Kiwifruit NEW

Nutrition Eo1r10
tliagnosis ofnut ritional disorders
N ·
 )

First published 1985 by Southern Horticulture

Second revised edition 1987.

AGPRESS COMMUNICATIONS LTD

P.O. Box 12342, Wellington, New Zealan<;l

© Copyright Agpress Communications Ltd.

All rights reserved. No part o f this publication may be reproduced by any
means, electronic, m echanical, electrostatic photocopying or otherwise, or
stored in a retrieval system witho ut the prior permission of the publisher.

ISBN 0-95976 93-0-7

Publication of this book was made possible by

an underwriting grant from the NZ Kiwifruit Authority,
whose support is gratefully acknowledged.

Design: Ann Thomson

Typesetting: Agpress Communications Ltd
Plates : Plateways, T orrens Terrace, Welli ngton
f!.. }
Printing: Tolan Print ing Company Ltd, Wellington

.
I!.'
"
 Kiwifruit
Nutrition
diagnosis ofnutritional disorders
G.S. SMITH, C.J. ASHER t AND C.J. CLARK
Ruakura Soil and Plant Research Station
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries
• Hamilton, New Zealand.

I•
I•
! iJ
.
I
I•
�

I�
I•
I
I

I
I

t Research conducted while on Special Studies Programme

from the Department of Agriculture, University of
Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4067, Australia.
 ~
(!'
Contents
<•
6a
Preface 3
Acknowledgments 4 t;
Introduction 5
Nutritional effects on fruit yield 6 611
Quantitative nutrient requirements of kiwifruit 6
Timing of fertiliser additions 7 6t
Diagnosis of nutritional disorders 8
Soil testing 8 I
Plant analysis 9 - I
Visual symptoms 10
Disorders producing symptoms mainly on the older leaves
tr I

Deficiencies
Potassium 11 .. !

Magnesium 15 I
I

Nitrogen 17 6it
Zinc 18
Phosphorus 20 ~
Chlorine 23
Toxicities
Boron 24
Salinity 26
Manganese 28
Nitrogen 30
Phosphorus 30
Disorders producing symptoms mainly on recently matured leaves
Deficiencies
Manganese 32
Calcium 33 @I
Disorders producing symptoms mainly on the younger leaves
Deficiencies ~
Iron 35
Sulphur 36
Boron 37
Copper 39
Molybdenum
Toxicities
Zinc
40

41
.,
Symptoms associated with non-nutritional disorders
Drought stress
Bacterial leaf spot
Low temperature
42
43
43
•
IJ
Herbicides
Contact and residual herbicides 44 .,
Hormone herbicides 47
Glossary of terms 49 11.l
References 51
Appendices 54
Figures 55
Tables 58
2
 Preface

The kiwifruit has won a very special place in the hearts of many
New Zealanders. Worldwide acceptance and market development
for the fruit during a period of economic downturn is identified as
a national success story. We pride ourselves in our ability to innovate,
to create, and to work hard; the unique kiwifruit and the new in-
dustry which has developed around it, have all of these elements.
However, because of the rapid rise of the kiwifruit to significance,
its uniqueness and its exotic origin, there are very many biological
and production aspects of the plant about which very little is known.
Mineral nutrition is one of the most significant of these. Until recent-
ly, problems associated with nutrition had not been rated highly in
the crop, but as the authors point out, expansion of plantings onto
new and diverse soil types has resulted in an increasing range of
symptoms implicating nutritional disorders.
In providing the first comprehensive treatment of the mineral
nutrition of kiwifruit, the authors have broken new ground. The
publication represents an important milestone in the history of the
crop and will play a key role in ensuring the New Zealand industry's
continued success.
Deficiency and toxicity symptoms of key elements are clearly
illustrated and discussed in the bulletin. Comparisons are drawn
between disorders to assist diagnoses, and background information
on fertiliser recommendations and nutrient status of soils is drawn
upon. The comprehensive and practical treatment overall is a reflec-
tion of the considerable experience of the authors in matters relating
to plant nutrition, plant physiology, soil chemistry and soil fertility.
In compiling this bulletin, they have produced a reference which will
serve students, growers, advisers, researchers, in fact the kiwifruit
industry as a whole, for many years to come .
•
Dr Frank Wood
Chief Scientist Horticulture
Ruakura Soil and Plant Research Station
Hamilton
3
 Acknowledgements

We thank the Te Puke Fruitgrowers' Association for the generous

financial grant (The Graham Bayliss Award) used to assist with
travelling expenses involved in studying nutritional disorders of kiwi-
fruit in the field, and Bill Baldwin, Te Puke, for stimulating dis-
cussions on kiwifruit culture.
We also thank the many MAF staff members who assisted us in
collecting the information for this publication: In particular we wish
to acknowledge John Dine, Hastings; Mark Gibson, Whakatane;
Dr Murray Hopping, Ruakura; Anne Lister and Trevor Lupton,
Gisbome; Pat Sale and Peter Lyford, Tauranga; Carolyn Karl and
Linda Bell for technical assistance in the glasshouse at Ruakura; and
the staff of the Plant Analysis Laboratory, Ruakura Soil and Plant
Station.
We would also like to thank Noel Turner, DSIR, Mt Albert
Research Centre, for helpful discussions, and Ian Warrington, Plant
Physiology Division, DSIR , Palmerston North for allowing us to
publish Photo 22a.
Special thanks goes to the NZ Kiwifruit Authority. Without its
generous financial support, publication of this book would not have
been possible.

Table B: Actual and predic ted plantings of

kiwifruit in New Zea/and44.

Table A: World plantings of kiwifruit 198431. 1975 942

i\· ... •,- . ,- -.... ·: . ,-.,-~~:':. ~ ·;_:-.,:~~--~~f;':~;- "'!~!-~
1976 1123
ti.,-i . ·,, , -., ·,_1,.··;::';:I,:~ L,:f:•r- 1977 1493
NEW ZEALAND 13610 1978 2172
USA 2600 1979 3655
ITALY 2600 1980 5477
FRANCE 1800 1981 7.750
JAPAN 1700 1982 9830
AUSTRALIA 500 1983 11805
CHILE 450 1984 13 610
GREECE 200 1985 15480
SOUT H AFRICA 100 1986 17050
1987 18450
1988 19650

4
 Introduction

.I
The kiwifruit Actinidia deliciosa (A. Chev) C.F. Liang et A.R.
Ferguson var deliciosa is a deciduous fruiting vine indigenous to
~ provinces along the Yangtze River in South-Western China1 5 , 1 7 . The
emergence of kiwifruit as a major horticultural crop is a very recent
• phenomenon; outside of China where there is substantial production

I~
from wild stands of kiwifruit, world production is dominated by
New Zealand (Tabl~ A).
Kiwifruit was first introduced into New Zealand at the beginning
of the century, but it was not until the 1930s that commercial scale
plantings were made 36 . Small areas continued to be planted over the
next 30 years culminating in a dramatic increase over the last decade.
From the few hundred hectares in the early 1970s, the area
planted already exceeds 10 000 ha and is projected to pass 20 000
ha by 1990 (Table B). Plantings in New Zealand are almost ex-
clusively of the one cultivar, 'Hayward' - a survey of kiwifruit
orchards in the Bay of Plenty in 1979 showed that 'Hayward'
occupied 98 per cent of the total area in kiwifruit 1 7 •
Apart from brief descriptions of several nutritional disorders
produced on hydroponically grown kiwifruit plants 50 , little att ention
has so far been given to the diagnosis of nutritional disorders in kiwi-
fruit. In New Zealand, this was largely because the kiwifruit industry
was initially confined to the deep volcanic ash soils of the Bay of
Plenty where few obvious nutritional problems were encountered.
However, over recent times the bulk of new plantings has been
in other regions: North Auckland, Auckland, Poverty Bay, Hawkes
Bay, Taranaki, Horowhenua, and Nelson.
Thus, while 10 years ago 85 per cent of the total plantings were in
the Bay of Plenty, the proportion has now declined to below 60 per
cent. With this expansion onto soils with characteristics differing
from those of the Bay of Plenty has come an increasing number of
problems attributable directly to mineral nutrition.
The purpose of this booklet is to bring together information about
the mineral requirements of kiwifruit and, in particular, t o d escribe
fully visual symptoms of nutrient deficiencies and toxicities. In
addition, d escriptions are given of some important leaf symptoms
due to non-nutritional causes so they can be distinguished from
nutritional problems.

5
 @I !
I
tissue needed to secure that yield 28 . Pre-
cise information from fertiliser trials on (!I i
Nutritional effects the quantity of fertiliser needed to correct ~I
specific nutrient disorders and maintain
on fruit yield maximum production is currently lacking
for kiwifruit grown in New Zealand . In the
(I !

Extensive surveys of the major kiwi-

fruit growing areas of New Zealand have
shown that nutritional disorders can result
absence of such information an alternative
approach was adopted which involved cal-
culating the approximate quantities of
nutrients removed in fruit and prunings
from a 10 year old orchard with a yield of
16.5 t/ha and relating these losses to fert-
·'~l
(I !

in serious losses of fruit production and

in some cases affect the post-harvest stor-
iliser recommendations 16.
In Table 2 we have extended this app- ~!
age quality of the fruit 4,12,37,38,42,43.
summary of the effects of various nutri-
A roach to include sulphur (S), and the
micronutrients iron (Fe), boron (B), mang- ~!
tional disorders on fruit yield and post-
harvest storage of the fruit is given in
Table 1. Production losses resulted main-
anese (Mn), Zinc (Zn), Copper (Cu), and
molybdenum (Mo). Typical values for the
mineral composition of the fruit were
~!
ly from a reduction in fruit numbers. The used in the calculations, as well as a more ~ I
average weight of individual fruit from af- realistic figure for fruit yield of 25 t/ha
fected and unaffected vines was not greatly which has been quoted as being an average
different except for fruit from potassium yield for well managed orchards in the
deficient vines which weighed less than Bay of Plenty 36.
those from healthy vines. Apart from vines In most cases, fertiliser applications have
affected by excess boron, no nutritional been more than adequate to compensate
disorder examined so far has had any for losses of macronutrients in the fruit
serious effect on the storage qualities of (Table 2). However, in the case of pot-
the fruit. After ten weeks in cool storage assium past recommendations have been
brix and penetrometer measurements of barely adequate for consistently high
fruit from affected and unaffected vines yielding orchards, particularly when other
were not markedly different (Table 1 ). In losses such as leaching are taken into
the case of excess boron, however, there account.
was a marked reduction in the firmness of
Again, as has been shown 16 , the
the fruit after only a short period in cool
summer and winter prunings contain
storage (Table 1). Abnormally low con-
considerable amounts of potassium and
centrations of calcium in the boron affect-
other mineral nutrients. Hence removal
ed fruit may be in part responsible for
of prunings from the orchard would
this premature softening42 •
further increase the likelihood of potas-
sium deficiency.
The micronutrients in superphosphate
Quantitive should provide all of the iron, zinc and
molybdenum, and most of the copper
nutrient requirements removed in the fruit (Table 2). The
of kiwifruit amounts of boron and manganese are
appreciable also, but less than the likely
annual removal in the fruit.
However, it should be appreciated that
The total requirement of each nutrient soils often contain large reserves of micro-
element for any crop depends on two nutrients which may render additions via
factors: (1) the yield, and (2) the average fertilisers unnecessary for many years.
concentration of the element in the plant For example, the top 20 cm of a typical

6
Kaharoa ash soil contains enough zinc,
copper, and iron in plant-available form Timing of fertiliser additions
to meet the estimated losses of these
elements in the fruit (Table 2) for about For kiwifruit it has been found 41 that
100 years, and the manganese require- the period of greatest accumulation of
ment for about 60 years. potassium, nitrogen, zinc and copper
Although the reserve of boron is equal occurs during the early part of the season
to only about nine years, this does not with over 80 per cent of the maximum
necessarily mean that boron deficiency quantity of these elements being accumu-
is more likely to be encountered than lated in the leaves on the fruiting laterals
deficiencies of other elements, since by fruit set; slightly lesser amounts of
relatively large amounts of boron from potassium and nitrogen, but not zinc or
airborne sea spray are deposited on the copper are accumulated by the leaves
land by wind and rain, particularly in from the non fruiting shoots over the
coastal areas (Table 3). same period of growth (Table 6). By
Irrigation water can also add substan- harvest, however, substantial amounts of
tial amounts of boron to the soil (Table 4). potassium, and slightly smaller amounts
For example, at 300 1 of irrigation water of nitrogen, are lost from the leaves. These
per vine per week a boron concentration losses are greater from the leaves on the
of as little as 0.1 mg/1 would supply the fruiting laterals than from those on the
total boron requirement for fruit pro- non fruiting shoots (Table 6). For zinc
duction (Table 2) in six to seven weeks and copper, losses from both leaf types
(Table 4 ). The use of bore water naturally by fruit harvest are very small.
high in boron (>0.8 mg/1) has lead to
boron toxicity (see section dealing with Although a large fraction of the phos-
boron toxicity). phorus and sulphur in the leaves is also
While it is apparent that generalised accumulated during early growth, the
maintenance fertiliser recommendations proportion of the maximum quantity
can be broadly based on the quantities accumulated in the leaves by fruit set is
of nutrients lost in fruit, they may not less than that of potassium, nitrogen,
be sufficiently accurate to prevent nut- zinc and copper (Table 6). In addition,
rient disorders arising in every situation. the losses of phosphorus and sulphur
For example, in young orchards, addi- from the leaves by fruit harvest are also
tional nutrients will be required for ex- comparatively small.
tension of the vine's framework (roots, Magnesium calcium, iron, boron and
stem, leader and canes). Results from a manganese differ from the other nut-
recent experiment 9 where young vines rients in that the rate of accumulation
of varying ages were removed from the is similar throughout the entire season.
ground and the various parts of the plant's Thus, a comparatively small proportion
framework (including leaves and fruit) of the maximum quantity of these ele-
were analysed, show that large quantities ments in the leaves is accumulated by
of some elements such as nitrogen and fruit set (Table 6). The losses of these
potassium are taken up even at an early elements from the leaves by fruit har-
age (Table 5). However, it should be vest are also very small.
noted that these uptake figures in Table 5
represent the minimum quantities required The developing fruit are undoubtedly
by the vines, as no allowance was made responsible for many of the seasonal
for nutrient interaction with the soil, changes in the distribution of mineral
inefficiency of uptake by the roots, or for nutrients in kiwifruit. Generally it has
losses by leaching. Thus, it is likely that been found 41 that leaves close to the
even greater quantities of nutrient than fruit are the main contributors to early
those given in Table 5 will be required to growth. As fruit development proceeds,
obtain maximum growth. a greater number of leaves provide car-

7
 bohydrates and mineral nutrients for Soil testing
fruit filling. Consequently the substantial
losses of potassium and nitrogen from the To be effective, soil tests need to be
leaves, particularly from those on fruiting carefully calibrated for the soils and crops
laterals, reflect the large demand of the of a particular region. The results of soil
developing fruit for these two elements; analysis should also be regarded more in
whereas the much smaller losses of phos- terms of a qualitative guide to soil fertil-
phorus, sulphur, magnesium, and most of ity rather than as a quantitative measure.
the micronutrients reflect their lower This is because it is very difficult to find
mobility in the plant and the smaller de- chemical extractants which will simulate
mand of the developing fruit for these the action of plant roots, especially since
elements. plant species differ widely in their ability
It follows from the results in Table 6 to absorb nutrients from the soil.
that fertilisers containing potassium and Moreover, in many cases samples for
nitrogen, as well as zinc, and copper, need analysis are taken from a restricted depth,
to be applied before fruit set if deficiencies usually the top 15 cm, which may not
in the plant are to be avoided. This is reflect the availability of nutrients from
because most of the potassium, nitrogen, the entire root zone. However, in spite
zinc, and copper will have been taken up of these limitations soil tests can provide
by the leaves by this stage of growth . A valuable information about plant-available
similar conclusion can also be drawn for nutrients and chemical conditions in the
phosphorus and sulphur. While it is less soil, particularly before a crop is planted.
important for magnesium and calcium to In the case of kiwifruit, there is no
be applied to the soil before fruit set, any definitive information at present on the
inhibitory effect on the relative growth optimum nutrient levels in soils for any
rate at an early stage of growth can have soil test currently being used in New
a sustained effect on the over-all growth Zealand. Some information is available
rate and yield. Correction of iron and in particular districts, based on the
manganese deficiencies in New Zealand experience of advisory officers or fertiliser
should not generally require the addition company representatives concerning the
of fertilisers containing these elements, local interpretation of analytical results
but rather the addition of compounds as they relate to kiwifruit nutrition.
which will acidify the soil thereby re- In the absence of well defined target
leasing iron and manganese previously levels for each nutrient in the wide range
unavailable to the plant 11 • These meas- of soil types in which kiwifruit are grown,
ures should be carried out prior to bud it would seem that the presence of healthy
break to be fully effective in that season. high-yielding vines ought to be the ultimate
arbiter as to whether or not soil conditions
are optimal for growth. Annual soil
testing should be conducted therefore,
Diagnosis of with the aim of monitoring and correcting
trends in nutrient levels rather than in the
nutritional disorders pursuit of attaining particular soil values.
The observed trends represent the
balance between nutrients removed for
Accurate diagnosis is essential if nut- vine growth and fruit production, plus
rient disorders are to be dealt with effect- losses by leaching, and nutrients added in
ively. While this booklet is concerned fertiliser, irrigation water, and rainfall
mainly with visual symptoms of nutrient (airborne sea spray).
I
deficiency and toxicity, confirmation of A summary of analytical data accumu-

~
any diagnosis needs to be supported with lated in the Soil Testing Laboratory at the
evidence from soil and plant analysis. Ruakura Research Centre from 1981 to

8
 1984 makes it clear that kiwifruit tolerate kiwifruit leaves for this purpose is largely
a wide range of macronutrient concentra- independent of the time during the grow-
tions in the soil (Table 7), but inconsist- ing season. Leaves (blades plus petioles)
encies related to soil type do occur. For showing distinctive symptoms should be
example, kiwifruit have been observed collected as soon as they appear on the
growing vigorously at pH values as low affected vines40 . At the same time a
as 4.5 on peat soils and as high as 6.8 on second sample of leaves should also be
calcareous alluvial soils at Gisbome and collected from an identical position on
Hastings, yet a pH of 5.2 in Ohaupo silt healthy non affected plants nearby. By
loam has resulted in manganese toxicity. taking an affected and an unaffected
Seedlings on Patumahoe clay loam have sample the results can be compared
shown vegetative growth responses to directly and possible disorders identified
addition of potassic fertiliser up to a MAF without having to rely upon standard
Quicktest* level of 20, while for other values.
soils, values of 25 may still be inadequate The second way plant analysis can be
to overcome potassium deficiency in used is to monitor the nutrient status of
mature vines because of antagonistic the vine on an annual basis 40 . By repeat-
effects from naturally high levels of edly sampling the vine at the same time
calcium and magnesium in the soil. each year possible trends in the nutrient
The ability of kiwifruit to tolerate status or the early onset of deficiencies
very high levels of phosphorus in the soil or toxicities can be identified, allowing
(Olsen values as high as 500) while main- the fertiliser programme to be adjusted
taining low concentrations of phosphorus before substantial losses in yield occur.
in the leaves (0.20 per cent dry matter) From the results given in Figure 2 for
is a further example of problems associated leaves taken from high producing orchards
with calibrating soil tests against plant with no obvious nutritional disorders it is
growth for this crop. possible to assess the nutrient status of
Although no preferred time has been leaves from fruiting and non fruiting canes
found to sample soils in kiwifruit orchards, at any time of the year. However, recent
for purposes of comparison it is recom- results indicate41 that for most nutrients,
mended that samples be taken at the same deficiencies and toxicities can best be
time each year. identified early in the growing season, i.e.
before fruit set (one exception being
Plant analysis magnesium deficiency which usually de-
velops mid season). Early identification of
Plant analysis has distinct advantages a deficiency allows remedial action to be
over soil analysis as a diagnostic aid for taken in the current season rather than in
a deep rooted plant like kiwifruit. Not the following season as would be the case
only must the elements present in the if leaves were sampled mid season.
tissues of the plant have originally been The sampling procedure for mon-
available in the soil, they also reflect the itoring purposes differs from that used for
availability from the entire root zone. diagnostic purposes40. Because of the
An additional advantage of plant analysis large seasonal variation in the concentra-
is that all nutrient elements essential for tions of macronutrients and micronutrients
plant growth can be determined by this in the leaves of kiwifruit (Figure 2), it is
technique. important for purposes of comparison that
Plant analysis can be used in two im- leaf samples should be taken at the same
portant ways. First, as a diagnostic aid for physiological stage of growth each year.
identifying possible causes of poor plant That is, the time of sampling should be
growth and for confirming visible symp- measured in terms of weeks after bud
toms of nutritional disorders. Sampling break rather than on a strict calendar basis.
*See Appendix 1 for converting MAF Quicktest Leaves (the youngest fully expanded
results to other soil test units. leaves on current season canes) should be

9
 @1
(!I
collected prior to fruit set. However, if
samples are to be collected after fruit set Visual symptoms (ti
when it is less likely that nutrient disorders

.
will be diagnosed, then the second leaf Experience with other crops has shown
past the final fruit cluster on a fruiting that visual symptoms can play an im- ta
lateral should be taken. portant part in diagnosing nutrient
In both cases leaves from at least 20 deficiencies and toxicities in the field
vines (two to three leaves per vine) should 3 .10.45 Clearly recognisable leaf symp-
be collected within the area of the orchard
to be monitored. It is important that the
same area is monitored each year.
Interpretation of the results of plant
analysis is usually based on the concept of
toms associated with a specific disorder
usually appear only after metabolic pro-
cesses in the plant have been seriously dis-
rupted and losses of yield already sustained
(Figure 1). Hence, the presence of visible
~,
~

~I
the critical levels49 • This concept assumes
that when the mineral nutrient concentra-
symptoms usually indicates that a serious
problem exists. p!
tion in the plant tissues is very low, the
yield will also be low.
As the nutrient availability increases
both yield and nutrient concentration in
the tissues increase until a point is reached
Because of differences in mobility of
elements within the plant, symptoms of
nutritional disorders tend to occur in
particular positions on the planta . Under
conditions of deficiency, elements such as
~'
~
where further improvement of nutrient nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium
supply no longer stimulates yield. How- (K), and magnesium (Mg) are withdrawn ~
ever, the concentration of nutrient in the from the older leaves and transported to
tissues will continue to increase. At younger actively growing parts of the
extremely high levels of nutrient supply, plant. Since the redistribution of these
toxic concentrations may accumulate in elements is by way of the phloem, such
the tissues and yield will be reduced . elements are classified as phloem-mobile
These effects are summarised in Figure elements.
1. (See page 55). In general, the most obvious symptoms
In much of the literature, the critical of deficiency of phloem-mobile elements
level in the leaf for a deficiency of an are on the older leaves. Elements such as
element is defined as the concentration boron, iron, and copper which are not
range (90 to 100 per cent of maximum redistributed to any great extent in the
yield) below which the application of plant under deficient conditions are
that element will generally result in a described as phloem-immobile elements.
yield increase, and above which no such Plants must have a continuous external
increase is to be expected. Similarly, the supply of the phloem-immobile elements
critical concentration in the leaf for toxi- to maintain healthy growth. Any inter-
city is that concentration above which ruption of this supply will cause deficiency
a yield reduction is to be expected. symptoms to appear on young actively
To date no precise information has growing parts of the plant including the
been published on critical nutrient con- root tips. The remaining essential elements

•
centrations in kiwifruit. However, research are of intermediate phloem mobility, but
to establish critical leaf concentrations for usually show symptoms of deficiency
each nutrient deficiency and toxicity is in mainly on the younger growth.
progress at the Ruakura Research Centre.
Meanwhile, some indication of the con-
centrations of individual elements required
Symptoms of nutrient toxicity, on the
other hand, usually appear first and most
prominently on the older leaves. This is
•
in the leaves can be gauged from the because the mineral nutrients absorbed by
results given in this publication of concen- the plant are distributed in a pattern
trations found in the leaves of kiwifruit which closely follows that of water loss
vines showing clearly recognisable symp- due to transpiration 28 .
toms of deficiency or toxicity. The fully expanded leaves tend to

10
 receive a greater share of the water and
mineral elements entering the shoots than
do fruit or immature leaves, because they Disorders producing
present a large evaporating surface relative
to their volume. Because of this, the symptoms mainly
highest concentrations of the element in
excess will be found in the older leaves
on the older leaves
since it is in these leaves that accumulation
has been going on for the longest period
of time.
In addition to having a direct effect on
the plant, an excess of one element may
reduce the uptake of a second element or
interfere with its utilisation in the plant. Deficiencies
Under these conditions the main
symptom is likely to be that of a deficiency 1. Potassium deficiency
of the second element. The symptoms,
therefore, may or may not be on the older The first sign of potassium deficiency in
leaves. the field is poor growth at bud break. On
Because leaf symptoms can also be severely affected vines the leaves are small
produced or modified by non-nutritional and pale yellow-green with a slight margin-
factors such as water-stress, temperature, al chlorosis on the older leaves.
light, herbicides, pests, and diseases, it is As the deficiency becomes more pro-
important from a diagnostic point of view nounced, there is an upward curling of the
to distinguish these symptoms from those margins of the older leaves which is
caused by nutritional problems. For this particularly noticeable during the warmer
reason, deficiencies and toxicities of each period of the day (Photo la). This symp-
nutrient element were induced deliberate- tom may disappear overnight only to
ly in kiwifruit seedlings grown in a glass- appear the following day giving the plant
house using hydroponic techniques 2 • an appearance (Photo lb) which has often
Results from these studies are included in been erroneously attributed to a lack of

-II
this publication to supplement and con- water.
firm the observations made in the field. Later the margins of the affected leaves
The order in which the descriptions of remain permanently curled (Photo le),
the individual nutrient disorders appear and the tissue between the minor veins is
•
I
•
in the following sections is based primar-
ily on the leaf positions where symptoms
often ridged upwards. Also the light green
chlorosis, which developed initially at the
first appear: Older leaves; recently matured leaf margin, spreads between the veins
leaves; and younger leaves. Within each of towards the midrib leaving a zone of green
• these groupings, the disorders have been tissue close to the major veins and at the
I
•
further ranked according to the frequency
with which they were seen in the field .
base of the leaf (Photos la and ld ).
However, the boundary between chlo-
I
•
I-
•

.I
I

'~
11
 (!a

rotic and healthy tissue is much more pensate for potassium required in new
diffuse than it is with deficiencies of other cane growth, the large quantity removed

~'
elements such as magnesium and man- in fruit, the competition from grasses and (I
ganese. Much of the chlorotic tissue clover in the orchard for potassium, and
quickly becomes necrotic, turning from the small losses from the soil by leaching,
light to dark brown as it dies giving the
leaf a scorched appearance (Photos ld,
le, and lf).
probably account for the high incidence
of this disorder in the field 43 •
Potassium deficiency of kiwifruit can
~
As the leaf scorch becomes more be corrected by applying potassic fertil- ~
extensive, affected tissue becomes brittle isers. In New Zealand three types of
and there is a tendency for it to break potassic fertilisers are commonly used.
away at the leaf margin giving the leaf They are potassium chloride (muriate ~
a tattered appearance (Photo le). Severe of potash, 50 per cent w/w K), potassium
potassium deficiency can cause premature sulphate (sulphate of potash, 40 per cent ~
defoliation of the vine, although the fruit w/w K), and potassium nitrate (37 per
will remain firmly attached. cent w/w K). Potassium chloride is obtain- ~
Potassium concentrations in fully ex-
panded leaves of healthy plants sampled
in the field at mid season (late February
ed from natural ores or brines, while
potassium sulphate is manufactured from
potassium chloride by a chemical process
.
or early March) are usually above 1.8 per in which either magnesium sulphate or i
cent of the dry matter. Results from the sulphuric acid is used as the source of
solution culture studies, and analysis sulphate 19 • Potassium nitrate is also man-
of leaf samples taken in the field indicate ufactured from potassium chloride, with
that symptoms of potassium deficiency nitric acid being used as the source of
do not usually appear until the concen- nitrate 19 .
Per unit of potassium the sulphate and
tration of potassium in youngest fully
expanded leaves falls below 1.5 per cent
dry matter.
the nitrate forms are very much more ex-
pensive than the chloride form. In addition
•
Severe potassium deficiency of kiwfruit to the cost advantage, potassium chloride Ii
in New Zealand was first reported in 1983 is the preferred form because of the high
in vines grown at Kumeu near Auckland 48 . chloride requirements of kiwifruit for
Since the observation was made, an ex-
tensive survey of the major kiwifruit
growth. Kiwifruit will not respond to pot-
assium if they are deficient in chloride
'._
growing areas of New Zealand has shown (see section on chlorine deficiency).
potassium deficiency to be much more The quantity of potassium required to
widespread than is generally appreciat- correct a deficiency will vary according to
ed 38 ,43. Vines of all ages show signs of the severity of the disorder, the age of the
l
the deficiency, but those just coming into vines, fruit yield, and soil type. The
production (4 to 6 years old) seem to be estimated annual loss of potassium in
the worst affected. There also appears to fruit alone from an average yielding C
be a relationship between potassium de- orchard in the Bay of Plenty (25 t/ha) is
ficiency and the incidence of blossom rot over 80 kg/ha (Table 2). However, losses
(a bacterial infection of the flowers can be even greater than this figure as
caused by Pseudomonas viridiflava 55 ). some orchards have produced up to 54
For example, we have found that the inci- t/ha of fruit in one year 5 • These losses
dence of blossom rot was much greater of potassium have to be replaced each ll
(36 per cent) on potassium deficient vines year from soil reserves or from fertiliser.
than on vines of higher potassium status Thus, for example, between 250 and 300
(16 per cent) . kg/ha of potassium ( 500-600 kg/ha of
Potassium deficiency severely reduces potassium chloride) would be required to
fruit yield, both fruit numbers and fruit correct a moderate to severe deficiency in
size being affected 38 , 43 • Inadequate ap- orchards expected to produce 25 t/ha of
plications of potassium fertilisers to com- fruit 43 •

12
1A 1C

18

13
 2A

2D 2E

retained at the base of the leaf close to

2. Magnesium deficiency the point of attachment of the petiole,
even on severely deficient plants (Photos
2c, 2d and 2e).
Early symptoms of magnesium defic. Initially, there is no necrotic tissue
iency include a pale yellow-green inter- associated with the chlorosis, but as the
veinal chlorosis of the older leaves on the deficiency becomes more pronounced the
current season's extension canes. The chlorotic tissue turns bright yellow and
chlorosis usually develops at the leaf a marginal or interveinal necrosis may
margin and spreads inwards between the develop (Photos 2c and 2d). The nec-
veins towards the midrib, often leaving a rosis may also extend a short distance
relatively wide zone of healthy tissue each between the veins towards the midrib.
side of the main vein (Photos 2a and 2b ). Of all the visible symptoms, those
In some cases, the margin of the leaf re- associated with magnesium deficiency are
mains green and the chlorosis and sub- the ones most likely to be confused with
• l\
sequent necrosis start some distance in other nutritional disorders. However,
from the margin (Photos 2d and 2e ). On there are important points of difference
these leaves the necrotic tissue usually which help distinguish magnesium from
forms a regular pattern of isolated patches these disorders, of which boron toxicity
roughly parallel to the leaf margin giving and manganese deficiency are the most
a distinctive "horse shoe" appearance important.
(Photos 2d and 2e ). In the case of boron toxicity , the
A large zone of green tissue is also interveinal chlorosis quickly gives way
15
 to a necrosis which extends from the leaf Magnesium concentrations in fully ex-
margin to the midrib, whereas with panded leaves of healthy plants sampled
magnesium deficiency the necrotic tissue in the field mid season usually exceed 0.38
is confined to the margins or a discrete per cent of the dry matter. Analysis of
zone parallel to the margins of the leaf. leaves from the solution culture studies
The boundary between healthy and and from the field indicate that symptoms
chlorotic tissue is also more pronounced of magnesium deficiency do not usually
with magnesium deficiency than it is with appear until the concentration of mag-
boron toxicity. An additional distinguish- nesium in youngest fully expanded leava~
ing feature is that the symptoms of falls below 0.10 per cent dry matter.
magnesium deficiency do not spread to
the younger leaves, even on severely Magnesium deficiency of kiwifruit is not
deficient plants, as they do with boron uncommon in New Zealand. Deficiencies
toxicity. can be attributed mainly to very low
Manganese deficiency, on the other levels of 'available' magnesium in the
hand can be distinguished from magnesium soil12. Much less common is where
deficiency in that the symptoms of magnesium deficiency is induced by an
deficiency appear first on the recently excess of other cations in the soil, usually
mature leaves and not on the oldest leaves potassium but sometimes calcium. These
as they do with magnesium deficiency. cations impede the uptake of magnesium
Also, with manganese deficiency the by the plant even though relatively high
entire leaf becomes chlorotic, leaving only levels of 'available' magnesium may be
a small zone of healthy tissue on each side present in the soil.
of the main veins; with magnesium Magnesium deficiency can be corrected
deficiency large areas of tissue remain by applying magnesium fertilisers to the
green, particularly at the base of the leaf. soil. Application rates of at least 200
Furthermore, with magnesium de- kg/ha of magnesium are required to over-
ficiency large areas of leaf become necro- come a deficiency 12 . Possible fertiliser
tic. This does not occur with manganese sources include Kieserite (15 per cent w/w
deficiency. A further feature distinguishing Mg) and Epsom salts (10 per cent w/w Mg)
magnesium deficiency from the other two both of which are highly soluble materials
disorders is that the symptoms do not and probably best used for correcting ex-
usually appear in the field until mid to isting deficiencies; the slower release mat-
late season. erials such as calcined magnesite ( 50 per

•
3A =]
@J
36
{
J
.....
16
 3E 3F
cent w/w Mg), Dolomite (11 per cent w/w plants the veins remain conspicuously
Mg) and magnesium oxide (60 percentw/w green, particularly on the older leaves
Mg) are more suitable for building up or (Photos 3b, 3c, 3d and 3e).
maintaining soil reserves 24 • Solution culture studies indicate that
a marginal scorch may also develop on the
3. Nitrogen deficiency older leaves. The orange-tan scorch de-
• Nitrogen deficiency severely reduces
velop·s first at the tip of the leaves and
.then spreads along the margins towards
tu} the growth of kiwifruit (Photo 3a). the point of attachment of the petiole.
Deficiency symptoms develop first on the There may be a slight upward ro1ling of
f(I older leaves and spread progressively to the necrotic tissue (Photo 3b ). Observa-
young leaves until the whole plant is tions of nitrogen deficient vines in the
1i) affected (Photo 3b). field mid season suggest that fruit size
Initially, there is a gradual change in may be reduced (Photo 3f).
11
the colour of the leaf from the usual dark- Nitrogen concentrations in fully ex-
green to light-green (Photos 3b and 3c). panded leaves of healthy plants sampled
'(
As the deficiency becomes more pro- at mid season in the field usually range
nounced the affected leaves may become from 2.2 to 2.8 per cent of the dry matter.
uniformly yellow (Photos 3d and 3e). Results from solution culture studies
·s, However, even on severely deficient and from leaf samples taken in the field

~ 17
 ~' I

~'~'
(!11

·'~!~'
•
~

4A 48 ~

4C 40

indicate that symptoms of nitrogen a sizeable contribution to the over-all

deficiency do not appear until the concen- nitrogen economy of the orchard through
tration of nitrogen in youngest fully ex- the nitrogen fixed by the clovers (up to
panded leaves falls below 1.5 per cent 50 kg/ha/yr).
dry matter. ----------------
4. Zinc deficiency
Without regular annual applications of
nitrogen fertilisers, most horticultural
soils in New Zealand which are cropping For many plant species, zinc is usually
considered to be an element with very
regularly will sooner or later become limited mobility in the phloem 47 • Any in-
deficient in nitrqgen. To maintain vigorous
terruption in the external supply of zinc
healthy growth of mature kiwifruit vines,
broadcasting moderate amounts of nitro- will cause deficiency symptoms to appear
on young actively growing parts of the
gen fertiliser (170 kg/ha of nitrogen) over plant.
the entire orchard, is recommended as . For kiwifruit, there is some doubt as
Maintenance of a clover sward in the to the degree of phloem mobility of zinc:
orchard, particularly under T-bar struc- It has been concluded from observations
tures which allow sufficient light to fall of kiwifruit in Califomia 50 that zinc was ]
on the sward for growth, can make relatively immobile in the plant, the de-
18
J
Ci
 veins remaining dark green (Photos 4a,
4b, 4c and 4d) - the contrast between
the dark green veins and the yellow
chlorosis is very striking (Photo 4c).
In the field there is a tendency for the
chlorosis to be more intense along the leaf
margins (Photo 4d) than it is on plants
grown in solution culture in the glass-
house (Photos 4a and 4b ). There was no
indication of any necrosis developing on
deficient leaves from either plants in the
glasshouse (Photo 4a) or in the field
(Photo 4e).
Severe zinc deficiency can also markedly
reduce lateral root development (Photo
4f). Leaf symptoms do not usually appear
in the field until mid season.
Zinc concentrations in fully expanded
leaves of healthy plants sampled in the
field at mid season usually range from
15-28 µg/g dry matter. Results from the
solution culture experiments and from
leaf samples taken in the field indicate
that symptoms of zinc deficiency do not
usually appear until the concentration of
zinc in the youngest fully expanded leaves
falls below 12 µg/g dry matter.
Zinc deficiency of kiwifruit has been
observed in orchards on the Waimea
Plains near Nelson, at Motueka, Wanganui,
and near Hastings. Low levels of zinc also
occur in soils at Kerikeri 8 , but there is no
evidence yet of a deficiency in kiwifruit
ficiency resulting in the "little leaf" grown on these soils.
symptoms on the young growth. This The relatively low incidence of this
symptom is common to many other disorder in the field is probably a reflection
plant species. of the natural reserves of zinc in New Zea-
However, solution culture studies at land soils and also of the widespread use
Ruakura and observations made in the of superphosphate. Superphosphate manu-
•~ field have consistently shown that factured in this country has a relatively
symptoms of zinc deficiency are confined high zinc content (200-400 µg /g) as an
• @ to the older leaves, particularly those on
canes near the junction of the leaders with
impurity14 . If the recommended rate
of phosphate for mature cropping vines
• 11· the trunk of the vine; while the young
leaves remain green and healthy even on
is applied as superphosphate (9 per cent
P), sufficient quantities of zinc to com-
'tj severely deficient plants. Moreover, there pensate for the removal in fruit are also
is no reduction in the size of the younger applied (Table 2).
., leaves. These observations suggest that Excessively high rates of phosphate
zinc could be relatively mobile in the fertilisers should be avoided, however, as
phloem of the kiwifruit. numerous studies with other plant species
C, Symptoms of zinc deficiency of kiwi- have shown that phosphorus can reduce
fruit include a bright yellow interveinal the 'available' zinc in the soil and zinc
~ chlorosis on the older leaves· with the concentrations in the plant to deficient

~ 19
 58

5A

5C
50

levels 33 • Foliar sprays (1 kg zinc sulphate Clearly recognisable symptoms only

100 I water) or soil applications of zinc appear on deficient plants when growth
sulphate (23 per cent w/w Zn) at a rate of is severely restricted. Symptoms include
20 kg/ha early in the season before bud a pale green interveinal chlorosis of the
break may be used as corrective treat-
ments for zinc deficiency.
older leaves which spreads from the leaf
tip back towards the point of attachment
of the petiole (Photo 5b ). Reddening of
•
Phosphorus deficiency
the midrib and major veins on the under- •"'
side of the older leaves may also occur,
the colour being more intense towards the .-
Phosphorus deficiency can reduce the base of the leaf blade (Photos 5c and 5d).
growth of kiwifruit without the develop- On healthy plants the midrib and major
ment of obvious visible symptoms (Photo veins on the underside of the leaf usually
5a). The stems of affected plants tend to remain light green (Photo 5c).
be much thinner and the size of the leaves The petioles of deficient plants can also
considerably reduced. be more pigmented than usual. However,

20
5E 5F

this symptom is not particularly useful for appear until the concentration of phos-
diagnosing phosphorus deficiency in kiwi- phorus in youngest fully expanded leaves
fruit as there is considerable variation in falls below 0.12 per cent dry matter.
the degree of pigmentation of the petioles,
even amongst healthy vines. In the field, Despite most New Zealand soils being
the upper side of affected leaves may de- naturally low in phosphorus, phosphorus
velop a burgundy tinge, particularly at the deficiency of kiwifruit is not common.
margins of the leaf (Photos 5e and 5f). The relatively high rates of phosphorous
Phosphorus concentrations in fully ex- fertiliser ( 56 kg/ha/yr of phosphorus)
panded leaves of healthy plants sampled generally recommended for kiwifruit36 ,
in the field at mid season usually range and the development of orchards on ex-
from 0.18 to 0.22 per cent of the dry dairy pastures (usually areas of high soil
matter. Results from the solution culture fertility) probably account for the low
studies and analysis of leaf samples taken incidence of this disorder in the field. In
from the field indicate that symptoms of addition, only small quantities of phos-
phosphorus deficiency do not usually phorus are removed in fruit (Table 2).

21
 68

6A

22
6. Chlorine (Chloride) deficiency

One of the most extraordinary features

of the nutrition of kiwifruit is their high
requirement for chlorine (chlorine is
always present in plant tissues as the
chloride ion). A deficiency of chlorine
severely reduces the growth of kiwifruit
(Photo 6a). Furthermore, solution culture
studies at Ruakura have shown that kiwi-
fruit will not respond to potassium in the
absence of chlorine.
Symptoms of chlorine deficiency de-
velop first on the oldest leaves. Discrete
patches of pale green chlorotic tissue
appear between the main veins near the
tip of the leaf (Photo 6b ). The chlorosis
usually develops at the leaf margin and
spreads between the veins towards the
midrib. In some cases the chlorotic patches
at the margin of the leaf coalesce to form
a continuous bond of chlorotic tissue.
There may also be a downward cupping of
the older leaves. As the deficiency becomes
more pronounced the young leaves remain
pale green with a noticeable reduction in
leaf area (Photo 6c ). At no stage does the
affected leaf tissue become necrotic
(Photos 6b and 6c ).
Chlorine deficiency also results in a
marked reduction in root growth as well
as the development of abnormal swellings
of the tissue 2-3 cm from the root apex
(Photo 6d). Such swellings could be mis-
taken for nematode cysts.
Chloride concentrations in leaves from
healthy kiwifruit vines sampled in the
field at midseason usually range from 0.8
to 2.0 per cent dry matter. Results from
solution culture experiments indicate t hat
the requirements for chlorine depend in
part upon the potassium status of the
plant. Thus, where potassium was not
limiting growth, the critical concent ration
of chloride in the youngest fully expanded
leaves was 0.2 per cent dry matter.

23
 {!
I
However, for moderately potassium de-
ficient plants with potassium concentra-
Toxicities i!
tions in their leaves of less than 1.0 per
7. Boron toxicity
I
I
cent dry matter, a higher concentration of
chloride (0.6 per cent dry matter) was re- I
I
quired in the leaf for growth. For many
sensitive plants such as avocado, citrus,
and most stonefruit, concentrations of
Early symptoms of boron toxicity in-
clude a yellow-green interveinal chlorosis
I
I
chloride as high as those required in the
leaves for healthy growth of kiwifruit
developing first on the older leaves and
spreading progressively to the younger
I
would be sufficient to seriously reduce leaves (Photos 7a and 7b). It is also usual
their growth35. to find the affected leaves cupped either
Chlorine deficiency is not expected to upwards (Photo 7b) or downwards (Photo
be a problem where potassium chloride is 7c).
used regularly or in coastal orchards As the toxicity becomes more pro-
where large quantities of chloride are nounced, the interveinal chlorosis quickly
deposited in seaspray (Table 8). However, gives way to small patches of brown
this disorder is more likely to be a problem necrotic tissue which develop between the
in vines grown inland on light sandy soils minor veins and extend to the midrib
in high rainfall areas since chloride is very (Photos 7c and 7d). Necrosis of the leaf
readily leached out of soils 23 Chloride margins is also common (Photo 7d).
deficiency in kiwifruit can be corrected Eventually, the necrotic patches link up
by applying potassium chloride (50 per forming a continuous zone of dead tissue
cent w/w Cl). Sodium chloride (common between the major veins. As this necrotic
salt) should not be used as a source of tissue weathers, it changes from brown to
chlorine as kiwifruit are very sensitive to a silvery-grey ·c olour (Photo 7e). By this
excess sodium (see section on salinity stage the necrotic tissue has become very
for the effects of excess sodium and brittle and may break away giving a ragged
chloride on kiwifruit). appearance to the leaf (Photo 7f).

7A 70

24
 As with other boron sensitive plants, form of boron applied. Boron leaches
the margin between boron sufficiency and readily from sandy soils but is more
toxicity is very narrow for kiwifruit. strongly retained by soils high in silt and
Concentrations of boron in the leaves clay. Soil acidity has been shown to ac-
only slightly above the required level can centuate the toxic effects of boron in
cause serious injury to the plant. plants 21 • Although the effects on kiwifruit
Analyses of kiwifruit leaves sampled in are not yet known, for some plants boron
October through to December quite com- toxicity may be reduced by adding
monly show low boron concentrations lime and /or organic matter to the soil 33 •
of 20-30 µg/g dry matter. However, this
should not be interpreted as a deficiency While boron concentrations in youngest
but rather as a part of a natural pattern. fully expanded leaves of healthy plants
sampled in the field at mid season are
Further analyses will show that from
December through to the end of the grow- usually about 50 µg/g dry matter, plants
ing season, boron concentrations usually showing symptoms of severe toxicity have
double. Consequently, if boron is applied boron concentrations in excess of 100
to correct what may appear to be an early µg/g dry matter.
season deficiency, there is a distinct Excess boron severely reduces fruit
danger that toxicity will result. yield, both fruit numbers and the weight
In New Zealand boron toxicity in kiwi- of individual fruit being reduced. The
fruit has been observed only following storage quality of the fruit is also affected,
heavy applications of boron fertiliser to with the fruit ripening prematurely in
the soil (in excess of 2 kg/ha of boron), cool storage 38 • ·
in foliar sprays, or where bore water Until further information is available
naturally high in boron (>0.8 mg//) has on the effects of rainfall and soil type on
been used for irrigation (see also Table 4). boron accumulation in the root zone,
The residual effect of boron in soils is boron concentrations in irrigation water
determined largely by the soil type ahd should not exceed 0 .5 mg//.

7E 7F

25
 concentrations of sodium and chloride
8. Salinity in the bore waters range from 230 to 860
mg/l and 475 to 1585 mg/l respectively .
Salinity is caused by high concentrations In the field kiwifruit affected by excess
of salts in the soil solution. The chlorides salts are typically stunted with small and
and sulphates of sodium and magnesium dull bluish-green leaves (Photo Sa). Symp-
are the most damaging of these salts to toms appear first on the older leaves
plants 23 . which may be cupped downwards (Photo
Sb). Scorching of the leaf margins may
While soils containing large amounts of also occur. As the disorder becomes
soluble salts are not common in New Zea- more pronounced, progressively younger
land27, there are at least three situations leaves are affected with the new growth
where salinity could limit kiwifruit being much paler green than normal l
production in this country: First, in (Photo Sc). Wilting symptoms are seldom
orchards sited on soils recently affected observed. This disorder appears to be
by sea-water, such as the land near Napier more associated with excess sodium than
which was raised above sea level during with chloride in the cases so far investigat-
the 1931 earthquake. Appreciable quanti- ed.
ties of soluble salts are still present,
particularly in the subsoil 27 . In solution culture experiments in
Second, in orchards in exposed coastal which effects of excess sodium (100 mg/l)
areas, especially on the west coast of the were studied in the absence of excess
North Island, where large quantities of chloride, the leaves produced were small ,
sodium chloride are blown inland in sea leathery, cupped downwards, and· bluish
spray . In 1953 it was found that quanti- in colour, (Photo 8d). These symptoms
ties of sodium chloride deposited on soils were prominent on salt affected plants in
near the coast were as high as 388 kg/ha/ the field (Photos Sa and Sb).
yr (Table 8) 6 • Even at a distance of 60 When excess chloride was provided in
kilometres inland sodium chloride addi- the absence of excess sodium, the first i
tions were over 60 kg/ha/yr. observable symptom was the develop-
The third situation is one which has ment of a bronze discolouration of the
caused the greatest damage to kiwifruit leaf margins on the older leaves (Photo
to date. This involves the use of saline Se). Small necrotic patches may also IL
bore water for irrigation. Districts affect- appear between the veins of the older
ed by this problem include the eastern leaves (Photo Sf).
Bay of Plenty and Gisborne where the This necrosis spreads quickly to occupy

fii

.
u

•
J

26 (j
 88 SC

most of the leaf surface except a narrow In the field, the concentrations of
zone each side of the major veins (Photo chloride in the leaves of plants severely
8g). The young leaves tend to be pale, and affected by salinity have been found to
upward rolling of leaf margins or down- range from 1 to 3 per cent of the dry
ward cupping of the leaves may occur matter (unpublished data), further sug-
but leaf size is not noticeably reduced gesting that chloride is not the major
(Photo 8h). In solution culture, chloride factor involved in salinity problems in the
affected plants undergo premature de- field. ·
foliation but this has not been observed Paradoxically, the concentration of so-
for kiwifruit affected by salinity in the dium remains quite low in the leaves of
field. affected plants, always less than 0.12 per
Healthy plants sampled in the field cent of the dry matter.
at mid season usually contain less than It appears that kiwifruit effectively
0.05 per cent sodium and between 0.8 exclude sodium from the aerial tissues,
and 2.0 per cent chloride in the leaf dry although they may accumulate excessive
matter. Solution culture experiments indi- concentrations in the roots. As with
cate th at symptoms of excess chloride do many other plant species, the mechan-
not usually appear until the concentration isms whereby sodium interferes with the
in the youngest fully expanded leaves metabolism of the plant are not well
exceeds 7 per cent of the dry matter. understood.

27
 9. Manganese toxicity

Excess manganese severely reduces the

growth of kiwifruit grown in solution
culture (Photo 9a). In the field, manganese
toxicity causes the growth of the current
season 's canes to terminate prematurely
and the internode length of these canes to
be greatly reduced.
Manganese toxicity can be distinguished
readily from other nutritional disorders
by the appearance of a regular pattern
of small black spots which concentrate
along the main veins on the older leaves
(Photos 9b and 9c ). Later, these necrotic
spots may spread to the younger leaves
(Photo 9d).
The affected leaves usually remain dark Ill
green or have a steely blue-grey tinge
about them, but in some cases a greenish- ....J
IJ
yellow chlorosis may accompany the
black spots on the older leaves (Photo 9e ). ...J
As the toxicity becomes more pronounced IJ
much larger areas of necrotic tissue
develop on the affected leaves; these
patches are beige in colour (Photos 9d and
9e).
Many of the affected leaves are shed
shortly after the appearance of t hese large
necrotic patches.
In addition to the direct effects which
manganese toxicity has on kiwifruit,
-
._
]
@

SH
~
28 ij
 98

9E 9F

a high concentration of manganese in the amount of manganese taken up by plants.

root zone -can induce iron deficiency in Consequently, manganese toxicity is
the plant. This secondary symptom of nearly always associated with acid soils
manganese toxicity is characterised by an and/or poorly drained soils.
interveinal chlorosis on the younger leaves While few cases of manganese toxicity
(Photo 9f; see also the section on iron have been observed so far in kiwifruit in
d~ficiency). · New Zealand, toxicity symptoms have
The availability of manganese to plants been found to be associated with concen-
is controlled largely by factors other than trations of manganese in fully expanded
the amount of manganese in the soil. leaves in excess of 1200 µg/g dry matter.
Reducing conditions in the soil as a result Usually manganese concentrations in
of waterlogging for example, and a low leaves of healthy plants range from 50 to
pH (below 5.5) in the topsoil of specific 150 µg/g dry matter. In the case of mang-
soil types increase substantially the anese induced iron deficiency, extremely

29
 high concentrations of manganese (in While excess nitrogen is not a common
excess of 6000 µg/g dry matter) have been disorder of kiwifruit in New Zealand, it
found in the leaves. occurs most often when large quantities
Manganese toxicity can be corrected of nitrogen fertiliser are banded close to
by application of lime which increases the plant. For most situations, it has been
soil pH and reduces the solubility of recommended that nitrogen fertilisers
manganese, and by improvement of drain- should be broadcast over the entire
age in the orchard. orchard36. For further information on
nitrogen fertilisers see section on nitrogen
deficiency.
10. Nitrogen excess
11 . Phosphorus toxicity
Excess nitrogen readily reduces the
growth of kiwifruit (Photo 10a). Symp- Kiwifruit are relatively tolerant of
toms appear first on the older leaves as an excess phosphorus in the soil. To date
interveinal scorching which spreads from phosphorus toxicity has not been observed
the leaf margins towards the midrib in the field despite the very high phos-
(Photo 10b). Leaves on affected plants are phorus status of some New Zealand soils.
very much darker green than usual. For example, vines have been grown in
As the disorder becomes more pro- soils with MAF quicktest phosphorus
nounced, the leaves lose turgor and values in excess of 500; average soil
become very limp giving the plant a phosphorus values in kiwifruit orchards
wilted appearance (Photo 10a). In the usually range from 20 to 30 (Table 7).
field there may be an upward rolling of In solution culture experiments symp-
the leaf margins (Photo 10c). In this toms of phosphorus toxicity did not
respect, the symptoms are similar to those appear despite applying phosphorus at
produced by potassium deficiency. concentrations which were 100 times that
However, an important point of difference which produced maximum growth. In the
is that no interveinal chlorosis develops on field the concentration of phosphorus in
plants affected by excess nitrogen. the leaves appears to be largely independ-
Nitrogen concentrations in fully ex- ent of the phosphorus status of the soil.
panded leaves of healthy plants sampled Phosphorus concentrations in the leaves
in the field at mid season usually range of healthy plants sampled at mid season
from 2.2 to 2.8 per cent of the dry vary only over a very narrow range of
matter. Results from the solution culture between 0.18 and 0.22 per cent of the.dry
experiments and analysis of leaf samples matter. It should be noted that it is usual
taken in the field, indicate that symptoms for phosphorus concentrations to exceed
of excess nitrogen do not usually appear 1 per cent of the dry matter of the leaves
until the concentration in the youngest of healthy plants shortly after bud break,
fully expanded leaves exceeds 5.5 per cent the high concentrations resulting from a
of the dry matter. However, it should be
noted that it is usual for leaf nitrogen
concentrations to exceed 6 per cent of
dry matter shortly after bud break, and
release of phosphorus stored in the plant
from the previous season rather than from
recent additions of phosphate fertiliser.
These high phosphorus concentrations at
•
at this early stage these high nitrogen this early stage of growth do not appear
concentrations do not appear damaging. to be damaging to the plant. As the season
As the season progresses these high progresses these high phosphorus concen-
nitrogen concentrations fall rapidly to trations in the leaf decline rapidly so that
a level which remains relatively constant by December they have reach ed a min-
from December to the end of the growing imum. They then remain relatively con-
season. stant for the rest of the growing season.

30
108 10C
31
 recedes even further towards the veins
so that eventually only the veins remain
Disorders producing green (Photo 12d).
symptoms mainly on Frequently, the tissue between the
minor veins is ridged upwards and the
recently matured leaves affected leaves may have a shiny waxy
appearance (Photos 12c and 12d). Leaf
size is not noticeably reduced (Photo 12a),
nor is there any necrosis of the leaf tissue
(Photos 12b and 12d).
Deficiencies Manganese concentrations in fully
expanded leaves of healthy plants sampled
12. Manganese deficiency in the field at mid season usually range
from 50 to 150 µg/g dry matter. It has
Manganese deficiency produces a light been found that manganese deficiency can
green to yellow interveinal chlorosis severely reduce fruit yield 4 ,3 7 • Concentra-
which appears first on recently ma,tured tions of manganese below 30 µg/g dry
leaves, but in severe cases it may' affect matter in the youngest fully expanded
almost all leaves on a plant (Photo 12a). leaves on non-fruiting canes were asso-
The chlorosis develops initially at the ciated with large reductions in the num-
leaf margins (Photo 12b) and then spreads ber and total weight of fruit per vine.
between the main veins towards the mid- Manganese deficiency of kiwifruit is
rib leaving only a small zone o.f healthy widespread in parts of Gisborne and
green tissue either side of the veins (Photo Hawkes Bay, and is usually associated
12c). As the deficiency becomes more with soils which have a pH exceeding
pronounced, the zone of healthy tissue 6.8. Under these conditions, the solu-
12A

12C

32
 bility of plant-available manganese is
greatly reduced.
In addition to those areas where the
pH of the soil is naturally high, man-
ganese deficiency has occurred in kiwi-
fruit where excessive applications of lime
have been applied to the soil, where vines
have been grown on sites of old lime or
cement dumps, and on old Maori middens
(large accumulations of discarded sea
shells) which supply abundant lime in the
vicinity of the roots.
In most cases, manganese deficiency of
kiwifruit grown on high pH soils in New
Zealand can be corrected readily by 13A
applying sufficient quantities of com-
pounds which will acidify the soil thereby
releasing previously unavailable manganese
to the plant. Such acidifying compounds
include finely ground elemental sulphur,
aluminium sulphate, or ammonium sul-
phate.
The quantities of these acidifying
compounds required to lower the pH have
been estimated for a range of soil types
common in the Gisborne and Hawkes Bay
regions 11 •

13. Calcium deficiency

Symptoms of severe calcium deficiency

develop first on recently matured leaves
(Photo 13a) and spread to progressively
younger leaves. Initially, the veins at the
base of the leaf become necrotic and turn
I i)
black (Photo 13b). As the deficiency
becomes more pronounced, the necrosis
spreads to the fine veins on the remainder
of the leaf; these necrotic areas enlarge
and coalesce to form extensive patches of
necrotic tissue (Photo 13c ). As the necrotic
tissue dries the leaf becomes very brittle
and there is a tendency for the plant to
I\ defoliate.
By this stage the growing point, which
I I' may have developed a rosette of very
small leaves, will have died causing the
axillary buds at the junction of the
petioles and the stem to develop (Photo
13d). At the same time the oldest leaves

,., may have developed symptoms which

include an upward rolling of the leaf mar-
gin and an interveinal necrosis surrounded 13 C

,.
\ 33
 i !I
(p I
by a zone of chlorotic tissue (Photo 13e).
These observations suggest that calcium
may be relatively mobile in the phloem of i!
kiwifruit.
Calcium deficiency also affects the ~!
roots of kiwifruit. On severely deficient
plants the root system is poorly developed,
and in some cases the root apex dies
,!
(Photo 13f). Large areas of necrotic tissue
may also develop some distance from the
~!
root apex and are likely sites for invasion
by root pathogens.
~I
Calcium concentrations in fully ex-
panded leaves of plants sampled in the
i:
field at mid season usually range from 3.0 @:
to 3.5 per cent of the dry matter. Solution
culture studies at Ruakura suggest that
kiwifruit are relatively tolerant of low ~
levels of calcium, as leaf symptoms did
not appear until the concentration in the ~
youngest fully expanded leaves fell below
0.2 per cent of the dry matter. ~
The widespread use of lime and fertil-
isers which contain relatively large ~
amounts of calcium (single superphos-
phate, 20 per cent w/w Ca; Calcium 1"3.E.....,,_._ _ ......,_
ammonium nitrate (CAN), 20 per cent
w/w Ca), coupled with the small annual i
removal of calcium in fruit (Table 2)
probably accounts for the low incidence
of this deficiency in kiwifruit grown in
New Zealand.

130

IJJ

II

II

J
13F
~
34 ]
 the petiole (Photo 14b ). In severe cases
Disorders producing the whole leaf becomes chlorotic except
for the veins which remain green (Photo
symptoms mainly on 14c). Eventually, even the veins may lose
their green colour (Photo 14d). Under
the younger leaves these conditions, growth is greatly reduced
(Photos 14a and 14e).
Iron concentrations in fully expanded
leaves of healthy plants sampled in the
field at mid season usually range from
Deficiencies 80 to 100 µg/g dry matter. Results from
the solution culture experiments indicate
14. Iron deficiency that symptoms of iron deficiency do not
usually appear until the concentration of
iron in youngest fully expanded leaves
Iron deficiency can be distinguished falls below 60 µg/g dry matter.
from other nutritional disorders by the While plant analysis may give some
development of a characteristic inter- indication of the iron status of the plant,
veinal chlorosis of the younger leaves considerable caution is required when
grading from yellow through to snow interpreting these results.
white (Photo 14a). The older leaves often Chlorotic leaves from iron deficient
remain green and healthy. kiwifruit vines may contain as great or
For mildly affected plants, the chlorosis greater concentrations of iron than leaves
is confined to the leaf margins, leaving from healthy plants. Studies with other
a large zone of green tissue at the base of plant species have shown that iron can be
the leaf near the point of attachment of readily inactivated within the plant

• I\

I
•1'9
I r!) 14A

f~

14C
14 0
35
 14E 14F

forming compounds which are no longer these conditions is due to immobilisation

physiologically effective 33 • Thus, older rather than inherent deficiency of iron in
chlorotic tissue may continue to accum- the soil. Hence applications of compounds
ulate iron without the deficiency symp- which will acidify the soil such as finely
toms being alleviated. ground elemental sulphur, aluminium
A simple test can be used in conjunction sulphate, or ammonium sulphate, will
with leaf analysis to confirm a visual increase the concentration of iron pre-
diagnosis of iron deficiency of kiwifruit. viously 'unavailable' to the plant 11 •
This test involves spraying or painting
affected leaves with a solution containing
15. Sulphur deficiency
0 .5 per cent (w/v) ferrous ammonium
sulphate [(NH4 ) 2 S0 4 .FeS0 4 .6H 2 OJ. With-
in 10 days of application, patches of Sulphur deficiency causes some visible
healthy green tissue should begin to symptoms which resemble those of
appear on the treated leaves (Photo 14f). nitrogen deficiency. These include a
Up to the present time iron deficiency severe reduction in growth and the de-
of any consequence in kiwifruit in New velopment of pale-green to yellow leaves.
Zealand has only occurred on calcareous An important point of difference, how-
soils near Hastings where the natural pH ever, is that the symptoms of sulphur ~ l
of the soils is over 7 .0. Deficiency under deficiency are confined to the younger

158

15A
36
 15E 15F

leaves, the older leaves remammg green which contain relatively large amounts
and healthy (Photos 15a, 15b and 15c). of sulphur such as single superphosphate
Initially a diffuse pale-green to yellow (12 per cent w/w S), ammonium sulphate
chlorosis develops near the margins of the (24 p er cent w/w S), and magnesium
younger leaves (Photo 15d). The chlorosis sulphate (13 per cent w/w S) probably
then spreads progressively over most of accounts for the low incidence of this
the leaf. A distinctive wedge shaped zone disorder. Furthermore, only small quanti-
of green tissue is often retained at the ties of sulphur are removed in fruit (Table
junction of the major veins and the mid- 2). A guide to the soils which are likely to
rib (Photo 15e). be low in sulphur can be obtained from
In the case of a severe deficiency of the review of the sulphur status of New
sulphur, the interveinal tissue of the Zealand soils 7 •25 •
youngest leaves becomes completely

-~ chlorotic and, unlike severe nitrogen de-

ficiency , the veins also lose their green 16. Boron deficiency

-~
I
I
colour (Photo 15f). A further feature
which distinguishes sulphur deficiency
from nitrogen deficiency is that there is
,!) no marginal scorching of the affected
The appearance of small irregular
patches of yellow tissue near the centre

.I ,_, leaves.
Sulphur concentrations in fully expand-
ed leaves of healthy plants sampled in the
of the younger leaves is the first sign of
boron deficiency (Photo 16a). These pat-
ches enlarge and coalesce to form an
extensive area of yellow tissue on both
field at mid season usually range from sides of the midrib (Photos 16b and 16c).
0 .25 to 0.45 per cent of the dry matter. A zone of healthy green tissue is usually
Results from the solution culture studies retained at the margins of the affected
and of analysis of leaf samples taken in leaves. A the same time the immature
the field indicate that symptoms of terminal 1 aves thicken, becoming mis-
sulphur deficiency do not usually appear shapen and wisted (Photos 16d and 16e).
until the concentration in fully expanded Frequently, t e tissue between the minor
leaves falls below 0.18 per cent dry veins is ridged upwards (Photo 16e ).
matter. When the deficiency is severe, stem
Few cases of sulphur deficiency have elongation is restricted due to a lack of
been observed in kiwifruit grown in New extension of the internodes, giving the
Zealand. The widespread use of fertilisers plant a stunted appearance (Photo 16f).

37
 (!

Boron concentrations in fully expanded New Zealand on which kiwifruit are

leaves of healthy plants sampled in the grown that are naturally low in boron,
field mid season usually range from 40 to such as the yellow-brown pumice soils of
50 µg/g dry matter. Results from the
solution culture studies and of analysis of
the North Island and the yellow-brown
earth soils near Nelson in the South
~
leaf samples taken in the field indicate Island 53 , boron deficiency of kiwifruit
that the symptoms of boron deficiency is not common in this country . So far this
do not usually appear until the concen-
tration of boron in youngest fully ex-
panded leaves falls below 20 µg/g dry
disorder has been observed in only one
isolated case in an orchard near Wanganui
(Photo 15c).
~!
matter.
Boron deficiency most often occurs
One possible reason for the low in-
cidence of boron deficiency in the field is
~!
on light textured sandy soils and soils the comparatively small annual removal ~!
which are low in organic matter. Overlim-
ing can also induce boron deficiency by
reducing the solubility of boron com-
pounds in the soil 30.
Although there are a number of soils in
of boron from cropping orchards (Table 2).
In many situations, sufficient boron is
added to the soil from sources such as
airborne sea spray (Table 3), irrigation
water (Table 4), and from impurities in
~'
~!
I
16A 168 16C

160

~ 38
 fertiliser such as superphosphate (Table 2), no reliable information yet for kiwifruit
and some sources of potassium chloride on the quantities of boron required to
(Table 9) to compensate for new growth safely correct a deficiency.
and the amount removed in fruit. How-
ever, in genuine cases of boron deficiency
it can be readily corrected by the applica- 17. Copper deficiency
tion of boron fertilisers such as borax
(11 per cent w/w B). While foliar sprays The first sign of a deficiency is a uniform
of boron (100 g boron/100 l water) light-green chlorosis of the young, im-
compounds like boric acid (18 per cent mature leaves (Photo 17a), Later, the
w/w B) and Solubor® (21 per cent w/wB) chlorosis becomes more intense in the
are often beneficial, soil applications interveinal area with the primary veins
remain more effective in the longer remaining dark green (Photos 1 7b and
term 30. 1 7c); these affected areas may eventually
As kiwifruit appear to be very sensitive become bleached (Photo 17d). Growth of
to excess boron (see section on boron kiwifruit is reduced by copper deficiency
toxicity) extreme care should be taken (Photo 17c), but results from the solution
!} when applying fertilisers since there is culture studies suggest that the effects are

178 17C

~1-
 confined largely to the aerial tissues as a deficiency as kiwifruit appear to be sen-
there were no obvious effects on the sitive to foliar applications of copper salts,
roots. In the field severe copper deficiency particularly if they are applied early in the
results in the death of the growing tip of season 55 .
the current seasons canes with the tips
turning black. Premature defoliation of the
affected canes is also common. Poor 18. Molybdenum deficiency
bud break is associated with low copper
concentrations in these vines.
Copper concentrations in fully expand- The native reserves of molybdenum in
ed leaves of healthy plants sampled in the many New Zealand soils are very low 13 .
field at mid season are usually about 10 Although extensive plantings of kiwifruit
µg/g dry matter. Results from solution have been made on soils on which re-
culture experiments and from leaves sponses to molybdenum by pasture plants
collected in the field indicate that symp- have been recorded 13 , deficiencies have
toms of copper deficiency do not usually not been observed in kiwifruit up to the
appear until the concentration in the present time. Solution culture studies
youngest fully expanded leaves falls below suggest that the requirement for moly-
3 µg/g dry matter. bdenum by kiwifruit is extremely low.
Copper deficiency usually occurs on Attempts to reduce dry matter yields
acid sandy soil of low total copper or induce abnormal leaf symptoms by
content, on organic soil, and on calcareous restricting molybdenum supply have so
soils in which the availability of copper to far been unsuccessful, despite molybden-
the plant is lowl. um concentrations in the leaves being less
than 0 .01 µg/g dry matter. ~ I
In New Zealand, soils low in copper on
which kiwifruit are grown include the Growth of many plants, including non-
yellow-brown pumice soils in the eastern leguminous species, would be severely
Bay of Plenty, and the yellow-brown limited by similarly low concentrations of
earths derived from granite in the Nelson molybdenum 20 .
region of the South Island 52 , 53. While Even in apparently healthy kiwifruit
copper deficiency of kiwifruit in New plants growing in the field, the concentra-
Zealand is not common, deficiencies have tion of molybdenum in the leaves is very
been observed in orchards at Kennedy's low, usually ranging from 0.04 to 0.20
Bay near Coromandel, and on the Waimea µg/g dry matter. It would seem from
Plains near Nelson. One factor which may these results that molybdenum deficiency
contribute to the low incidence of this is unlikely to be a serious disorder of
disorder is the widespread use of copper kiwifruit in New Zealand. However,
salts to preserve the timber used in the a regular assessment of the molybdenum
frames for supporting kiwifruit vines. status of kiwifruit should be made as
Soil applications of copper sulphate experience with other crops has shown
(25 per cent w/w Cu) at a rate of 25 kg/ha that a lack of this element can cause
before bud break would seem to be the an undesirable accumulation of nitrate
most effective treatment for correcting in the plant tissue 2 3.

40
 Toxicities 19A

19. Zinc toxicity

Zinc toxicity is characterised by a

severe reduction in dry matter yield. Both
internode elongation of the stem and leaf
expansion are retarded. Symptoms appear
first on the young immature, leaves as a
pale green chlorosis (Photo 19a). A mar-
ginal chlorosis may also appear on the
older leaves. As the effects of the toxicity
become more pronounced the young
expanding leaves turn uniformly yellow
except for the main veins and the mid-
rib which remains conspicuously green 198
(Photo 19a).
Although similar symptoms are pro-
duced by deficiencies of nitrogen and
iron, an important difference is the
appearance of a red pigment in the vas-
cular tissues of the older leaves. Because
of weathering, this pigment may change
to a purple colour in leaves of plants grow-
ing in the field (Photos 19a and 19b). De-
position of this pigment has been noted
in other plant species affected by excess
zinc 34 .
To date only one case of zinc toxicity
has been observed in kiwifruit grown in
New Zealand. In this particular case,
thermal bore water naturally high in
zinc (3 .6 mg/I) was used for irrigation.
Toxicity symptoms were associated with
concentrations of zinc in the youngest
fully expanded leaves in excess of 1100
µg/g dry matter; usually zinc concentra-
tions m the leaves of healthy plants
19C
sampled mid season range from 15 to 28
µg/g dry matter.
Studies with other plant species have
shown that high concentrations of zinc
can induce iron deficiency 18 . This effect
may account for the symptoms of zinc
• i) toxicity being similar to those of iron
deficiency (Photo 19c), (see also section
on iron deficiency).

' 41
 Symptoms associated
with non- nutritional
disorders.

The following section is devoted to a ~

number of important leaf symptoms
caused by factors other than mineral ~
nutrition which have not been covered
in detail elsewhere36 • ~ ,

20A

20. Drought stress

Kiwifruit require a well distributed

rainfall and high humidity 36 . A recent
estimate of the amount of water trans-
pired by mature kiwifruit vines suggests
that between 50 and 100 litres of water
is used per vine over a 24 hour period 22 .
Insufficient moisture, particularly
during phases of rapid growth, results in
wilting and the sudden appearance of
light-brown patches of necrotic tissue
on the leaves (Photos 20a, 20b and 20c).
These patches may enlarge, eventually
covering an extensive area of the leaf
(Photo 20b ). As the affected tissue dries,
the margins of the leaf may roll up
(Photos 20b and 20c).
An important point of difference from
nutritional disorders such as chloride tox-
208 2oc icity which produce similar symptoms,
is that the necrotic patches on the leaves
of plants affected by water stress often
do not appear in symmetrical patterns
(Photo 20c). Once the humidity increases
again after rain, the damaged tissues
readily become infected with a number of
fungi including Alternaria alternata, Col-
letotrichum sp, Glomerella sp Phoma sp,
and ·Phomopsis sp36 . Severe drought
stress can cause premature defoliation of
the vine.
In late autumn, fruit may be stained by
brown pigments washed out of damaged
leaves.

42
 stained by brown pigments washed out of
21. Bacterial leaf spot heavily infected leaves. Leaf spot is con-
sidered to have no discernible effect on
Bacterial leaf spot is caused by Pseudo- the vigour of the vine 55 .
monas viridiflava, the bacterium which
is also responsible for bacterial blossom 22. Low temperature
rot55. Symptoms of P. viridiflava infec-
tion appear on the leaves from late spring Kiwifruit grown at a constant air tem-
onwards causing dark angular spots sur- perature of 10 deg C have substantially
21A 218 21C

~
-}

~
I)

I) rounded by yellow halos (Photos 21a and reduced shoot growth 29 and develop a
21b). As the season progresses, these general chlorosis of the leaves (Photo 22a).
~ spots may coalesce forming large irregular Such symptoms are often seen on vines
patches of necrotic tissue on the leaf shortly after bud break and could be mis-
~ (Photo 21c). In late autumn, fruit may be taken for nitrogen or sulphur deficiency.
22A
~

I
I
'
i)

• i)

• t)

43
 Herbicides
Contact and residual herbicides
23. Glyphosate (Roundup®)

Glyphosate injury to young kiwifruit

plants results in elongated and distorted
leaves (Photos 23a and 23b ). Frequently
the tissue between the minor veins is
ridged upwards and in some cases the
affected leaves may be chlorotic (Photo
23a).
On mature vines, which are considered
to be more tolerant than younger plants 43 ,
injury symptoms appear first on young
leaves of actively growing canes. Symp-
toms include a bright yellow chlorosis
which develops at the leaf margins and
spreads inwards between the veins to-
wards the midrib, often leaving a zone of
healthy tissue each side of the main veins
(Photo 23c ).
In many respects these symptoms are
similar to those caused by deficiencies 23A

of manganese and m~gnesium. However,

an important point of difference is that
symptoms of glyphosate injury appear
first on the youngest leaves and not on
recently matured leaves as with mangan-
ese deficiency or on the older leaves as
with magnesium deficiency. Unlike the
effects on the younger plants, the shape
of the leaves on mature plants remains
undistorted (Photo 23c ).
Studies with other plant species have
shown that glyphosate is readily trans-
located from the point of absorption to
active growth points within the plant46 •
More recently, investigations with peach
trees have shown that fruit yields are
reduced the following season unless
affected limbs are pruned immediately
24A
after spray contact 51 •
~ )

24. Terbuthylazine +
Terbumeton ('Caragard')
Caragard injury produces a character-
istic veinal chlorosis which appears first
on the older leaves (Photo 24a). The main j
veins of the leaf are affected first, but the
chlorosis spreads quickly to the secondary
veins (Photo 24b).

44
 236

I ti)

~
!)

' 246
45

'
 25A 25B

25. Diuron + Methabenzthiazuron

('Amatin')

Amatin injury results in severe scorch-

ing of older leaves (Photo 25a) . The
necrosis usually begins at the leaf margin
causing the leaf to curl up as the affected
tissue dries out (Photos 25b and 25c ).
In severe cases the whole leaf becomes
necrotic (Photo 25c).

26. Simazine

Simazine injury produces a characteris-

tic bleaching of the margins of the older
leaves (Photo 26a). As the injury becomes
more pronounced the tissue between the
veins may also become bleached. How-
ever, even on severely affected leaves
the major veins remain conspicuously
green (Photo 26b ).

JJ

l
l
_]
46
 26A

Hormone herbicides Although there is no noticeable reduction

in leaf size, the tissue between the main
27. 2,4·D veins is often ridged upwards. There is no
loss of pigment from the affected leaves.
2,4-D injury causes distortion of the Plants contaminated with 2,4-D in the
leaves which are often cupped upwards autumn can exhibit distortion of the
(Photo 27a), or downwards (Photo 27b). leaves and fruit the following season 36 •

i !)
• !)
I~
I~
~

i)

•)

!)

I'
27A 276

47
 I
I

I
l I

28. 2,4,5-T
I
I

2,4,5-T injury is characterised by a

marked reduction in leaf size and a dis-
i!
tortion of leaf shape (Photo 28a). As the
injury becomes more pronounced the
i! 1
internodes of the new canes fail to elong-
ate, giving the plant a stunted appearance i
(Photos 28b and 28c ).
28A ~

28B

28C

48
 Glossary of terms

Calcareous soils: Soils containing large amounts of lime, usually ca lcium

and magnesium carbonates.
Chlorophyll: Green pigments located in the chloroplasts of t he plant;
responsible for the absorption of light energy wh ich is
~ essential for photosynthesis.
Chlorosis: Reduced development or loss of chlorophyll.
-!)
Dry weight: Moisture-free weight, obtained by oven drying.
Essential elements:
~ Inorganic elements of the soil and air requ ired by plants for
healthy growth and development.
Hydroponics: Growth of plants in water to which essential elements have
~ been added.
lnternode: The region of the stem between any two nodes.
~
lnterveinal: Between the veins.
Leaf:
~ Single member of plant foliage consisting of a green blade
and petiole.
•) Macronutrient A chemical element essential for healthy plant growth and
(or major element): required in the tissues in relatively large amounts (0.1 per
cent of the dry matter or greater).
•)
I ., Metabolism:

Micronutrients
The sum total of the chemical processes that occur in the
plant .
A chemical element essential for healthy plant growth and
( minor elements required in the tissues in relatively small amounts (less than
il or trace elements): 1000 flg/g dry matter).
Midrib: A ridge of tissue occurring along the main vein of the leaf.
I} Necrosis: Death of a section of tissue.
Node: The region of the stem where one or more leaves are
~ attached. Buds are commonly borne at the node in the
axils of the leaves (see lnternode).
~ Petiole:

., The stalk of the leaf.

'!') 49
 Glossary of terms

Phloem: Tissue located in the bark and associated w ith the transpo rt
of sugars and some mineral elements from one part of the
plant to another.
Phloem -immobile Inorganic elements that do not move readily in the phloem.
elements : Examples include calcium, boron, copper, iron , manganese
and zinc.
Phloem - mobile Inorganic elements which can be transported in the phloem
elements: such as from leaves to fruit or from old leaves to young
leaves. Examples include nitrogen, phosphorus, pot assium,
and magnesium.
Photosynthesis: The production of sugar from carbon dioxide and water
in the presence of chlorophy ll using light energy and
releasing oxygen.
Solution culture : See hydropon ics.
Species : A group of closely related individuals; the unit of plant
classification.
T ranslocation: The movement of sugars, water and elements from one part
of a plant to another.
Transpiration: The loss of water from plant tissues in the form of vapour.
Turgor: The swollen condition of a cell caused by internal water
pressure.
Variety : A subdivision of a species.
Vascular tissue: Tissue composed of xylem and/ or phloem, the conducting
tissues of the plant.
Vein : Vascular tissues forming part of the network of conducting
and supporting tissues of the leaf or other ex panded organs.
Veinal: On or associated w ith the veins.
Wood: The rigid portion of the vascular tissue contain ing the
xylem .
Xylem : Tissue associated w ith the movement of water and mineral
nutrie nts from roots to leaves, and fruit. All ino rga nic
elements move freely in the xylem.

50
 List of references

!)

!)

!)

!J)

!)

~ 1 Alloway, B.J. and Tills, A.R. 1984. Copper 9 Buwalda, J.G. 1986. Dry weight, nutrient
deficiency in world crops. Outlook on Agri- content, and location of developing fruit
!) culture, 13, 31-34. on kiwifruit vines. New Zealand Kiwifruit.
March 1986, 26.
2 Asher, C.J. and Cowie, A.M. 1970. Program-
!} med nutrient addition - a simple method 10 Chapman, H.D. 1966. Diagnostic Criteria for
for controlling nutrient status of plants. Plants and Soils. University of California,
!) Working papers of the 3rd Australian Plant Division of Agricultural Sciences.
Nutrition Conference, 16,28-32. Mt Gambia,
11 Clark, C.J. and Smith, G.S. 1984. pH induced
South Australia.
~ 3 Asher, C.J., Edwards, D.G. and Howeler, R.H.
manganese deficiency, possible methods of
correction. Southern Horticulture, Summer
1980. l'Jutritional disorders of cassava (Mani- 1984/85, 21-23.
~ hot esculenta Grantz). Department of Agricul-
12 Clark, C.J. and Smith, G.S. 1985. Magnesium
ture, University of Queensland.
deficiency reduces fruit numbers. New Zea-
~ 4 Asher, C.J., Smith, G.S., Clark, C.J. and land Kiwifruit, October 1985, 19.
Brown, N.S. 1984. Manganese deficiency of
~ kiwifruit (Actinidia chinensis Planch.). Journal 13 Cornforth I.S. and Sinclair, A.G. 1984.
of Plant Nutrition 7, 1497-1509. Fertiliser recommendations for pasture and
crops in New Zealand. New Zealand Ministry
!;) 5 Barber, R.F. 1979. Review of the 1978/1979 of Agriculture and Fisheries, Wellington,
I
• !.cl
kiwifruit season. New Zealand Ministry of
Agriculture and Fisheries, Advisory Services
Second Revised Edition, July 1984.
14 During, C. 1984. Fertilisers and Soils in New
I
• 11)
Division, 1979, 1-3.
6 Blakemore, L.C. 1953. The chloride content of
Zealand Farming. 3rd Rev ised Edition,
Government Printer .
rain-water collected in the Wellington pro-
vince. New Zealand Journal of Science and 15 Ferguson, A.R. 1984. Kiwifruit : A botanical
•) Technology, 35B, 193-197. review. Horticultural Reviews, 6, 1-64.
7 Blakemore, L.C. and Metson, A.J . 1980. 16 Ferguson, A .R. and Eiseman, J.A. 1983.
~ Sulphur in New Zealand soils. 2. Sulphur Estimated annual removal of macronutrients
levels in New Zealand soil groups. New Zea- in fruit and prunings from a k iwifruit orchard.
~ land Journal of Science, 23, 225-228. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Re-
8 Bollard, E.G. 1955. Trace element deficiencies search, 26, 115-117.
~ of fruit crops in New Zealand . New Zealand 17 Ferguson, A.R. and Lay Yee, M. 1983. The
Department of Scientific and Industrial Re- Kiwifruit (Actinidia chinensis var hispida)
~ search Bulletin 115. In; Plant Breeding in New Zealand, p 111 -

~ 51
 List of references
~

~
116. Eds. G.S. Wratt and H.C. Smith. Butter- 26 Metson, A.J. and Gibson, E.J. 1977. Magnes-
worths, Wellington, New Zealand. ium in New Zealand Soils. V. Distribution of @)
exchangeable 'reserve', and total magnesium
18 Hewitt, E.J. 1963. The essential nutrient ele-
in some representative soil profiles. New
ments : requirements and interactions in
Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research, ~
plants. In: Plant Physiology Ill, p 137-360.
20, 163-184.
Ed. F .C. Steward, Academic Press, London.
~
19 Kapusta, E.C. 1968. Potassium fertiliser tech- 27 Miller, R.B. 1968. Soil chemistry. In : Soils
nology. In: The Role of Potassium in Ag- of New Zealand Part 2, 50-55. New Zealand
Soil Bureau Bulletin 26(2). Government
~
riculture, p 23-52. Eds. V.J . Kilmer, S.E.
Younts, and N.C. Brady. American Society
of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of
America, Soil Science Society of America,
Madison.
Printer, Wellington.
28 Moorby, J. and Besford, R.T. 1983. Mineral
nutrition and growth. In : Encyclopedia of
•
Plant Physiology. New Series 158. Inorganic
20 Johnson, C.M. 1966. Molybdenum. In: Plant Nutrition. p. 481-527. Eds. A. Lauchli
Diagnostic Criteria for Plants and Soils, and R.L . Bieleski . Springer Verlag, Berlin.
p 286-302. Ed. H.D. Chapman, University
of California, Division of Agricultural 29 Morgan, D.C., Warrington, 1.J. and Halligan,
Sciences. E.A. 1985. Effect of temperature and photo-
synthetic photon flux density on vegetative C
21 Jones, H.E. and Scarseth, G.D. 1944. The
calcium-boron balance in plants related to growth of kiwifruit (Actinidia chinensis).
New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Re-
boron needs. Soil Science, 57, 15-24.
search, 28, 109-116.
22 Judd, M.J. and McAneney, K.J. 1984.
Estimating the water requirements of shelt- 30 Murphy, L.S. and Walsh, L.M. 1972. Correc-
ered horticultural crops. The Orchardist of tion of micronutrient deficiencies with fert-
New Zealand, 57, 288-290. iliser. In: Micronutrients in Agriculture, p
347-381 . Eds. J.J. Mortvedt, P.M . Giordano,
23 Mengel, K. and Kirkby, E.A. 1982. Principles and W.L. Lindsay. Soil Science Society of
of Plant Nutrition. 3rd Revised Edition. America, Madison.
International Potash Institute, Bern, Switz-
erland. 31 New Zealand Kiwifruit Authority 1984.
Seventh Annual Report. C
24 Metson, A.J. 1974. Magnesium in New
Zealand Soils. 1. Some factors governing the 32 Nickel, M. and Sale, P.R. 1982. Around the
availability of soil magnesium: a review. aJ
world in 80 trays. Economics Division, New
New Zealand Journal of Experimental Ag- Zealand Ministry of Agriculture and Fish-
riculture, 2, 277-319. eries. 9J

25 Metson, A.J. 1979. Sulphur in New Zealand 33 Olsen, S.R. 1972. Micronutrient interactions.
Soils. 1. A review of sulphur in soils with
particular reference to absorbed sulphate-
In: Micronutrients in Agriculture, p 243-261. •1
Eds. J.J. Mortvedt, P.M. Giordano, and W.L.
sulphur. New Zealand Journal ofAgricultural Lindsay. Soil Science Society of America,
Research, 20, 163-184. Madison.

52
 List of references

34 Rauser, W.E. 1973. Zinc toxicity in hydro- 46 Sprankle, P., Meggitt, W.F. and Penner, D.
ponic culture. Canadian Journal of Botany, 1975. Absorption, action, and translocation
51, 301-304. of glyphosate. Weed Science, 23, 235-240.
35 Reisenauer, H.M. 1978. Soil and Plant Tissue 47 Tiffin, L.O. 1972. Translocation of micro-
Testing in California. Division of Agricultural nutrients in plants. In: Micronutrients in
Sciences, Bulletin 1879, University of Agriculture, p. 199-224. Eds. J.J. Mortvedt,
California. P.M. Giordano, and W.L. Lindsay. Soil
Science Society of America, Madison.
36 Sale, P.R . 1985. Kiwifruit Culture. 2nd
Revised Edition. Government Printer, Well- 48 Turner, N. 1983. Report on severe potassium
ington. deficiency in cropping k iwifruit vines.
New Zealand Kiwifruit Authority Newsletter
37 Smith, G.S., Asher, C.J. and Clark, C.J. 1984. No. 3.
Manganese deficiency can drastically prune
kiwifruit yields. Southern Horticulture, 49 Ulrich, A. and Hills, F.J. 1967. Principles
Summer 7983/84, 53-54. and practices of plant analysis. In: Soil
Testing and Plant Analysis, Part II, 11 -24 .
38 Smith, G.S. and Clark, C.J. 1984. No boron,
Ed. G.W. Hardy. Soil Science Society of
but plenty of potash. New Zealand Kiwi-
America, Madison.
fruit, August 1984, 18.
50 Warfield, D., Courtney, K. and Gauthier, G.
39 Sm ith, G.S. and Clark, C.J. 1985. Which
1979. Nutrient deficiency symptoms in
potassium fertiliser? New Zealand Kiwi-
kiwifruit.Avocado Grower,July 1979, 48-49,
fruit, February 1985, 20.
I!) 40 Smith, G.S. and Clark, C.J. 1985. New advice
64-65.
51 Weller,S.C. andSkroch, W.A. 1983. Toxicity
on leaf sampling. New Zealand Kiwifruit,
- '!) October 1985, 20.
of glyphosate to peach trees as influenced
by application timing. Hort Science, 18,
41 Smith, G.S. and Clark, C.J. 1986. Fertilise 940-941.
early in the season. New Zealand Kiwifruit,
52 Wells, N. 1957. Soil studies using sweet
February 1986, 8-9.
vernal to assess element availability. Part 3.
42 Smith, G.S. and Clark, C.J. 1986. Effect Copper. New Zealand Journal of Science and
of boron toxicity of kiwifruit on produc- Technology, 835, 884-902.
tion and post harvest storage of fruit.
Proceedings XX/I International Horticultural 53 Wells, N. 1968. Element composition of soils
Congress, University of California, Davis, and plants. In: Soils of New Zealand Part 2,
USA. p 115-130. New Zealand Soil Bureau Bulletin
26(2) . Government Printer, Wellington.
43 Smith, G.S., Clark, C.J. and Buwalda, J.G.
54 Wilson, G.J. Scheffer, J.J.C. and Rahman, A.
1985. Potassium deficiency of kiwifruit.
1983. Weed control in kiwifruit with residual
Proceedings of the Ruakura Horticultural
Conference 1985. Kiwifruit 13-16. herbicides. Ruakura Soil and Plant Research
Station, New Zealand Ministry of Agricult·
44 Smith, R. 1984. Kiwifruit special. New ural Research Division Annual Report
Zealand Fruit and Produce Journal, Septem- 1982/ 83.
ber/October 1984, 53.
55 Young, J.M. 1984. Little light at the end of
45 Sprague, H.B. 1964. Hunger Signs in Crops. the bud rot tunnel. Southern Horticulture,
David McKay Co., New York. Autumn 1984, 12-14.

53
 Appendices

1. Factors for converting MAF Quicktest results to other units 13

t
Note Ca K Mg p s

Reporting unit
µg/ml in extract Ca x 25 K X 4 Mg x 1 p X 0.05 S X 0.2
µg/ml in soil (1) Ca x 113.6 K X 18.2 Mg X 4.55 p X 1.0
µg/g in soil (2) Ca x 125 K X 20 Mg X 5 p X 1.1 S X 1
kg/ha - 75 mm (3) Ca X 85.2 K X 13.6 Mg X 3.4 p X 0.75 S X 0.68 !'
me/100 g (4) Ca X 0.955 K X 0.070 Mg X 0.048
me/100 g (5) Ca X 0.625 K X 0.051 Mg X 0.042 Ir!

(1) Soil : extractant ratio 4.4:20 (v/v) for Ca, K, and Mg, 1 :20 (v/v) for P.
(2) Approximate conversion for Ca, K, Mg and P based on a constant bulk density of 0.91 g/ml for
prepared soil; note that this can vary between soils. Soil extractant ratio for Sis 1:5 (w/w).
(3) Assuming field soil has the same bulk density as prepared soil (except S).
•
(4) Assuming a constant bulk density of 0.91 g/ml and using experimentally determined relationships
with exchangeable cations (determined at pH 7).
•
(5) Theoretical conversion from µg/g soil, assuming constant bulk density of 0.91 g/ml and 100
per cent extraction .

2. Frequently used units and abbreviations 3. Commonly used conversion factors

g grams 1 lb/acre 1.121 kg/ha
µg micrograms (10-6 g) 1 cwt/acre 125 kg/ha
mg milligrams (10·3 g) 1 ton/acre 2.5 tonnes/ha
kg kilograms (1 kg = 1000 g) 100 kg 1.968 cwt
ha hectares (10 000 m2)
ml millilitre (1 litre= 1000 ml)
µg/g mg/kg = ppm (parts per million)
µg/ml mg/I = ppm (parts per mmion)
w/v weight per volume
w/w weight per weight
v/v volume per volume

54
 Visual Critical concentration ranges Visual
deficiency toxicity
symptoms Luxury-range symptoms

80-
~
:::>
~
X
4:
~ 60-
u.
0
"#.

I~ (/)
4:
Q 40-

i
...J
w
>-

20-

0 - ----------------------------
CON CENTRATION OF NUTRIENT IN LEA F TISSUE

Figure 1: Generalised relationship between plant yield and concentration of a

nutrient in leaf tissue. The critical level for deficiency is the concen-
tration range (90 - 100% of maximum yield) below which the appli-
cation of the nutrient element will result in a yield increase. Similarly
the critical concentration for toxicity is the concentration above which
a yield reduction is expected. Visual leaf symptoms of a nutrient dis-
order usually only appear where substantial losses of yield have already
occurred.

55
 Figures2 · ..
I

Seasonal variation in the con- 160

ZINC
centration of macro and micro-
140
nutrients in kiwifruit leaves from
nonfruiting shoots (~ ) and 120
from fruiting laterals ( . - ).
The leaf samples were taken 100
from high producing orchards
Cl

---
Cl
2-
with no obvious nutritional dis- 80
C
orders. 0
·;::;
60
~
C
a,
40 u
C
0

20 -"'
u

a,
_J

0 ~
Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May
~
6 3.5
NI T ROGEN POTASSI UM I!:
5 3
~
2 :;;;;
0
4 0
a> Cl IE
0 0
0 2 0
3 .::::
---.!:?: .!:?: aJ
C C
0 0
·;::; ·;::;
2 ;:?
c c
;:? !1
a, a,
u u
C ~
C
0
u
0
u '!'
"ro
a,
roa,
_J _J

0 0
Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan F eb Mar Apr May

0.6 6
MAGN ES IUM
II
5

0.5 t,_I

-
2 2
0 4 0
Cl
0
a> 0
0
l_J
0
0.4 3 .::::
---
.!:?: .!:?:
C
C
0
·;::;
~
2 -
0

~
C
C a,
0 .3 a, u
u C
C 0
0 u
u
~ "ro
a,
"'a,
_J
_J

0.2 0
Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May
56
 0 .65 1.0
SULPHUR

\
PHOSPHORUS
0.6 0.9
~
0.8
~
~ 0.5 0 0.7
~
0
8
0 0
Ol

~ 0.6 0
.::::: .:::::
!?J !?J
0.4 C:
0.5
') .g C:

-~0
~
C:
Q)
0.4 ...
~
C:
-i) 0.3
u
C: 0.3
Q)
u
0 C:
u 0

I i) "io
Q) 0.2 ....u
_J
_J
"'
Q)

0.2 0.1
Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May

40 220

200 MANGANESE

30 180

160
Cl
...... 140 Cl
Ol ......
20 2-
Ol
.3-
C: 120 C:
:!)
.Q .g
~ 100 ;
cQ) C:
Q)
10 u u
C:
0
80 C:
u ~ 0
"io
Q) 60 .....,u
Q)
_J
_J
0 0
Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May

180 70
160 IRON
60
140
50
120
100 ~
0)
40 ~Ol
.3- .3-
: i) 80 C: C:
30
-~0 -~0
:~ 60 ; ;
C:
Q) 20 C:
u ~
40 C: C:
0 0
u
20 "io
10 ....u
Q)
_J
"'
Q)
_J

0 0
Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May

-
57
 Effect of nutritional disorders on leaf concentrations, fruit yield, and post harvest storage of the fruit. f
......
......... "'*
.,;:, ........,
v.... 8rlx9
~ •
Healthy 2.0% OM 122 52
4
423 13 4
Potassium
Deficient 0.6% OM 148 92 14 14 4

Healthy 0.33% OM 660 106 69 13 5

Magnesium
Deficient 0 .10% OM 43 103 5 13 6

Healthy 38 µg/g OM 373 95 36 14 5

Manganese
Deficiency 10 µg/g OM 40 101 4 15 5

Healthy 675 vg/g OM 1442 81 117 14 4

Manganese
Toxic 1390 fJg/g OM 687 76 52 14 5

Healthy 551Jg/g OM 450 121 54 13 5

Boron Toxic 250 µg/g OM 201 124 25 13 2

• Sampl es collected in February

0 After 10 weeks in cool storage (0.5 °c)
Table 2 : t:stimated annual loss of macro- and micronutrients in fruit from a mature kiwifruit orchard.
Fertiliser recommendations are those of Sale 31.
NUTRIENT
LOSS IN
FERTILISER
INPUTt
NUTRIENT IMPURITIES 1
LOSIIN
i I

MACRONtll'lllENTI
FRUIT•
(kalha) ,..,.., MICRONUTRIENTS
FRUIT•
(glha)
FERTILISER1
(a/hat
K 81 80-100 Fe 233 1190
N 46 170 B 65 12
Ca 8 120• Mn 33 12
p 6 56 Zn 33 179
s 5 65• Cu 24 16
Mg 4 36 Mo 0.2 0 .7

. Assumes 25 tonnes/ha yield and 18.6% OM content in fruit

• If P is applied as superphosphate
t Equivalent to 370 kg/ha urea, 933 kg/ha 15% potassic serpentine superphosphate, 40 kg/ha muriate of potash
6 For superphosphate component only (see During 12 for chemical analysis)

Table 3: Quantities of boron in airborne sea spray

deposited on parts of New Zealand by rain
and wind.

0.5 75
6 39
10 18
32 18
48 12
61 14

*Based on data collected by Blakemore 6

58
 Table 4 : Quantity of boron applied in irrigation water (g/ha/week)
WATER APPLIED CONCENTRATION OF BORON IN WATER (mg//)
PER PLANT
([/week) 0.1 0.2 OA o.s 0.8 1.0 2.0 5.0
100 3 7 13 20 27 33 67 167
200 7 13 27 40 53 67 133 333
300 10 20 40 60 80 100 200 500
400 13 27 53 80 107 133 267 667

Table 5: T<;>tal{'acronutrient uptake by young kiwifruit

vines

~i...... Nutrient uptake

(Veen) (Kg/ha)
N K Ca Mt p s
1 11 6 9 2 1 2
2 45 40 45 8 5 8
3 116 106 107 21 14 19
4 102 115 95 16 16 17
5 141 169 161 28 19 32

Table 6: Quantity of macro and micronutrient in leaves

of kiwifruit at different stages of growth41.

84 66 37 21
81 56 22 16
66 70 14 11
64 41 5 0
Magnesium 46 33 5 0
Calcium 37 25 4 0

Micronutrients
Zinc 100 100 5 0
Copper 93 97 10 0
52 38 0 0
49 40 5 5
45 35 9 0

FL = leaf from fruiting cane

N FL = leaf from non fruiting cane

59
 Table 7: Mean* MAF Quicktest /eve/st for soils from cropping kiwifruit orchards and those being
brought into production. Values in brackets represent the range.
t-
~

t!
Recent Soils from Alluvium .. 1

Poverty Bay
fl
I
Kaiti series
Makaraka and Makauri series
Waipaoa, Matawhero, and
I 5.9(5.1 -6.6) 43(13-73)
6.0(5.1-7.5) 28 (4-62)
6.1(4.8-7.8) 42 (7-119)
16(4-27) 34(21-60) 15 (7-34)
13(4-24) 57(24-95) 19 (8 -36)
19(4-31) 54(11 -99) 20 (5-38)
11 (8 -14)
12(7-32)
11 (7 -37) ~ I
I

I
!
Waihirere series

~'
Hawkes Bay @
Farndon series 7.2(6.5-7.8) 25(12-42) 14(9-29) 137(22-55) 20(1 5-24) 30 (7 -77)
Twyford and Hastings series 6.3(5.3-7.6) 46(11-109) 15(7-41) 31(10-66) 13 (5-35) 8(4-15)
Horowhenua
Levin, Kiwitea, and 5.9(4.9-6.3) 41 (3-170) 8(2-1 7) 16 (6-25) 8 (3-12) 8(5-13)
I
l''
Heretaunga silt loams
@I
I
Soils of Volcanic Origin

Bay of Plenty ~
Waihi Ash:
Katikati series 5.9(4.7-6.8) 25 (4-242) 8(1 -23) 15 (2-55) 7 (1-15) 6(3-24) @I
Whakatane series 5.9(5.3-6.8) 23 (16-63) 11(4-25) 20(13-39) 6 (3-10) 7(4-13)
Kaharoa Ash :
Oropi, Awakeri and
€
6.1(5.2-7.5) 39 (3-181 ) 7(1-27) 16 (4-52) 7 (2-1 8) 5(3-46)
Paengaroa series
~
Whangamata Ash :
Whangamata series 5.5(4.8-6.2) 18 (5-86) 8(3-20) 20 (6-88) 7 (2 -17) 8(5-19) ~
Taranaki
New Plymouth and Egmont
series 5.9(5.5-6.6) 21 (5-104) 6(2 -14) 18 (7-33) 7 (4-15) 8(4-13) "
Northland
Basaltic scoria and ash: -
I;

.-
Weakly to moderately
leached Red and Brown 5.8(4.9-6.5) 23 (3-102) 12(3-27) 23 (8-105) 9 (3-16) 8(4-17)
loams 1
'
Moderately to strongly
leached Red and Brown 5.6.(4.3-6.4) 47 (4-237) 10(0-26) 21 (2-97) 8 (1-23) 6(3-23)
loarns 2
It
Strongly to severely leached f I
Red and Brown loams3 5.6(4.3-7.1) 30 (4-185) 8(1 -24) 14 (3-49) 6 (0-20) 6(2-17)

l 1
1 tncludes the series: Kiripaka, Ohaeawai, Whatitiri, Whakapai and Maunu
2 tncludes
3 tncludes
the series: Waiotu, Kerikeri, Pungaere and Apotu
the series: Otaha and Okaihau J
c: ,

* Summary of 1079 MAF Ouicktest results from soils received at Ruakura Research Centre from Nov.
1981 to May 1984.
t See Appendix 1 for conversion of MA F Quicktest levels into other soil test units

60
 -

1
, Tables
'

Table 8 : Quantities of sodium chloride in airborne sea

spray deposited on parts of New Zealand
by rain and ll'ind.

0.5 388
6 206
10 89
32 84
48 61
61 67

Based on data collected by Bia kemore 6 .

Table 9 : Quantity of boron as an impurity in sources

of potassium chloride (muriate of potash)
commonly used in New Zealand.

EAST GERMANY 0 .1
CANADA(SASKATCHEWAN) 0 .3
JORDAN (DEAD SEA) 1.5
USA (CARLSBAD) 48.0

.,
~
~

Q!---
(j
()_
o-
(f

,•
J
t
0