and may also change the directory if required.

Open... The user is prompted to select a file from the default directory. This directory may
be changed if required. The Open function may also be accessed using the toolbar
button.

26.2 Auto-recovery Files

LimitState:GEO saves auto-recovery files every five minutes, and also when certain actions
are performed by the user. If the software does not close down properly, for example due to
a power outage or a crash in LimitState:GEO, an auto-recovery file will be available. On next
startup, LimitState:GEO will inform the user that a recovery file is available, and ask whether to
load it. If the user does not recover the file, it will be deleted.

While generating auto-recovery files, a message appears in the status bar and the user is
temporarily blocked from making changes to the current project.

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Chapter 27

Thumbnails, Tags and Searching

27.1 Thumbnails

LimitState:GEO will take a snapshot of the model geometry when saving the file and display this
instead of the icon when navigating folders (note that this functionality may need to be enabled
- see Section 2.1.1.1 for instructions on how to do this)1 . Figure 27.1 shows an example of a
folder containing three LimitState:GEO files:

Figure 27.1: Thumbnails and tags are saved with the LimitState:GEO project file.

1
Windows Vista and newer operating systems only

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27.2 Tags and Searching

27.2.1 Tags

Tags (or keywords) allow the user to categorize a file and search for it on their Windows system2
at a later date without necessarily having to open it and inspect the properties.

Tags can be edited within LimitState:GEO either within the Project Details dialog or within the
Property Editor at Project level (Figure 27.2).

Figure 27.2: Tags specified within the LimitState:GEO Project Details dialog and Property
Editor

Each tag in the Tags field should be separated by a semi-colon (automatically generated). For
example, in Figure 4.2 the tags ”footing; foundation; London; stiff clay; drained” are specified.
These are saved with the file and the individual words will register in a search of the system.

The tags for a project can also be edited outside LimitState:GEO by either:

• Selecting a file and clicking in the ”Tags” field at the base of an Explorer window (selecting
to Save once editing is complete), or

• Right-clicking the project file, selecting Properties and clicking the Tags field on the De-
tails Tab.

27.2.2 Searching

To search for a LimitState:GEO file by name, simply type some or all of the name into the
Windows search box (ensuring you are in an appropriate directory). Remember to suffix the
”.geo” file extension.
2
Windows 7 or above

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To search for a tag within a LimitState:GEO file, append the ”tags:” prefix to any term in the
search box (e.g. search for ”tags:drained”).

To search for a file with specific project details (e.g. Location, Engineer or Organization) it may
be necessary to first configure your system to allow file content to be searched. Details on how
to do this are given in Section 2.1.1.2. Once this has been done, simply enter the appropriate
terms in the search box.

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Chapter 28

Preferences

The Preferences dialog, available from the Tools menu, allows a number of LimitState:GEO
parameters to be set and saved for each time it is re-started.

28.1 General

The General Preferences tab (Figure 28.1) provides the ability to modify the language and
look of the program. It also allows the user to define how the software checks for updates.

Figure 28.1: The General preferences tab

Language Change the language used by the software.

Window style Change the appearance of the software interface.

Default display render resolution Set the quality of the on-screen rendering.

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254 CHAPTER 28. PREFERENCES

Check for updates Uncheck this to prevent the software from periodically checking for newer
versions.

Automatically check for newer versions every X days Use the up and down arrows to set
the length of time between checks.

Inform me if attempts to connect to the internet fail Check this to be alerted if update checks
are not successful.

Use Proxy Server Check this option to use a proxy server as the gateway for update checks
(server name and port number required).

28.2 Units

The Units tab (Figure 28.2) provides the ability to toggle between Metric and Imperial units
systems. If Imperial units are selected, the user has a further option to use default values that
have been rounded appropriately for ease of use.

Figure 28.2: The Units preferences tab

28.3 Startup

The Startup Preferences tab (Figure 28.3) provides the ability to modify the features presented
to the user each time the program is started.

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Figure 28.3: The Startup preferences tab

Show ‘Welcome’ dialog next time Display the welcome screen at startup. If this is dese-
lected, the software will start without offering a choice of Wizard to the user.

Show ‘quick tips’ after wizards completed Check this to be provided with a dialog of useful
information after completing a Wizard.

Clear recent files list Click this button to clear the recent files list (found under the File menu).

28.4 Report

The Report Preferences tab (Figure 28.4) allows the user to set the default header and footer
images used in the report.

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Figure 28.4: The Report preferences tab

Header image Click the Change... button to select a new PNG image to use at the head of
the report.

Footer image Click the Change... button to select a new PNG image to use at the foot of the
report

28.5 Solve

The Solve Preferences tab (Figure 28.5) allows the user to set when the pre-solve Diagnos-
tics dialog is displayed and alter the solution information that is presented in the Output Pane.

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Figure 28.5: The Solve preferences tab

Display diagnostic information Use the drop-down list to set whether the Diagnostic dialog
is displayed at Solve time a) Always, b) when there are Warnings or Errors or c) when
there are Errors Only.

Default number of significant figures to display the solution Change this to alter the num-
ber of significant figures to which the Adequacy factor is reported in the Output Pane
and Report.

Display iteration information in output window Check this box to add extra columns to the
solution table in the Output Pane. Columns added include:

• Iteration - the iteration number.

• Variables - the number of variables in the linear programming matrix at this iteration.
• Constraints - the number of constraints in the linear programming matrix at this
iteration.
• Violation % - the maximum percentage violation of the slip-line adding criterion
encountered at this iteration.
• Vars added - the number of variables added to the linear programming matrix on
this iteration.
• Cons added - the number of constraints added to the linear programming matrix on
this iteration.
• Time(secs) - the time taken to solvbe the problem at this iteration.

Animate if no more than X target nodes If the target number of nodes for the project is
fewer than the value of X, the solution will automatically animate on completion of the
solve step.

Do not animate after solve Do not animate on completion of the solve step, irrespective of
the complexity of the problem.

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28.6 Export

The Export Preferences tab (Figure 28.6) allows the user to set the default contents and size
of images and animations when exported to file.

Figure 28.6: The Export preferences tab

Width (pixels) Controls the width of the image / animation (to a maximum width of 1200 px).

Show initial geometry Insert frames showing the starting geometry of the model (pre-analysis).

Show interim solutions Insert frames showing the failure mechanisms associated with each
iteration of the analysis.

Show final solution (undeformed) Insert frames showing the critical failure mechanism with-
out deformation.

Show deformation animation Insert frames showing each step of the deformation animation.

Show nodes Insert frames outlining the distribution of nodes in the model.

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Chapter 29

License Information Dialog

The License Information dialog (Figure 29.1) is accessed from the Help menu and provides
information on the license currently being used as well as the ability to swap to using a different
license (e.g. as the result of an upgrade or renewal).

Figure 29.1: The License Information dialog

Type Describes the type of license being used (full, trial, etc.). This determines the level of
functionality available.
Expires The date on which the license will cease to work.
License location The path to the license file being used.
Details The contents of the license file. This can be used to determine, amongst other things,
the product, the highest version number that can be licensed, the hostid (computer iden-
tifier) and the license expiry date.
Use Different License... Click this button to disassociate from the currently used license and
cause LimitState:GEO to request a new one. This is generally used when upgrading or
replacing a license file and will require the software to restart. It is advised that all work is
saved before using this.

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Chapter 30

Scenario Manager and Partial Factors

30.1 Introduction

The Scenario Manager (depicted in Figure 30.1) is a powerful facility that permits several sce-
narios to be solved as a single set. This is a common requirement in geotechnical engineering,
where for example undrained and drained cases may need to be checked, or where several
design combinations of partial factors may need to be checked for the same geometry as is
required by codes such as Eurocode 7. It is also used to specify partial factors for solution of
single problems.

It should be noted that LimitState:GEO uses a similar convention to European codes of practice
in that factors on load are treated as multipliers and factors on material properties are treated as
divisors. In other geographical areas, this convention may be different and the user is advised
to check before entering values into the software.

Figure 30.1: The Scenario manager

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262 CHAPTER 30. SCENARIO MANAGER AND PARTIAL FACTORS

30.2 Specification of Partial Factors for a Single Scenario

Ensure that the Single scenario radio button is selected. One scenario Scenario 1 is available.
The User Partial Factor set is listed by default. Its default settings are all unity. To change any
factor, double click on the entry (as shown in Figure 30.2), and change its value.

Figure 30.2: Editing Partial Factors in the Scenario manager

These Partial Factors will then be applied to the current problem. Loads may be individually
defined as Permanent, Variable or Accidental and favourable / unfavourable / neutral (see
Chapter 19). Material self weight is defined as Permanent but may be specified as favourable
/ unfavourable / neutral (see Section 17.8). Note that no partial factors are applied to the basic
soil nail material type.

In addition to specifying individual Partial Factors, the user may select from a pre-defined set
of partial factors by using the drop down box (as shown in Figure 30.3) or create a new list.

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Figure 30.3: Partial Factors list in the Scenario manager

30.3 Specification of Long and Short Term Analysis Mode

Under the options heading (as shown in Figure 30.2). It is possible to set the scenario to
solve as either a long term (typically drained) or short term (typically undrained) problem as
described in Chapter 16. This setting may also be set globally via the project properties using
the Property Editor as described in Section 22.3.

30.4 Specifiying Multiple Scenarios

Ensure that the Multiple scenario radio button is selected. On first use, two scenarios Sce-
nario 1 and Scenario 2 are listed. The User Partial Factor set is listed by default for Scenario
1 and <None> is listed for Scenario 2. This may be changed to an actual Partial Factor set
using the drop down box. If this is done, a new empty scenario (Scenario 3) is displayed.
Further scenarios may be defined in this way.

To remove any scenario from the set of scenarios, select <Delete> from the drop down box.
An error message will be displayed if this action would reduce the number of scenarios to zero.

30.5 Using the Partial Factor Set Manager

The partial factor set manager allows the user to control the partial factor sets that are saved
with the file and listed in the drop down menu in the Scenario Manager itself.

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Select {Manage...} from the list to open the Manage User Defined Partial Factor Sets dialog
(Figure 30.4).

Figure 30.4: The LimitState:GEO Manage User Defined Partial Factor Sets dialog

Two options are then available:

Delete Select a partial factor set by clicking it in the list with the left mouse button (multiple
sets can be chosen by holding down CTRL whilst selecting). Clicking the Delete button
will remove the selected sets from the list. Sets that are being used in the project will not
be deleted.
Rename Select a partial factor set by clicking it in the list with the left mouse button. Click the
Rename button to bring up the Rename Partial Factor Set dialog, where the name of
the set can be changed.

30.6 Exporting and Importing Scenarios

All Partial factor sets listed in the drop down box may be exported to a .csv file by selecting
{Export...}.

To import previously exported sets of Partial Factors, select {Import...}. Partial Factor sets with
the same name are not overwritten.

All Partial Factors are saved with the main file.

30.7 Solving with Multiple Scenarios

When multiple scenarios are defined, clicking Solve solves each scenario in turn and dis-
plays the failure mechanism in a separate tab in the Viewer pane (see Figure 30.5). Numeric
solutions are also displayed in the Output pane and the critical case is highlighted. The other
solutions may be viewed by clicking on the respective tabs.

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Overall solution time is typically faster than if each scenario were solved individually since
solution mechanisms are typically fairly similar for common Partial Factor sets.

Figure 30.5: Presentation of results in tabs when multiple scenarios are specified in the Sce-
nario Manager

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 Part V

Appendices

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Appendix A

Verification

A.1 Verification Tests

A list of tests carried out using LimitState:GEO to verify its accuracy against known limit analysis
solutions may be found at the following web page: http://www.limitstate.com/geo/verification.

These tests are run every time the software code is updated, and cover a broad range of
problem types such as footings, retaining walls, slopes, and anchors.

Results are presented in terms of deviation from benchmark collapse load and also in terms of
change in input parameters required for the LimitState:GEO solution to match the benchmark
solution. This latter approach matches a design approach that considers uncertainty in material
parameters. It is particulary relevant where the collapse load is a highly non-linear function of
the soil strength. For example a change in φ0 of 5% can result in a change of footing bearing
capacity by 25% for simple footing problems on cohesionless soil.

The majority of these tests are carried out using the coarse nodal density. In general, even
when using this coarse density, accuracy in most tests varies from exact to ∼ 5% in terms of
the input parameters. Increased accuracy is straightforwardly achieved by increasing the nodal
density.

An animated image and further details of each test including the source of the benchmark can
be obtained by clicking on a hyperlink on the web page. The input file used to generate the test
result may also be downloaded.

A.2 Academic Papers

The following papers may be consulted for comparisons of DLO solutions with known solutions
for the listed topics:

Smith & Gilbert (2007a) Footings on frictional soil, footings on confined layers.

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Smith & Gilbert (2007b) Footings on layered soils, modelling of water pressures in DLO, effect
of water table on bearing capacity of footings.

Smith & Gilbert (2008) Slope stability analysis, footings on slopes.

Lee et al. (2008) Pipeline bearing capacity.

Merifield & Smith (2010) Multi-plate strip anchors.

Clarke et al. (2010) Sheet pile walls.

Other papers that discuss the DLO procedure are listed below:

Gilbert et al. (2009) Plastic Limit Analysis using Discontinuity Layout Optimization (DLO).

Babiker et al. (2010) Application of discontinuity layout optimization to problems involving non-
associative friction.

Gilbert et al. (2010) Application of discontinuity layout optimization to geotechnical limit analy-
sis problems.

Smith & Gilbert (2010a) Advances in Computational Limit State Analysis and Design.

Smith & Gilbert (2010b) Ultimate Limit State design to Eurocode 7 using numerical methods.

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Appendix B

Menu and Toolbar Reference

B.1 General

B.1.1 Scrollbars

Vertical and horizontal scrollbars allow the display area to be shifted in the vertical and horizon-
tal sense respectively.

B.1.2 Current Mouse Position

The coordinates of the mouse are shown in the bottom right hand corner of the screen on the
Status Bar and also in the top left hand corner of the Viewer Pane .

B.1.3 Scrolling Wheels

Many mice are now equipped with a third button that is often used for scrolling whilst browsing
the internet. LimitState:GEO makes use of this additional functionality by allowing the user to
pan and zoom the display:

• To pan, simply press and hold the third button whilst in the display window. Moving the
mouse will now pan the image around the screen.

• To zoom, simply roll the wheel up to zoom out and down to zoom in.

The pan and zoom functions are also accessible via the menu system described in Section
B.3.1 and via keyboard shortcuts (see Section 3.7 and Section 3.8).

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B.2 Menus

B.2.1 File Menu

Figure B.1: The LimitState:GEO File menu

Function Shortcut Description

New Ctrl+N Create a new project.

Open Ctrl+O Open an existing project.

Close Close the current project.

Save Ctrl+S Save the current project.

Save As Ctrl+Shift+S Save the current project under a specified name.

Import... Import predefined Materials (Section 17.11) or problem Ge-

ometry (Section 15.4)

Export... Export problem Materials(Section 17.11) Geometry (Section

25.2) or an Image (Section 25.3) or Animation (Section 25.4)
of the model.

Open recent file Open one of the 5 most recently accessed files.

Exit Ctrl+Q Exit LimitState:GEO.

Table B.1: File menu functions

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B.2.2 Edit Menu

Figure B.2: The LimitState:GEO Edit menu

Function Shortcut Description

Undo Ctrl+Z Step back to the point immediately before the last action was
taken.

Redo Ctrl+Y Redo a previously undone action.

Delete Delete the selected object(s).

Table B.2: Edit menu functions

B.2.3 Select Menu

Figure B.3: The LimitState:GEO Select menu

Function Shortcut Description

Click Select a single object (Section 15.7.1).

Rectangle Select objects within a rectangular area (Section 15.7.2).

Filter... Brings up the Selection Filter dialog (Section 15.7.2), allow-

ing the user to select only Vertices, Boundaries, Solids, Slip-
lines or a combination of these.

Table B.3: Select menu functions

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B.2.4 View Menu

Figure B.4: The LimitState:GEO View menu

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Function Shortcut Description

Zoom  Access the zoom functions (Section 3.7).

Property Editor Toggle the display of the Property Editor (Section 3.10 / Sec-
tion 14.8).

Geometry Editor Toggle the display of the Geometry Editor (Section 14.9).

Output Toggle the display of the Output pane (Section 14.10).

Explorers  Toggle the display of the available Explorers (Section 14.12).

Toolbars  Toggle the display of the available Toolbars (Appendix B.3).

3D View  Choose from a variety of pre-defined 3D camera viewpoints

or toggle the display of the global axis icon.

Show Grid Toggle the display of the Grid (Section 15.3).

Show Nodes Toggle the display of Nodes (Solve or Preview Nodes must
be executed before any effect is seen).

Show Supports Toggle the display of Supports (i.e. Boundary Conditions)

(Chapter 18).

Show Boundaries Toggle the display of Boundaries and Vertices (Section

15.1).

Show Solids Toggle the display of Solids (Section 15.1).

Show Slip-lines Toggle the display of Slip-lines (Section 23.3. Note Solve
must be executed before any effect is seen).

Show Diagrams Toggle the display of post-analysis pressure and force dia-
grams (Section 23.4).

Show Water Table Toggle the display of the Water Table (Section 20.3).

Table B.4: View menu functions

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B.2.5 Draw Menu

Figure B.5: The LimitState:GEO Draw menu

Function Shortcut Description

Construction Line  Display the Construction Line sub-menu (Section 15.5).

From here you can Draw new construction lines or Clear the
current set.

Solid  Display the Solid drawing sub-menu (Section 15.6). From

here you can create new Rectangle or Polygon solids.

Boundary Draw a Boundary line linking two existing Vertices or Bound-

aries (Section 15.6.3).

Vertex Add a Vertex to an existing Boundary line (Section15.6.4).

Water Table Draw a Water Table (Section 20.3).

Settings... Open the Change Snap and Grid Settings dialog (Section
15.3.2.1).

Table B.5: Draw menu functions

B.2.6 Tools Menu

Figure B.6: The LimitState:GEO Tools menu

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Function Shortcut Description

Create New Material... Open the Create New Material dialog (Section 17.10).

Create New Water Open the Create New Water Regime dialog (Section 20.5).
Regime...

Project Details... Open the Project Details dialog (Section 15.3.1).

Preferences... Open the Preferences dialog, where project default settings

can be specified (Section 28.1).

Table B.6: Tools menu functions

B.2.7 Analysis Menu

Figure B.7: The LimitState:GEO Analysis menu

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Function Shortcut Description

Scenario Manager Open the Scenario Manager dialog (Section 30).

Preview Nodes Preview nodes at the current nodal density setting without
solving.

Preview Strength  Preview the distribution of cohesive strength (cu or c0 ) in the

model (Section 17.12).

Preview Water Pres- Preview the distribution of water pressures in the model. (Sec-
sure tion 20.6).

Diagnostics... Open the Diagnostics dialog (Section 22.2.1).

Solve F5 Analyse the current problem (Section 22.3).

Unlock Unlock the project for editing.

Play Animation Animate the critical failure mechanism post solve (Section
23.2).

Report... Open the analysis Report dialog (Chapter 24).

Options... Open the Analysis Options dialog (Section 8.2.3).

Table B.7: Analysis menu functions

B.2.8 Help Menu

Figure B.8: The LimitState:GEO Help menu

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Function Shortcut Description

Help F1 Open the Help dialog (Section 1.5).

Update Check for updates to the software.

License Information... Open the License Information dialog, which displays details
of the license being used and allows the user to change to an
alternative license (Chapter 29).

About Display LimitState:GEO version details.

Table B.8: Help menu functions

B.3 Toolbars

B.3.1 Default Toolbars

By default, the following toolbars are displayed when LimitState:GEO is opened:

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Toolbar Functions

File New / Open / Save (Appendix B.2.1).

Edit Undo / Redo / Delete (Appendix B.2.2).

Cursor Click / Rectangle / Select (Section 15.7).

Zoom / Pan / Rotate 3D (Section 3.7 / Section 3.8).

Draw Rectangle / Polygon / Line / Vertex (Section 15.6).

Horizontal Construction Line / Vertical Construction Line / Custom Con-

struction Line (Section 15.5).

Water Table (Section 20.3).

Analysis Solve / Unlock (Chapter 22).

Analysis Type (Section 8.2).

Animation Magnify Displacements / Play Animation (Section 23.2).

Zoom Zoom All / Zoom In / Zoom Out (Section 3.7).

Show Show Construction Lines / Show Grid (Section 15.5).

Show Nodes / Show Supports / Show Boundaries (Chapter 18 / Section

15.1).

Show Solids (Section 15.1) / Show Loads (Chapter 19) / Show Slip-lines
(Section 23.3).

Show Water Table (Section 20.3) / View 3D.

Table B.9: Default LimitState:GEO toolbars

B.3.2 Optional Toolbars

To access some of the less commonly utilized features of LimitState:GEO, it may be necessary
to open a separate toolbar. To do this, click View and select Toolbars. The option to open the
following is now available:

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Toolbar Functions

Rotate 3D Rotate the problem in 3D or about different axes: Rotate 3D / Rotate About
x / Rotate About y / Rotate About z

View 3D View the problem from different angles: Top / Bottom / Left / Right / Front /
Back

Help Access: Help (Section 1.5) / About

Table B.10: Optional LimitState:GEO toolbars

B.4 Context Menus

Depending upon the position of the cursor, right clicking the mouse within the LimitState:GEO
environment will bring up one of several context menus:

B.4.1 Viewer Pane Context Menu

Right-clicking within the Viewer Pane will bring up the following context menu:

Figure B.9: Viewer Pane context menu

From here, you many of the display-related functions of the toolbars may be easily accessed,
as well as several other independent functions:

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Option Functions

Clear Water Table Removes any user-defined water table from the model (Section 20.3). Note
that this does not remove water regimes from zones or change whether
water is Enabled in the Property Editor.

Clear All Construc- Removes all construction lines from the model (Section 15.5).
tion Lines

Exit Exits the context menu.

Select Switch between Click and Rectangle object selection (Section 15.7).

Pan Pan the model in the Viewer Pane (Section 3.8).

Rotate Rotate the view - either freely or about Cartesian axes (Appendix B.3.2).

Zoom Activate Zoom mode or access the Zoom functions (Section 3.7).

View Select a pre-defined 3D viewpoint, toggle 3D mode or toggle the Global

Axis markers.

Render Switch the quality of the rendering between Normal, Low and High resolu-
tion and Rendered or Wireframe modes. High Render resolution provides
a crisper view but may slow the editing process on older or less powerful
machines.

Save Image Save the current view in raster or vector format (Section 25.3).

Table B.11: Viewer Pane context menu

B.4.2 Toolbar / Property Editor Context Menu

Right-clicking within any toolbar or Property Editor will display the menu shown in Figure B.10:

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Figure B.10: Toolbar / Property Editor context menu

From here, you can toggle the display of the Property Editor (Section 14.8), Output Pane
(Section 14.10), Explorers (Section 14.12) and Toolbars (Section 14.4).

B.4.3 Geometry Object Explorer Context Menu

Right-clicking within any geometry object explorer will display the menu shown in Figure B.11:

Figure B.11: Object Explorer context menu

From here, the functions described in Table B.12 are available:

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Option Shortcut Functions

Copy Details Copy the settings (i.e. row data) for the selected object.

Paste Details Paste row data for the selected object.

Copy CTRL+C Copy data from the selected cells.

Paste CTRL+V Paste data to the selected cells (if a single cell is selected it will
be treated as the top left cell and the data pasted accordingly.

Select All CTRL+A Select the entre table.

Deselect All CTRL+D Deselect the entire table

Table B.12: Geometry object Explorer context menu functions

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Appendix C

Accessing Example Files

To open the specified example file, locate it in:

[ROOT]/example files/

where [ROOT] is the installation path of LimitState:GEO, usually:

C:/Program Files/LimitState/GEO3.4.a /

Alternatively, open the Example Files html page from the LimitState:GEO program menu and
open the file from there:

Start > All Programs > LimitState:GEO 3.4.a > Example Files.

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Appendix D

Derivation of Theory

D.1 Work Done by Cohesion by Rotation of a Log Spiral

The work done W on a 180◦ arc of a log spiral overcoming cohesion c for a relative body rotation
of ω is as follows:

Z π
W = c.ds.(rω cos φ), (D.1)
0

where ds is the arc length. Thus

Z π
W = cω cos φ r.ds. (D.2)
0

Now

r.dψ
cos φ = , (D.3)
ds

where ψ is measured clockwise along the arc from its starting point.

Hence

Z π Z π
W = cω r2 .dψ = cω (r0 eψ tan φ )2 .dψ (D.4)
0 0

π π
e2ψ tan φ
Z 
2 2ψ tan φ 2
W = r0 cω e .dψ = r0 cω (D.5)
0 2 tan φ 0

r0 2 cω  2π tan φ 
W = e −1 (D.6)
2 tan φ

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288 APPENDIX D. DERIVATION OF THEORY

cω cω cωul2
r1 2 − r0 2 =


W = (r1 − r0 ) l = (D.7)
2 tan φ 2 tan φ tan φ
.

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Appendix E

Interpolated Grid

E.1 Grid Square Interpolation

LimitState:GEO has the option to use bilinear grid interpolation to determine strength (Section
17.4.4) and water pressure (Section 20.5.1.3) values throughout a zone.

The interpolation is carried out using grid squares or rectangles on a 2D Cartesian mesh with
values defined at corner points. For a grid square with corners (x1 , y1 ) − (x2 , y1 ) − (x2 , y2 ) −
(x1 , y2 ) (Figure E.1), suppose it is required to determine the value of a function f (x, y), given
that the values of f are known at the four corners.

Figure E.1: Bilinear interpolation on a grid to determine the value of f (x, y)

Firstly an interpolation is carried out in the x-direction:

x2 − x x − x1
f (x, y1 ) ≈ f (x1 , y1 ) + f (x2 , y1 ), (E.1)
x2 − x1 x2 − x1
x2 − x x − x1
f (x, y2 ) ≈ f (x1 , y2 ) + f (x2 , y2 )
x2 − x1 x2 − x1

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290 APPENDIX E. INTERPOLATED GRID

Secondly, an interpolation is carried out in the y-direction:

y2 − y y − y1
f (x, y) ≈ f (x, y1 ) + f (x, y2 ) (E.2)
y2 − y1 y2 − y1

Substituting the original x-direction interpolation terms (E.1) into E.2 provides the required es-
timate of f (x, y):
f (x1 ,y1 )
f (x, y) ≈ (x2 −x1 )(y2 −y1 ) (x2 − x)(y2 − y) (E.3)
f (x2 ,y1 )
+ (x2 −x 1 )(y2 −y1 )
(x − x1 )(y2 − y)
f (x1 ,y2 )
+ (x2 −x 1 )(y2 −y1 )
(x2 − x)(y − y1 )
f (x2 ,y2 )
+ (x2 −x 1 )(y2 −y1 )
(x − x1 )(y − y1 )

The same result is obtained if the interpolation is carried out in the y and then x-direction.
Assuming the following:
x − x1
x̂ = (E.4)
x2 − x1

y − y1
ŷ = (E.5)
y2 − y1

E.3 can be re-written so that E.4 and E.5 each lie between 0 and 1:

f = f (x1 , y1 )(1 − x̂)(1 − ŷ) + f (x2 , y1 )x̂(1 − ŷ) + f (x1 , y2 )(1 − x̂)ŷ + f (x2 , y2 )x̂ŷ (E.6)

which can be restated as:

f = C1 + C2 (x − x1 ) + C3 (y − y1 ) + C4 (x − x1 )(y − y1 ) (E.7)

where

C1 = f (x1 , y1 ) (E.8)

f (x2 , y1 ) − f (x1 , y1 )
C2 = (E.9)
x2 − x1

f (x1 , y2 ) − f (x1 , y1 )
C3 = (E.10)
y2 − y1

f (x1 , y1 ) − f (x2 , y1 ) − f (x1 , y2 ) + f (x2 , y2 )

C4 = (E.11)
(x2 − x1 )(y2 − y1 )
.

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Appendix F

Command-Line Interface

F.1 Introduction

The LimitState:GEO command-line interface add-in allows users to run the software and / or
change problem parameters from a command prompt or batch file. This is especially useful
when conducting parametric studies, generating interaction diagrams or when needing to run a
sequence of analyses on a PC unattended (e.g. if models are particularly large).

Parametric studies With the command-line interface, users can modify a wide range of pa-
rameters in a single LimitState:GEO model without the need to manually edit a file or
group of files. This allows parametric studies to be conducted quickly and with minimum
user intervention. Full reports and solution files are automatically generated, as well
as individual input files corresponding to each parameter change, so the results can be
queried in detail.

Unattended analyses When a large number of analyses need to be run, and the operator cant
be present to inspect and/or save the results, a simple batch file can be created to run
LimitState:GEO command-line instructions, and to undertake a sequence of unattended
analyses.

F.2 License Requirements

In order to run LimitState:GEO from the command-line, the user must first have access to
a license that enables the use of this mode. To check that the type of license held allows
command-line usage, go to Help > License information and see that the text of the license
includes:

options="command line"

Note that other options, relating to other add-in modules, may also be enabled.

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292 APPENDIX F. COMMAND-LINE INTERFACE

F.3 File Format

LimitState:GEO project files (.geo) are saved in compressed Extensible Markup Language for-
mat (XML - see here ). As such, they can be uncompressed (using a tool installed with Lim-
itState:GEO) and the contents inspected in order to determine the descriptors used to assign
properties to different materials, geometry objects etc. Figure F.1 shows an example section of
XML from a LimitState:GEO file, describing a material (Soil A):

Figure F.1: Definition of a LimitState:GEO material in uncompressed XML.

It can be seen that the properties of ‘Soil A’ are set using simple descriptors such as undrained-
Cohesion or saturatedUnitWeight. These can be used in the command-line interface when
modifying the properties they are associated with. Short versions of the most commonly-used
of these descriptors (e.g. cu or satuw ) are also available - these are outlined in Section F.9.

F.3.1 Uncompressing Files

To uncompress a LimitState:GEO file, select and right click with the mouse. The option to
Convert to XML will be displayed in the context menu. Select this and the file will be converted
and a copy saved in the same location with the suffix ‘UnCompressed’ e.g. ‘testFile.geo’ will be
uncompressed and saved as ‘testFileUnCompressed.geo’. The file can then be read into any
text editing software (e.g. MS Notepad).

Alternatively, files can be uncompressed from the command line (see Section F.9.1).

Note that:

1. LimitState:GEO files cannot be uncompressed using standard compression software.

2. A license is not required in order to access the convert functionality.

F.4 Input

Running LimitState:GEO from the command-line requires a valid LimitState:GEO (.geo) input
file.

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F.5 Units

LimitState:GEO files store all data in metric units (metres, kilonewtons etc.), irrespective of the
unit system used in GUI mode. Therefore, any modifications made to the input must be carried
out using metric units.

F.6 Output

The output from running a LimitState:GEO analysis from the command-line includes on-screen
information and a number of files which can be enabled or disabled as required.

F.6.0.1 On-Screen Output

Typical on-screen output from the command-line is shown in Figure F.2. Note that verbose
output will be given if this is set in GUI mode, otherwise, brief solve information will be displayed.

Figure F.2: Typical LimitState:GEO command-line output (verbose).

Diagnostic messages Informs the user how many diagnostic ‘information’ or ‘warning’ mes-
sages are encountered before solve. If an ‘error’ is encountered then the file will not solve.
If the file is being solved as part of a batch command, the next command in the list will be
executed [shown by default].

Scen. The scenario number [shown by default].

P.F. The partial factor set being used [shown by default].

Iterat. The iteration number. Numbers with ‘fltr’ after them signify that the iteration includes a
step to filter crossover points between slip-lines and add a new node at this position.

Var. The number of variables in the LP matrix at this iteration.

Con. The number of constraints in the LP matrix at this iteration.

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A.L. The calculated adequacy factor on load(s) [shown by default for a factor load(s) analysis].

A.S. The calculated adequacy factor on strength(s) [shown by default for a factor strength(s)
analysis].

Viol% The maximum percentage violation of the slip-line adding condition at this iteration.

Var add The number of variables added to the LP matrix at this iteration.

Con add The number of constraints added to the LP matrix at this iteration.

Time The time taken (in seconds) to solve this iteration.

F.6.0.2 File Output

By default, if running the file ‘test.geo’ without any modifications to the model properties, the
output will be:

test.txt A text file containing the solution output from the analysis. All data that would normally
appear in the Output window when in GUI mode will be written to this file. In the event of
a crash, all data up to that point will be saved. Note, however, that the data on the file is
overwritten on each Solve.

test.rtf An editable report corresponding to the analysis (the content included in the report can
also be specified by the user).

If running ‘test.geo’ with modifications to properties, a LimitState:GEO file containing the modi-
fications will also be output by default:

test <SUFFIX>.geo A LimitState:GEO file including any modifications made.

<SUFFIX> will be replaced by automatically generated text describing to any modifications

made or suffix text specified by the user as a command-line argument.

Additionally, but not by default, a comma separated solution file may also be output. This will
aggregate the relevant analysis output (date and time, solution, input file name, modifications)
from one or more analyses if specified:

Note that:

• The .geo, .txt and .rtf output files will be saved in the same directory as the original input
file, not the directory from which LimitState:GEO is called. Write permissions are required
in this output directory, otherwise output will not be saved.

• All paths containing a space should be enclosed in quotation marks when entered into
the command-line interface.

• Once an analysis has been initiated, the user is free to use the command-line for other
tasks. The analysis will continue to run and output will be sent to the screen and the
solution files saved as normal.

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F.7 Running

To run LimitState:GEO from the command-line, first open a command prompt.

All calls to run the software from the command line must be made from within the ‘bin’ folder in
the LimitState:GEO installation directory (if the full path is to be omitted) or include the relative
or full path to the executable from the current directory. Similarly, filenames must be preceded
by the path if not present in the calling directory.

Note that LimitState:GEO is not added to the ‘Path’ in the Environment Variables of the machine
it is installed on. Adding it will allow command line calls to be made without the requirement to
include the full path to the executable file in the call.

F.8 Help

To access the command-line interface help documentation, open a command-line window, nav-
igate to the directory containing the LimitState:GEO executable and enter:

> geo -help

F.9 Syntax

The syntax for running LimitState:GEO via the command-line takes the following form:

> <APPLICATION> [OPTIONS] <INPUT FILE>

Where:

< APPLICATION > is the path to, and name of, the LimitState:GEO executable file.

[ OPTIONS ] are optional parameters that influence the nature and output of the analysis.

[ INPUT FILE ] is the name of the LimitState:GEO input file.

A typical command-line call might read:

> geo -property:undrainedCohesion:44=30 -execute -suffix:" my test" test.geo

or, using short commands:

> geo -p:cu:44=30 -x -sf:" my test" test.geo

Entering either of these commands would execute test.geo with the undrained cohesion (cu ) of
a material set to 30kPa. The output files will be saved with the suffix ” my test”. Object keys
are discussed further in Section F.9.2.

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F.9.1 Options Syntax

After specifying the application name, the user has a number of options to choose from. These
are primarily concerned with the properties of the file during analysis and the output generated
after it is analysed. Each option has a long and a short A full list of available options is given in
Table G.1:

Option Short Default? Description

-open -o * Opens the specified file.
-property -p Modify a property of the problem.
-execute -x Solve the problem.
-save -s * (if file modified) Save the (modified) input file.
-no save -ns DO NOT save the input file.
-report -r * (if file modified) Save the report output (.rtf) from the
analysis.
-no report -nr DO NOT save the report output from the
analysis.
-log -l * (if file modified) Save an output file (.txt) containing the
analysis data.
-no log -nl DO NOT save an output file containing
the analysis data.
-sol file -sl Save a solution file (.csv) containing the
most important details from one or more
analyses.
-suffix -sf Add user-defined suffix text to the files
output from the analysis.
-version -v Displays the version number of the copy
of LimitState:GEO that is being used.
-uncomp -u Uncompress the named LimitState:GEO
file.
-comp -c Compress the named LimitState:GEO
file.

Table F.1: Command-line options.

F.9.1.1 The Solution File

The -sol file (-sf) option specifies that a comma-separated value (.csv) solution file con-
taining the most relevant analysis data is to be created (or added to if it already exists). The
data included in the file is:

Date and time The date and time that the analysis was started

Adequacy factor The calculated adequacy factor for the solved problem

File name The name of the solved file

Modifications A list of the modifications made to the file

The solution file will, by default, be saved in the directory where the LimitState:GEO executable
lies. This allows data from multiple input files to be collated in an easily identified location (espe-
cially useful if running a batch file). The user can specify an alternative location for the solution

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file if required (see below). Write permissions are required in the save directory, otherwise
output will not be saved.

Saving a solution file requires a file name to be specified, the syntax is as follows:

-sol file:"<SOLUTION FILE NAME>"

Where <SOLUTION FILE NAME> is the path and name of the solution file (including the .csv
extension). For example, to execute a file named ‘test.geo’ and log the analysis in
"C:\Users\AnneEngineer\My Documents\geo log.csv" enter:

> geo -x -sl:"C:\Users\AnneEngineer\My Documents\geo log.csv" test.geo

If the solution file does not already exist, it will be created containing a header line describing
the contents of the file.

F.9.2 Object Keys

Modifying any property relies on knowing the appropriate Object Key. These, along with ac-
cess to the command-line functionality, are available to users holding an appropriate license.

Object Keys are unique numerical identifiers for the individual parts (materials, geometry ob-
jects etc.) of a LimitState:GEO project that, when used on the command-line, will allow mod-
ification of the value for a particular property of said part. Project-level properties can also be
edited using the command-line interface but require no Object Key.

The syntax for modifying any property with an object key is:

-p:<PROPERTY>[:<KEY>]=<VALUE>

For example, revisiting the command-line call from Section F.9:

> geo -p:cu:44=30 -x -sf: my test test.geo

Here, the undrained cohesion (cu ) of the material with Object Key 44 is modified.

Object Keys are displayed in the Property Editor when in GUI mode. They are hidden by
default - to show them, go to Tools > Preferences > General and select the option to Show
additional Property Editor attributes. Figure F.3 shows the Object Keys displayed in the
Property Editor for a selected Solid object. Note that the Materials field for the object is
expanded, showing the Object Key associated with the material present in the Solid.

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Figure F.3: Object keys for a selected solid and it’s constituent material, displayed in the Limit-
State:GEO Property Editor

When directly examining the XML code for a file, the object keys are specified by the text as:

k="<a number>"

For example:

k="268" is the key for the solid highlighted in Figure F.3

The properties that can be altered using Object Keys fall in to the following categories:

• Project properties

• Scenario properties

• Material properties

• Water regime properties

• Loading

• Geometry

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F.10 Properties

The following sections detail some of the more commonly used properties that can be modified
using the command-line. Many have short codes that are used to represent longer property
names as seen in the XML. Not all properties are listed - others can be identified by examining
the uncompressed XML directly.

F.10.1 Project Properties

In GUI mode, the project-level Object Key will be displayed in the Property Editor but it is not
necessary to use this with command-line options in order to force a change.

Short Name XML Property Name Allowed Values Description

refinement refinement Any number Determines how closely the nodes
are spaced during an analysis.
rotate rotationFlag 0 or 1 Specify whether or not rotational fail-
ure mechanisms should be mod-
elled. 0=Translational failures only,
1=Rotational and translational fail-
ures.
water isWaterTableActive true / false Indicates whether water is taken into
account during the analysis.
seisacch seismicHorizAccel Any number Horizontal base acceleration (units:
g). Specify a positive value for a left-
to-right base acceleration.
seisaccv seismicVertAccel Any number Vertical base acceleration (units: g).
Specify a positive value for a upward
base acceleration.
seisaqv seismicVertAccelAdequacy true / false Whether or not the adequacy factor
is to be applied to the specified ver-
tical base acceleration.
seisaqh seismicHorizAccelAdequacy true / false Whether or not the adequacy factor
is to be applied to the specified hori-
zontal base acceleration.

Table F.2: Common properties accessible when modifying Project properties using the
command-line interface.

F.10.2 Scenario Properties

In GUI mode, the Object Key associated with each Scenario will be displayed in the relevant
heading in the Scenario Manager table.

Note that a new Scenario is only created once the OK button has been pressed. Therefore, to
determine the Object Key for a newly-created Scenario, it is necessary to press OK and then
re-open the Scenario Manager dialog.

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Short Name XML Property Name Allowed Values Description

drained isLongTerm True / False When a long term (typically drained)
analysis is being performed, this
should be set to ’True’.

Table F.3: Common properties accessible when modifying Scenario properties using the
command-line interface.

F.10.3 Material Properties

In GUI mode, the Object Key associated with each material can be accessed in the Property
Editor by clicking the appropriate icon in the Materials Explorer or by selecting a Boundary
or Solid object containing the material of interest.

Note that, when examining the XML source, the Object Key that needs to be used to affect
any material modifications is that associated with the <eng physicalDefinition>. For
example, when modifying the material ‘Soil A’ described in Figure F.1, the Object Key required
is k="43", eg:

<eng PhysicalDefinition isUsed="true" color="110, 128, 71, 255">

clf Object k="43" P="1" C="Soil A"/>
</eng PhysicalDefinition>

F.10.3.1 Mohr-Coulomb Materials

Short Name XML Property Name Allowed Values Description

cdash drainedCohesion Any number c0 , drained cohesion intercept.
phidash drainedPhi Any number φ0 , drained angle of shearing resistance.
cu undrainedCohesion Any number cu , undrained shear strength.
uw uW Any number Unit weight of material located above the
water table and in a zone where no water
regime is applied .
satuw saturatedUnitWeight Any number Unit weight of material located below the
water table or within a zone containing a
water regime.
drain drainageBehaviour ”Drained/undrained”, Determines the behaviour of the material
”Always drained”, in long and short term analysis modes.
”Always undrained”

Table F.4: Common properties accessible when modifying Mohr-Coulomb materials using the
command-line interface.

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F.10.3.2 Derived Mohr-Coulomb Properties

Short Name XML Property Name Allowed Values Description

master master Any valid Object key The Object Key of the Mohr-Coulomb
material that is to act as the parent ma-
terial.
cmult CohesionMultiplier Any number The factor by which parent cu and c0 val-
ues are multiplied by for this material.
phimult tanPhiMultiplier Any number The factor by which parent tanφ0 values
are multiplied by for this material.
drain drainageBehaviour ”Drained/undrained”, Determines the behaviour of the material
”Always drained”, in long and short term analysis modes.
”Always undrained”

Table F.5: Common properties accessible when modifying Derived Mohr-Coulomb materials
using the command-line interface.

F.10.3.3 Cutoff Material Properties

Short Name XML Property Name Allowed Values Description

csig limitingCompressiveStress Any number Limiting compressive stress.
tsig limitingTensileStress Any number Limiting tensile stress.
uw uW Any number Unit weight of material located above the
water table and in a zone where no water
regime is applied.
satuw saturatedUnitWeight Any number Unit weight of material located below the
water table or within a zone containing a
water regime.

Table F.6: Common properties accessible when modifying Cutoff materials using the command-
line interface.

F.10.3.4 Rigid Material Properties

Short Name XML Property Name Allowed Values Description

uw uW Any number Unit weight of material located above the
water table and in a zone where no water
regime is applied.
satuw saturatedUnitWeight Any number Unit weight of material located below the
water table or within a zone containing a
water regime.

Table F.7: Common properties accessible when modifying Rigid materials using the command-
line interface.

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F.10.3.5 Engineered Element Properties

Short Name XML Property Name Allowed Values Description

tc slipFactor Any number Pullout Factor, Tc used to compute the
pullout resistance (T ) of the element.
tq slipFactorStressMultiplier Any number Pullout Factor, Tq used to compute the
pullout resistance (T ) of the element.
nc bearingFactor Any number Lateral Factor, Nc used to compute the
resistance (N ) of the element to lateral
displacement.
nq bearingFactorStressMultiplier Any number Lateral Factor, Nq used to compute the
resistance (N ) of the element to lateral
displacement.
mp mp Any number Plastic moment of resistance.
tlim tensileLimit Any number R, rupture strength. Maximum tensile
force that can be carried by the element.
clim compLimit Any number C, undrained shear strength. Maximum
compressive force that can be carried by
the element.
subdiv isFailureBetweenVertices true, false Specify whether or not to automatically
subdivide the Engineered Element at in-
termediate nodes. (ADVANCED)

Table F.8: Common properties accessible when modifying Engineered Element materials using
the command-line interface.

F.10.4 Water Regime Properties

In GUI mode, the Object Key associated with each water regime can be accessed in the
Property Editor by clicking the appropriate icon in the Materials Explorer or by selecting a
Solid object containing the regime of interest.

Note that, when examining the XML source, the Object Key that needs to be used to affect any
water regime modifications, like for materials, is that associated with the <eng physicalDefinition>.
For example, consider the following XML code:

<eng PhysicalDefinition isUsed="true" color="215, 253, 253, 255">

clf Object k="471" P="1" C="Constant Potential A"/>
</eng PhysicalDefinition>

To modify ‘Constant Potential A’, the Object Key required is k="471".

F.10.4.1 Aquiclude Properties

The Aquiclude water regime type contains no commonly modified properties.

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F.10.4.2 Constant Potential Properties

Short Name XML Property Name Allowed Values Description

pot potential Any number Potential of water relative to Datum (Da-
tum is defined in the Project level Prop-
erty Editor).
gammaw gammaWFactor Any number Factor on the unit weight of water. This
can be used to model different fluids or
model e.g. vertical flow of water.

Table F.9: Common properties accessible when modifying Constant Potential water regimes
using the command-line interface.

F.10.4.3 Constant Pressure Properties

Short Name XML Property Name Allowed Values Description

press constantPressure Any number Constant pore pressure to be applied to
a zone. This can be used to model e.g.
dry soil (pressure = 0.0) or a fixed soil
suction (-ve pressure).

Table F.10: Common properties accessible when modifying Constant Pressure water regimes
using the command-line interface.

F.10.4.4 Interpolated Grid Properties

Short Name XML Property Name Allowed Values Description

xorig xOrigin Any number The x position of the origin of the water
pressure grid.
yorig yOrigin Any number The y position of the origin of the water
pressure grid.
x x Any number The x position of a value in the grid.
y y Any number The y position of a value in the grid.
val value Any number The value of the water pressure.

Table F.11: Common properties accessible when modifying Interpolated Grid water regimes
using the command-line interface.

F.10.5 Boundary Object Properties

Loads applied to Boundary objects are split into three types - Permanent, Variable and Ac-
cidental. Each load has a unique Object Key (not to be confused with that of the boundary
itself), which can be accessed in the Property Editor by clicking the appropriate Boundary
and expanding the Load fields.

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304 APPENDIX F. COMMAND-LINE INTERFACE

Short Name XML Property Name Allowed Values Description

shear FX Any number The stress applied along the local x axis
of the Boundary (i.e. the Shear load).
norm FY Any number The stress applied along the local y axis
of the Boundary (i.e. the Normal load)
aq adequacy true, false Set this to ’true’ to include this load dur-
ing the computation of the global prob-
lem adequacy factor.

Table F.12: Common properties accessible when modifying boundary loading using the
command-line interface.

A number of non-loading options are also available:

Short Name XML Property Name Allowed Values Description

resx ResX Any number The baseline nodal spacing between
nodes along the Boundary.
supp SupportType Free, Fixed, Sym- Defines the type of support given to this
metry boundary.

Table F.13: Common properties accessible when modifying boundaries using the command-
line interface.

F.10.6 Solid Object Properties

Loading from Solid objects is considered to act in the vertical, downwards direction (i.e. with
gravity). As with boundary loading, self-weight loading from Solid objects can be set as being
favourable (increasing the adequacy factor) or unfavourable (decreasing the adequacy factor).
The Object Key associated with the self-weight loading can be accessed in the Property
Editor by clicking the appropriate Solid and expanding the appropriate Self-Weight Loading
row.

Short Name XML Property Name Allowed Values Description

aq adequacy true, false Set this to ’true’ to include this self-
weight during the computation of the
global problem adequacy factor.

Table F.14: Common properties accessible when modifying solid self-weight loading using the
command-line interface.

A number of non-loading options are also available:

Short Name XML Property Name Allowed Values Description

resx ResX Any number The baseline nodal spacing between
nodes in the x direction.
resy ResY Any number The baseline nodal spacing between
nodes in the y direction.

Table F.15: Common properties accessible when modifying solid objects using the command-
line interface.

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APPENDIX F. COMMAND-LINE INTERFACE 305

F.10.6.1 Geometry Properties

The position of any Vertex in the problem can be modified using the command-line. The Object
Key can be accessed in the Property Editor by clicking the appropriate Vertex.

Short Name XML Property Name Allowed Values Description

x x Any number Defines the x coordinate of the vertex.
y y Any number Defines the y coordinate of the vertex.

Table F.16: Common properties accessible when modifying solid self-weight loading using the
command-line interface.

F.10.7 Examples

To open a file named ‘test.geo’ that is located in the current directory, enter:
> geo test.geo

To execute a file named ‘test.geo’ that is located in the current directory, but not save the report
output, enter:
> geo -x -nr test.geo

To modify the undrained cohesion of a material in file ‘test.geo’, execute and save the default
output files with the suffix ‘ mod cohesion’, enter:
> geo -p:cu:44=35 -x -sf:" mod cohesion" test.geo

To modify the undrained cohesion of a material in file ‘test.geo’, execute, save the default output
files and also output a solution file named ‘solution file.csv’, enter:
> geo -p:cu:44=35 -x -sl:"solution file.csv" test.geo

To modify the value of a constant potential water regime (with key=76) in file ‘test.geo’, execute
and save the output files with the default suffix (which would be, in this case, ”pot:76=1.5”)
enter:
> geo -p:cu:76=1.5 -x test.geo

To modify the loading on e.g. the footing in a file named ‘footing.geo’, execute and save only
the modified input file, enter:
> geo -p:shear:100=1.25 -x -nr -nl footing.geo

To modify the loading on the footing in a file named ‘footing.geo’, change the support type of
the boundary with key=257, execute and save the default output files, enter:
> geo -p:shear:100=1.25 -p:supp:257=Fixed -x footing.geo

To set the adequacy on the self-weight of a solid body (with key=83) to ‘true’ in file ‘test.geo’
and make the analysis drained, enter:
> geo -p:aq:83=true drained=True -x test.geo

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306 APPENDIX F. COMMAND-LINE INTERFACE

F.11 Creating and Running a Batch File

In addition to single command-line calls, it is possible to run LimitState:GEO from a batch file.
This allows multiple files to be amended and solved without the requirement to be present at
the machine.

To create a batch file, open a text editor such as MS Notepad and enter the commands. Save
the file with the extension ‘.bat’ while ensuring that the ‘Save type’ is set to ‘All files (*.*)’.

To run the batch file, open a command prompt in the location of the file and enter the name,
followed by the .bat extension.

At its simplest, the syntax of a batch file need only resemble a number of individual command-
line calls on separate lines, for example, see Figure F.4, which shows a batch file for running
‘test.geo’ with undrained cohesion varying between 30 and 40 kPa in steps of 2kPa:

Figure F.4: Example batch file modifying the undrained cohesion of a material.

Alternatively, for those familiar with batch file programming, other commands can be introduced.
For example, the commands in Figure F.4 can be replaced with a single-line ‘FOR loop’ as in
Figure F.5:

Figure F.5: Example ‘FOR loop’ batch file modifying the undrained cohesion of a material.

c LimitState Ltd
Appendix G

Benchmark Solutions

G.1 Introduction

This appendix contains the derivation of selected closed form solutions that are unavailable in
the literature, but are used as verification tests (see Appendix A).

G.2 Simple Soil Nail in Retaining Wall (Undrained)

Figure G.1: Reinforcing element (soil nail) in retaining wall (undrained case)

In Figure G.1, let the wall displace to the left by a distance δ. Take the unit weight (weight
density) of the soil as γ and the undrained shear strength of the soil be cu . Let Tw be the
pullout resistance per unit length in the wall, Nw the lateral resistance per unit length in the
wall, Ts be the pullout resistance per unit length in the soil, and Ns the lateral resistance per
unit length in the soil. The wall rests on a smooth foundation and has a smooth interface with
the soil. Assume that the failure mechanism consists of a simple 45◦ sliding wedge as depicted
i.e. that the values of Ts and Ns are small enough not to influence the failure mode, and that
the reinforcement moves with the wall i.e. that the values of Tw and Nw are large enough to
ensure the reinforcement remains locked within the wall.

Work equation:

307
308 APPENDIX G. BENCHMARK SOLUTIONS

1 2 √ √
γh δ = cu 2h 2δ + xTs δ + lNs δ (G.1)
2

If the reinforcement is placed at mid depth in the wall then l = h/2. Thus:

cu x Ns
γ=4 + 2Ts 2 + (G.2)
h h h

A selection of sample solutions are presented in Table G.1.

cu h Ts Ns x γ

1.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.25 4.0

1.0 1.0 0.1 0.0 0.25 4.05

1.0 1.0 0.1 1.0 0.25 5.05

Table G.1: Solutions to equation G.2

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Appendix H

Frequently Asked Questions

1. Is the Adequacy Factor calculated by LimitState:GEO the same as the ‘Factor of Safety’
calculated by other software?

In LimitState:GEO, an Adequacy Factor may be applied to any load or to the

self weight of any body of material. The Adequacy Factor that is returned by
LimitState:GEO when it has completed solving is the factor by which all the
specified loads/self weights must be multiplied by to cause collapse. The Ade-
quacy Factor is similar to a Factor of Safety on load. However in geotechnics,
the Factor of Safety is often a value applied to the material strengths (cu and
tanφ). In this case the Adequacy Factor is not the same as the Factor of Safety.

2. How do I change the accuracy of the solution?

Solution accuracy in LimitState:GEO is modified by changing the nodal resolu-

tion. This in turn alters the number and range of the set of potential slip-lines
from which the solver will select the critical solution. Increasing the nodal reso-
lution will increase the solution accuracy (except in rare cases - see FAQ later
in this section). Further information on changing the nodal resolution may be
found in Section 22.3.2.

3. I should get a symmetrical failure mode but I don’t, or the slip-lines are symmetrical but
the animation is not.

For certain classes of problems (e.g. certain bearing capacity problems) the
plastic collapse load for a symmetrical failure mechanism is identical to an
asymmetrical mechanism. In many cases LimitState:GEO will generate the
symmetrical failure mechanism, however any asymmetry in the initial set up
may skew the result to the asymmetrical case (but generate the same collapse
load). Were the problem geometry is symmetrical, the most likely cause of
asymmetry will be due to numerical tolerance issues.

4. How accurate is LimitState:GEO?

This is a common issue for numerical analysis codes. Uncertainties exist all the
way through geotechnical design calculations from the site investigation data
through to construction. The common question at the stage of the numeri-
cal calculation is ‘what is the accuracy’. This depends on two issues: (1) the

309
310 APPENDIX H. FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS

theoretical model underpinning the numerical analysis (2) the accuracy of the
numerical method itself.
The theoretical model underpinning the numerical analysis is the theory of
plasticity which has had a long history of application in Geotechnical Design.
The majority of text book stability calculations are based on this theory or on
simplifications of this theory (see Section 5.2). Selected known issues with limit
analysis are discussed in Section 7.
LimitState:GEO is regularly benchmarked against a known set of limit anal-
ysis solutions from the literature. These tests are described in more detail in
Appendix A and may be accessed via the internet. Reference to these results
can provide useful guidance as to the expected accuracy of the software over
a range of problem types.
Accuracy does of course depend on nodal resolution. The core analysis
method used in LimitState:GEO is based on finding the critical translational
mechanism that will cause collapse. For a wide range of problem types this
leads to good results. For problems where rotational failure mechanisms are
likely to be critical (e.g. consider a wall rotating around a pivot), LimitState:GEO
currently provides the (optional) capability to model rotations at the edges of
pre-defined solid objects. However, though this will lead to a more conservative
prediction of the collapse load, as rotations are not permitted to occur within
pre-defined solid objects, in certain highly confined problems this may still over-
estimate the true collapse load significantly. Further details regarding solution
accuracy may be found in Section 8.4.
5. I have made a change to the problem geometry that should theoretically have no effect
on the collapse load, yet the adequacy factor computed by LimitState:GEO has changed.
Why is this?
This is a common issue that relates to the nodal distribution used in the model.
It should in general only result in small (a few %) change in adequacy factor.
The default setting for LimitState:GEO is to utilise a fixed number of nodes for
the problem. If the geometry is altered, for example by deleting a body of soil
that plays no part in the collapse mechanism, then the nodes that would have
been placed in this body are redistributed elsewhere and should increase the
accuracy of the solution (cause a minor reduction in adequacy factor). Nodes
are also used on boundaries and with the water table, so modification of these
can lead to similar issues. To avoid this issue, change the nodal settings in
LimitState:GEO to fixed spacing rather than a a constant overall number. For
further details concerning setting nodal spacing see Section 22.3.2.
6. I have increased the number of nodes but the adequacy factor has increased rather than
decreased.
This will normally only occur when a coarse nodal resolution is being used.
With a small increase in the number of nodes, the available slip-line locations
may move to slightly less favourable locations for collapse, thus leading to an
increase in adequacy factor. A large increase in nodal resolution should lead to
the expected decrease in adequacy factor.
7. I am benchmarking LimitState:GEO results against known precise solutions, but am un-
able to get a good match.
Some problems e.g. the bearing capacity problem in cohesionless soils are ex-
tremely sensitive to change in parameters. A change in the angle of shearing

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APPENDIX H. FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS 311

resistance by a few degrees can double the capacity in certain circumstances.

The results generated by LimitState:GEO are subject to similar sensitivity. A
more logical question to ask is what is the change in input soil strength param-
eters required to generate the result produced by LimitState:GEO. Considered
this way, the discrepancies become much smaller (typically of the order of a few
percent). For further discussion of this issue see Section 8.4.

8. Can LimitState:GEO model 1D structural elements or loads?

LimitState:GEO works in general with 2D bodies. To model what is essentially

a 1D strut or rod that is able to transmit loads, there are two options: (i) it can
be represented as a thin 2D Solid (ii) It can be modelled as a Engineered
Element.

9. What units does LimitState:GEO work in?

LimitState:GEO is designed to work in either Metric or Imperial units and these

are displayed in the Wizards, Property Editor, and Reports. If parameters are
only known in other units, then the built in Calculator provided common con-
versions for all relevant units.

10. I think I have set the problem geometry and loads up correctly, but the problem will not
solve

This is typically due to one of two problems:

• The problem is geometrically locked. Either there is nowhere for the soil to
deform into or the soil has a high angle of shearing resistance and no feasi-
ble mechanism can be found for the given number of nodes. To correct this
problem,check that the boundary conditions are correctly specified and/or
increase the number of nodes. The problem can also arise when a slope is
modelled that is shallower than the angle of shearing resistance of the soil.
In this case no factor on self weight will cause collapse.
• There is no fixed (or possibly symmetry) boundary to which the soil is an-
chored. Any applied load thus cause the whole soil mass to fly off into
space. To correct this problem, check that there is at least one fixed bound-
ary (in certain circumstances a symmetry boundary condition can fulfil this
function, in that it is, in effect, a fixed but perfectly smooth boundary). The
problem can also arise when a slope is modelled that is steeper than the
angle of shearing resistance of the soil. In this case no factor on self weight
can prevent collapse.
Further guidance on Troubleshooting problems can be found in Section 8.6.

11. How do I model tension cracks?

LimitState:GEO provides a tension cutoff material type. This can be assigned to

either Boundaries and Solids. A tension cutoff might be added to a Boundary
of a footing for example to permit breakaway of a cohesive soil from the footing.
Assigning tension cutoff to a Solid permits tension cracks to form within a body
of soil. This might be used for example in a slope stability analaysis. Further
information on the tension cutoff material type may be found in Section 6.1.3.

12. Can LimitState:GEO model water filled tension cracks?

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312 APPENDIX H. FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS

If a water table lies above any crack that forms, then LimitState:GEO will as-
sume that the crack fills with water and will apply water pressures to the side of
the crack. The crack will therefore normally be longer in this case compared to
a case with no water present. It is not necessary for the crack to extend to the
surface for it to fill with water.

13. Can LimitState:GEO model rotational failures about a single point?

Yes. For example, if you want to model a retaining wall failing by rotation about
a single point, LimitState:GEO allows you to do this by placing the retaining
wall on a rigid material and applying a ’No-tension cutoff’ material in the inter-
face between the wall and the rigid base. Assuming ’Allow rotations’ is set to
’Along edges’, then this setup will normally ensure a rotational failure mode is
predicted.

14. I have checked the free body diagrams in the Report and find that adjacent blocks do not
seem to be in equilibrium.

This can occur in rare situations in which a water table is present and in which
the Adequacy factor is applied to a body self weight in only part of the problem.
Where the Adequacy factor is applied to the self weight of body, then Limit-
State:GEO applies it to both the self weight and the water pressures in that
body. However if the water pressures are factored only in one part of the prob-
lem (i.e. where the Adequacy factor is applied) these will not be in equilibrium
with water pressures in the other part of the problem (unless the Adequacy
factor = 1.0). For this reason it is not recommended that the Adequacy factor
is applied to the self weight of isolated bodies. Further discussion of this issue
is given in Section 8.2.5.1.

c LimitState Ltd
Bibliography

Babiker, A., Smith, C. & Gilbert, M. 2010 Application of discontinuity layout optimization to
problems involving non-associative friction, Proc. 7th European Conference in Numerical
Methods in Geotechnical Engineering, Trondheim, pp. 45–50.
BSI 1994 BS 8002:1994 Code of practice for earth retaining structures. British Standards Insti-
tute.
Chen, W.-F. 2008 Limit analysis and soil plasticity. Elsevier.
Chen, W.-F. & Liu, X. 1990 Limit analysis in soil mechanics. Elsevier.
Clarke, S., Smith, C. & Gilbert, M. 2010 Analysis of the stability of sheet pile walls using discon-
tinuity layout optimization, Proc. 7th European Conference in Numerical Methods in Geotech-
nical Engineering, Trondheim, pp. 163–168.
Coulomb, C. A. 1776 Essai sur une application des regeles des maximus et minimus a quelque
problemes de statique relatif a l’architecture. Memoirs Divers Savants, Academie Science,
Paris 7.
Gilbert, M., Smith, C. C., Haslam, I. W. & Pritchard, T. J. 2009 Plastic limit analysis using
discontinuity layout optimization (DLO), 17th UK Conference on Computational Mechanics
(ACME-UK), Nottingham.
Gilbert, M., Smith, C., Haslam, I. & Pritchard, T. 2010 Application of discontinuity layout opti-
mization to geotechnical limit analysis problems, Proc. 7th European Conference in Numeri-
cal Methods in Geotechnical Engineering, Trondheim, pp. 169–174.
Gilbert, M. & Tyas, A. 2003 Layout optimisation of large-scale pin-jointed frames. Engineering
Computations 20(8), 1044–1064.
Lee, Y., Smith, C. & Cheuk, C. Y. 2008 Bearing capacity of embedded foundations, 2nd Inter-
national Conference on Foundations, ICOF 2008, Dundee, pp. 961–972.
Loukidis, D., Chakraborty, T. & Salgado, R. 2008 Bearing capacity of strip footings on purly
frictional soil under eccentric and inclined loads. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 45, 768–
787.
Lyamin, A., Salgado, R., Sloan, S. & Prezzi, M. 2007 Two- and three-dimensional bearing
capacity of foundations in sand. Geotechnique 57(8), 647–662.
Manzari, M. T. & Nour, M. A. 2000 Significance of soil dilatancy in slope stability analyis. Journal
of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering 126(1), 75–80.
Matsuzawa, H., Ishibashi, I. & Kawamura, M. 1985 Dynamic soil and water pressures of sub-
merged soils. ASCE Journal of Geotechnical Engineering 111(10).

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Merifield, R. & Smith, C. 2010 The ultimate uplift capacity of multi-plate strip anchors undrained
clay. Computers and Geotechnics 37(4), 504–510.

Salgado, R., Lyamin, A., Sloan, S. & Yu, H. 2004 Two- and three-dimensional bearing capacity
of foundations in clay. Geotechnique 54(5), 297–306.

Smith, C. C. & Gilbert, M. 2007b New upper bound solutions for layered soil bearing capacity
problems using discontinuity layout optimization, 10th Australia New Zealand Conference on
Geomechanics, Brisbane, pp. 250–255.

Smith, C. & Gilbert, M. 2007a Application of discontinuity layout optimization to plane plastic-
ity problems. Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering
Sciences 463(2086), 2461–2484.

Smith, C. & Gilbert, M. 2008 Limit analysis of the stability of foundations on inclined ground,
2nd International Conference on Foundations, ICOF 2008, Dundee, pp. 1683–1692.

Smith, C. & Gilbert, M. 2010a Advances in computational limit state analysis and design, Ge-
oFlorida 2010: Advances in Analysis, Modeling, & Design, Proceedings of the GeoFlorida
2010 Conference, West Palm Beach.

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ods, Proc. 7th European Conference in Numerical Methods in Geotechnical Engineering,
Trondheim, pp. 947–952.

Smith, C. & Gilbert, M. 2011a Ultimate limit state design to Eurocode 7 using numerical meth-
ods Part I: methodology and theory. Ground Engineering pp. 25–30.

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ods Part II: proposed design procedure and application. Ground Engineering pp. 24–29.

Taylor, D. 1948 Fundamentals of Soil Mechanics. John Wiley and Sons, New York.

c LimitState Ltd
Index

1D loads, 311 about, 291

1D structural elements, 311 add-in modules, 291
3D, 105 aquiclude, 302
batch files, 306
abort, 229 boundary object, 303
accuracy, 103, 309 constant potential, 303
add-in modules constant pressure, 303
command-line interface, 291 cutoff, 301
adequacy derived mohr-coulomb, 301
modifying, 150 engineered element, 302
adequacy factor, 29, 88, 134, 202, 231 examples, 305
water table, 96, 312 file format, 292
analysis, 29 file output, 294
changing type, 172 geometry, 305
drained, 171 help, 295
factor load(s), 172 input, 292
factor strength(s), 172 interpolated grid, 303
long term, 171 license requirements, 291
rotations, 172 material properties, 300
short term, 171 mohr-coulomb, 300
undrained, 171 object keys, 297
analysis options, 51 on-screen output, 293
analysis type options syntax, 296
setting in wizard, 51 output, 293
anchor tendons, 124 project, 299
animation, 31, 231, 246 properties, 299
export, 245 rigid, 301
auto-recovery, 247 running, 295
scenario, 299
behaviour solid object, 304
long term, 181 solution file, 296
short term, 181 syntax, 295
bending moment, 32, 236 uncompressing files, 292
boundary, 87, 153 units, 293
boundary conditions, 199 water regimes, 302
boundary effects, 105 connect, 165, 166
boundary explorer, 150 construction lines, 161
boundary object copy and paste, 152
nodal spacing, 225
default adequacy, 91
calculator, 151 diagrams, 32
command-line interface disconnect, 167

315
316 INDEX

display settings, 172

force, 236 favourable, 203
pressure, 234 file
DLO, 57 menu, 272
DRAG, 149, 165 properties, 23
draw, 162 search, 23
boundary, 162 tags, 23
line, 162 thumbnails, 23
menu, 276 force
polygon, 162 shear, 236
rectangle, 162 tensile, 236
vertex, 162 force distributions, 236
dry unit weight, 187
dxf, 159, 160 geometry, 153
dxf import, 157 copy / paste, 148
export, 243
earthquake loading, 76, 131, 217 setting in wizard, 48
edit geometry editor, 148
menu, 273 geometry object
editor nodal spacing, 225
geometry, 148 geometry objects
property, 147 boundary, 87, 153
empty project, 154 solid, 87, 153
engineered element, 77, 117, 119, 188, 307 vertex, 153
diagrams, 191 geometry window, 146
lateral resistance, 192 geosynthetics, 122
moment, 191 geotextiles, 122–124
nominal stresses, 192 graphical interface, 141
pullout, 192 graphical output, 243
shear force, 191 grid, 155
tensile force, 191
working resistance, 192 help, 20, 278
example problems, 111, 285 Hoek-Brown, 71
explorer horizontal acceleration, 217
boundary, 150 image, 246
material, 144 export, 244
solid, 151 imperial, 153, 176
vertex, 150 import
water, 145 scenarios, 264
explorers, 150 insoluble problem, 227
export, 160, 243, 246 insoluble problems, 107
animation, 245 locked, 107
geometry, 243 unknown, 108
image, 244 unstable, 107
scenarios, 264 installation, 23
factor of safety, 88, 309 kinematic constraints, 82
default adequacy, 91
loads, 90 lens, 167
material strengths, 91 license
solution tolerance, 91 changing, 259
factor strength(s) dialog, 259

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INDEX 317

licensing, 23 help, 278

limit analysis select, 273
advantages and limitations, 79 tools, 276
LimitState, 20, 21 view, 274
line, 167 viewer pane, 281
line loads, 311 menu bar, 142
load type menus, 272
modifying, 150 merge, 165, 166
loading type metric, 153, 176
modifying, 150 model definition
loads, 201 boundaries, 87
setting in wizard, 49 solids, 87
lock, 229 mouse, 271
long term, 263 multiple scenario, 246
long term behaviour, 181 multiple scenarios, 263

manage nodal density

scenarios, 263 setting in wizard, 51
material nodes, 225, 226
drag and drop, 144 geometry objects, 225
explorer, 144 optimization, 226
properties, 144 non-associativity, 82
material explorer, 144 non-yielding zones, 80
materials, 67, 175 normal displacement, 233
assigning, 177 normal force, 233
combining, 71 normal stress, 32, 233
create new, 194
open, 247
crushing, 68
ORTHO, 149, 165
cutoff, 186
output
deleting, 196 adequacy factor, 148
derived, 185 copy and paste, 148
duplicate, 196 iteration data, 148
engineered element, 69, 77, 117, 119, 188 output pane, 148
exporting, 197
importing, 197 partial factors, 68, 100, 261, 262
linear Mohr-Coulomb, 181, 182 manage, 263
Mohr-Coulomb, 67, 178, 179 setting in wizard, 50
reinforcement, 69, 77 post-analysis, 231
rigid, 69, 187 post-solve
setting in wizard, 48 display context menu, 235, 238
soil nail, 69, 77, 188 display dialog, 234, 237
spatially varying Mohr-Coulomb, 183 preferences, 253
tension cutoff, 68 export, 258
unit weight, 187 general, 253
user-defined, 194 report, 255
zero and negative strength, 182 solve, 256
menu startup, 254
analysis, 277 units, 254
draw, 276 pressure distributions, 234
edit, 273 previewing strength, 197
file, 272 program limits, 20

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318 INDEX

project details can yield at vertices, 120

setting in wizard, 47 flexible at vertices, 120
property editor, 34, 147, 151, 233 general, 119
Mohr Coulomb Material, 180 modelling, 121
rigid, 120
redo, 168 soil reinforcement, 77, 117, 119, 188
report, 239 solid, 87, 153
customizing, 241 solid explorer, 151
saving, 241 solid object
viewing, 239 nodal spacing, 225
rotational failure, 60, 105, 172, 312 solution
saturated unit weight, 187 always locked, 228
save, 247 always unstable, 228
scale factor, 225 locked, 227
scenario manager, 261 out of space, 229
scenarios slow progress, 228
export, 264 terminated, 228
import, 264 unknown, 228
manage, 263 unstable, 227
solving, 264 solution accuracy, 103, 225, 309
scroll wheels, 271 solution tolerance, 91
scrollbars, 271 solve, 29, 219, 277
search post-solve information, 191
project details, 250 solver, 87, 219
tags, 250 checks, 220
searching, 250 diagnostics tool, 220
Seismic Loading solving
Mononobe-Okabe, 132 scenarios, 264
seismic loading, 76, 131, 217 starting LimitState:GEO, 24
select status bar, 149
menu, 273 stem wall, 62
selection strain compatibility, 81
multiple, 164 stress
rectangle, 163 normal, 234
single, 163 shear, 234
self weight, 202 stress displacement, 233
setting units, 153 stress states, 80
shear force, 233 support type
shear stress, 32, 233 modifying, 150
sheet pile wall supports, 199
can yield at vertices, 121 symmetry, 309
general, 120 system requirements, 20
rigid, 121
short term, 263 tags, 250
short term behaviour, 181 target number, 225
SI units, 153, 176 tension crack, 311
slip-lines, 233 terminology, 19
slope stability, 113 thumbnails, 249
SNAP, 149, 164 title bar, 142
snap, 156 toolbars, 279
soil nail, 307 default, 279

c LimitState Ltd
INDEX 319

optional, 280 interpolated grid, 211

TRACK, 149, 150 interpolated pressure, 75
translational failure, 172 on boundaries, 208
troubleshooting, 107 phreatic surface, 73
previewing, 214
undo, 168 regimes, 75, 208, 209
unfavourable, 203 table, 73
unit weight, 187 within solids, 208
units, 152, 311 water regime
unlock, 229 modifying, 150
user interface water table
material explorer, 144 adequacy factor, 96, 312
menu bar, 142 clearing, 206
title bar, 142 drawing, 206
toolbars, 143 Ru, 207
viewer pane, 146 weight density, 187
water explorer, 145 wizards, 45
vertex, 153, 167 yield surface, 80
identification, 150
vertex explorer, 150 zone, 167
vertical acceleration, 217 zoom, 33
view
menu, 274
viewer pane, 146
menu, 281
void, 167

walls
nodal spacing, 226
water
definition, 209
drag and drop, 145
explorer, 145
pressures, 205
properties, 145
regimes, 205
table, 205
water explorer, 145
water filled tension crack, 312
water pressures, 72
aquiclude, 213
aquicludes, 75
average pore pressure ratio, 74
constant potential, 75, 209
constant pressure, 75, 210
deleting, 214
duplicate, 214
enabling and disabling, 205
exporting, 214
hierarchy, 76
importing, 214

c LimitState Ltd