Error & Correction of Electronic Distance Measurements

(EDM)

Operations with Electronic Distance Measurement Instrument

(EDMI)
Measurement with Electronic Distance Measurement Instrument involves
four basic steps:

a) Setting up
The instrument is centered over a station by means of tribrach or
by mounting over a compatible theodolite. Reflector prisms are set
over the remote station either on tribrach or on a prism pole.
Observations related to height or instrument and prism are
recorded. These are usually kept the same to avoid any additional
corrections.

b) Aiming
The instrument is aimed at prisms by using sighting devices or
theodolite telescope. Slow motion screws are used to intersect the
prism center. Some kind of electronic sound or beeping helps the
user to indicate the status of centering.

c) Measurement
The operator presses the measure button to record the slope
distance which is displayed on LCD panel.

d) Recording
The information on LCD panel can be recorded manually or
automatically. All meteorological parameters are also recorded.

Principle of Electronic Distance Measurement Instrument

The general principle involves sending a modulated Electro-Magnetic
(EM) beam from one transmitter at the master station to a reflector at the
remote station and receiving it back at the master station. The instrument
measures slope distance between transmitter and receiver by modulating
 the continuous carrier wave at different frequencies, and then measuring
the phase difference at the master station between the outgoing and the
incoming signals. This establishes the following relationship for a double
distance (2D):

Where “m” is unknown integer number of complete wavelengths

contained within double distance, “∅” is the measured phase difference
and “λ” is modulation wavelength and “k” is constant. Multiple
modulation frequencies are used to evaluate “m”, the ambiguity.

Fig. 1.8 Principle of Electronic Distance Measurement

Instrument

Various EDMIs in use are based on two methods:

• Using timed pulse techniques such as those used in variety of
radar instruments.
• Using measurements of a phase difference which may be
equated to one part of a cycle expressed in units of time or length.

Classification of Electronic Distance Measurement Instrument

(EDMI)
EDMI can be classified on the basis of three parameters namely:

1) Wavelength used
2) Working range
3) Achievable accuracy
1) Classification on the basis of wavelength

Present generation EDMIs use the following types of

wavelengths:
a) Infrared
b) Laser
c) Microwaves
The first two types of systems are also known as electro-optical
whereas the third category is also called the electronic system.

Electro-optical systems:

• Infrared: Systems employing these frequencies allow use of

optical corner reflectors (special type of reflectors to return the
signal) but need optically clear path between two stations. These
systems use transmitter at one end of line and a reflecting prism
or target at the other end.

• Laser: These systems also use transmitter at one end of line

and may or may not use a reflecting prism or target at the other
end. However, the reflectorless laser instruments are used for
short distances (100 m to 350 m). These use light reflected off
the feature to be measured (say a wall).

Electronic System:

Microwave
• These systems have receiver/transmitter at both ends of
measured line. Microwave instruments are often used for
hydrographic surveys normally up to 100 km. Hydrographic
EDMIs have generally been replaced by Global Positioning
System (GPS).
• These can be used in adverse weather conditions (such as fog
and rain) unlike infrared and laser systems. However,
uncertainties caused by varying humidity over measurement
length may result in lower accuracy and prevent a more reliable
estimate of probable accuracy.
• Existence of undesirable reflections and signal leakage from
transmitter to the receiver requires the use of another transmitter
 at the remote station (also called the slave station). The slave
station is operated at different carrier frequency in order to
separate two signals. This additional transmitter and receiver
add to weight of equipment. Multipath effects at microwave
frequency also add to slight distance error which can be reduced
by taking series of measurements using different frequency.

2) Classification on the basis of range

EDMIs are also available as:

• Long range: Radio wave equipment for ranges up to 100 km.
• Medium range: Microwave equipment with frequency
modulation for ranges up to 25 km.
• Short range: Electro-optical equipment using amplitude
modulated infra-red or visible light for ranges up to 5 km.

3) Classification on the basis of accuracy

• Accuracy of EDMI is generally stated in terms of constant

instrument error and measuring error proportional to the
distance being measured:
± (a mm+ b ppm).

 The first part in this expression indicates a constant

instrument error that is independent of the length of the
line measured.
 The second component is the distance related error.
• Here, “a” is a result of errors in phase measurements ( ) and
zero error (z), whereas “b” results from error in modulation
frequency (f) and the ground refractive index ( ). The term
group index pertains to the refractive index for a combination
of waves-carrier wave and multiple modulated waves in EDMI.
and z are independent of distance but f and are functions
of distance and are expressed as
 • In above equations, indicates the standard error. Most
EDMI accuracy levels from ± (3 mm+ 1 ppm) to ± (10 mm+ 10
ppm). For short distances, part a is more significant; for long
distances b will have large contribution. Table 1.1 lists details
of a few EDMIs.

Photographs of EDMIs as well as Prism targets

The following photographs show different types of EDMIs with different
types of mountings and with a few types of prism targets used with these
instruments.

Fig. 1.13 Wild Distomat D15S

Fig. 1.14 Wild Distomat D15S mounted on different types of

theodolites
Fig. 1.15 Wild Distomat D13000 Infrared EDMI

Fig. 1.16 Different types of Nikon EDMI with mounting on

theodolite

Fig. 1.17 Different types of Sokkia Red line EDMI

 Fig. 1.18 Different types of prism targets used with Sokkia EDM

Error sources in Electronic Distance Measurement Instrument

(EDMI)
The fundamental distance measured by EDMI can be put in to the
following generalized form:
 “m” is integer ambiguity, “λ” is wavelength of modulation wave, “ ” is
measured phase difference, “ ” is group refractive index, “ ” is velocity
of EMR in vacuum, is scale error, is zero error and is cyclic
error.

Measurement with EDMI has the following error sources which have to
be accounted for while reporting the distance:

i) Instrument operation errors

One has to be careful for

• Precise centering at the master and slave station.
• Pointing/Sighting of reflector.
• Entry of correct values of prevailing atmospheric conditions.

ii) Atmospheric errors

Meteorological conditions (temperature, pressure, humidity, etc.)

have to be taken into account to correct for the systematic error
arising due to this. These errors can be removed by applying an
appropriate atmospheric correction model that takes care of
different meteorological parameters from the standard (nominal)
one.

iii) Instrumental errors

Consists of three components: scale error, zero error and cyclic

error. These are systematic in nature.

Corrections in EDMI
Measured distance “D” is given as D= V*t, where “V” is the velocity
along travel path and “t” is time taken to travel this distance. Three types
of corrections are required to reduce this distance to correct one. These
are known as
 Calibration or Standardization

Calibration takes care of scale, zero and cyclic errors and should
be applied periodically to account for aging and wear and tear of
equipment.

Velocity correction

It is applied to account for atmospheric effect since:

i) Signal is not travelling in vacuum but some medium which
reduces the speed of Electro Magnetic Radiation. ii) Waves follow
a curved rather than a straight line path between the transmitter
and receiver.

Geometric Correction

This correction is applied to reduce the measured distance

(corrected for refractive index) to the equivalent distance on
spheroid.

(i) Calibration or standardization

Three types of errors (systematic in nature) are removed as a part of

calibration process which should be carried out regularly:

• Scale error (𝐾1):

It accounts for difference in the modulation frequency and the

nominal or design frequency and is proportional to distance being
measured.

• Zero error (𝐾2):

Also termed the additive constant error, index error, or

reflector/prism offset. It is independent of distance measured. It
occurs due the fact that the internal measurement center of the
reflector do not coincide with the physical center of the reflector.
It consist of two components. The first component arises from the
fact that the reflector which absorbs changes in velocity of light
while moving from air to reflector glass prism and light path itself
 through the reflector. The second component occurs according to
the light angle that enters into a prism.

(Read the remaining part from your assignment)

• Cyclic error (𝐾3):

Also termed as period errors, resolver errors or non-linearity errors

and varies with distance. These errors are caused by internal
electronic contamination between transmitter and receiver
circuitry. Their effect is minimized by the manufacturer by
electrical isolation and shielding of instrument components.

(ii) Velocity correction

• Before understanding the velocity correction, it must be

understood that propagating EM waves (at low or high
frequencies) other than direct wave are results of reflection,
refraction or diffraction of the wave caused by variations in the
refractive index (RI) of the atmosphere (n).

Equation (1)

• V is less than depending upon „n‟ if medium (Standard

= 299792458 ± 1.2 as accepted at XVIth General
Assembly of the International Union of Geodesy and
Geophysics in 1975).
• In EDMI, we are interested in the RI of air which forms an
important aspects because for accurate instruments, precision of
the distance measurements is limited on account of “n” value.
For standard conditions “n” is equal to 1.00032 but it depends
upon:
 Gaseous composition of atmosphere
 Water vapour present in the atmosphere
 Temperature and pressure of the gaseous mixture
 Frequency of the radiated signal
 The precision of measurement of EM waves in vacuum ( ) is
about 0.004 ppm which is more than enough for most operations
in surveying and geodesy. The corrected distance is given as
D/n, where “D” is measured distance (obtained after applying
calibration correction) and “n” is a function of atmospheric
conditions. The relationship between “n” and wavelength (λ)
referred to as dispersion for visible and near infrared radiation
is given by the following Cauchy equation in which A, B, and
C are atmosphere dependent constants:

Equation (2)

For light wave, the index of refraction ng of standard air (i.e., for an atmosphere
at 0o C, 760 mm Hg pressure and 0.03 percent carbon-di-oxide) as given by Barell
and Sears Equation

in which ƛ is the wavelength of the carrier beam of light in micrometers.

Owing to changes in temperature pressure and humidity the refractive index of
air becomes na, is given by

Where p = atmospheric pressure in mm Hg, t=temperature in oC, e = vapor

pressure in mmHg.
For microwave , the refractive index ( nr ) of the atmosphere is

Where
p = atmospheric pressure, mmHg
E = Vapor pressure, mmHg
t = temperature, oC
The method of correcting the obscured distance to account for varying
atmospheric conditions is achieved through recording of temperature and
atmospheric pressure at each end of the line. Once the meteorological data are
recorded, corrections to observe distances are carried out either by calculating
through charts and nomographs provided with the instrument or by dialing in the
parameters for automatic compensation during measurement. In case of,
microwave EDM, the partial pressure of water vapor is also determined along
with temperature and atmospheric pressure.
Two types of velocity correction known as the first and second velocity
corrections are applied.

i. The first velocity correction

 Let the distance measured by EDMI be D after applying calibration often

referred as the instrument distance. The corrected distance is given as

. Equation (3)

 The first velocity correction is given as

since Equation (4)

 The manufacture of EDMI adjusts the main oscillator to give a modulation

frequency corresponding to a reference RI ( where is
approximately equal to the average value of found under the field
conditions. Hence once can use the following equation instead of the first
equation which refers to RI of 1.0.

=D Equation (5)
ii. The second velocity correction
The corrected distance after velocity corrections is given as:
iii. Geometric correction
 It is applied to reduce the measured distance (corrected for refractive
index) to the equivalent distance on the spheroidal surface. It can be
applied in following steps: 1) Reduction from to

2) Reduction from
to

3) Reduction from
to

and are height of instrument center and height of target center above
ellipsoid (or MSL) respectively.
 It may be noted that various correction should be computed by
successively using the distance obtained as the result of applying the
preceding correction.
 For example, the curved path length ( for the curvature correction, the
(slant) chord length ( ) for the slope and sealevel correction and the sea
level chord length for the earth curvature correction. However, in practice
the error introduced by using the curved path length to calculate all
corrections is negligible.