Speech Acts: Kinds of Utterances

SPEECH ACTS
What Are Speech Acts?

Language or words are used as a tool to convey messages, ideas, and opinions. However, speech goes
beyond the words that you literally say. Each time you speak, you are actually doing something; that is, you are
performing an action. This is referred to as a speech act.
In 1962, John Langshaw Austin proposed the speech act theory. This theory was further developed by
John Rogers Searle in 1969. It is based on the premise that words not only convey information but that they can
also carry out actions. Both Austin and Searle are concerned with what the speaker means–which is his or her
intention–when he or she says something rather than what the utterance literally means in a language. The
speech act theory regards language as a sort of action instead of as a medium for conveying and expressing
ideas. This is often used in the field of philosophy of languages.
Previously, it was conceived that the very basic unit of communication is words, symbols, or sentences.
However, the speech act theory disagrees with this, stating that the very basic unit of communication is the
production or issuance of words, symbols, and sentences. These basic units serve as the building blocks of
mutual understanding between people and what they intend to communicate.
Kinds of Utterances
The speech act theory also emphasizes utterances, believing that their meaning varies from how the
speaker expresses them and how the listener perceives them.
1. Constative utterances describe a situation or insinuate assertions.
“The door is open.”
“Josh is seventeen years old.”
“She can cook.”
In the utterances above, the interlocutor simply stated descriptions or observations.
2. Performative utterances are words that incite action.
“No talking.”
“I command you to take your seat.”
“Go!”
In these examples, the speaker wants the person he is speaking with to perform an action, so he uses
certain words in a certain context that direct the other person to perform the intended action. Later on, Austin
found that there is no clear distinction between these two types of utterances. For instance, saying “The door is
open” may incite action, as the listener may take it to mean that the speaker wants him or her to enter or exit the
room through the door. Because of the lack of clear distinction, Austin then reviewed the matter and created
new classifications of speech acts: locution, illocution, and perlocution .
Classifications of Speech Acts

1. Locution
A locutionary act is defined as the act of producing meaningful utterance. However, Searle replaced this
concept with what he calls the propositional act. It pertains to the act of “saying something” in the normal sense.
Locution could be performing one of the following functions:
● asking or answering a question
● announcing a verdict or an intention
● giving information, assurance, or warning
● pronouncing words;
● making an appeal
● giving criticism
● identifying or describing
Types of Locution
a. Utterance act – This pertains to a sound that is made or something that is said, be it a single word or a
string of words that may not have a particular meaning. This is something that is said
without any intention to communicate meaning.
John, who was walking down a hallway, accidentally bumped into his classmate and uttered the word “Hey!”
In this case, the locution is the word “Hey!” It was not said with the intention of communicating something.
Instead, the utterance is just a result of a sudden reflex caused by being caught off guard.
b. Propositional act – This pertains to an utterance performed when referring or predicating in an
utterance. In doing a propositional act, the speaker gains the chance to interact. If the
listener understands the speaker’s utterance and recognizes what the speaker is referring
to, then they may be able to share meanings. Note, however, that a propositional act does
not have to be a complete sentence, nor does it have to intend anything. Any utterance
that specifies, points out, or identifies something is considered a propositional act.
Oral Communication in Context 1

As you are sitting on a bench in a park, a dog walks in front of you. You then say, “Oh, a labrador!”
In this case, the words “Oh, a labrador!” denote a propositional act as you referred to the dog even though you
may have done so without the intent to start a conversation or to communicate.
2. Illocution
Illocution is the meaning one wishes to communicate or convey. It is the act that a speaker performs in
saying the utterance.
Categories of Illocution
The intended meaning in a speech act may depend on the context of where, why, when, and how
something is said. In other words, this is related to the social function that the utterance has. Illocutions can be
classified into five major categories:
a. Expressives – These express a speaker’s emotions and attitudes toward a particular situation.
Expressives include apologizing, welcoming, thanking, and congratulating.
“I’m grateful that you managed to accommodate my request despite your busy schedule.”
This example shows that the speaker expresses his gratitude to someone for accommodating his request.
“I apologize for everything my son has done. I hope you can forgive him.”
In this example, the speaker expressed his apology for what his son has done to someone else.
“Congratulations and best wishes to you and your wife.”
This example expresses the speaker’s well wishes for the newlyweds.
b. Declarations – These are speech acts that, upon being uttered, immediately bring about a
change in the situation. Examples include appointing, baptizing, declaring, firing,
and nominating.
“I hereby pronounce you husband and wife.”
“You’re fired!”
“As the managing partner, I appoint Mr. Ross as the firm’s newest junior partner.”
The first example indicates the presider’s declaration that the groom and bride are married; the second
example indicates an employer firing an employee; the third example shows a managing partner appointing a
new junior partner in a law firm.
c. Assertives – Basically, these convey information regarding something. This could be in the
form of concluding, stating, describing, asserting, suggesting, and insisting.
Rose: Jericho’s cat is missing. (1)
Justin: What does the cat look like?
Rose: It’s a persian cat, about three months old. (2)
Justin: I think we should look for the cat outside. (3)
Rose: Okay.
The first example states that the cat is missing; the second example describes what the cat looks like; the third
example indicates a suggestion on where to look for the cat.
d. Directives – These are speech acts that cause the individual being addressed to do a particular
action. These include commanding, daring, challenging, requesting, and asking
someone to do something.
“Kindly hand me that box.”
This example indicates a request or command to do something for the speaker.
e. Commissives – These are speech acts that commit the speaker to doing a particular action in
the future. Examples of this are promising, vowing, planning, and offering.
Dar: I will have this report ready by next week. (1)
Alvin: Good. In the meantime, let’s look into the next assignment . (2)
Sally: Would you like me to help with that? (3)
Alvin: Yes, Sally. Thank you.
The first example expresses a vow to finish the report. The second example shows that the speaker plans to
begin another assignment. The third example shows an offer to help Alvin.
3. Perlocution
A perlocutionary act is the effects, intentional or unintentional, the utterance has on the behavior,
thoughts, and feelings of the addressee . This is the result or effect produced by the utterance in the given
context. To simply put it, there is a perlocutionary act when, by saying something, a speaker gets an addressee
to do something.
To clearly illustrate locution, illocution, and perlocution, study the following example:
Erwin : It’s quite hot in here.
Janet : Oh. I’ll turn the air conditioner on.
Erwin : Thank you.

In the given situation, the statement “It’s quite hot in here” exemplifies the locution referring to the
actual words said by the speaker (Erwin). On the other hand, illocution is the action done by the speaker in
making the utterance. In this case, the illocution is an assertive that states the temperature in the room and/or
suggests that something be done to alleviate the heat. The perlocution is the consequence or effect of what was
said or what was achieved by saying something; that is, Erwin’s utterance led Janet to turn the air conditioner
on. Since Janet was able to recognize the underlying meaning in Erwin’s utterance, she was able to act
appropriately, making the communication between them effective.
To explicate more on the three speech acts, read the following example and explanations below.
Mark: Heads up. There is a cockroach near you.
Elizabeth: (screams and panics)
The locutionary act is Mark’s utterance that there is a cockroach near Elizabeth. The illocution is an
assertive, since the utterance is stating information. The perlocution is the panic that Elizabeth felt upon hearing
the statement.
Understanding speech acts is helpful in determining why a particular communication situation is

successful and why another one is not. This knowledge of speech acts also helps in making speakers more
aware of how their words can be perceived by others.

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SPEECH ACTS

What Are Speech Acts?

Classifications of Speech Acts

Oral Communication in Context 1

Oral Communication in Context 2

Understanding speech acts is helpful in determining why a particular communication situation is

Oral Communication in Context 3

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