ACI 238.1R-08 Report On Measurements of Workability and Rheology of Fresh Concrete - MyCivil - Ir PDF

ACI 238.
1R-08
Report on Measurements of
Workability and Rheology
of Fresh Concrete
Reported by ACI Committee 238

First Printing
February 2008
®
American Concrete Institute
Advancing concrete knowledge
Report on Measurements of Workability

and Rheology of Fresh Concrete
Copyright by the American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI. All rights reserved. This material
may not be reproduced or copied, in whole or part, in any printed, mechanical, electronic, film, or other
distribution and storage media, without the written consent of ACI.
The technical committees responsible for ACI committee reports and standards strive to avoid ambiguities,
omissions, and errors in these documents. In spite of these efforts, the users of ACI documents occasionally
find information or requirements that may be subject to more than one interpretation or may be
incomplete or incorrect. Users who have suggestions for the improvement of ACI documents are
requested to contact ACI. Proper use of this document includes periodically checking for errata at
www.concrete.org/committees/errata.asp for the most up-to-date revisions.
ACI committee documents are intended for the use of individuals who are competent to evaluate the
significance and limitations of its content and recommendations and who will accept responsibility for the
application of the material it contains. Individuals who use this publication in any way assume all risk and
accept total responsibility for the application and use of this information.
All information in this publication is provided “as is” without warranty of any kind, either express or implied,
including but not limited to, the implied warranties of merchantability, fitness for a particular purpose or
non-infringement.
ACI and its members disclaim liability for damages of any kind, including any special, indirect, incidental,
or consequential damages, including without limitation, lost revenues or lost profits, which may result
from the use of this publication.
It is the responsibility of the user of this document to establish health and safety practices appropriate to
the specific circumstances involved with its use. ACI does not make any representations with regard to
health and safety issues and the use of this document. The user must determine the applicability of all
regulatory limitations before applying the document and must comply with all applicable laws and regulations,
including but not limited to, United States Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) health
and safety standards.
Order information: ACI documents are available in print, by download, on CD-ROM, through electronic
subscription, or reprint and may be obtained by contacting ACI.
Most ACI standards and committee reports are gathered together in the annually revised ACI Manual of
Concrete Practice (MCP).

38800 Country Club Drive
Farmington Hills, MI 48331
U.S.A.
Phone: 248-848-3700
Fax: 248-848-3701
www.concrete.org
ISBN 978-0-87031-268-7
ACI 238.1R-08

Reported by ACI Committee 238
Chiara F. Ferraris Eric Koehler

Chair Secretary
Sofiane Amziane Neil J. Crockett Kamal H. Khayat Konstantin Sobolev

Lynn E. Brower Peter L. Domone Moncef L. Nehdi Mohammed Sonebi
Van K. Bui Sinan Turhan Erdogan H. Celik Ozyildirim Jussara Tanesi
Samir E. Chidiac David W. Fowler Vincent Picandet Kejin Wang
Peter A. Claisse Aulis Kappi
Other contributors (non-members): C. Cornman, A. Mekhatria, J. Daczko, A. Jeknavorian, and E. Nordenswan.
This report provides a comprehensive view of workability of fresh concrete 3.3—Description of existing test methods
and a critical review of the tests available to measure workability and
3.4—Criteria for evaluating test methods
rheological performance of fresh concrete. The report discusses the factors
affecting the performance of fresh concrete and provides a better under-
standing of the issues related to the design of workable concrete, from no Chapter 4—Factors affecting workability of
flow (zero-slump) to flow like a liquid (self-consolidating concrete). concrete, p. 238.1R-44
4.1—Introduction
Keywords: rheological measurements; rheology; workability; workability 4.2—Effects of cement
measurements. 4.3—Effects of water content
4.4—Effects of aggregates
CONTENTS 4.5—Effects of chemical admixtures
Chapter 1—Introduction, p. 238.1R-2 4.6—Effects of supplementary cementitious materials
4.7—Effect of mixing procedure
Chapter 2—Rheological terms related to concrete, 4.8—Effects of temperature and time
p. 238.1R-2
2.1—Notation
2.2—Definitions Chapter 5—Examples of using workability test
methods, p. 238.1R-52
2.3—Shear flow curves 5.1—Use of gyratory tester to measure workability of no-
slump concrete
Chapter 3—Test methods, p. 238.1R-4 5.2—Using rheological measurements to solve problem
3.1—Introduction
with flooring grouts
3.2—Principles of measurements
5.3—Measuring batch-to-batch consistency of self-
consolidating concrete
5.4—Troubleshooting self-consolidating concrete mixtures
ACI Committee Reports, Guides, Manuals, Standard
5.5—Use of rheological approach to optimize cement-
Practices, and Commentaries are intended for guidance in based grout for underwater crack injection of
planning, designing, executing, and inspecting construction. damaged bridge
This document is intended for the use of individuals who are
competent to evaluate the significance and limitations of its
content and recommendations and who will accept Chapter 6—References, p. 238.1R-64
responsibility for the application of the material it contains. 6.1—Referenced standards and reports
The American Concrete Institute disclaims any and all 6.2—Cited references
responsibility for the stated principles. The Institute shall not
be liable for any loss or damage arising therefrom.
Reference to this document shall not be made in contract ACI 238.1R-08 was adopted and published February 2008.
documents. If items found in this document are desired by the Copyright © 2008, American Concrete Institute.
All rights reserved including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by any
Architect/Engineer to be a part of the contract documents, they means, including the making of copies by any photo process, or by electronic or
shall be restated in mandatory language for incorporation by mechanical device, printed, written, or oral, or recording for sound or visual reproduction
the Architect/Engineer. or for use in any knowledge or retrieval system or device, unless permission in writing
is obtained from the copyright proprietors.
238.1R-1
238.1R-2 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
CHAPTER 1—INTRODUCTION 2.2—Definitions

Fresh concrete properties are related to the properties of Definitions related to concrete rheology and flow are listed
hardened concrete. Poor placement or consolidation leads to in this section. These definitions were taken from the Cement
honeycombing, which reduces compressive strength and and Concrete Terminology page of the ACI website
increases permeability, thereby leaving the concrete open to (http://www.concrete.org/Technical/CCT/FlashHelp/
chemical attack. Nevertheless, fresh concrete properties are ACI_Terminology.htm). Several of these definitions were
not always properly measured or predicted. The main based on Hackley and Ferraris (2001), which presents
measurement of workability, the slump test, is not always concrete rheology in the wider context of concentrated
applicable; at the same slump value, two concretes may particle systems.
exhibit different workabilities. On the other hand, hundreds Bingham model—
of tests were designed over the years to measure the work-
ability of concrete. The question is how to select the proper τ = τB + ηpl γ·
test for the application at hand and how to interpret the
results obtained to predict the performance of the concrete in
the field in the fresh state. γ· = 0 for τ < τB
To address these questions, it is necessary first to define
workability in terms of fundamental physical entities, as where
described in the science of rheology. Therefore, this report τ = shear stress;
has four main parts: τB = yield stress;
1. Definitions related to rheology and workability; ηpl = plastic viscosity; and
2. Critical review of the tests available to measure the γ· = shear rate.
workability and rheological performance of fresh concrete; The Bingham model is a two-parameter model used for
3. Discussion of the factors affecting the performance of describing the flow behavior of viscoplastic fluids exhibiting
fresh concrete; and a yield stress.
4. Examples that illustrate the application of rheology and bleeding—the autogenous flow of mixing water within, or
material science to predict or improve the performance of its emergence from, a newly placed mixture caused by the
fresh concrete in the field. settlement of solid materials within the mass.
This report presents issues related to the design of a workable consistency—the degree to which a freshly mixed
concrete for an application. Workable can mean no flow concrete, mortar, grout, or cement paste resists deformation.
(zero-slump) or flow like a liquid (self-consolidating (See also: consistency, normal; consistency, plastic; and
concrete [SCC]), depending on the application. consistency, wettest stable.)
consistency, normal—(1) the consistency exhibited
CHAPTER 2—RHEOLOGICAL TERMS when a mixture is considered acceptable for the purpose at
RELATED TO CONCRETE hand; or (2) the consistency of cement paste satisfying
2.1—Notation appropriate limits defined in a standard test method (for
c = insignificant constant example, ASTM C187).
g = gravity consistency, plastic—condition of mixture such that
h = height of slump cone mold deformation would be sustained continuously in any direction
K = consistency without rupture.
n = power index representing deviation from Newtonian consistency, wettest stable—the condition of
behavior maximum water content at which cement grout and mortar
s = slump, mm will adhere to a vertical surface without sloughing.
V = volume of slump cone consistency factor—a measure of grout fluidity, roughly
α = time-dependent parameter analogous to viscosity, that describes the ease with which
β = constant grout may be pumped into pores or fissures; usually a
γ· = shear rate laboratory-measured parameter in which consistency is
φ = concentration of solids reported in degrees of rotation of a torque viscometer in a
φm = maximum packing density specimen of grout.
η = viscosity of suspension consolidation—The process of reducing the volume of
[η] = intrinsic viscosity voids in a mixture, usually accomplished by inputting mechan-
ηpl = plastic viscosity ical energy. (See also vibration, rodding, and tamping.)
ηr = relative viscosity finishing—leveling, smoothing, consolidating, and
ηs = viscosity of the matrix otherwise treating surfaces of fresh or recently placed
η∞ = apparent viscosity at very high shear rate concrete or mortar to produce desired appearance and
ρ = density, kg/m3 service. (See also float and trowel.)
τ = shear stress, Pa impending slough—consistency of a shotcrete mixture
τo = yield stress not Bingham containing the maximum amount of water such that the
τB = Bingham yield stress product will not flow or sag after placement.
MEASUREMENTS OF WORKABILITY AND RHEOLOGY OF FRESH CONCRETE 238.1R-3
plastic viscosity ηpl —(1) for ideal Bingham materials,

the difference between the shear stress and the yield stress
divided by the shear rate; (2) for non-ideal Bingham materials,
the plastic viscosity is determined in the high-shear limiting,
linear portion of the flow curve.
segregation—(1) nonuniform concentration of components
in mixed concrete or mortar; or (2) nonuniform distribution
of size fractions in a mass of aggregate. (See also bleeding
and separation.)
separation—(1) divergence from the mass and differential
accumulation of coarse aggregate during movement of the
concrete; (2) divergence from the mass and differential accumu-
lation of large coarse aggregate from the bulk coarse aggregate
as it is being moved; or (3) the gravitational settlement of
solids from a liquid. (See also bleeding and segregation.)
shear-thinning (pseudoplastic)—a decrease in viscosity
with increasing shear rate during steady shear flow. Fig. 2.1—Identification of flow curves based on their
characteristic shape.
slump—a measure of consistency of freshly mixed
concrete, mortar, or stucco equal to the subsidence measured
to the nearest 5 mm (1/4 in.) of the molded specimen after 3. Shear thinning (pseudoplastic)—Differential viscosity
removal of the slump cone. and coefficient of viscosity decrease continuously with shear
stability—relative tendency for solid particles suspended rate. No yield stress;
in a mixture to maintain uniform distribution. (Note: This is 4. Shear thinning (pseudoplastic) with yield response—
important in SCC.) Differential viscosity and coefficient of viscosity decrease
stability, dynamic—stability of a mixture during continuously with shear rate once the apparent yield stress
handling, placement, and flow. σapp has been exceeded;
stability, static—stability of a mixture that is not flowing. 5. Bingham plastic (ideal)—Obeys the Bingham relation
thixotropy—a reversible, time-dependent decrease in ideally. Above the Bingham yield stress (σB in Fig. 2.1), the
viscosity when a fluid is subjected to increased shear stress differential viscosity is constant and is called the plastic
or shear rate. viscosity, while the coefficient of viscosity decreases contin-
viscoplasticity—the property of a material that behaves like uously to some limiting value at infinite shear rate; and
a solid below some critical stress value but flows like a viscous 6. Bingham plastic (non-ideal)—Above the apparent
liquid when this stress is exceeded. (See also yield stress.) yield stress, the coefficient of viscosity decreases continuously
viscosity—a measure of the resistance of a fluid to deform while the differential viscosity approaches a constant value
under shear stress. with increasing shear rate. Extrapolation of the flow curve
workability—that property of freshly mixed concrete or from the linear, high shear rate region (plastic region) to the
mortar that determines the ease with which it can be mixed, stress axis gives the apparent Bingham yield stress (σB* in
placed, consolidated, and finished to a homogenous condition. Fig. 2.1). The differential viscosity in the linear region is
yield stress τB —a critical shear stress value below which termed the plastic viscosity.
an ideal plastic or viscoplastic material behaves like a solid 2.3.1 Rheological models for materials without yield stress
(that is, will not flow). Once the yield stress is exceeded, a
plastic material yields (deforms plastically), while a visco- • Newton’s Law
plastic material flows like a liquid. τ = η γ·
2.3—Shear flow curves • Power Law

Steady shear flow curves for suspensions can exhibit τ = K γ· n
various types of behavior as a function of shear rate.
Concrete is known to exhibit either Bingham or the shear- 2.3.2 Rheological models for materials with non-zero
thinning (also called pseudoplastic) behavior. The following yield stress (τ0 ≠ 0)
classification system covers the six most frequently
encountered flow types, as illustrated in Fig. 2.1 and • Bingham
described by Hackley and Ferraris (2001). The numbers in the τ = τB + ηpl γ·
following list correspond to the curve numbers in Fig. 2.1.
1. Newtonian—Differential viscosity and coefficient of • Modified Bingham
viscosity are constant with shear rate; τ = τ0 + ηpl γ· + c γ· 2
2. Shear thickening—Differential viscosity and coefficient
of viscosity increase continuously with shear rate. No yield • Herschel-Bulkley
stress; τ = τ0 + K γ· n
• Casson More advanced concrete production systems have not

τ = τ0 + η∞ γ· + 2 ( τ 0 η ∞ ) γ· eliminated the need to monitor concrete workability in the
field. To the contrary, the advent of new high-performance
• De Kee concrete mixtures that are susceptible to small changes in
– αγ·
τ = τ0 + ηpl γ· e mixture proportions has made monitoring workability even
more critical. A National Ready-Mixed Concrete Association
• Yahia-Khayat survey identified the need for a better method to characterize
– αγ·
τ = τ0 + 2 ( τ 0 η ∞ ) γ· e the workability of high-performance concrete (Ferraris and
Lobo 1998). After more than 80 years of efforts, the concrete
where industry is still faced with the challenge of developing a field
τ0 = yield stress (Pa); test to measure the relevant rheological properties of
ηpl = plastic viscosity (Pa·s); concrete quickly and accurately.
γ· = shear rate (s–1); This section of the report describes 69 test methods that
c = insignificant constant; could be used for measuring concrete workability. While this
K = consistency; list is not exhaustive, it includes most of the test methods that
have been described in United States and western European
n = power index representing the deviation from the
literature. Many more tests have been developed for a single
Newtonian behavior;
project or for a specific application, and have been sparsely
α = time-dependent parameter; and
reported in the literature, if at all. Despite the fact that many
η∞ = apparent viscosity at very high shear rate.
of the devices in this document will never be used and have
2.3.3 Models predicting rheological properties of
been scarcely used in the past, an examination of tests that
suspensions
have failed and tests that have been supplanted by better tests
is instructive in recognizing trends in concrete workability
• Einstein’s model research and in selecting key concepts for the evaluation of
η = ηs(1 + 2.5φ) new test methods.
This section describes key principles and trends in the
• Krieger-Dougherty model measurement of workability and then describes the 69 test
– [ η ]φ m
η φ
η r = ----- ⎛ 1 + ------⎞
methods. Based on the successes and failures of past test
ηs ⎝ φ m⎠ methods and the current needs of the concrete industry,
requirements are presented for evaluating the suitability of
where new test methods for measuring workability.
η = viscosity of the suspension;
3.2—Principles of measurements
ηs = viscosity of the matrix;
The term “workability” is broadly defined; no single test
ηr = relative viscosity;
method measures all aspects of workability. ACI Cement
φ = concentration of solids; and Concrete Terminology (http://www.concrete.org/Tech-
φm = maximum packing density; and nical/CCT/FlashHelp/ACI_Terminology.htm) describes
[η] = intrinsic viscosity defined as workability as “that property of freshly mixed concrete or
mortar which determines the ease and homogeneity with
η r – 1⎞ which it can be mixed, placed, consolidated, and finished.”
[ η ] = lim φ → 0 ⎛ -------------
-
⎝ φ ⎠ The Japanese Association of Concrete Engineers defines
workability as “that property of freshly mixed concrete or
CHAPTER 3—TEST METHODS mortar which determines the ease with which it can be
3.1—Introduction mixed, placed, and compacted due to its consistency, the
Since the early twentieth century, the concrete industry homogeneity with which it can be made into concrete, and
has recognized the need to monitor concrete workability to the degree with which it can resist separation of materials”
ensure that concrete can be properly placed and can achieve (Ferraris 1999). Neville (1996) succinctly defines workability
adequate properties in the hardened state. Numerous test as “the amount of useful internal work necessary to produce
procedures for determining workability have been developed full compaction.” Workability depends not just on the
for research, mixture proportioning, and field use. The vast properties of the concrete, but also on the nature of the
majority of these test methods have never found any use application. A very dry concrete mixture, for example, may
beyond one or two initial studies. With the exception of the seem to have very low workability when it is, in fact,
widely used slump test, the few methods that have been appropriate for the given application.
studied extensively have generally failed to gain widespread The focus of workability measurement has changed many
acceptance. Even with the increase in knowledge of concrete times over the years. When the slump test was developed in
rheology, no test has been developed that is sufficiently the early twentieth century, concrete researchers were just
compelling to convince the concrete industry to replace the beginning to recognize the importance of water content in
slump test. predicting concrete strength (Wig 1912; Abrams 1922). The
Table 3.1—Classes of workability measurement Table 3.2—Single-point and multi-point workability

(Tattersall 1991) tests for concrete
Class I: qualitative To be used only in a general Single-point tests Multi-point tests
(workability, flowability, descriptive way without any 1. Angles flow box test
compactability, finishability, 1. Beretta apparatus
pumpability) attempt to quantify 2, Compaction factor test 2. BML viscometer
3. Compaction test 3. BTRHEOM rheometer
Class II: quantitative empirical To be used as a simple quantitative 4. Cone penetration test 4. CEMAGREF-IMG
(slump, compacting factor, Vebe time, statement of behavior in a 5. Delivery-chute depth meter 5. Concrete truck mixer as rheometer
flow table spread) particular set of circumstances 6. Delivery-chute torque meter 6. Consolis rheomixer
Class III: quantitative fundamental To be used strictly in conformance 7. Flow table test (DIN) 7. CONVI viscoprobe
(viscosity, mobility, fluidity, yield value) with standard definitions 8. Flow trough test 8. FHPCM
9. Free orifice (Orimet) test 9. IBB rheometer
10. Fresh Concrete Tester 101 10. ICAR rheometer
11. Intensive compaction test 11. Modified slump test
slump test gives an indication of the water content and, thus, 12. Inverted slump cone test 12. Multiple single-point tests
the strength of hardened concrete. The ability to improve 13. LCL flow test 13. Powers and Wiler plastometer
14. K-slump tester 14. Rheometer-4SCC
strength by controlling concrete consistency represented a 15. Kango hammer test 15. SLump Rate Machine (SLRM)
new advance for the concrete industry. The slump test was 16. Kelly ball test 16. System and method for
17. Moving sphere viscometer controlling concrete production
quickly adopted because of its simplicity (Abrams 1922). 18. Powers remolding test 17. Tattersall two-point device
Still, the concrete industry quickly realized the slump test’s 19. Proctor test 18. Vertical pipe apparatus
20. Mixer devices 19. Vibrating slope apparatus
inability to represent workability fully and, within several 21. Ring penetration test
years of the introduction of the slump test, several attempts 22. Settlement column
23. Segregation test
were made to develop better, more complete tests (Powers 24. Slump test
1968). Although numerous test methods have been developed 25. Soil direct shear test
26. Soil triaxial test
since the 1920s, not until research established concrete as a 27. Surface settlement test
Bingham fluid did the principle of measuring concrete flow 28. Thaulow tester
29. Trowel test
curves in terms of shear stress and shear rate emerge. Many 30. Vebe consistometer
of the new methods developed since the establishment of 31. Vibratory flow meter
32. Vibropenetrator
concrete as a Bingham fluid have attempted to measure yield 33. Wigmore consistometer
stress non-Bingham and plastic viscosity.
The multitude of workability test methods can be divided into
categories based on several different classification schemes.
Tattersall (1991) broadly splits the assessment of workability Table 3.3—NIST categorization of concrete
rheology test methods (Hackley and Ferraris 2001)
into three classes, as shown in Table 3.1. The majority of
Category Definition
workability test methods fall into Classes II and III.
Confined The material flows under its own weight or under applied
Similar to Tattersall’s scheme (1991), most test methods flow tests pressure through a narrow orifice.
for workability have traditionally been split between single-
Free flow The materials either flows under its own weight, without any
point and multi-point tests. The concept of single-point tests
confinement, or an object penetrates the material by gravitational
settling.
versus multi-point tests is based on the flow curve relating
The materials flows under the influence of applied vibration.
shear stress and shear rate. A single-point test measures only Vibration The vibration is applied using a vibrating table, dropping the
one point on the flow curve and therefore provides an incom- tests base supporting the material, an external vibrator, or an
internal vibrator.
plete description of workability. For instance, the slump test
Rotational The material is sheared between two surfaces, one or both of
only provides one point on the flow curve, namely, the yield rheometers which are rotating.
stress. Multi-point tests, by contrast, measure additional
points on the flow curve, typically by varying the shear rate,
to provide a more complete description of concrete rheology. A distinction can also be made between dynamic and static
Single-point tests generally fall into Class II of Tattersall’s tests. In dynamic tests, energy is imparted into the concrete
scheme, whereas multi-point tests fall into Class III. Single- through such actions as vibrating, jolting, or applying a shear
point tests can provide a direct or indirect measurement of force to the concrete. Static tests (also referred to as quasi-
yield stress, plastic viscosity, or some other properties. static tests), however, do not add such energy, and often rely
Multi-point tests typically measure yield stress and plastic on the concrete to flow under its own weight. Dynamic tests
viscosity, or closely related values. The existing test methods are particularly appropriate for low and moderate workability
for concrete described in this document can be split between concretes that are commonly vibrated in the field and for
single-point and multi-point tests as shown in Table 3.2. highly thixotropic concretes where energy is required to
Single-point workability tests are generally intended to be overcome the initially high at-rest yield stress.
simple and rapid; however, they do not provide information Workability test methods have also been classified in
on both yield stress and plastic viscosity. In some cases, a terms of the type of flow produced during the test. In an effort
single-point test may be appropriate for a certain type of to establish a uniform and widely accepted nomenclature for
concrete mixture or a certain application even though the test concrete rheology, the National Institute of Standards and
does not fully measure fundamental rheological parameters. Technology (NIST) divided existing rheology test methods
The tradeoff between single-point and multi-point tests is into four broad categories (Hackley and Ferraris 2001). The
generally between simplicity and completeness of results. definitions of the four categories are listed in Table 3.3.
Table 3.4—Categorization of workability test methods*

Tests for self-consolidating concrete Tests for pastes and grouts
Tests for concrete (3.3.1) (3.3.2) (3.3.3)
>Confined flow tests (3.3.1.1) >Rotational rheometers (3.3.1.4) >Confined flow tests —Flow cone and marsh
—Compaction factor test (3.3.1.1.1) —Bertta apparatus (3.3.1.4.1) —Fill box test (3.3.2.2) cone tests (3.3.3.1)
—Free orifice test (Orimet test) (3.3.1.1.2) —BML viscometer (3.3.1.4.2) —L-box test (3.3.2.4) —Lombardi plate (3.3.3.2)
—K-slump tester (3.3.1.1.3) —BTRHEOM rheometer (3.3.1.4.3) —Simulated soffit test (3.3.2.6) —Mini-flow test (3.3.3.3)
—CEMAGREF-IMG (3.3.1.4.4) —U-box test (3.3.2.8) —Mini-slump test (3.3.3.4)
>Free flow tests (3.3.1.2) —Concrete truck mixer as rheometer —V-funnel test (3.3.2.9) —Rotational rheometers
—Cone penetration test (3.3.1.2.1) (3.3.1.4.5) —Turning tube viscometer
—Delivery-chute depth meter (3.3.1.2.2) —Consolis Rheomixer® (3.3.1.4.6) >Free flow tests (3.3.3.5)
—Delivery-chute torque meter (3.3.1.2.3) —CONVI Visco-Probe (3.3.1.4.7) —J-ring test (3.3.2.3) —Vicat needle test (3.3.3.6)
—Flow trough test (3.3.1.2.4) —FHPCM (3.3.1.4.8) —Slump flow test (3.3.2.7) —ViscoCorder (3.3.3.7)
—Kelly ball test (3.3.1.2.5) —Fresh concrete tester 101 (FCT 101) —Wuerpel device (3.3.3.8)
—Modified slump test (3.3.1.2.6) (3.3.1.4.9) >Stability tests
—Moving sphere viscometer (3.3.1.2.7) —ICAR rheometer (3.3.1.4.10) —Column segregation test (3.3.2.1)
—Ring penetration test (3.3.1.2.8) —IBB rheometer (3.3.1.4.11) —Penetration test for Segregation
—SLump Rate Machine (SLRM) (3.3.1.2.9) —Mixer devices (3.3.1.4.12) (3.3.2.5)
—Slump test (3.3.1.2.10) —Powers and Wiler plastometer —Wet sieving stability test (3.3.2.10)
—Surface settlement test (3.3.1.2.11) (3.3.1.4.13)
—Rheometer-4SCC (3.3.1.4.14)
>Vibration tests (3.3.1.3) —Soil direct shear test (3.3.1.4.15)
—Angles flow box test (3.3.1.3.1) —Tattersall two-point device
—Compaction test (3.3.1.3.2) (3.3.1.4.16)
—Flow table test (DIN flow table) (3.3.1.3.3)
—Inverted slump cone test (3.3.1.3.4) >Tests for very high yield-stress
—LCL flow test (3.3.1.3.5) concrete (3.3.1.5)
—Powers remolding test (3.3.1.3.6) —Intensive compaction test (3.3.1.5.1)
—Settlement column segregation test (3.3.1.3.7) —Kango hammer test (3.3.1.5.2)
—Thaulow tester (3.3.1.3.8) —Proctor test (3.3.1.5.3)
—Vebe consistometer (3.3.1.3.9)
—Vertical pipe apparatus (3.3.1.3.10) >Other test methods (3.3.1.6)
—Vibrating slope apparatus (3.3.1.3.11) —Multiple single-point tests (3.3.1.6.1)
—Vibratory flow meter (3.3.1.3.12) —Soil triaxial test (3.3.1.6.2)
—Vibropenetrator (3.3.1.3.13) —System and method for controlling
—Wigmore consistometer (3.3.1.3.14) concrete production (3.3.1.6.3)
—Trowel test (3.3.1.6.4)
*
Tests placed in alphabetical order.
The NIST classification scheme is most consistent with to SCC. The test methods range from simple tests that can be
the current understanding of concrete rheology and work- performed in less than a minute to more complex tests that
ability. Confined flow, free flow, and vibration test methods require expensive equipment and knowledgeable operators.
generally attempt to simulate field placement flow conditions, Many of the test methods measure the flowability of
whereas rotational rheometers attempt to apply the concepts concrete; however, only a few test methods are currently
of traditional rheometers to concrete. It should be recognized available for measuring the homogeneity of concrete. Tests
that some existing test methods, such as many of the tests for for homogeneity are generally applied to concretes with high
high yield-stress concrete, do not directly measure the flow flowability, such as SCC, where segregation often is a
properties of concrete and therefore do not fit into any of the problem. Although some of the tests are appropriate for only
four categories in Table 3.3. The results of these tests, a narrow range of concrete mixtures, such tests can still
however, can still give meaningful information on concrete provide highly useful information. The following subsec-
workability. tions describe the workability test methods for concrete and
summarize the key advantages and disadvantages of each
3.3—Description of existing test methods test method.
The 69 workability test methods described in this document 3.3.1.1 Confined flow tests—Only three confined flow
are presented in accordance with the NIST flow-type test methods for concrete are presented in this document.
classification scheme. Because concrete, paste and grout, The use of confined flow in measuring workability, however,
and SCC are each rheologically unique, test methods for is much more extensive than this short list suggests. Many of
each material can be divided into separate categories, as the tests available for SCC are confined flow tests. Confined
shown in Table 3.4. Some test methods that do not fit into flow tests are generally not suitable for high to moderate yield-
any of the four NIST flow-type categories are described in stress concretes, which are not sufficiently fluid to readily
separate categories. flow under confined conditions and produce meaningful test
Each category of test methods is described in general terms results. Because vibration imparts energy into concrete and
in the following sections. After the general description of each produces flow in high to moderate yield-stress concretes,
category, the test methods are described and critiqued. some vibration tests feature confined flow. Such tests that
3.3.1 Workability tests for concrete—The workability test incorporate both vibration and confined flow—including the
methods for concrete presented in this document cover a inverted slump cone test and the vertical pipe apparatus—are
broad range, from extremely dry, roller-compacted concrete classified as vibration tests.
Table 3.5—Interpretation of compaction factor

test results as described in British Road Note 4
(Wilby 1991)
Degree Compaction factor
of
work- Slump, Small Large
ability mm (in.) apparatus apparatus Applications
Very 0 to 25 Vibrated concrete in roads or
0.78 0.80
low (0 to 1) other large sections.
Mass concrete foundations
25 to 50 without vibration. Simple
Low 0.85 0.87
(1 to 2) reinforced sections with
vibration.
Normal reinforced work
Medium 50 to 100
(2 to 4) 0.92 0.935 without vibration and heavily
reinforced sections with
vibration.
100 to 180 Sections with congested
High 0.95 0.96 reinforcement. Not normally
(4 to 7)
suited for vibration
(3/4 in.). A larger apparatus is available for concretes with

maximum aggregate sizes of up to 40 mm (1-1/2 in.).
Fig. 3.1—Standard version of compaction factor test The results of the compaction factor test can be correlated
apparatus (1 mm = 0.039 in.). to slump, although the relationship is not linear. Wilby
(1991) relates the results of the compaction factor test to
slump and a general description of workability (Table 3.5).
The three confined flow tests presented herein are simple The compaction factor test has been used more widely in
to perform and provide additional information that the slump Europe than in the United States, although the overall use of
test does not provide. The tests, however, are more complex the test is declining. The test has typically been used in
than the slump test—though much less complex than rotational precast operations and at large construction sites. Compared
rheometers—and are not widely used. with the slump test, the apparatus is bulky, and a balance is
3.3.1.1.1 Compaction factor test (or consolidating required to perform measurements. In addition to these
factor test)—The compaction factor test (Powers 1968; practical drawbacks, the test has several flaws that reduce
Neville 1996; Bartos 1992; Bartos et al. 2002) measures the the accuracy of the results. Some of the work imparted into
the concrete is lost in friction between the hoppers and the
degree of compaction resulting from the application of a
concrete. The magnitude of this friction varies between
standard amount of work. The test was developed in Britain
different concrete mixtures, and may not be reflective of
in the late 1940s and was standardized as BS 1881-103
field conditions. Further, the compaction factor test does not
(British Standards Institute 1993).
use vibration, which is the main compaction method used in
The commercially available apparatus consists of a rigid the field (Bartos 1992).
frame that supports two conical hoppers vertically aligned Advantages:
above each other and mounted above a cylinder, as shown in • The compaction factor test gives more information (that
Fig. 3.1. The top hopper is slightly larger than the bottom is, about compactability) than the slump test; and
hopper, while the cylinder is smaller in volume than both • The test is a dynamic test and thus is more appropriate
hoppers. To perform the test, the top hopper is filled with than static tests for highly thixotropic concrete mixtures.
concrete, but is not compacted. The door on the bottom of the Disadvantages:
top hopper is opened, and the concrete is allowed to drop into • The large and bulky nature of the device reduces its
the lower hopper. Once all of the concrete has fallen from the usefulness in the field. Further, the test method requires
top hopper, the door on the lower hopper is opened to allow a balance to measure the mass of the concrete in the
the concrete to fall to the bottom cylinder. A tamping rod can cylinder;
be used to force especially cohesive concretes through the • The amount of work applied to the concrete being
hoppers. The excess concrete is carefully struck off the top tested is a function of the friction between the concrete
of the cylinder, and the mass of the concrete in the cylinder and the hoppers, which may not be reflective of field
is recorded. This mass is compared with the mass of fully conditions;
compacted concrete in the same cylinder achieved with hand • The test method does not use vibration, the main
rodding or vibration. The compaction factor is defined as the compaction method used in the field; and
ratio of the mass of the concrete compacted in the compaction • Although the test is commercially available, it is used
factor apparatus to the mass of the fully compacted concrete. infrequently.
The previously described standard test apparatus is appro- 3.3.1.1.2 Free orifice test (Orimet test)—The free
priate for concretes with aggregate sizes of up to 20 mm orifice test (Bartos 1992; Bartos 1994; Wong et al. 2000;
Table 3.6—Precision of Orimet flow time (with

70 mm [2.8 in.] orifice)
Orimet flow time, seconds 3 5 8 12 >15
Repeatability r, seconds 0.7 1.6 2.9 4.6 6.6
Reproducibility R, seconds 1.1 2.1 3.5 5.4 6.8
of flow of the fresh concrete. For SCC mixtures, a modified

Orimet with 80 mm (3.1 in.) orifice was used in the Brite-
Euram Project (1996-2000). In addition, this modified
Orimet, which is pictured in Fig. 3.2, included 12 mm (1/2 in.)
horizontal steel bars set at right angles to each other to limit
the passage of concrete through the orifice and check the
blockage (Sonebi and Bartos 2002). Using the old Orimet
with an orifice of 80 mm (3.1 in.) and without any bars, the
flow time was less than 1 second, which was difficult to
Fig. 3.2—Modified Orimet for SCC (with two perpendicular measure. For SCC mixtures with a slump flow of 655 mm
bars) (1 mm = 0.039 in.). (26 in.) and a flow time with the modified Orimet of 2.3
seconds, the coefficient of variation and the relative error at
Sonebi and Bartos 2002) measures the time for concrete to 95% confidence limit were 8.3 and 9.6%, respectively
flow through a vertical tube and out a smaller-diameter (Sonebi and Bartos 2002).
orifice at the bottom of the tube. The test was originally Wong et al. (2000) made several recommendations for
developed by Bartos in 1978 as a rapid field test to measure modifying the free orifice device to obtain additional infor-
the workability of concretes that were too flowable to be mation about the concrete mixtures. The time for the
measured with the slump test. concrete to flow out of the tube could be used in addition to
The apparatus consists of a 600 mm (23.6 in.) long, 100 mm slump to better characterize workability. Alternatively,
(3.9 in.) diameter pipe held in a vertical position with a multiple shear rates could be achieved by placing surcharge
tripod. An interchangeable orifice, which narrows the weights on the concrete. While the idea of using multiple
diameter of the pipe, is attached to the bottom of the pipe. shear rates has been suggested, it is not known if this idea has
The standard orifice size of 80 mm (3.1 in.) is appropriate for been attempted.
concrete mixtures with a maximum aggregate size of 20 mm In a test of antiwashout mixtures conducted by Bartos
(3/4 in.). Other typical orifice sizes are 70 and 90 mm (2.8 (1994), the free orifice device clearly showed changes in the
and 3.5 in.). To perform the test, concrete is placed in the cohesiveness of the concrete mixtures. Further, the free
pipe, but is not compacted. A door on the bottom of the orifice test successfully showed sensitivity to changes in fine
orifice is opened, and the time for the concrete to flow aggregate content. By contrast, when the spread/flow test
completely out of the pipe is measured. For normal, flowable was performed on the same concrete mixtures, the associated
concrete mixtures, Bartos (1992) reported typical flow times changes in workability due to changes in fine aggregate
of 1.5 to 6 seconds; however, less flowable concretes can content were not detected.
have flow times longer than 60 seconds. If a mixture is Based on interlaboratory testing of SCC with two replicates
highly susceptible to segregation, coarse aggregates tend to and 20 operators from 10 laboratories from the European
accumulate near the orifice and slow or completely block project, Testing SCC (2005), the repeatability r and the
flow. A noncontinuous discharge can suggest a concrete reproducibility R according ISO 5725 for different values of
mixture’s susceptibility to segregation. The standard test Orimet flow time with an orifice of 70 mm (2.8 in.) are given
requires approximately 7.5 L (0.26 ft3) of concrete, and in Table 3.6.
should be repeated at least two or three times. In some cases, Advantages:
the results of the free orifice test have been correlated to • The test is inexpensive and simple to use. Even if the
slump (Wong et al. 2000). apparatus is not placed on level ground, an accurate
The free orifice test is simple and the apparatus is easily result can still be obtained;
portable; however, it requires modifications to measure a • The test quickly provides a direct result; and
wider range of concrete mixtures. For concretes with low • The test represents a good simulation of actual placing
slump, a vibrator could be attached externally to the pipe to conditions for highly flowable concretes.
promote flow. Different size aggregates require different Disadvantages:
size orifices, which complicates the comparison of test data. • The test method is only appropriate for use with highly
The main source of error is operator error in measuring the flowable and self-consolidating concretes; and
exact start and stop times for the test. • Although the test provides a good indication of cohe-
The interparticle friction between the various solids siveness, the results are not expressed in terms of
(coarse aggregate, sand, and powder materials) affects filling fundamental units.
ability. Such solid-to-solid friction increases the internal 3.3.1.1.3 K-slump tester—The K-slump tester (Nasser
resistance to flow, thus limiting the filling ability and speed and Rezk 1972; Nasser 1976; Nasser and Al-Manaseer 1988;
Bartos 1992; Scanlon 1994; Ferraris 1999; Wong et al. 2000;

U.S. Patent and Trademark Office 1975) is a small device
that can be inserted directly into a mass of fresh concrete to
quickly determine slump. The test was developed by Nasser in
the 1970s, and is sometimes referred to as the Nasser probe.
The device consists of a hollow tube with slots and holes,
as shown in Fig. 3.3. The end with the pointed tip is inserted
into the concrete. A flat plate at approximately midheight of
the tube indicates the proper depth of penetration of the
device. A round plunger moves freely out the other end. The
tube is inserted into the concrete with the plunger in the
upper position to allow mortar from the concrete to enter the
inside of the tube. After 60 seconds, the plunger is lowered
until it comes to rest on top of the mortar that has entered the
tube. The depth of mortar in the tube, as read from the graduated
scale on the plunger, is taken as the K-slump. The plunger is Fig. 3.3—K-slump tester (U.S. Patent and Trademark Office
again pulled to its upper position, and the tube is removed 1975).
from the concrete. After mortar is allowed to flow out of the
tube, the plunger is lowered to rest on top of the remaining
features vibration. Tests that do not include vibration may
mortar in the tube. The reading on the graduated scale at this
not be the most appropriate test methods for characterizing
point is considered the workability W.
high yield stress and highly thixotropic concrete mixtures.
The K-slump reading is linearly related to slump. The
3.3.1.2.1 Cone penetration test—The cone penetration
higher the workability reading W, the greater the workability
test (Sachan and Kameswara Rao 1988) was developed to be
and compactability of the mixture. The difference between K
a superior test for measuring the workability of fiber-reinforced
and W is an indication of the susceptibility of a mixture to
concrete. It was designed to be an improvement over the
segregation.
slump test, inverted slump cone test, and Vebe consistometer.
The K-slump tester was standardized as ASTM C1362 in
The test apparatus consists of a 4 kg (8.8 lb) metal cone
1997, and is commercially available. A digital version of the
with a 30-degree apex angle. The cone is allowed to penetrate
tester has also been developed (U.S. Patent and Trademark
a sample of concrete under its own weight. The depth of
Office 1995). The device is appropriate for medium and low
penetration is measured as an indication of workability.
yield-stress concretes. The test cannot be modeled analyti-
In developing the test, multiple apex angles and cone
cally, and does not directly measure plastic viscosity,
weights were examined to determine the optimum device
although the K and W terms provide greater information
characteristics. By varying the weight and apex angle, the
than just the slump. Because aggregates greater in size than
test developers were able to determine a relationship between
the 9 mm (3/8 in.) slots cannot fit into the tube, the test does
the cone weight, cone geometry, the penetration depth, and the
not fully measure the influence of aggregate on workability.
properties of the concrete, as shown in Eq. (3-1)
Indeed, the scatter of the test results is large (Ferraris 1999).
Advantages:
n
• The K-slump tester is simple and easier to use than the KW
d = ----------- (3-1)
slump test. A direct result is available in approximately θ
1 minute;
• The test can be performed on in-place concrete; and where W = cone mass, θ = apex angle, d = depth of penetration,
• The K and W terms provide more information than just and K and n are empirical constants based on the workability
the slump. of the mixture.
Disadvantages: Sachan and Kameswara Rao (1988) found that the results
• The test does not fully take into account the effects of of the cone penetration test correlate well to slump, inverted
coarse aggregates; and slump cone time, and Vebe time. The test method is suitable
• The test is static, and is not appropriate for low-slump for low-slump concrete mixtures.
concrete mixtures. Unlike the inverted slump cone test and Vebe consistometer,
3.3.1.2 Free flow tests—Free flow test methods are the cone penetration test is not dynamic and, therefore, is
generally simple to perform and provide a clear, direct result. affected by thixotropy. Because fiber-reinforced concretes
The slump test is the best known of the free flow test can be highly thixotropic, the test is only appropriate for a
methods. Other free flow test methods represent attempts to limited range of fiber-reinforced concrete mixtures. The test
improve on the slump test. Free flow tests generally give a method is not widely used.
result that is closely related to yield stress. A few tests have Advantages:
been improved to also measure plastic viscosity. Although • The test is simple to perform and provides a direct
many of the free flow tests can be used on concretes with a result; and
wide range of workability, none of the free flow tests • The test can be performed on in-place concrete.
Fig. 3.4—Delivery-chute depth meter (U.S. Patent and Trademark Office 1986).
Disadvantages:
• The test is a static test and is thus not particularly
appropriate for fiber-reinforced concrete; and
• While the results of the test are related to yield stress,
the results are not recorded in fundamental units.
3.3.1.2.2 Delivery-chute depth meter—The delivery-
chute depth meter (U.S. Patent and Trademark Office 1986;
Wong et al. 2000) is similar to the delivery-chute torque
meter in that it measures the consistency of concrete as it
exits a concrete mixing truck.
The device is a triangular plate with an attached level, as
shown in Fig. 3.4. The angles at the base of the triangular
plate are used along with the attached level to set the
discharge chute to predefined angles. Concrete is allowed to
flow down the discharge chute until it begins to fall off the
end of the discharge chute. At that point, concrete flow is
stopped, and the device is inserted into the concrete. The
height of the concrete in the chute, as measured on the
triangular plate, is related to slump. Fig. 3.5—Delivery-chute torque meter (U.S. Patent and
The device should be calibrated for each concrete mixture Trademark Office 1982a).
tested. For a given concrete mixture, the water content is
systematically altered. For each water content, the slump and vertical member that measures torque. The device is inserted
the depth of flow in the delivery chute are recorded to in the delivery chute such that the sensing blades are
develop points on the device. Given that each separate orthogonal to the flow of concrete. The flowing concrete
concrete mixture needs to be calibrated separately, the applies approximately equivalent forces to each of the two
device is best suited for jobs where a large quantity of one sensing blades. These forces create opposing moments on
concrete mixture is being placed. the inner vertical member. Because the length of the moment
Advantages: arm for the right sensing blade is approximately twice that of
• The device allows workability to be quickly judged the moment arm for the left sensing blade, a net torque is
before any concrete exits the end of the delivery applied to the inner vertical member. The operator manually
chute; and applies an opposing torque to the outer housing to keep the
• The device is simple and inexpensive. blades orthogonal to the flow of concrete. The magnitude of
Disadvantages: this applied torque is indicated on the flat circular plate
• The device needs to be calibrated for each concrete located just above the two sensing blades. The torque
mixture; and measured with the device is correlated to slump, with the
• Any variations in concrete height along the length of appropriate correlation marked on the circular plate. For
the delivery chute could distort readings. concretes with different viscosities, different calibrations
3.3.1.2.3 Delivery-chute torque meter—The delivery- need to be obtained. The geometry of the device allows the
chute torque meter (U.S. Patent and Trademark Office 1982a; device to adjust automatically to changes in flow velocity
Wong et al. 2000) is designed to measure the consistency and height.
of concrete as it exits a concrete mixing truck. The intent of the Advantages:
device is to measure slump accurately without having to wait • The device measures the workability of the concrete as
for the conventional slump test to be performed. it exits the mixer before it is placed; and
The hand-held device, shown in Fig. 3.5, is inserted in • The torque (and associated slump) is read directly from
flowing concrete in the delivery chute of a concrete mixing the device. No computer or other sensing devices are
truck. The two curved sensing blades are attached to a required to determine slump.
Disadvantages:
• The torque meter is a single-point test that gives no
indication of plastic viscosity. Readings are made at
only one shear rate; and
• The device must be calibrated for each concrete mixture.
3.3.1.2.4 Flow trough test—The flow trough test
(Bartos et al. 2002) is used to measure the workability of
highly flowable concretes. It was originally developed for
measuring repair concretes.
The test apparatus consists of a 230 mm (9 in.) wide,
1000 mm (39 in.) long horizontal steel trough. Approximately
6 L (0.2 ft3) of concrete is placed in a conical hopper and
allowed to fall from the hopper onto one end of the trough.
The time required for concrete to flow a certain distance,
typically 750 mm (29.5 in), down the trough is recorded.
The test is conducted three times immediately after mixing
and another three times 30 minutes after mixing. The set of tests Fig. 3.6—Kelly ball test apparatus.
is conducted at 30 minutes to characterize the workability of
the concrete at the time of placement. The concrete is agitated
every 5 minutes in the 30 minutes between the initial and final use. The test has never been used widely outside of the
sets of tests. In addition to flow, assessments of bleeding and United States (Bartos 1992).
segregation are made based on a visual examination. The test is applicable to a similar range of concrete consis-
Advantages: tencies as the slump test and is applicable to special mixtures
• The test method is simple and inexpensive; and such as lightweight and heavyweight concretes. The preci-
sion of the test declines with the increasing size of coarse
• The results are a function of the time required for the
aggregate (Bartos 1992). The reliability of the results also
concrete to flow both out of the cone and down the trough.
depends on the maintenance of the apparatus.
Disadvantages:
Advantages:
• The test is only appropriate for highly flowable • The test is faster than the slump test and can be
concrete mixtures; and preformed on in-place concrete to obtain a direct result
• The test is not standardized and not widely used. quickly; and
3.3.1.2.5 Kelly ball test—The Kelly ball test (Powers • It has been claimed that the Kelly ball test provides
1968; Bartos 1992; Scanlon 1994; Ferraris 1999; Bartos et more accurate results than the slump test.
al. 2002) was developed in the 1950s in the United States as Disadvantages:
an alternative to the slump test. The simple and inexpensive • Like the slump test, the Kelly ball test is a static test;
test can be quickly performed on in-place concrete, and the • The test must be performed on a level concrete surface;
results can be correlated to slump. • The test is not widely used; and
The test apparatus consists of a 150 mm (6 in.) diameter, • Large aggregate can influence the results.
13.6 kg (30 lb) ball attached to a stem, as shown in Fig. 3.6. 3.3.1.2.6 Modified slump test—The modified slump
The stem, which is graduated in 6 mm (0.25 in.) increments, test (Ferraris and de Larrard 1998; Ferraris 1999; Ferraris
slides through a frame that rests on the fresh concrete. To and Brower 2001) is intended for use as a field test to
perform the test, the concrete to be tested is struck off to be measure both the plastic viscosity and yield stress of
level. The ball is released and the depth of penetration is concrete mixtures. The test adds the parameter of time to the
measured to the nearest 6 mm (0.25 in.). At least three standard slump test to measure plastic viscosity.
measurements need to be made for each sample. The apparatus for the modified slump test consists of a
The Kelly ball test provides an indication of yield stress, vertical rod that extends from a horizontal base plate through
as the test essentially measures whether the stress applied by the center of the standard slump cone. The slump cone is
the weight of the ball is greater than the yield stress of the filled in accordance with ASTM C143/C143M, and a sliding
concrete (Ferraris 1999). For a given concrete mixture, the disk is placed atop the fresh concrete. Once the slump cone
results of the Kelly ball test can be correlated to slump. is removed, the time for the disk to slide a distance of 100 mm
Equations based on empirical testing have been published (4 in.) is measured. The sliding disk comes to rest on a stop
for use on specific types of concrete mixtures (Powers 1968). located on the vertical rod. After the disk comes to rest, the
Typically, the value of slump is 1.10 to 2.00 times the Kelly concrete continues to subside to its final position. The final
ball test reading. It has been claimed that the Kelly ball test slump measurement is recorded no later than 60 seconds
is more accurate in determining consistency than the slump after the slump cone is removed. A schematic of the test
test (Scanlon 1994). procedure is shown in Fig. 3.7.
The Kelly ball test was formerly standardized in ASTM The rheological parameters of yield stress and plastic
C360; the standard was discontinued in 1999 due to lack of viscosity can be expressed in fundamental units using equations
• The test gives an indication of both yield stress and

plastic viscosity.
Disadvantages:
• The test is not a dynamic test, and does not account for
the thixotropy of concrete or the ability of concrete to
flow under vibration;
• The results of the test could be compromised by operator
error in starting and stopping the timer, especially for
Fig. 3.7—Schematic of modified slump test (Ferraris and de times less than 2 to 3 seconds; and
Larrard 1998). • Further testing is required to verify the validity of the
test.
3.3.1.2.7 Moving sphere viscometer—The moving
based on the results of the test. The yield stress (τo, Pa) is sphere viscometer (Powers 1968; Wong et al. 2000) uses the
expressed in terms of final slump (s, mm) and concrete principle of Stokes’ law to measure the viscosity of concrete.
density (ρ, kg/m3), as shown in Eq. (3-2). The equation for Falling object and drawn object viscometers have been used
yield stress is based on experimental measurement with the widely in measuring the viscosity of other materials. A similar
BTRHEOM rheometer test device, the turning tube viscometer, is used for pastes.
To perform the test, concrete is placed in a rigid container,
ρ which can be attached to a vibrator to measure the concrete’s
τ 0 = --------- ( 300 – s ) + 212 (3-2) behavior under vibration. A steel sphere is then either pushed
347
or pulled through the concrete. The test can be conducted
either by applying a constant force to the sphere and
Plastic viscosity (μ, Pa.s) is expressed as a function of
recording the location of the sphere in the concrete versus
final slump, slump time (T, s), and concrete density, as
time or by pushing or pulling the sphere through the concrete
shown in Eq. (3-3). The equation for plastic viscosity is
at a fixed rate and measuring the force required to move the
based on a semi-empirical model developed using the results
ball. Using Stokes’ law, the viscosity of the concrete is then
of the modified slump test and the BTRHEOM rheometer
calculated as a function of the velocity of the sphere and the
For 200 mm < s < 260 mm: ηpl = ρT × 1.08 × 10–3(s – 175) (3-3) force required to move the sphere. Correction factors should
be applied to account for assumptions made with regard to
For s < 200 mm: ηpl = 25 × 10–3ρT Stokes’ law.
Wong et al. (2000) recently explored the possibility of
Nomographs have been developed based on the aforemen- developing a moving object viscometer for use with low-
tioned equations to allow quick determination of yield stress slump concretes. The researchers encountered difficulty in
and plastic viscosity in the field. determining a constant, steady-state value of force required
Due to the need to measure the time for a slump of 100 mm to pull a sphere through concrete. Although the researchers
(4 in.) to be achieved, the test only applies to concrete with did not recommend such a moving object viscometer for use
slumps ranging from 120 to 260 mm (4.75 to 10.25 in.). It with low-slump concretes, they did suggest a conceptual
has been shown that the rod has a negligible effect on the field system.
final slump, and that there is no risk of the concrete falling Advantages:
faster than the plate. Other researchers have eliminated the • The physics of the test are well known, allowing
sliding plate and shortened the rod so that it terminates 100 mm viscosity to be measured; and
(4 in.) below the top of the slump cone (Ferraris 1999). Due • The test can measure the effect of vibration on viscosity.
to the potentially short time for the disk to descend 100 mm Disadvantages:
(4 in.), there is a possibility of operator error in determining • The sphere should be significantly larger than the
the precise instances to start and stop the measurement of the maximum aggregate size. As a result, the concrete
slump time. Therefore, the time for the disk to descend 100 mm sample needs to be quite large to accommodate typical
(4 in.) should be at least 2 to 3 seconds for adequate repro- aggregate sizes;
ducibility. The SLump Rate Machine (SLRM) described in • The test does not provide a direct result. The velocity of
Section 3.3.1.2.9 automates this measurement, thereby the sphere and the force applied to the sphere need to be
reducing this source of error. measured and used in an equation to calculate viscosity.
Additional experimental testing needs to be carried out on Additionally, correction factors need to be applied;
a wider range of concrete mixtures to verify the validity of • While the test does provide a measure of plastic
the test. Ferraris and Brower (2001) found poor correlation viscosity, it does not provide a direct measure of yield
between the results of the modified slump test and plastic stress; and
viscosity measured with five rotational rheometers. • Although a conceptual field device has been proposed,
Advantages: the test method would likely be limited mainly to the
• The test is simple to conduct and only requires slightly laboratory. The test is more expensive and complex
more equipment than the slump test; and than most other single-point tests.
3.3.1.2.8 Ring penetration test—The ring penetration attached to a displacement transducer to record slump versus
test (Wong et al. 2000) consists of a steel ring that is allowed time. The device should be calibrated to take into account the
to sink under its own weight into a sample of fresh concrete. friction between the concrete and the slump cone and the
Additional weights can be gradually added to the ring until effect of the weight of the rod and plate attached to the
the ring begins to settle into the concrete. The total weight of displacement transducer. The second generation of SLRM
the ring and of any additional applied weight when the ring (SLRM II) provides two new features: 1) an automatic
begins to penetrate the concrete is related to the yield stress. hydraulic slump cone lifter that removes the slump cone
The rate at which the ring settles when a constant weight is vertically upward at a predetermined rate; and 2) four infrared
applied can also be measured. The method is considered sensors that are used to monitor the withdrawal rate of the
appropriate for grouts and low yield-stress concretes. cone, the slump, and spread of the concrete (Chidiac and
Advantages: Habibbeigi 2005; Habibbeigi 2003).
• The ring penetration test is simple and inexpensive to Tests were conducted on multiple concrete mixtures with
perform; and a wide range of workability to judge the validity of the test
• The test can be performed on in-place concrete. device. Equation (3-4) for yield stress and Eq. (3-5) for
Disadvantages: plastic viscosity represented the experimental data well and
• The test is only considered appropriate for grouts, provided results that were generally consistent with other
mortars, and highly workable concretes; experimental and analytical equations.
• The test is a static test that must be performed on a level Advantages:
concrete surface; • The test gives an indication of both yield stress and
• Large coarse aggregate particles could interfere with plastic viscosity; and
the descent of the ring and distort test results; and • The test is simpler and less expensive than traditional
• The test is not widely used, and the interpretation of the rheometers; however, it provides less information about
test results is not well known. the concrete.
3.3.1.2.9 SLump Rate Machine (SLRM)—Like the Disadvantages:
modified slump test, the SLump Rate Machine (SLRM) • The test is not a dynamic test and does not account for
introduces the variable of time to the standard slump test to the thixotropy of concrete, nor does it measure the
obtain more information about concrete rheology (Chidiac et ability of concrete to flow under vibration; and
al. 2000). • The test device is more complicated than the modified
The test is based on an analytical treatment of the slump slump test, and requires the use of a computer to log
test. It can be shown analytically that the yield stress of data and perform calculations.
concrete τy is a function of concrete density ρ and the hori- 3.3.1.2.10 Slump test—The slump test is the most well-
zontal slump flow of the concrete Sf, as shown in Eq. (3-4) known and widely used test method to characterize the
workability of fresh concrete. The inexpensive test, which
ρ - = β -----------
4gV ----------- ρ - measures consistency, is used on job sites to rapidly determine
τ y = ---------- 1 (3-4) whether a concrete batch should be accepted or rejected. The
π 3 ( Sf ) 2 ( Sf )
2
test method is widely standardized throughout the world,
including in ASTM C143/C143M in the United States and
where g = gravity, V = volume of the slump cone, and β1 = EN12350-2 in Europe (European Committee for Standard-
constant. ization 2000a).
Further, it can be shown that plastic viscosity is a function The apparatus, as described in ASTM C143/C143M and
of horizontal slump flow, slump Sl, and time of slump tslump , EN12350-2, consists of a mold in the shape of a frustum of a
as shown in Eq. (3-5) cone with a base diameter of 200 mm (8 in.), a top diameter
of 100 mm (4 in.), and a height of 300 mm (12 in.). The mold
gHVρ - t
η = ---------------------------------- ρ -t
= β 2 --------------------- = is filled with concrete in three layers of equal volume. Each
(3-5)
2 slump 2 slump layer is compacted with 25 strokes of a tamping rod. The
150π ( Sl ) ( Sf ) ( Sl ) ( Sf )
slump cone mold is lifted vertically upward, and the change
in height of the concrete is measured.
β2 τy
----- ---------t slump Four types of slumps are commonly encountered, as
β 1 ( Sl ) shown in Fig. 3.8. The only type of slump permissible under
ASTM C143/C143M is frequently referred to as the true
where H = height of slump cone mold, and β1 = constant. slump, where the concrete remains intact and retains a
Based on the previous two equations, the fundamental symmetric shape. A zero slump and a collapsed slump are
rheological constants can be determined by measuring both outside the range of workability that can be measured
slump, slump flow, and slump time. The SLRM is a computer- with the slump test. Specifically, ASTM C143/C143M
controlled device that measures these three variables. After advises caution in interpreting test results less than 15 mm
the slump cone is manually filled, a motor lifts the slump (1/2 in.) and greater than 230 mm (9 in). If part of the
cone at a constant rate in compliance with ASTM C143/ concrete shears from the mass, the test should be repeated
C143M. A plate rests on top of the concrete cone, and is with a different sample of concrete. A concrete that exhibits
ranging from 0 to 250 mm (0 to 10 in.). The equation is not

appropriate for concretes with a plastic viscosity greater than
300 Pa·s, above which viscosity sufficiently slows flow and
causes thixotropy, resulting in a reduction of the actual
slump value. An experimental study to verify the results of
the finite element model showed satisfactory agreement
between Eq. (3-6) and yield stress measurements from the
Fig. 3.8—Four types of slump (not to scale). BTRHEOM rheometer. It should be noted that the finite
element calculations were performed for concretes with slumps
as low as zero, while the BTRHEOM rheometer can only
measure concretes with slumps greater than approximately
100 mm (4 in.)
ρ
τ 0 = --------
- ( 300 – s ) (3-6)
270
where τ0 = yield stress in Pa, s = slump in mm, and ρ =

density in kg/m3.
Based on additional experimental measurements with the
BTRHEOM, Ferraris and de Larrard (1998) altered Eq. (3-6),
as shown previously in Eq. (3-2).
Murata and Kikukawa (1992) used a coaxial cylinders
rheometer to develop an empirical equation for yield stress
in terms of slump for concretes with slumps ranging from
125 to 260 mm (5 to 10 in.), as shown in Eq. (3-7)
Fig. 3.9—Comparison of equations relating yield stress and
slump (1 cm = 0.39 in.; 1000 Pa = 0.145 psi). τ0 = 714 – 473log(s) (3-7)
a shear slump in a second test is not sufficiently cohesive, where τ0 = yield stress in Pa, and s = slump in cm.
and should be rejected. A comparison of the equations developed by Hu et al.
The slump test is not considered applicable for concretes with (1996), Ferraris and de Larrard (1998), and Murata and
a maximum coarse aggregate size greater than 40 mm (1.5 in.). Kikukawa (1992) is presented in Fig. 3.9.
For concrete with aggregate greater than 40 mm (1.5 in.) in Using a viscoplastic finite element model, Tanigawa and
size, such larger particles can be removed by wet sieving. Mori (1989) developed three-dimensional graphs relating
Additional qualitative information on the mobility of fresh slump, yield stress, and plastic viscosity for concretes with
concrete can be obtained after reading the slump measurement, slumps ranging from 10 to 260 mm (0.4 to 10.25 in.). Schow-
although such an assessment is not standardized. Concretes alter and Christensen (1998) developed a simple analytical
with the same slump can exhibit different behavior when equation to relate slump to yield stress and the height of the
tapped with a tamping rod. A harsh concrete with few fines unyielded region of the slump cone, defined as the region
will tend to fall apart when tapped and be appropriate only where the weight of concrete above a given point is insuffi-
for applications such as pavements or mass concrete. Alter- cient to overcome the yield stress. Other more complex
natively, the concrete may be very cohesive when tapped, analytical analyses have been developed. Additionally,
and thus be suitable for difficult placement conditions. Tattersall and Banfill (1983) and Domone et al. (1999)
Slump is influenced by both yield stress and plastic have presented experimental data showing a relationship
viscosity; however, for most cases, the effect of plastic between slump and yield stress. Sobolev (2004) developed a
viscosity on slump is negligible. Equations have been model relating concrete slump to shear stress and volume of the
developed for calculating yield stress in terms of slump, cement paste.
based on either analytical or experimental analyses. Because
Advantages:
different rheometers measure different absolute values for
the yield stress of identical samples of concrete, the • The slump test is the most widely used device world-
experimental equations largely depend on the specific wide. In fact, the test is so well known that often the
device used to measure yield stress. terms “workability” and “slump” are used interchange-
Based on a finite element model of a slump test, Hu et al. ably, even though they have different meanings;
(1996) developed an expression for yield stress in terms of • Specifications are typically written in terms of slump;
slump and density, as shown in Eq. (3-6). The finite element • The slump test is simple, rugged, and inexpensive to
calculations were performed for concretes with slumps perform. Results are obtained immediately;
• The results of the slump test can be converted to yield

stress in fundamental units based on various analytical
treatments and experimental studies of the slump test; and
• Compared with other commonly used concrete tests,
such as for air content and compressive strength, the
slump test provides acceptable precision.
Disadvantages:
• The slump test does not give an indication of plastic
viscosity;
• The slump test is a static, not dynamic, test; therefore,
results are influenced by concrete thixotropy. The test
does not provide an indication of the ease with which
concrete can be moved under dynamic placing conditions,
such as vibration;
Fig. 3.10—Surface settlement (Khayat 1999) (1 mm =
• The slump test is less relevant with newer, advanced 0.039 in.).
concrete mixtures than with more conventional
mixtures; and
• The slump test cannot distinguish clearly between low- unless the rate of surface settlement after 30 minutes is
slump mixtures. employed to determine the static stability of the concrete.
3.3.1.3 Vibration tests—Due to the wide use of vibration
3.3.1.2.11 Surface settlement test—The surface settle-
in placing concrete, many test methods measure the flow of
ment test (Khayat 1999) is used to assess the stability of
concrete under vibration. Vibration test methods typically
concrete by measuring the settlement of fresh concrete over
feature free or confined flow. Vibration test methods are
time. The test is most appropriate for highly fluid concretes
generally simple to perform; however, none has been widely
and SCCs; however, it can be used for moderate yield-stress
accepted. Although vibration test methods can be used for a
concrete mixtures.
wide range of workability, they are most appropriate for high
The test apparatus, shown in Fig. 3.10, consists of an 800 mm
and moderate yield-stress concretes that are commonly vibrated
(31.5 in.) tall, 200 mm (8 in.) diameter pipe sealed at the
in the field. Additionally, some rotational rheometers are
bottom. Two longitudinal seams allow the pipe to be
capable of measuring the rheology of concrete under vibration.
removed once the concrete sample has hardened. To perform
In evaluating the results of vibration test methods, it is
the test, concrete is filled to a height of 700 mm (27.5 in.) in
important to recognize the role of several vibration parameters
the cylinder. Highly fluid concretes and SCCs do not need to
in influencing the flow properties of concrete. It was experi-
be consolidated; however, rodding or vibration is necessary
mentally established (Tattersall and Baker 1989; Banfill et al.
for less-fluid concretes. A 4 mm (0.16 in.) thick, 150 mm
1999) that vibration alters the Bingham parameters of concrete.
(5.9 in.) diameter acrylic plate is placed on the top surface of
The flow properties of vibrated concrete are related not just to
the concrete. Four 75 mm (3 in.) long screws extend downward
the flow properties of the unvibrated concrete but also to the
from the acrylic plate and into the concrete. A linear dial
nature of the applied vibration. Banfill et al. (1999) showed
gauge or linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is
that the flow of concrete under vibration is most significantly
used to measure the settlement of the acrylic plate over time
influenced by the velocity of the vibration. When the velocity
until the concrete hardens. The top of the pipe is covered
of vibration is above a minimum threshold value, concrete can
during the test to prevent evaporation. In addition to a plot of
be considered a Newtonian fluid, at least for low shear rates.
surface settlement versus time, the maximum surface settlement
Based on this information, the results obtained from the
versus initial concrete height is computed. The determination
same test method but with different types of vibration should
of the rate of surface settlement after 30 minutes can be used
generally not be directly compared. Because most test
to determine the static stability of the concrete. This value
methods in this document have not been standardized, they
has been closely correlated with the maximum surface
do not have one single specified type of vibration. Ideally,
settlement value; for example, a rate of settlement of 0.16%
the vibration applied by the test should closely match the
per hour would correspond to a maximum settlement of
vibration applied in the field.
0.5% (Hwang et al. 2006).
3.3.1.3.1 Angles flow box test—The Angles flow box
Advantages: test (Scanlon 1994; Wong et al. 2000) attempts to simulate
• The test is inexpensive and simple to perform; and typical concrete construction to characterize the ease with
• The test is appropriate for a wide range of concrete which concrete can be placed. The test measures the ability
mixtures. of concrete to flow under vibration and to pass obstructions.
Disadvantages: The device consists of a rectangular box mounted on a
• The test does not give a direct result; and vibrating table. Two adjacent vertical partitions are placed in
• The time required to perform the test is substantially the middle of the box to divide the box in half. The first partition
longer than other test methods because the settlement consists of a screen of circular bars that are spaced so that the
distance must be recorded until the concrete hardens, openings between the bars are the size of the maximum
top of the container is measured at the four corners of the

container. The degree of compaction is calculated as the
height of the container divided by the average height of the
compacted concrete. Typical test results range from 1.02 to
1.50. Unlike the compaction factor test, a standard amount of
energy is not imparted into the system.
A similar test, the Fritsch test (Ferraris 1999), measures
not just the distance that the concrete compacts, but also the
time it takes for the compaction to occur. An internal vibrator
is placed inside a mold of fresh concrete. The time for the
concrete to obtain full compaction and cease falling is recorded
as a measure of workability. A settling curve is developed by
plotting the height of concrete in the container versus time.
Another similar test has been presented by Leivo (1990).
Fig. 3.11—Compaction test apparatus (1 mm = 0.039 in.).
Advantages:
• The compaction test provides an indication of the
aggregate. The second partition is a solid, removable plate compactability of concrete;
that initially holds concrete on one side of the box before the • The test device is simple and inexpensive; and
beginning of the test. After concrete has been loaded on one • When the variable of time is added, an indirect indication
side of the box, the solid partition is removed, and the of plastic viscosity is given.
vibrating table is started. The time for the concrete to pass Disadvantages:
through the screen and form a level surface throughout the • The test device can be difficult to empty, particularly
box is recorded. The amount of bleeding and segregation that when high yield-stress concretes are tested; and
occurs during vibration can be visually observed. • When the time for compaction is measured, determining
Very little data are available on the validity of the test and the end point of the test is difficult because the height of
on interpretation of the test results. The test method would concrete in the container versus time is asymptotic. The
not be appropriate for very low-slump mixtures. For highly use of a computer can facilitate the readings of height
flowable concrete mixtures, vibration may be unnecessary. versus time and the selection of the end point of the test.
A similar concept is used to test the workability of SCC. 3.3.1.3.3 Flow table test (DIN flow table)—The flow
Advantages: table test (Tattersall 1991; Bartos 1992; Wong et al. 2000;
• The test method represents actual field conditions. It is Bartos et al. 2002) measures the horizontal spread of a
a dynamic test that subjects concrete to vibration; and concrete cone specimen after being subjected to jolting.
• The ability of concrete to pass obstructions and resist Multiple versions of the test have been proposed since its
segregation is assessed. original introduction in Germany in the 1930s. The test was
Disadvantages: added to the British Standards in 1983 in response to the
• The test is bulky, and would probably not be appropriate increased use of highly fluid concretes. The test is sometimes
for field use; and referred to as the DIN flow table, in reference to its inclusion
• The test result is likely a function of both yield stress in German specification DIN 1048 (Deutches Institut für
and plastic viscosity, although these values are not Normung 1991). The test is currently standardized in the
directly recorded. European Standards as EN12350-5 (European Committee
3.3.1.3.2 Compaction test (Walz test, compaction index for Standardization 2000d).
test, degree of compaction test)—Like the compaction factor The apparatus consists of a 700 mm (27.6 in) square
test, the compaction test (Walz 1964; Bartos 1992; Bartos et wooded top plate lined with a thin metal sheet, as shown in
al. 2002) expresses workability in terms of the compactability Fig. 3.12. The plate is hinged on one end to a base, while on
of a concrete sample. The test was developed during the 1960s the other end, clips allow the plate to be lifted a vertical
in Germany, and is standardized in Europe as EN12350-4 distance of 40 mm (1.6 in.). Etched into the metal sheet are
(European Committee for Standardization 2000c). two perpendicular lines that cross in the center of the plate
The test apparatus, shown in Fig. 3.11, is simple—it and a 200 mm (7.9 in.) circle concentric with the center of
consists merely of a tall rigid metal container with side the plate. The frustum of a cone used to mold the concrete is
dimensions of 200 mm (7.9 in.) and a height of 400 mm shorter than the slump cone, with a top diameter of 130 mm
(15.7 in.). The top of the container is open. The container is (5.1 in.), and with a bottom diameter and height of 200 mm
filled with fresh concrete without compaction. After the top (7.9 in.).
of the filled container has been struck off level, the concrete To perform the test, the cone mold is placed in the center
is compacted with a tamping rod or, more commonly, with of the plate and filled in two layers, each of which is
vibration until the concrete ceases to subside in the box. compacted with a tamping rod. The plate is lifted with the
According to EN12350-4, the concrete must be compacted attached handle a distance of 40 mm (1.6 in.) and then
using an internal or external vibrator operating at a specified dropped a total of 15 times. The horizontal spread of the
frequency. The distance from the top of the concrete to the concrete is measured. Resistance to segregation can be assessed
qualitatively: in concrete mixtures that are susceptible to

segregation, the paste will tend to separate from the coarse
aggregate around the perimeter of the concrete mass.
The test is applicable to a wide range of concrete workability,
and is especially appropriate for highly fluid mixtures that
exhibit a collapsed slump. The results of the test can be
correlated to slump, although it has been suggested that the
initial horizontal spread, before jolting, correlates better to
slump (Juvas 1994). Despite its simplicity, the test apparatus
is large and needs to be placed on firm, level ground. The
jolting of the concrete does not accurately simulate field
practices, and cannot easily be treated analytically. In fact,
the further the concrete spreads, the thinner the layer of
concrete becomes and the less this thin layer represents the
bulk properties of the concrete. Research has suggested that
spread measurements for different concrete mixtures
converge with an increasing number of drops of the top plate
(Tattersall 1991).
Advantages:
• The test is simple and can be used in the field;
• The test quickly provides a direct result;
• The test is dynamic, making it especially appropriate
for highly thixotropic concrete mixtures; and
• The test is very low in cost.
Disadvantages:
Fig. 3.12—Flow table test apparatus (1 mm = 0.039 in.).
• The test procedure does not represent actual placement
conditions—concrete is typically vibrated, not jolted;
• The test results tend to converge as the number of drops
is increased. Near the end of the test, the properties of
the thin layer of concrete do not reflect the bulk properties
of the concrete; and
• The results are not given in terms of fundamental units.
An analytical treatment of the test would be difficult.
3.3.1.3.4 Inverted slump cone test—The inverted
slump cone test (Tattersall and Banfill 1983; McWhannell
1994; Johnston 1994; ASTM C995) was developed as a
simple and inexpensive field test to measure the workability
of fiber-reinforced concrete. Although fiber-reinforced
concrete can show increased workability, the individual
fibers act to increase concrete thixotropy. McWhannell Fig. 3.13—Inverted slump cone test apparatus.
(1994) has shown that mixtures incorporating polypropylene
fibers show a slight decrease in slump but an increase in a 25 mm (1 in.) diameter internal vibrator is inserted into the
workability as measured with the compacting factor test. top of the concrete and allowed to descend at a rate such that
The test apparatus comprises readily available job-site the vibrator comes into contact with the bottom of the bucket
equipment: an internal vibrator, slump cone, and bucket. The in 3 ± 1 second. The vibrator is then held in a vertical posi-
test is standardized in ASTM C995. A specially constructed tion, and the total elapsed time from the insertion of the
wood frame, shown in Fig. 3.13, holds the slump cone in an vibrator until all the concrete has passed out of the slump
inverted position above the standard bucket described in cone is recorded.
ASTM C29/C29M for determination of unit weight. A 100 mm ACI 544.2R recommends the use of the inverted slump
(4 in.) gap is left between the bottom of the inverted slump cone test. The use of vibration has been deemed appropriate
cone and the bottom of the bucket. The dampened slump because the fiber-reinforced concretes that are tested with
cone is then filled with concrete in three layers. Although the the inverted slump cone test are commonly vibrated during
concrete should not be compacted, each layer of concrete placement. Research has shown that the inverted slump cone
should be leveled off to minimize entrapped air. To keep the test can successfully detect changes in coarse aggregate
concrete from falling through the bottom of the slump cone, fraction, fiber content, fiber length, and fiber aspect ratio
the ASTM standard recommends placing a sufficiently large (Johnston 1994).
volume of concrete in the bottom of the cone to bridge the Although the test is an improvement on static tests that do
opening. With the slump cone full and leveled off at the top, not take into account the higher thixotropy of fiber-reinforced
• Important test parameters are not standardized; therefore,

tests conducted with different vibrators cannot be
compared. Likewise, it is difficult to write specifications
in terms of inverted slump cone time; and
• Operator error is introduced in determining the exact
stopping point of the test.
3.3.1.3.5 LCL flow test—The LCL flow test (Bartos
1992; Ferraris 1999; Bartos et al. 2002) is very similar to the
angles flow box test. The test is suitable for concretes with
high and moderate yield stress, and is not appropriate for
concretes with very low or very high yield stress. The flow
is assisted by vibration.
The device, pictured in Fig. 3.14, consists of a 150 x 600 mm
Fig. 3.14—LCL flow test. (5.9 x 23.6 in.) rectangular box with a height of 150 mm
(5.9 in.). An external vibrator is attached to one end. A
concrete, the inverted slump cone test has several important triangular wedge holds uncompacted concrete in the opposite
restrictions on its usefulness. The test applies only to end of the box. Rubber supports beneath the box isolate the
concretes with flow times greater than 8 seconds and slumps box and absorb vibrations. To start the test, the wedge is
less than 50 mm (2 in.). More-fluid concretes can flow removed and the vibrator is started. The time for concrete to
through the bottom of the cone, and cannot be measured with spread to the other end of the box and fill to a line marked on
sufficient precision. The size of the apparatus also restricts the side of the box is measured.
the use of some concretes. The small gap of 38 mm (1.5 in.) Although the test provides a direct and usable result, the
around the vibrator at the bottom of the cone limits the device needs to be calibrated using a standard aggregate and
maximum aggregate size and the use of long, stiff fibers with a standard mixture proportion to interpret the results further.
high aspect ratios. Tattersall and Banfill (1983) stated that The difficulty in determining the endpoint of the test reduces
the gap between the cone and vibrator should be 10 times the the precision of the test results. Two sizes of the device exist:
maximum aggregate size. Additionally, long fibrillated and one for normal concrete, and another for mortars and
monofilament fibers can wrap around the vibrator and distort concretes with maximum aggregate size less than 12.5 mm
results. To allow the use of readily available job equipment (1/2 in.). The larger device requires 35 L (1.25 ft3) of
to conduct the test, the ASTM standard only specifies that concrete.
the internal vibrator be 25 ± 3 mm (1 ± 1/8 in.) in diameter. Ferraris (1999) suggests that the results of the LCL flow
Variations in the diameter, frequency, and amplitude of the test are related to plastic viscosity. Further, yield stress could
vibrator prevent the direct comparison of test results and the be determined by slowly increasing the amplitude of vibration
development of specifications for fiber-reinforced concrete until the concrete begins to flow.
in terms of inverted slump cone time. The precision of the Advantages:
test is influenced by operator error in properly inserting and • The LCL flow test is a dynamic test, capable of
positioning the vibrator and determining the correct start and measuring values related to both yield stress and plastic
stop times for the test. Because the concrete is not consolidated viscosity;
before the start of the test, the cone can contain large • The test partially represents actual field conditions; and
volumes of entrapped air. • A direct result is quickly obtained.
Advantages: Disadvantages:
• The inverted slump cone test is a dynamic test that takes • The test is more expensive and complicated than the
into account the high thixotropy of fiber-reinforced slump test and requires electricity, thus reducing the
concrete; likelihood it would be used in the field;
• The test is simple and provides a direct result; and • Although the test does measure values related to yield
• The test apparatus consists of readily available equipment. stress and plastic viscosity, the values are not determined
Disadvantages: in fundamental units; and
• The test is only appropriate for concrete mixtures with • The precise end point of the test can be difficult to
a slump of less than 50 mm (2 in.); determine.
• The test is difficult to perform. Filling the inverted 3.3.1.3.6 Powers remolding test—The Powers
slump cone with concrete so that no concrete falls remolding test (Powers 1968; Scanlon 1994; Wong et al.
through the hole is not easy. Further, the vibrator must 2000) is similar to the Vebe consistometer. The test was
be inserted directly down the center of the inverted developed by Powers and first presented in 1932. The test
slump cone in a certain period of time; has been standardized by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
• The gap at the bottom of the inverted slump cone is too as CRD-C 6-74 (1974).
small based on typical aggregate sizes and some fiber The test apparatus consists of a 305 mm (12 in.) diameter
lengths; cylindrical mold mounted on a standard drop table,
• Some long fibers may wrap around the vibrator; described in ASTM C124 (which was withdrawn in 1973). A
Fig. 3.15—Powers remolding test container incorporating

inner ring.
separate 210 mm (8.25 in.) diameter ring is attached at the

top of the cylinder, as shown in Fig. 3.15. The concrete
sample is compacted in the standard slump cone inside of the
inner ring. Like the Vebe consistometer, a clear plate attached
to a vertical stem rests on top of the concrete. The number of
drops required to remold the concrete to the shape of the outer
cylinder is a measurement of the remolding effort.
The ring attached to the outer cylinder restricts the move-
ment of the concrete and allows for the determination of the
plastic shear capacity of the concrete mixture. A mixture
with high shear capacity easily passes under the ring,
whereas mixtures with low shear capacity tend to clog and
result in greater required remolding effort. It is possible that
two mixtures that require the same remolding effort when
the ring is removed require different remolding efforts when Fig. 3.16—Settlement column segregation test apparatus
the ring is in place. (1 mm = 0.039 in.).
Research has shown that the Powers remolding test is
more sensitive to changes in workability than the slump test The test apparatus consists of a tall, rectangular box
(Scanlon 1994). mounted on top of a standard mortar drop table. The column,
Advantages: depicted in Fig. 3.16, is 500 mm (19.7 in.) tall and has cross-
• The Powers remolding test is a dynamic test and is sectional dimensions of 100 x 150 mm (3.9 x 5.9 in.). Three
suitable for high yield-stress concretes; and doors on opposing sides of the box allow sections of concrete
• The results of the test are obtained directly. to be removed at the conclusion of the test. To begin the test,
Disadvantages: concrete is placed in the column and allowed to stand for
• The drop table must be mounted on an object of sufficient 1 minute. The concrete is subsequently jolted 20 times in
mass to absorb vibrations created by the drop table. 1 minute using the drop table and then allowed to stand for
Accordingly, the device is likely to be too large and an additional 5 minutes. The top door is then opened, and the
bulky for field use; concrete behind the door is removed and saved. The concrete
• The test method is only suitable for high yield-stress behind the middle door is discarded, while the concrete
concretes; and behind the bottom door is saved. The samples from the top
• No analytical treatment or experimental testing of the and bottom of the column are individually washed through a
test method has been performed to relate the test results 5 mm (0.20 in.) sieve to leave only the coarse aggregate. The
to yield stress, plastic viscosity, or both. segregation ratio is then calculated as the ratio of the mass of
3.3.1.3.7 Settlement column segregation test—The coarse aggregate in the top sample to the mass of coarse
settlement column segregation test (Bartos et al. 2002; aggregate in the bottom sample. The lower this ratio is, the
Rooney 2002; Sonebi et al. 2003) measures the degree of greater the susceptibility to segregation will be.
segregation that occurs in a concrete subjected to a standard The relative error of repeatability with 95% confidence limit
settlement period and standard amount of jolting. The test for measuring the segregation ratio of fresh SCC was limited
method is primarily intended for highly-fluid concrete mixtures. to 2 to 7% for no and mild dynamic segregation, and 12% for
Table 3.7—Dynamic segregation categories The Thaulow concrete tester is applicable mainly to high
Dynamic segregation category Settlement ratio of fresh concrete SRFC yield-stress concrete. ACI 211.3R recommends using the
1. No segregation 0.96 and above Thaulow concrete tester for concretes that are too dry to be
2. Mild segregation 0.95 to 0.88 measured with the slump cone.
3. Notable segregation 0.87 to 0.72 Advantages:
4. Severe segregation 0.71 and below • The Thaulow concrete tester is a dynamic test method;
• The handle attached to the cylinder allows for the
measurement of concretes with higher workability than
can be measured with the Vebe consistometer and the
Powers remolding test; and
• Test results are obtained directly.
Disadvantages:
• The drop table must be mounted on an object of sufficient
mass to absorb vibrations created by the drop table.
Accordingly, the device is too large and bulky for field
use; and
• No analytical treatment or experimental testing of the
test device has been performed to relate the test results
to yield stress, plastic viscosity, or both.
3.3.1.3.9 Vebe consistometer—The Vebe consistometer
(Bartos 1992; Scanlon 1994) measures the remolding ability
Fig. 3.17—Vebe consistometer. of concrete under vibration. The test results reflect the
amount of energy required to remold a quantity of concrete
notable dynamic segregation. For severe dynamic segregation, under given vibration conditions. The Vebe consistometer is
the relative error was higher, between 13 and 23%. The applicable to concrete with slumps less than 50 mm (2 in.).
reproducibility of the segregation settlement column test was The apparatus, shown in Fig. 3.17, consists of a metal
good. The coefficient of variation calculated from the results cylindrical container mounted on a vibrating table producing
of four operators was between 4 and 8%. Four different a sinusoidal vibration. In the version of the test standardized
dynamic segregation categories were defined for fresh SCC in Europe as EN12350-3 (European Committee for Standard-
mixtures, as shown in Table 3.7 (Sonebi et al. 2007). ization 2000b), a slump cone is placed in the center of the
Advantages: cylinder and filled in the same manner as in the standard
• The test attempts to simulate actual placement conditions; slump test. After the slump cone is removed, a clear plastic
and disk is set atop the concrete. The vibrating table is started,
• The test method is simple and does not require expensive and the time for the concrete to remold from the slump cone
equipment. shape to the shape of the outer cylindrical container is
Disadvantages: recorded as a measure of consistency. The sliding clear
• The test is time consuming and is not practical for use plastic disk facilitates the determination of the end of the test.
in the field; and Juvas (1994) presented a modified Vebe test to more
• The repeatability of test results decreases as segregation efficiently measure concretes that exhibit standard Vebe times
increases. greater than 30 seconds. In the modified Vebe test, a 20 kg
3.3.1.3.8 Thaulow tester—The Thaulow concrete (44 lb) surcharge is attached to the rod above the clear plastic
tester (Powers 1968; Scanlon 1994; Wong et al. 2000) is disk. The remainder of the test apparatus and procedure is
similar to the Vebe consistometer and the Powers remolding unchanged. The modified Vebe test more closely represents
test, but is modified to allow for the measurement of the production of precast concrete elements that are both
concretes with higher flowability. vibrated and pressed.
The apparatus consists of a 10 L (0.35 ft3) cylinder of ASTM C1170 describes two variations on the aforemen-
smaller diameter than the containers used in the Vebe consis- tioned procedure for use with roller-compacted concrete.
tometer and the Powers remolding test. The cylinder is Instead of placing concrete in a slump cone in the cylinder,
attached to a drop table. A handle is mounted with pins at the concrete is placed directly into the 241 mm (9-1/2 in.) diameter,
top of the cylinder. A mark on the cylinder at 5 L (0.18 ft3) 197 mm (7-3/4 in.) tall cylinder without compaction. For
assists in determining the end of the test. Concrete is placed Test Method A, a 22.7 kg (50 lb) surcharge is placed on the
in the cylinder using the standard slump cone. For concretes sliding plastic disk. The vibrator is started, and the time for
with moderate flowability, the handle is allowed to fall from the concrete to consolidate and a mortar ring to form around
its vertical position and strike opposite sides of the container the plastic disk is recorded. The surcharge is then removed,
until the concrete remolds to the 5 L (0.18 ft3) mark on the and the concrete is vibrated further until the total vibration
container. For high yield-stress concretes, the number of time is 2 minutes. The density of the consolidated concrete
drops of the table required to remold the sample to the 5 L in the mold is then determined. When the Vebe time by Test
(0.18 ft3) mark is recorded. Method A is less than 5 seconds, Test Method B should be
used. In Test Method B, the surcharge is not used. Both the

time for a mortar ring to form around the perimeter of the
cylinder and the final density of the compacted concrete are
recorded. Both methods are applicable for concretes with
maximum aggregate sizes up to 50 mm (2 in). A minimum of
22.7 kg (50 lb) of concrete is required for each test method.
Because the test apparatus is large and heavy, it is inappro-
priate for field use. The vibrating table should be mounted on
a large and stable base of sufficient mass to absorb the table’s
vibrations. The main use for the test has been in the laboratory
and in the precast industry, where low-slump concrete
mixtures are commonly used (Bartos 1992). The results are
Fig. 3.18—Schematic of vertical pipe apparatus.
neither directly related to slump nor plastic viscosity.
Advantages:
• The Vebe consistometer is a dynamic test and can be The vibrator must be a simple wave-form vibrator with
used on concretes that are too dry for the slump test; independent control of frequency and velocity. An inexpensive
eccentric type or a common commercial vibrator would not
• The test device is standardized by ASTM and identified
allow the study of the effects of different vibration parameters
by ACI 211.3R for proportioning low-slump concrete;
on concrete.
and
Advantages:
• Test results are obtained directly. • The vertical pipe apparatus is a dynamic test that
Disadvantages: provides valuable information on the flow of concrete
• Due to the need to ensure that all vibration is kept within under vibration; and
the test device, the size of the test device makes the Vebe • By changing the vibration parameters, the test can be
consistometer generally unsuitable for field use; used to determine values related to yield stress and
• The test device only works for high yield-stress plastic viscosity.
concretes; and Disadvantages:
• No analytical treatment of the test method has been • The test is expensive and may not be appropriate for
developed. Such treatment would be complex because field use. The test does not provide a direct result;
the shear rate declines during the duration of the test as • The 60 mm (2.4 in.) size of the opening below the pipe
the concrete specimen changes shape. is too small for some aggregate sizes; and
3.3.1.3.10 Vertical pipe apparatus—The vertical pipe • For highly flowable concretes, the concrete will quickly
apparatus (Tattersall and Baker 1989; Banfill et al. 1999) flow out of the pipe without the assistance of vibration.
was developed as a laboratory device to measure the effects 3.3.1.3.11 Vibrating slope apparatus—Originally
of vibration on fresh concrete. developed in the 1960s, the vibrating slope apparatus (Wong
et al. 2000) was modified by the U.S. Army Engineering
The device, depicted in Fig. 3.18, consists of a 100 mm (4 in.)
Research and Development Center (ERDC) for the U.S.
diameter, 700 mm (27.5 in.) long vertical pipe mounted
Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). The device
above a metal cylindrical container that is attached to a
measures the workability of high yield-stress concretes
vibrator. A sliding sleeve holds concrete in the pipe initially.
subjected to vibration at two different shear rates to determine a
A block attached to the container ensures that when the
workability index that is related to plastic viscosity and a
sleeve is lifted, concrete flows horizontally out of the pipe
yield offset that is related to yield stress. The researchers at
and is not blocked by concrete already in the cylindrical
the ERDC selected the vibrating slope apparatus over 20 other
container. The block is 70 mm (2.8 in.) tall, and the gap
workability test devices as a superior choice to measure the
between the block and the pipe is 60 mm (2.4 in.). To begin
workability of low-slump concretes in the field.
the test, the vibrator is started and the sleeve is lifted to allow
The vibrating slope apparatus as modified by the ERDC is
concrete to flow out of the pipe. An ultrasonic displacement
shown in Fig. 3.19. Concrete to be tested is placed in the
transducer above the pipe of concrete measures the height of
chute, which can be set at a predefined angle. Three load
the concrete in the pipe versus time. In older versions of the
cells continuously measure the mass of concrete in the chute
test, a tape measure was used to measure this distance.
during the test. Small transverse metal strips reduce slip
The test is based on the principle that concrete behaves as between the concrete and the bottom of the chute. A vibrator
a Newtonian fluid when subjected to vibration. The rate of is mounted to the bottom of the chute. Eight vibration
flow of a Newtonian fluid in a vertical pipe is a function of dampers ensure that the vibration is applied to the concrete
the head H, as shown in Eq. (3-8), where b is the constant of and that the entire apparatus does not excessively vibrate and
proportionality expressing fluidity interfere with load cell measurements. Readings from the
load cells are transmitted to a laptop computer, where the
dH workability index and yield offset are calculated. The entire
------- = – bH (3-8)
dt apparatus is designed to be rugged and easily portable.
Fig. 3.19—Vibrating slope apparatus (Wong et al. 2000).
To operate the device, concrete is placed in the chute, Fig. 3.20—Vibratory flow meter.
which is set at a predefined angle (typically 10 to 15 degrees).
The gate is opened and the vibrator is started, allowing
concrete to fall from the chute into a bucket. The data from Disadvantages:
the load cells is used to calculate the discharge rate. Because • The results of the device have not been verified
the discharge rate generally decreases as concrete flows out analytically or experimentally;
of the chute, the maximum discharge rate is recorded. The • The device is large, bulky, and heavy
test procedure is repeated a second time for a different • Although the researchers have proposed using an
incline angle. The results of the test are plotted as a graph of embedded electronic device to record test data, the
maximum discharge rate versus discharge angle. The straight vibrating slope apparatus at this point still requires a
line connecting the two data points is defined by Eq. (3-9) notebook computer;
• The results of the test are only applicable for conditions
R = WA + C (3-9) with the same vibration as the vibration applied by the
device;
where R = maximum discharge rate; W = workability index; • The shear rate is nonuniform throughout the test. The
A = discharge angle; and C = calculated yield offset. shear rate decreases as the mass of concrete in the chute
The intent of the research conducted by the ERDC for the decreases; and
FHWA was simply to determine if the vibrating slope apparatus • The repeatability of test results is poor.
would operate properly, not whether the device could 3.3.1.3.12 Vibratory flow meter—The vibratory flow
accurately measure concrete rheology. The results of the meter (Szecsy 1997) was developed to measure the flow of
preliminary ERDC laboratory testing were compared only concrete under simulated field conditions. The test method is
with the slump and air content of each concrete mixture. In similar to the LCL flow test, Angles flow box, and the
addition, no analytical treatment of the test has been vibrating slope apparatus.
presented. Wong et al. (2000) claims that the y-intercept of The test apparatus, shown in Fig. 3.20, consists of a 1220 mm
the discharge rate versus discharge angle plot is the yield (48 in.) long, 150 mm (6 in.) wide, and 150 mm (6 in.) tall
stress and that the slope of this plot is the dynamic viscosity; box. A vertical gate approximately 1/4 of the length from one
however, no effort is made to relate these parameters to end of the box separates the box into two sections. To
fundamental units or confirm the validity of the test results. conduct the test, concrete is placed in the shorter portion of
Because the yield stress of vibrated concrete is lower than the box. The gate is opened to a height of 75 mm (3 in.) and
the yield stress of unvibrated concrete, the yield stress a vibrator is inserted into the concrete in the shorter portion of
recorded by the vibrating slope apparatus is not equivalent to the box. After 30 seconds, the vibrator is removed and the
the yield stress of the unvibrated concrete, and is only distance the concrete has traveled down the box is recorded.
applicable for the specific vibration applied by the vibrating In testing conducted to compare the results of the vibratory
slope apparatus. Before the vibrating slope apparatus can be flow meter to rheological parameters, Szecsy (1997) showed
used on a wider basis, the validity of the test results should that vibratory flow and plastic viscosity exhibited a general
be verified. relationship; however, the scatter of the data was large.
The ERDC researchers encountered multiple problems in Further, the vibratory flow meter was not always able to
developing the vibrating slope apparatus prototype. Many of detect changes in mixture proportions. For instance, the
the problems were trivial and easily corrected. Other problems vibratory flow meter was able to detect changes in sand
will require further work to resolve. The test device is large, content for concrete mixtures containing river gravel, but not
bulky, and weighs 160 kg (350 lb). The ERDC researchers for mixtures with a crushed limestone aggregate. The vibratory
give no cost information in their report. flow meter was able to detect changes in water-cement ratio
Advantages: and high-range water-reducing admixture dosage.
• Unlike many rheometers, the device measures the Advantages:
workability of high yield-stress concretes; and • The test method is simple and provides a direct result; and
• The results of the device are given in terms of parameters • The test apparatus consists of readily available
related to yield stress and plastic viscosity. equipment and materials.
Disadvantages:
• Preliminary test results indicate that the device is not
effective in distinguishing between changes in mixture
proportions; and
• The test results are dependent on the type of vibrator
used. If an internal poker vibrator is used, the effect of
vibration will change as concrete flows further away
from the location of the vibrator.
3.3.1.3.13 Vibropenetrator—The Vibropenetrator was
developed by Komlos (1964) as a penetration test to better
measure the behavior of vibrated concrete. The device Fig. 3.21—Schematic drawings of parallel plate rheometer
consists of a standard 200 mm (7.9 in.) cube mold mounted (left) and coaxial cylinders rheometer (right).
on a vibrating table. Concrete is placed in the mold and
compacted with the assistance of the vibrating table. A rod,
guided by a sleeve mounted to the cube mold, is placed on Advantages:
top of the concrete. The vibrating table is started, and the • The Wigmore consistometer is a dynamic test that
time for the rod to penetrate a certain depth into the concrete provides a direct result; and
is measured as an indication of workability. A ring on the rod • The test can be used on a wide range of concrete
touches the top of the sleeve to indicate the end point of the workability.
test. Komlos (1964) performed the test on moderate to low Disadvantages:
yield-stress concretes with water-cement ratios ranging from • To minimize the disproportionate effects of coarse
0.38 to 0.90. aggregate particles on test results, the ball should be
The results of the test are a function of not just the concrete significantly larger than the maximum coarse aggregate
properties, but also the nature of the applied vibration. The size. Such a test device would be impractically large;
test is not appropriate for concrete containing large aggregates • Although the results of the test are related both to the
that could interfere with the descent of the rod. yield stress and the plastic viscosity, results are not
Advantages: expressed in fundamental rheological units; and
• The Vibropenetrator test is a dynamic test that • The drop table must be mounted on an object of
measures the behavior of vibrated concrete; and sufficient mass to absorb vibrations created by the drop
• The test is simple to perform and provides a direct result. table. Accordingly, the device is too large and bulky for
Disadvantages: field use.
• Large coarse aggregates could distort test results by 3.3.1.4 Rotational rheometers—Many attempts have
interfering with the descent of the penetrating rod; been made to adapt traditional rotational rheometers to
• Although the test has been performed on a wide range measure concrete. Rotational rheometers for concrete apply
of concrete workability, highly flowable concrete with a shear stress to concrete specimens at various shear rates.
water-cement ratio near 0.90 would likely be difficult to From measurements of torque and rotation speed, the
test with precision; and fundamental rheological parameters of yield stress and
• The test requires a vibrator and electricity and is not as plastic viscosity, or closely related values, can be calculated.
simple as other single-point field tests. It must be cautioned, however, that the heterogeneous compo-
3.3.1.3.14 Wigmore consistometer—The Wigmore sition of concrete and practical restrictions on rheometer
consistometer (Scanlon 1994) is a dynamic penetration test geometrical configuration limit the precision with which shear
that was developed as an improvement of the slump test. The stress and shear rate can be computed. For instance, the local
test measures consistency by adding energy to the concrete shear rate in the paste fraction is higher than the bulk shear rate
and measuring penetration resistance. assumed for computation of yield stress and plastic viscosity.
The apparatus consists of cylindrical container mounted Although some rotational rheometers have been designed
on a drop table. A removable lid placed atop the cylinder to be sufficiently small and rugged for use on job sites, the
includes a hole that guides a graduated rod with an attached limited availability and high cost of most of these devices
50 mm (2 in.) ball vertically downward through the concrete. typically make them impractical for regular field use.
Concrete is placed into the container and compacted with Although different rotational rheometers measure different
eight drops of the table. The container is filled to the top and ranges of workability, various devices are available to
struck off level. The lid with the rod and ball is placed on top measure nearly the full range of workability from high yield-
of the container. The number of drops required to lower the stress concrete to SCC.
ball 200 mm (7.75 in.) into the concrete is recorded as a Rotational rheometers used for concrete feature parallel
measure of consistency. plate geometry, coaxial cylinders (also called Couette)
Typical results vary from 20 drops for soft and fluid geometry, or impeller geometry. A parallel plate rheometer
concrete to 200 drops for stiff, high yield-stress concrete. and a coaxial cylinders rheometer are depicted schematically
Large aggregates can interfere with the descent of the ball in Fig. 3.21. In a parallel plate rheometer, the fluid is sheared
and lead to variability in the test results. between two plates. The torque is applied and measured
through one of the plates. In a coaxial cylinders rheometer,

the fluid between an inner and outer cylinder is sheared. In a
common arrangement of the coaxial cylinders rheometer,
torque is applied to the outer cylinder, while the inner
cylinder measures torque. In impeller rheometers, a vane or
impeller inserted into the concrete rotates at various speeds
in an axial or planetary motion.
In parallel plate and coaxial cylinders rheometers, rheological
parameters, such as yield stress and plastic viscosity, can be
calculated in fundamental units directly from the torque and
rotation speed test data and the rheometer geometry. In Fig. 3.22—BML viscometer (left) with an enlarged view of
impeller rheometers, however, rheological parameters inner blades (right).
cannot be calculated in fundamental units directly. Therefore,
standard calibration fluids are used to establish the relationships amplitude. The stationary inner cylinder measures torque.
between the measured torque and rotation speed data and During the test, a vertical pressure can be applied to the
rheological parameters in fundamental units. Instead of concrete sample. The change in height of the concrete sample
establishing such a calibration, the slope and intercept of the during the test is recorded as a measure of the compactability
torque and rotation speed data are used as rheological of concrete when subjected to shear compaction.
parameters in nonfundamental units. The geometry of the device presents problems with
While rheometers have traditionally been used successfully accurately measuring rheological parameters. Specifically,
for fine particle suspensions, concrete presents unique the gap between the cylinders limits the maximum aggregate
challenges. Concrete rheometers deal with the large size of size to 13 mm (1/2 in.) based on the gap size being five times
coarse aggregates, concrete segregation, and time dependence the maximum aggregate size. The ratio of the outer cylinder
of flow properties. For instance, to maintain a homogenous radius to the inner cylinder radius is too large for a linear
sample during testing, the difference between the inner and flow gradient.
outer cylinder radii should be at least five times the Advantages:
maximum aggregate size. Further, the ratio of the outer • The operation of the device is automated;
cylinder radius to the inner cylinder radius should be 1.0 to • The device measures torque at various rotations speeds,
1.1 (Ferraris 1999). Rheometers constructed based on these which allows the calculation of plastic viscosity and
particular requirements are generally too large to be practical. yield stress;
Indeed, many of the problems with rotational rheometers • The test results can be computed in fundamental units
have yet to be overcome. Calculated values of shear rate and of rheology; and
shear stress within the concrete in a rheometer are necessarily • The device can be used to measure a wide range of
approximations. Due to these limitations and other differences concrete workability, including zero-slump concretes
between rheometer designs, the values measured by different and highly workable concretes.
rheometers for the same concrete may vary considerably. Disadvantages:
Accordingly, it is not possible to establish a single, fully • The device is likely too large for field use and requires
accurate result for a given concrete mixture. While the values a computer for operation; and
recorded by different rheometers may vary in absolute terms, • The geometry of the device limits the range of
correlations can often be established. concretes that can be tested and reduces the accuracy of
Three of the test methods described in this section—soil the device.
direct shear test, mixer devices, and fresh concrete tester— 3.3.1.4.2 BML viscometer—The BML viscometer
incorporate some concepts of traditional rotational rheometers, (Wallevik 1990, 2003; Wallevik and Gjørv 1998) is based on
but do not measure concrete at different shear rates. These the design of a coaxial cylinders rheometer. The BML
devices only determine consistency, and provide no indication viscometer was developed in Norway in 1987.
of plastic viscosity. The BML viscometer is shown in Fig. 3.22. The outer
3.3.1.4.1 Bertta apparatus—The Bertta apparatus cylinder, which rotates during the test, features a series of
(Leivo 1990; Ferraris 1999) is a coaxial cylinders rheometer vertical ribs. Instead of an inner cylinder, a series of vertical
that measures the fundamental rheological parameters of blades, which remained stationary during the test, is used.
concrete and the compactability of concrete under shear The torque acting on the inner blades is recorded during the
compaction. test. The sizes of the inner blades and outer cylinder can be
The Bertta apparatus features traditional coaxial cylinders changed based on the size of the aggregate in the concrete
geometry with outer and inner cylinders that are 480 and being tested. At a constant angular velocity, the shear rate in
330 mm (18.9 and 13.0 in.) in diameter, respectively, and the concrete is nonuniform at the bottom of the outer
400 mm (15.7 in.) in height. Vanes attached to the outer and cylinder. Therefore, to measure torque more accurately, the
inner cylinders act to prevent slip. Unlike other coaxial inner blades are split into three parts so that only the middle
cylinders rheometers used for concrete, the outer cylinder section of each inner blade measures torque. The concrete
operates in an oscillatory mode with a set frequency and near the middle section of the inner cylinder is subject to
two-dimensional shearing, whereas the concrete in the

bottom of the outer cylinder is subject to complex three-
dimensional shearing. The device is operated at various
fixed speeds. The cylinders are mounted on a much larger
unit that houses the mechanical equipment. A computer
software package converts the output data to values for flow
resistance G and relative viscosity H, which can then be
related to yield stress and plastic viscosity, respectively,
based on the Reiner-Rivlin equation. For measurements
where a portion of the concrete in the rheometer annulus is
at a stress below the yield stress and does not flow, the data
are discarded. Only flow curve points where all concrete in
the rheometer annulus flows are used to compute yield stress
and plastic viscosity.
The BML viscometer is intended for flowable concretes
with slumps greater than 120 mm (4.7 in.), and can be used
for SCCs. The device has also been used successfully for
concretes with slumps as low as 50 mm (2 in.). For lower-
slump concretes, the inner cylinder can be replaced with a Fig. 3.23—BTRHEOM rheometer.
blade impeller system similar to the one used in the Tattersall
two-point device. The device should be calibrated with for the BTRHEOM automatically calculates results in terms
external weights or calibration oils. of the Bingham or Herschel-Bulkley models.
The BML viscometer has been commercially available The BTRHEOM is capable of measuring dilatancy during
since 1992 as the ConTec viscometer. From 1992 to a test. To do so, a plate is set on top of the concrete. As the
February 2001, approximately 30 devices were sold (Ferraris concrete expands in volume during the test, the upward
and Brower 2001). displacement of the plate is recorded. In addition to calculating
Advantages: the yield stress τ0 , the yield stress at rest can be determined
• The device measures torque and at various rotations using a stress-controlled test. Since the initial development
speeds, which allows the calculation of plastic viscosity of the BTRHEOM, the accuracy of the device has been
and yield stress; validated experimentally and analytically (Hu et al. 1996). A
• The operation of the device is automated; modified version of the BTRHEOM has been developed to
• The test results can be computed in fundamental units eliminate several drawbacks of the original device (Szecsy
of rheology; and 1997; Struble et al. 2001). In this version, the motor is located
• The device is appropriate for a wide range of concrete above the bowl; as a result, fewer parts are necessary. Instead of
workability, although some accuracy is lost in measure- using two felt seals that need to be replaced frequently, the
ments of highly flowable concrete mixtures and high simplified version only requires a single rubber o-ring.
yield-stress concrete mixtures. Advantages:
Disadvantages: • The device measures torque at various rotations speeds,
• The device is too large to be used outside of a laboratory; which allows the calculation of plastic viscosity and
• The device is complex and expensive; and yield stress;
• Concrete in the shearing zone between the inner and • The test results can be computed in fundamental units
outer cylinders has a tendency to dilate, resulting in of rheology;
artificially low measurements of torque. • The device can measure dilatancy and can compute
3.3.1.4.3 BTRHEOM rheometer—Developed in yield stress at rest;
France, the BTRHEOM (de Larrard et al. 1997; de Larrard • The results of the test have been verified with finite
1999; Wong et al. 2000; Ferraris and Brower 2001; Bartos et element models;
al. 2002) is a parallel plate rheometer for concrete. • The operation of the device is computer controlled,
The device, pictured in Fig. 3.23, consists of a 240 mm requiring little user intervention; and
(9.4 in.) diameter, 100 mm (3.9 in.) tall cylindrical container. • A built-in vibrator allows the measurement of rheolog-
Blades are mounted at the top and bottom of the container. ical properties under vibration.
The bottom blade is fixed, while the top blade rotates and Disadvantages:
measures torque. The motor is housed below the container, • The device is complex and expensive;
and is connected to the top blade through a 40 mm (1.6 in.) • The seals need to be replaced frequently. The device
diameter inner shaft in the concrete container. The device must be recalibrated to account for the friction caused
includes a vibrator to consolidate the concrete and to measure by new seals;
the effect of vibration on the rheological parameters. The test • Although the device is designed to be compact and
is conducted by turning the top blade at different speeds and sufficiently rugged for field use, the device is too
recording the resulting torque. Computer software developed expensive for everyday field use;
• The device does not measure high yield-stress concretes plastic viscosity—by monitoring mixing torque at various
(generally with slumps less than 100 mm); and rotation speeds has also been explored. Daczko (2002)
• The device is not a true parallel plate rheometer. The published data, and Amziane et al. (2005) performed systematic
calculations of shear stress and shear rate (and yield testing comparing the data obtained from the truck with data
stress and plastic viscosity) are only approximate because from a rheometer.
they ignore the discontinuity in flow at the boundary of To transform a truck mixer into a rheometer requires that
the moving and stationary parts of the cylinder. at least two entities be measured: rotational speed of the
3.3.1.4.4 CEMAGREF-IMG—The CEMAGREF-IMG drum and the power consumption or torque used by the
(Ferraris and Brower 2001) is a large coaxial-cylinder mixer motor during rotation. To obtain both the yield stress
rheometer originally developed to measure mud-flow and the viscosity, it is necessary to obtain data at several
rheology, but which has also been used to measure concrete speeds. The methodology proposed by Amziane et al. (2005)
rheology. Only one prototype of the device exists. requires the measurement of the power during mixing, the
Because the CEMAGREF-IMG was not initially intended load volume, the mass of concrete, and the shear rate in the
to measure the rheology of concrete, it is significantly larger concrete, which is deduced from the drum rotational speed
than other rheometers. In fact, the large size of the device and geometrical characteristics. The calculation method to
makes it impractical for measuring concrete. The outer determine the shear rate in the drum from the speed and the
cylinder is 1.2 m (47.2 in.) in diameter and 0.9 m (35.4 in.) truck geometrical characteristics was developed in Helmuth
tall, while the inner cylinder is 0.76 m (29.9 in.) in diameter. et al. (1995). Given the complex geometrical characteristics
The rheometer holds 500 L (17.7 ft3) of concrete, and is of mixing trucks, this calculation is difficult, if not impossible,
mounted on a trailer. The inner cylinder rotates and measures to accomplish precisely.
torque, while the outer cylinder remains stationary. Blades The values of these two variables (power and rotation
on the outer cylinder and a metallic grid on the inner cylinder speed) at different speeds may be plotted against each
reduce concrete slippage. Because the inner cylinder is other. If it is assumed that power is directly proportional to
mounted within the outer cylinder from the bottom instead of stress and rotation speed directly proportional to shear rate,
from the top, a rubber seal is provided at the base of the inner the slope of this resulting curve according to the Bingham
cylinder to ensure that all concrete remains within the gap model will give the plastic viscosity, and the intercept at
between the cylinders. The torque on the inner cylinder at zero shear rate will give the yield stress. The concrete truck
various rotation speeds is logged and used to calculate yield mixer used needs to be fitted with a device capable of
stress and plastic viscosity. measuring the oil pressure to turn the drum (also called
Although the large size of the CEMAGREF-IMG allows slump meter). The drum speed measurements could be
the testing of concrete mixtures with large maximum aggregate manually made using a stopwatch, or an automatic system
sizes, the ratio of the outer radius to the inner radius is too could be designed. The Bingham test involves sweeping
large. As a result, a region of no flow occurs within the shear rates from high to low and measuring the stress at
annulus as the concrete near the inner cylinder is sheared, various shear rates. Therefore, the drum should be turned at
while the shear stress applied to the concrete near the outer the highest possible speed, usually 1.67 rad/s (16 rpm), and
cylinder is insufficient to overcome the yield stress of the then gradually decreased in discrete steps to zero while the
concrete. The large size of the CEMAGREF-IMG also oil pressure is measured.
makes the device impractical to transport. Advantages:
Advantages: • The measurements can be done before the concrete is
• The device measures torque at various rotations speeds, discharged;
which allows the calculation of plastic viscosity and • The device measures torque at various rotations speeds,
yield stress; which allows the calculation of plastic viscosity and
• The test results can be computed in fundamental units yield stress (nonfundamental units);
of rheology; and
• The operation of the device could be automated; and
• The size of the device accommodates large maximum
• The device is applicable to a wide range of concrete
aggregate sizes.
workability.
Disadvantages:
• The device was not originally designed to measure Disadvantages:
concrete, and is too large for common field use; • The results for yield stress and plastic viscosity are not
• The geometry of the device should be improved to given in fundamental units (Pa and Pa·s, respectively);
measure concrete rheology more accurately; and • The correlation between rheometer data and the truck-
• The seals at the bottom of the inner cylinder need to be obtained results was not completely proven as yet;
replaced periodically and must be accounted for in the • A protocol to develop a relationship with any truck
device’s calibration. needs to be developed; and
3.3.1.4.5 Concrete truck mixer as rheometer—The • More research is needed for this method to be fully
mixer devices described previously only allow the determi- operational.
nation of one parameter; however, the possibility of deter- 3.3.1.4.6 Consolis RheoMixer®—The Consolis Rheo-
mining two parameters—analogous to yield stress and Mixer® (patent pending), developed by Consolis Technology,
is a workability measurement system for normal concrete

and SCC for on-line process control in full-scale production.
The system measures the workability of concrete in a
planetary mixer during mixing. The system determines the
rheological properties of the concrete mixture by changing
the rotational speed of the mixer motor and measuring the
torque at each speed. The control of the speed is accomplished
by a frequency inverter, which also measures the motor torque.
The system has been implemented in planetary mixers in
precast plants in Finland and in Sweden. The size of the
mixers varied from 1.5 to 3.0 m3 (2 to 4 yd3).
Advantages:
• The device measures torque at various rotation speeds,
which allows the calculation of plastic viscosity and
yield stress;
• The system measures the average properties of the
whole batch; Fig. 3.24—CONVI Visco-Probe.
• The measurement sequence can be adjusted freely;
• No sample handling is required; Advantages:
• No manual work is required, which reduces testing • The device measures torque at various rotation speeds,
labor costs; which allows the calculation of plastic viscosity and
• No extra cleanup of the device is required; yield stress;
• The result can be used for online control of workability; • The system measures the average properties of the
and entire batch;
• The soft start of the mixer reduces maintenance costs. • No sample handling is required;
Disadvantages: • No manual work is required, which reduces testing
• The mixing time is prolonged in some cases; labor costs;
• The device does not give results in fundamental units • No extra cleanup of the device is required; and
without calibration; • The result can be used for online control of workability.
• A continuous signal of the rheological parameters is not Disadvantages:
available; • The device does not give results in fundamental units
• The installation of the system requires replacement of without calibration (for example, Pa and Pa·s);
existing power cables and new power switches; and • The installation of the system sometimes requires
• The initial equipment cost is high relative to empirical removal of a mixer blade;
tests such as the slump test. • The battery of the torque sensor needs to be replaced
3.3.1.4.7 CONVI Visco-Probe—The CONVI Visco- regularly; and
Probe (patent pending) is a device for measurement of normal • The initial equipment cost is high relative to empirical
concrete and SCC workability in a concrete mixer during tests such as the slump test.
mixing. The system has been implemented in planetary mixers 3.3.1.4.8 FHPCM—The flow of high-performance
in ready-mix and precast plants in Denmark and in Sweden. concrete meter (FHPCM) was developed specifically for
The system, which is shown in Fig. 3.24, consists of a steel measuring highly flowable concrete mixtures (Yen et al.
sphere attached to a rod, which in turn is attached to a moving 1999; Tang et al. 2001). The rheometer has been used
part of the mixer. The diameter of the sphere is 100 mm (4 in.), successfully for concretes with slumps of 140 to 280 mm (5.5
and the length of the rod is 500 mm (20 in.). Other rod to 11 in.).
lengths are available. Due to the varying relative movement The FHPCM features coaxial cylinders geometry. The
of the sphere in relation to concrete during the mixing in a outer cylinder is 225 mm (8.9 in.) in diameter and 170 mm
planetary mixer, the resistance to the movement varies. This (6.7 in.) in height. The inner spindle is 150 mm (5.9 in.) in
resistance is continuously measured by a torque transducer in diameter, 150 mm (5.9 in.) in height, and is set 20 mm (0.8 in.)
the rod and transmitted by a wireless connection to a computer above the bottom of the outer cylinder. The inner spindle
where a computer program evaluates the signal by finding the rotates, while the outer cylinder remains fixed. Ribs attached
highest and lowest value during a cycle. These values are used to the outer cylinder prevent slip. The rotation speed of the
for calculation of plastic viscosity and yield stress. inner spindle is reduced from an initial maximum value in a
In a planetary mixer, the speed of the sphere in relation to stepwise fashion. The torque required to turn the spindle is
the concrete varies because of the planetary motion. By considered the sum of the torque in the annulus (area
adjusting the position of the sphere, a suitable ratio between between the outer and inner cylinders) and the torque in the
highest and lowest relative speed can be obtained. In a pan space under the bottom of the spindle. The torque in the
mixer, two probes are needed to measure resistance at two annulus and in the space below the spindle can be described
different speeds. with equations for coaxial cylinders rheometers and parallel
plate rheometers, respectively. From these equations, the

yield stress and plastic viscosity can be calculated in
fundamental units. The device is calibrated using a fluid of
known flow properties. Yen et al. (1999) used a malt sugar
solution with known properties, as measured with an
established traditional coaxial cylinders viscometer.
The geometry of the FHPCM is problematic. The ratio of
the outer cylinder radius to the inner cylinder radius is 1.51.
The maximum aggregate size that can be tested, based on the
gap size between the inner and outer cylinders being at least
five times the maximum aggregate size, is 7.6 mm (0.3 in.).
In research conducted using the FHPCM (Yen et al. 1999),
the maximum size of aggregate used was 12.7 mm (1/2 in.).
Advantages:
• The device measures torque and at various rotation
speeds, which allows the calculation of plastic viscosity
and yield stress; and
• The operation of the device is automated.
Disadvantages:
• The device was developed for research, and has not
Fig. 3.25—ICAR rheometer vane (Koehler 2004).
been verified with extensive laboratory testing;
• The device is only appropriate for highly flowable
concretes; shaped impellers on the Tattersall two-point device and on
• Based on general principles of coaxial cylinders the IBB rheometer move in a planetary motion to help avoid
rheometers, the geometry of the FHPCM is problematic; this problem.
and
• The device is too large for field use. Advantages:
3.3.1.4.9 Fresh concrete tester 101 (FCT 101)— • The device allows for fast and continuous measurement
Several European companies sell a hand-held impeller-type of workability; and
device (Steiner 1996; Wong et al. 2000), marketed under • The embedded electronic interface allows for the
various trade names, to measure the consistency of concrete instant correlation of test readings to slump. The results
in place. Wong et al. (2000) evaluated the feasibility of using can be logged for documentation purposes.
one of these devices. At least two UK companies sell the Disadvantages:
fresh concrete tester 101 (FCT 101). • Although the impeller design of the device resembles
The test device resembles a hand-held version of the more advanced rheometers, the device only measures
Tattersall two-point test or the IBB rheometer. The device, consistency, and not plastic viscosity;
which is battery operated, is approximately the size of a drill • The device needs to be calibrated for each concrete
and includes an impeller with two small hemispheres that is mixture. Each calibration is only valid for one particular
inserted into fresh concrete. An electronic interface records concrete mixture; and
the torque required to turn the impeller. The device can also • The impeller could create a continuous channel in stiff
be fitted with a temperature probe. The device needs to be concretes. The resulting torque measurements would
calibrated for each particular concrete mixture to correlate suggest an artificially high consistency reading.
torque readings to slump. According to product literature, 3.3.1.4.10 ICAR rheometer—The International Center
the FCT 101 test can be performed in 2 minutes. This rapid for Aggregates Research (ICAR) rheometer (Koehler 2004)
testing speed allows concrete to essentially be tested is a low-cost, portable rheometer intended for concrete
continuously to monitor the stiffening of concrete over time. mixture proportioning, research and development, and field
The readings made by the device are logged, and can be quality control. It has been used successfully to test concretes
downloaded to a computer for documentation. with workability ranging from a slump of approximately
Although the Tattersall two-point test and the IBB rheometer 75 mm (3 in.) to SCC.
measure parameters analogous to both yield stress and plastic The ICAR rheometer is approximately the size of a hand-
viscosity, the FCT 101 only measures a single parameter. held drill and includes a four-bladed vane impeller that is
According to Wong et al. (2000), the device appears to use immersed into concrete. The typical vane, as shown in
signal averaging to minimize the variability caused by large Fig. 3.25, is 125 mm (5 in.) in diameter and 125 mm (5 in.)
aggregates. The device does not operate at multiple shear in height. The operation of the rheometer is fully automated
rates. The rotating hemispheres tend to create channels by software that controls the operation of test, records test
within low- and moderate-slump concretes, making it data, and computes test results.
difficult to measure the plastic viscosity by using multiple The ICAR rheometer can be used to perform a stress
shear rates at one location in the concrete sample. The H- growth test or measure a flow curve. In a stress growth test,
the vane is rotated at a constant, low speed while the buildup Table 3.8—United States patented devices to
in torque acting on the vane is monitored. The peak torque is measure workability of concrete in mixer
used as one measure of the yield stress. In a flow curve test, Patent no. Date issued Patent title
the vane is rotated at a series of fixed speeds, either in Method of and apparatus for determining
1,730,893 Oct. 8, 1929 consistency of concrete
ascending or descending order, and the torque acting on the
vane is measured. The resulting torque and rotation speed data 1,898,890 Feb. 21, 1933 Concrete mixometer
are used to compute test results. The use of two yield stress 1,980,184 Nov. 13, 1934 Control recording apparatus
measurements—from the stress growth test and the flow curve 2,013,837 Sept. 10, 1935 Consistency and time indicating and recording
equipment for concrete mixers
test—indicates both the shear stress needed to initiate flow
from rest (stress growth test) and the shear stress needed to 2,409,014 Oct. 8, 1948 Mixture
mixers
consistency indicator for concrete
maintain flow once flow has been initiated (flow curve test). 2,629,790 Feb. 24, 1953 Apparatus for measuring and/or controlling the
Advantages: consistency of a paste or slurry
• The device measures torque at various rotations speeds, 2,643,542 June 30, 1953 Apparatus for determining consistency of
concrete mixture
which allows the calculation of plastic viscosity and Apparatus for measuring the consistency during
yield stress; 2,821,079 Jan. 28, 1958
mixing of concrete
• Due to its low cost and portability, the ICAR rheometer 3,237,437 Mar. 1, 1966 Slump meter
is well-suited for routine job-site quality-control 3,403,546 Oct. 1, 1968 Slump indicator for concrete
measurements; 3,631,712 Jan. 4, 1972 Method and apparatus for determining slump in
concrete
• The operation of the test is fully automated;
3,640,121 Feb. 8, 1972 Slump indicator
• The test can be conducted quickly; and
3,924,447 Dec. 9, 1975 Slump indicator
• In addition to measuring a flow curve, the ICAR
rheometer can also be used to perform a stress growth test. 4,356,723 Nov. 2, 1982 Process and apparatus for continuously
measuring slump
Disadvantages:
4,900,154 Feb. 13, 1990 Concrete mixer having means for determining
• The rheological parameters measured by the ICAR consistency of concrete mixing therein
rheometer are not well understood in practice, particularly 6,227,039 May 8, 2001 System and method for controlling concrete
production
when compared with the slump test; and
• The sample size needed to obtain representative results
is relatively large. A portable version of the IBB has been developed. The
3.3.1.4.11 IBB rheometer—The IBB rheometer device is based on the same design as the original IBB, on a
(Beaupre and Mindess 1994; Ferraris and Brower 2001; smaller scale. The portable IBB is constructed on an
Bartos et al. 2002) is a modification of the Tattersall two- aluminum frame, and includes wheels for easy transport.
point device. Although the IBB rheometer was originally Advantages:
developed to measure the rheology of wet-mix shotcrete, it • The operation of the device is automated;
has been successfully used on a wide range of concretes, • The device measures torque at various rotations speeds,
from concretes with a slump of 20 mm (3/4 in.) to SCCs. which allows the calculation of plastic viscosity and
The device consists of a rotating impeller inserted into a yield stress; and
fixed cylindrical container. When testing concrete, a fixed • The device is applicable to a wide range of concrete
container with dimensions of 360 x 250 mm (14.2 x 9.8 in.) workability.
is used. A smaller container with dimensions of 230 x 180 mm Disadvantages:
(9.1 x 7.1 in.) can be used for mortars. A computer- • The device does not allow the direct calculation of yield
controlled DC motor turns an H-shaped impeller capable of stress and plastic viscosity in fundamental units.
rotating either in a planetary motion or in an axial rotation. Instead, g and h values are computed;
For concrete, a 50 mm (2.0 in.) gap is left between the • The device, in its current form, is too large for field use,
impeller and the sides and bottom of the container. When the although a version on wheels is available. The volume
mortar setup is used, a 25 mm (1.0 in.) gap exists between the of concrete required for the test is larger than most
impeller and the container. Based on these dimensions, the other rheometers; and
maximum aggregate size is 25 mm (1.0 in.) for concrete • Like the Tattersall two-point device, segregation can
samples, and 12 mm (1/2 in.) for mortar samples. occur over the duration of the test, even when the
A load cell measures the reaction torque from the impeller, particular concrete mixture would not be susceptible to
while a tachometer measures the impeller’s rotation speed. segregation in actual placement conditions.
Like the Tattersall two-point device, the linear relationship 3.3.1.4.12 Mixer devices—Multiple devices have been
between torque and speed is defined by the slope h and the developed to measure the consistency of concrete while still
zero speed intercept g. The values of g and h are calculated in a mixer. Although the testing principle and apparatus vary
automatically by the computer and displayed at the end of for each test method, the general objective of each test
the test. The g and h values are not uniquely related yield method is to measure the workability of concrete continuously
stress and plastic viscosity because of the possibility of before it is discharged from the concrete mixer. Such devices
turbulent flow and because rotation speed and torque are not that have been patented in the United States are listed in
directly proportional to shear rate and shear stress, respectively. Table 3.8. Although the test methods resemble rotational
The original version of the recording plastometer was

based on the classical concept of a coaxial cylinders rheometer
and featured an inner and outer cylinder. The outer cylinder
of the recording plastometer was 305 mm (12 in.) in diameter
and 203 mm (8 in.) in depth. The inner cylinder was 203 mm
(8 in.) in diameter and 76 mm (3 in.) in depth, and was placed
102 mm (4 in.) above the bottom of the outer cylinder. The
outer cylinder rotated while a spring-couple system attached
to the inner cylinder measured the torque applied to the inner
cylinder over time. Strain was defined as the relative
displacement of the outer cylinder to the inner drum. The
Fig. 3.26—Revised recording plastometer (not to scale)
device could be operated at different speeds or an in oscillatory
(after Powers [1968]).
motion. It was not practical, however, to use the device to
measure the torque on the inner cylinder at different shear
rheometers, they typically only measure a single parameter, rates, as most modern rheometers now do.
not yield stress and plastic viscosity. In a later, modified version of the device, shown in Fig. 3.26,
As Table 3.8 indicates, devices to measure the workability the concrete was contained in a ring-shaped container while
of concrete in a mixer have been developed over a nearly a stationary inner ring was inserted into the concrete. The
70-year period. One of the most recent devices, the ready-mix torque required to keep the inner ring stationary was
truck hydraulic device (U.S. Patent and Trademark Office recorded as the ring container was measured.
1982a; Wong et al. 2000) measures the torque required to Despite the presence of ribbed rubber on the walls of the
turn the mixer on a ready-mix truck and correlates this torque plastometer, slip occurred between the concrete and the plas-
reading to slump. Because each truck can be different, tometer walls after sufficient stress developed. The stress-
correlations need to be developed for each truck to account strain plot up to this occurrence of this slip was linear, with
for differences in mixer geometries and other characteristics. the slope of the line defined as the modulus of stiffness.
The results could also be influenced by the quantity of Advantage:
concrete in the truck and the density of the concrete. • The recording plastometer represented one of the first
A separate but similar device called a plastograph (Wong attempts to use the concept of a coaxial cylinders
et al. 2000) was used by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. rheometer to measure the rheology of concrete.
The device measures the flow of concrete in a concrete Although it is no longer used, the plastometer served as a
mixer, which is then related to slump. basis for the development of more sophisticated devices.
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
• Concrete workability can be measured continuously
while concrete is still in the mixer before discharge; and • The device did not enable the calculation of yield stress
• Unlike the delivery-chute meters, the devices that and plastic viscosity; and
measure workability of concrete in the mixer do not • Slip occurred at the walls of the device.
require concrete to be discharged onto a delivery chute. 3.3.1.4.14 Rheometer-4SCC—The Rheometer-4SCC is a
Disadvantages: portable rheometer for SCC developed by Olafur H.
• The test devices described in the patent documents Wallevik at the Icelandic Building Research Institute (IBRI)
listed in Table 3.8 typically only measure one parameter (Wallevik et al. 2006). It is capable of determining the yield
and do not allow the calculation of yield stress and stress and plastic viscosity of concrete mixtures with yield
plastic viscosity; stresses ranging from 5 to 120 Pa, plastic viscosities ranging
• All of the devices need to be calibrated; from 5 to 120 Pa·s, and maximum aggregate sizes of up to 22
• Differences in mixer characteristics need to be considered mm (0.9 in.).
in using any device; and The Rheometer-4SCC, pictured in Fig. 3.27 and 3.28,
• The devices measure workability of an entire concrete consists of a control box and measurement unit that are
sample and cannot detect variations in workability connected when rheological tests are performed. The control
within a concrete sample. box and measurement unit are each less than 25 kg (55 lb),
3.3.1.4.13 Powers and Wiler plastometer—The which makes the device suitable for quality-control measure-
recording plastometer (Powers 1968; Wong et al. 2000) ments at both building sites and in laboratories. To perform
developed by Powers and Wiler appears to be the first the test, concrete is placed in the sample bucket and the
attempt to apply the concept of a coaxial cylinders rheometer impeller, shown in Fig. 3.29, is inserted. The impeller is rotated
to concrete. Although development of the device was at different rates, while the torque applied to the impeller is
stopped around the time of World War II, the concepts of this measured. The height of the impeller is 205 mm (8 in.), and
first-generation device served as a basis for development of the maximum width of the impeller from the rotational
more advanced devices. The recording plastometer was centerline is 90 mm (3.5 in.). The plastic viscosity and yield
designed to be of sufficient size to measure concrete, stress are calculated by fitting the torque and speed data to the
although it was also used to measure paste and mortar. Bingham model. The test procedure takes about 40 seconds.
Fig. 3.29—Impeller for Rheometer-4SCC.

Fig. 3.27—BML viscometer (ConTec Viscometer 5) (left)
and ConTec Rheometer-4SCC (right).
Fig. 3.30—Correlation between BML viscometer (ConTec

Viscometer 5) and Rheometer-4SCC (note that units of the
Rheometer-4SCC’s values, H-viscosity, and G-yield are
arbitrary) (1000 Pa = 0.145 psi).
• The results are not computed in fundamental units; and

• The device only measures SCC mixtures with aggregate
Fig. 3.28—ConTec Rheometer-4SCC at building site. sizes up to 22 mm (0.9 in.).
3.3.1.4.15 Soil direct shear test—The direct shear test
The correlation between the Rheometer-4SCC and the used for soil (Powers 1968) can be performed with fresh
BML Viscometer (ConTec Viscometer 5) was established concrete to assess the cohesive strength of a concrete mixture.
during the development period, as shown in Fig. 3.30. The The results of the test are given in terms of soil mechanics
ability of the device to produce repeatable test results was parameters, not in terms of yield stress and plastic viscosity.
also established at this time. The ConTec Viscometer 5 is a The device, as described by Powers (1968), consists of a
coaxial cylinder viscometer with defined shear area but the ring-shaped container filled with compacted concrete. The
Rheometer-4SCC is a rotating impeller in medium. Further, lower half of the device is held in a fixed position, while the
the ConTec Viscometer 5 logs the torque through a very upper half of the device is rotated slowly, resulting in a
accurate load cell, but the Rheometer-4SCC estimates the maximum shear stress on the plane between the two halves
torque by measuring the motor amperage. These two devices of the container. A vertical load can be applied to the
give very similar results, however, despite the simpler and concrete during the test. The test measures the angle of rotation
handier construction of the latter. of the upper container and the corresponding torque required
Advantages: to turn the container.
• The device is lightweight and small in size, which A typical plot of torque versus relative displacement
makes it easy to use at construction sites; shows an initial linear increase in torque up to a maximum
• The operation of the device is automatic and the testing value and then a decline followed by a gradual leveling off
time is short; and of the curve. The maximum stress is referred to as the static
• The device measures torque and at various rotations friction, and the stress after the plot has leveled off is considered
speeds, which allows the calculation of plastic viscosity the sliding friction. The linear relationship between static
and yield stress. friction and normal stress allows the calculation of the angle
Disadvantages: of internal friction.
• The device is relatively expensive compared with Advantages:
empirical test methods, although it is less expensive • The test essentially determines the yield stress of the
than many other available rheometers; concrete; and
frame. A hydraulic drive unit motor turns an impeller that is

immersed in the concrete sample. Two different impellers
are available for use based on the workability of the concrete.
The MH system, which is used for slumps greater than 75 to
100 mm (3 to 4 in.), consists of four angled blades in a helical
pattern on a central shaft. The blades provide mixing action
by essentially lifting the concrete. Alternatively, the LM
system is intended for lower-workability mixtures with
slumps less than 50 mm (2 in.). It consists of an offset H-
shaped blade that moves in a planetary motion in the
concrete. When the H-shaped impeller is installed for use in a
planetary motion, the device is sometimes referred to as the
MK III. In addition to low-slump concretes, the LM system
better measures SCC and certain high-performance concretes
Fig. 3.31—Impellers for Tattersall two-point test (Tattersall with high plastic viscosity because higher plastic viscosity
1991) (1 mm = 0.039 in.).
reduces the efficiency of the mixing of the MH system. The
MH and LM impeller systems are depicted in Fig. 3.31.
• The test provides additional information, namely the In early versions of the device, the speed of the impeller
angle of internal friction, not available from most was manually controlled, and the torque was measured by
conventional tests. monitoring the oil pressure in the hydraulic drive unit motor,
Disadvantages: as read from a pressure gauge. Later versions of the device
• The results of the test are not described in terms of shear use a tachometer and pressure transducer to allow continuous
stress and shear rate. The use of the direct shear test recording of data. The device has also been modified by
predates the establishment of concrete as a Bingham adding a vibrator to characterize the effects of vibration on
material. The additional information provided by the test concrete rheology (Tattersall and Baker 1988).
is not necessarily useful; The output of the device, shown in Eq. (3-10), is given in
• The test does not provide a measure of plastic viscosity; terms of g and h that are related to yield stress and plastic
and viscosity, respectively. The device needs to be calibrated to
• The test is strictly a laboratory device. determine yield stress and plastic viscosity in fundamental
3.3.1.4.16 Tattersall two-point device—The Tattersall units. The calibration is performed using a Newtonian fluid
two-point device (Tattersall and Bloomer 1979; Cabrera and of known viscosity and a power law fluid with a known
Hopkins 1984; Tattersall 1990, 1991; Ferraris and Brower flow curve
2001; Bartos et al. 2002) was one of the earliest attempts to
measure the rheology of concrete based on the Bingham
T = g + hN (3-10)
model and one of the first devices to use an impeller geom-
etry. The device has been refined over the years by Tattersall
and other researchers, and continues to be used in research. where T = torque, and N = rotation speed.
The two-point device was originally developed by G. H. Although it was intended for use in the laboratory and on
Tattersall at Sheffield University in the 1970s. Tattersall job sites (Tattersall 1991), the device has been used
determined that coaxial cylinders rheometers would be predominately in laboratory research.
inappropriate for measuring concrete because of the formation Advantages:
of a failure plane in the concrete between the cylinders. • The device measures torque at various rotation speeds,
Instead, Tattersall decided to measure the torque required to which allows the calculation of plastic viscosity and
turn an impeller in concrete. The development of the device yield stress;
began by using an ordinary food mixer fitted with a stirring
• The device has been used widely in research, particularly
hook and connected to a dynamometer wattmeter, which
when compared with other rheometers;
measured power needed to turn the hook. This initial device
• The choice of two impellers allows the measurement of
was referred to as the MK I. In contrast to a coaxial cylinders
a wide range of concrete mixtures, from 50 mm (2 in.)
rheometer, the hook of the MK I constantly came in contact
slump concrete up to SCC; and
with undisturbed concrete (Tattersall and Banfill 1983). The
calibration is performed using a Newtonian fluid of known • The device can be used to measure the effects of vibration
viscosity and a power law fluid with a known flow curve, as on concrete rheology.
described in Domone et al. (1999). Disadvantages:
To extend the range of the initial food mixer device, a • The test device, in its current form, is larger and bulkier
more sophisticated, specialized device was developed. This than other rheometers. The device’s size limits its use in
device, initially known as the MK II, is the device now the field;
commonly referred to as the Tattersall two-point device. The • The device must be calibrated to compute results in
device consists of a stationary bowl mounted in a large fundamental units; and
• Over long periods of time, the device can cause

segregation in concrete mixtures, even when segregation
would not be a problem in the field.
3.3.1.5 Tests for very high yield-stress concrete—Very-
low-slump concretes are typically too stiff to be measured
with the conventional test methods that consider the ability
of concrete to flow. Instead, tests for very-low-slump
concretes generally attempt to simulate the actual placement
conditions for the concretes and measure more relevant
properties, such as compactability. The proctor test and the
Kango hammer test use vibration to compact samples whereas
the intensive compaction test uses compression and shear
forces. These tests are generally simple to perform, although
none can be used as a simple field quality-control device.
3.3.1.5.1 Intensive compaction test—The intensive
compaction test (Juvas 1990, 1994; Tattersall 1991; U.S.
Patent and Trademark Office 1989, 1990) is a gyratory Fig. 3.32—Compaction of concrete sample in intensive
compactor used to measure the workability of concrete compaction factor device (U.S. Patent and Trademark Office
mixtures with slumps less than approximately 10 mm (1/2 in.). 1989).
The test device—used for quality control, mixture propor-
tioning, and research—has been standardized in Nordtest- Advantages:
Build 427 (Nordtest 1994). • Research has shown that the test is capable of accurately
The test apparatus is a machine that applies compression measuring even small changes in mixture proportions;
and shear forces to a concrete specimen while recording the • The test accurately simulates placement conditions for
density of the specimen. To perform the test, the concrete to low-slump roller-compacted concretes;
be tested is placed in a cylindrical mold, which is loaded into • The test is fast and computer-controlled; and
the test apparatus. The mold is available in two diameters— • The test can be used for research, mixture proportioning,
a 100 mm (4 in.) diameter mold is used for concretes with or quality control. The smaller 100 mm (4 in.) model is
maximum aggregate sizes of up to 20 mm (3/4 in.), while a feasible for field use.
150 mm (6 in.) diameter mold is appropriate for maximum Disadvantages:
aggregate sizes up to 32 mm (1-1/4 in.). Two pistons at either • The equipment is expensive, especially when compared
end of the cylinder apply a compressive force to the sample. with the Proctor test;
Simultaneously, the angle of inclination of the pistons rotates to • The 150 mm (6 in.) diameter model is too heavy for
apply a shearing motion to the concrete. This compaction field use; and
technique is represented in Fig. 3.32. The pressure and speed of • The test does not incorporate vibration, which is
rotation can be adjusted for each test; however, these variables commonly used in the placement of low-slump concrete
are held constant during each test. The volume of the sample, and may be relevant to the evaluation of workability.
which is used to calculate density, is recorded continuously 3.3.1.5.2 Kango hammer test—The Kango hammer
throughout the test. The test is performed in 3 to 5 minutes. test (Juvas 1994; Bartos et al. 2002) attempts to measure
To determine the workability of a concrete mixture, the workability by simulating the effect of vibration and
density of the concrete is plotted versus the number of pressing on low-slump concretes. The test is based on British
working cycles of the pistons. Concrete mixtures are evaluated standards BS 1924:1975 (British Standards Institute 1975a)
by comparing the density after a certain number of cycles and BS 1377:1975 (British Standards Institute 1975b).
under a given pressure. Additionally, the performance of Concrete is placed in a cubic or cylindrical mold in two to
concrete production machines can be evaluated by comparing three separate layers. A demolition hammer, which is
the density achieved with a particular machine to the density mounted in a frame and equipped with a special bit that fits
achieved with the intensive compaction test. the shape of the mold, applies a constant pressure and vibration
After the test, the sample of concrete can be removed from to each layer of concrete. After compaction of all layers, the
the cylinder mold and tested for compressive or splitting density of the concrete specimen is determined. The greater
tensile strength either in the concrete’s fresh or hardened the density of the compacted concrete specimen, the greater
state. The results of the intensive compaction test show good the compactability and workability of the concrete mixture.
correlation to the results of the Kango hammer test and the The particular demolition hammer typically used for this
Proctor test. test method is manufactured by Kango Tools of Winnenden,
Although the larger 150 mm (6 in.) diameter model is too Germany. Bartos et al. (2002) recommend using a Model 900
heavy and bulky for field use, the lightweight version of the or 950.
100 mm (4 in.) diameter model weighs approximately 55 kg Advantages:
(120 lb), and can be transported to a field site. Electricity and • By using both vibration and pressure, the test accurately
compressed air are required to perform the test. simulates field placement conditions; and
• The test is simple and easy to perform. 3.3.1.6.2 Soil triaxial test—The soil triaxial test
Disadvantages: (Ritchie 1962; Powers 1968) can be used to measure the
• The particular hammer is not specified, making resistance of concrete to shear stress. The test is conducted
comparisons of the test results difficult; and with the same apparatus and with the same procedure as the
• The apparatus is larger than the proctor test, and triaxial test commonly used for soils. The results of the
requires electricity. triaxial test are plotted on a Mohr diagram, which relates
3.3.1.5.3 Proctor test—The proctor test used for soils shear stress to normal stress. Based on the Mohr diagram, the
can also be used for lean, dry concrete mixtures (Juvas 1994). Mohr envelope can be constructed to determine the
The test procedure for concrete is the same test procedure maximum shear stress and corresponding normal stress at
commonly used for soils. Either the standard proctor test failure and the angle of internal friction. The test has been
(ASTM D698) or the modified proctor test (ASTM D1557) conducted on concrete mixtures with slumps ranging from
can be used. Four to six samples, each with varying moisture 50 to 125 mm (2 to 5 in.).
content, are compacted in a cylindrical mold using a drop Advantages:
hammer. The unit weight of each compacted sample is • Like the direct shear test, the triaxial test provides
plotted against moisture content to determine the maximum dry additional information about concrete; and
unit weight and corresponding moisture content. • The test can be used for low-slump concretes.
In its guidelines for developing mixture proportions for Disadvantages:
low-slump concretes, ACI 211.3R recommends using the • The test does not measure workability in terms of shear
proctor test. stress and shear rate. The additional information
Advantages: provided by the test is not necessarily useful; and
• The test is appropriate for low-slump concrete mixtures • The test is expensive and not appropriate for field use.
that cannot be tested with conventional workability 3.3.1.6.3 System and method for controlling concrete
tests; and production—A system to monitor and control the quality of
• The test is simple and well known. concrete throughout production based on rheological proper-
Disadvantages: ties was patented (U.S. Patent and Trademark Office 2001).
The test does not incorporate vibration, which is The system consists of multiple test devices that measure
commonly used to compact low-slump concretes; and rheological properties of concrete at various stages of concrete
The test is time consuming; performing the test requires mixture proportioning, production, transport, and placement.
four to six samples to be prepared to fully define the unit Each device is used appropriately; not all devices are used
weight versus moisture content curve. for a given concrete mixture. At a minimum, testing is
3.3.1.6 Other test methods—Several workability tests conducted during the mixture proportioning process, at the
methods do not fit into the NIST classification scheme concrete plant during concrete batching and mixing, and
(Hackley and Ferraris 2001). Although these tests can away from the concrete plant (either at the job site or during
provide useful information about the workability of transit).
concrete, they do incorporate the conventional approaches The first device described in the patent document consists
encompassed by the NIST classification scheme. of an inverted U-shaped box mounted within a rigid frame,
3.3.1.6.1 Multiple single-point tests—Instead of using as shown in Fig. 3.33. The entire device is submerged in a
one single-point test to measure workability, multiple single- sample of fresh concrete. A piston moves up and down to
point tests can be performed. For instance, ACI 309.1R force fresh concrete in and out of the box. The patent document
describes the use of four tests—namely, for harshness, suggests two methods to measure workability with this device:
segregation resistance, shear resistance, and stickiness— by determining the time required for the test device to produce
to characterize workability. Each test is considered at least a given deformation under a constant force, or by determining
partially independent of the others. Harshness is measured as the resistance to shear at a given rate of deformation.
the spread of concrete on a flow table; segregation resistance The second device is shown in Fig. 3.34. The U-shaped
is measured as the amount of mortar separated from concrete portion of the box is immersed in a sample of concrete. The
by jolting a flow table; shear resistance is measured using the rotation of the paddle forces concrete upward in the box and
shear box developed by Terzaghi and Casagrande (ACI against stress sensors. A tachometer and ammeter measure
309.1R) for soils; and stickiness is measured as the vertical the performance of the electric motor.
force required to separate a steel plate from concrete. A third test device measures the performance of concrete
Advantages: pumps to quantify workability. For pumps consisting of a
• The four tests give more information about a given screw-type device, an ammeter measures the current used by
concrete mixture than one single-point test; and the pump and a tachometer measures the speed of rotation of
• Each test is simple and inexpensive to perform. the screw. For piston-type hydraulic pumps, a manometer
Disadvantages: measures the changing hydraulic pressure in the pump and
• Conducting multiple tests requires additional time and an electronic ruler measures the displacement of the piston.
cost; and After concrete leaves the hopper, additional sensors mounted
• The tests do not directly measure yield stress and to the inside of the exit pipe measure changes in pressure as
plastic viscosity. concrete flows through the pipe.
The fourth test device, which is applicable to pumped

concretes, is essentially a venturi meter. The diameter of a
pipe in a pumping system is narrowed. Pressure sensors
monitor the changing stress states as the concrete moves
through the narrowed section of the pipe.
The fifth test device described in the patent document
consists of a flexible strip inserted into a 90-degree pipe bend
within a pumping system. Sensors mounted to the flexible
strip measure the loss in pressure and the change in stress
states as the concrete moves through the bend.
Advantages:
• The system monitors the rheology of concrete
throughout the production process; and
• Mixture proportions and later changes to mixture Fig. 3.33—First test device in concrete production control
proportions can be made to optimize rheology and system (U.S. Patent and Trademark Office 2001).
hardened concrete properties and to minimize costs.
Disadvantages:
• Although the system allows rheology to be measured
throughout production, different devices are used. The
results from one device should generally not be directly
compared to the results of other test devices;
• The devices typically measure shear stress versus shear
deformation to develop a rheological profile instead of
the more conventional relationship between shear stress
and shear rate; and
• The devices used in the system appear to be appropriate
only for concretes with moderate to high slumps.
3.3.1.6.4 Trowel test—The trowel test (Bartos 1992;
Washa 1998; Bartos et al. 2002) is a nonstandard test that
subjectively characterizes the cohesiveness of a concrete
mixture. As a sample of concrete is troweled, the cohesiveness
of the mixture is judged by observing how well the concrete
sticks together and whether the concrete sticks to the trowel. Fig. 3.34—Second test device in concrete production control
After the sample has been troweled, the magnitude of system (U.S. Patent and Trademark Office 2001).
bleeding is observed subjectively. The test, when performed
by an experienced operator, can determine whether a given near zero. Although the yield stress of SCC is still evaluated,
concrete mixture has a sufficient amount of mortar. Harsh other properties related to plastic viscosity and segregation
mixtures are difficult to trowel. The number of passes made resistance should also be examined.
by a trowel to bring the cement paste to the surface of the Workability tests for SCC can be broadly split into three
concrete can be used as an indication of workability. The test categories: filling ability tests, passing ability tests, and
is most appropriate in situations when it is used in addition segregation resistance tests. Each test described herein fits
to other standard tests. into one or more of these categories. In accordance with the
Advantages: NIST classification scheme, the tests for SCC typically fit
• The test is simple and inexpensive; and into the confined flow and free-flow test categories. As
• When performed by an experienced operator, the test previously discussed, many rotational rheometers are
can provide useful information on workability. The capable of measuring SCC. In addition to the test methods
subjective comments from the trowel test can have described herein, several other tests used for conventional
greater useful meaning than objective numbers from concrete—such as the free orifice (Orimet) test, surface
other tests. settlement test, and the settlement column segregation test—
Disadvantages: can be used for SCC.
• The test is subjective, providing no numerical results; 3.3.2.1 Column-segregation test—The column-segregation
• As a subjective test, the trowel test cannot be used in test (ASTM C1610/C1610M) measures the static segregation
specifications; and resistance of SCC. Similar tests have been presented by Rols
• While the test does simulate concrete finishing, it does et al. (1999), Lowke et al. (2003), and El-Chabib and Nehdi
not simulate other placement conditions. (2006). The column-segregation test differs from the settlement
3.3.2 Test methods for SCC—SCC presents new challenges column-segregation test mainly in that the apparatus consists
for the measurement of workability. Because SCC is capable of a circular cross section, and no vibration is applied to the
of flowing readily under its own weight, its yield stress is concrete.
percent static segregation = (3-11)
⎧ M bottom – M top ⎫
⎪ ------------------------------------ × 100% if M bottom > M top ⎪
M
⎨ bottom + M top ⎬
⎪ ⎪
⎩ 0% if M bottom < M top ⎭
3.3.2.2 Fill box test (simulated filling test, filling

capacity box, Kajima test)—The fill box test (Yurugi et al.
1993) measures the filling ability, passing ability, and
segregation resistance of SCC. The apparatus consists of a
clear plastic box with 35 plastic 20 mm (3/4 in.) diameter
bars (smooth tubes), as shown in Fig. 3.36. An early version
of the test featured a wedge-shaped box instead of a rectangular
box, and did not include a funnel. Concrete is poured at a
constant rate into the funnel and allowed to flow into the box
until the height of the concrete reaches the height of the top
row of bars. After the concrete comes to rest, the height of
the concrete at the two ends of the box is measured.
Fig. 3.35—Column segregation test. These measurements of the height of the concrete at the
side nearest the funnel, h1, and the height at the opposite end,
h2, are used to calculate the average filling capacity
( h1 + h2 )
filling capacity = --------------------- ⋅ 100% (3-12)
2h 1
The closer the filling capacity is to 100%, the greater the

filling capacity of the concrete.
The test is a good representation of actual placement
conditions of highly congested sections; however, the test is
bulky and difficult to perform on site.
3.3.2.3 J-ring test—The J-ring test is used to characterize
the passing ability of SCC (ASTM C1621). The J-ring test
device can be used along with the slump flow test, the Orimet
test, or the V-funnel test to evaluate multiple characteristics of
SCC (Sonebi and Bartos 1999; Sonebi et al. 2001; EFNARC
2005; Bartos et al. 2002; Sonebi and Bartos 2002, 2003). The
J-ring, as shown in Fig. 3.37, is a rectangular section open steel
ring with a 300 mm (12 in.) diameter. Vertical holes drilled
in the ring allow standard reinforcing bars to be attached to
Fig. 3.36—Simulated filling apparatus (1 mm = 0.039 in.).
the ring. Each reinforcing bar extends 100 mm (4 in.) from the
ring. The spacing of the bars may be adjustable, although three
The test apparatus, which is shown in Fig. 3.35, consists of times the maximum aggregate size is typically recommended.
a 200 mm (8 in.) diameter, 660 mm (26 in.) tall PVC pipe To conduct the J-ring test in conjunction with the slump
split into three sections. The top and bottom sections are flow test, the slump cone is placed in the center of the J-ring
165 mm (6.5 in.) in height, and the middle section is 330 mm and filled with concrete. The slump cone is lifted, and
(13 in.) high. Each section is clamped together to form a concrete is allowed to spread horizontally through the gaps
mortar-tight seal. Concrete is placed into the pipe and left between the bars. Alternatively, the Orimet device or the
undisturbed for 15 minutes. Each pipe section is then V-funnel can be positioned above the center of the J-ring.
removed, and the concrete inside the top and bottom sections Instead of measuring just the time for concrete to exit the
is collected. These two concrete samples are washed over a Orimet or the V-funnel, the concrete is also allowed to
4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve to retain all coarse aggregates, which spread horizontally through the J-ring.
are then dried to saturated surface-dry condition. The mass Various interpretations of the test results have been
of aggregates retained in the top (Mtop) and bottom (Mbottom) suggested. The measures of passing ability and filling ability
pipe sections are measured and used to compute percent are not independent. To characterize filling ability and
static segregation, as shown in Eq. (3-11) passing ability, the horizontal spread of the concrete sample
Table 3.9—Precision of J-ring flow spread and J-ring flow time T50J
J-ring flow spread, mm (in.) J-ring flow time T50J, seconds J-ring height (height difference), mm (in.)
<600 (23.6) 600 to 750 (23.6 to 29.5) >750 (29.5) <3.5 3.5 to 6 >6 <20 (0.8) >20 (0.8)
Repeatability r 59 (2.3) 46 (1.8) 25 (1.0) 0.70 1.23 4.35 4.6 (0.18) 7.8 (0.31)
Reproducibility R 67 (2.6) 46 (1.8) 31 (1.2) 0.90 1.32 4.34 4.9 (0.19) 7.8 (0.31)
Fig. 3.38—L-box test apparatus (1 mm = 0.039 in.).
maximum aggregate size. Various dimensions for the L-box

have been used, and no one set of dimensions is considered
official; however, the dimensions described previously seem
Fig. 3.37—J-ring test apparatus with slump cone (top) and to be the most common.
Orimet device (bottom). The time for concrete to reach points 200 or 400 mm (7.9
or 15.7 in.) (T20 or T40) down the horizontal portion of the
is measured after the concrete passes through the gaps in the box is recorded. After the concrete comes to rest in the appa-
bars of the J-ring and comes to rest. Also, the difference in ratus, the heights of the concrete at the end of the horizontal
height of the concrete just inside the bars and just outside the portion, h2, and in the vertical section, h1, are measured. The
bars is measured at four locations. The smaller the difference block ratio is computed as the ratio of h2 to h1. If the concrete
in heights, the greater the passing ability of the concrete. being tested is truly self-leveling, the value of the blocking
Alternatively, the horizontal spread with and without the ratio will be 1. Segregation resistance can be evaluated visually.
J-ring can be compared as a measure of passing ability. A concrete sample with coarse-aggregate particles that reach
Based on interlaboratory testing with two replicates and 20 the far end of the horizontal part of the box exhibits good
operators from 10 laboratories from the European project resistance to segregation. The L-box can be disassembled
Testing SCC (2005), the repeatability r and the reproduc- after the concrete has hardened. By cutting out samples of
ibility R according ISO 5725 for different values of J-ring the hardened concrete, additional information about the
flow spread and J-ring flow time T50J are given in Table 3.9. concrete’s resistance to segregation can be determined, as
3.3.2.4 L-box test—The L-box test (Petersson et. al. shown by Tanaka et al. (1993).
1996) measures the filling ability and passing ability of SCC. Based on interlaboratory testing with two replicates and 22
Originally developed in Japan for underwater concrete, the operators from 11 laboratories from the European project
test is also applicable for highly flowable concrete. Testing SCC (2005), the repeatability r and the reproduc-
As the test name implies, the apparatus consists of an ibility R according to ISO 5725 (International Organization
L-shaped box, shown in Fig 3.38. Concrete is initially placed for Standardization 1994) for different values L-box
in the vertical portion of the box, which measures 600 mm blocking ratio are given in Table 3.10.
(23.6 in.) in height and 100 x 200 mm (3.9 x 7.9 in.) in 3.3.2.5 Penetration test for segregation—The penetration
section. A door between the vertical or horizontal portions of test for segregation (Bui et al. 2002a,b; Bartos et al. 2002)
the box is opened and the concrete is allowed to flow through measures the penetration resistance of highly fluid concrete
a line of vertical reinforcing bars and into the 700 mm and SCC.
(27.6 in.) long, 200 mm (7.9 in.) wide, and 150 mm (5.9 in.) The test apparatus, shown in Fig. 3.39, consists of a hollow
tall horizontal portion of the box. In the most common cylindrical penetration head that is allowed to sink under its
arrangement of reinforcing bars, three 12 mm (1/2 in.) bars own weight into a sample of concrete. The penetration head
are spaced with a clear spacing of 35 mm (1.4 in.). Generally, has an inside diameter of 75 mm (3 in.), a thickness of 1 mm
the spacing of the reinforcing bars should be three times the (0.04 in.), and a height of 50 mm (2 in.). A rod attached to
Table 3.10—Precision of L-box blocking ratio h2/h1

Blocking ratio 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 <0.65
Repeatability r 0.01 0.06 0.10 0.15 0.18
Reproducibility R 0.03 0.07 0.11 0.16 0.18
Table 3.11—Precision of penetration depth

Penetration depth, mm (in.) 5 (0.2) 10 (0.4) 15 (0.7) >17 (0.7)
Repeatability r, mm (in.) 5 (0.2) 8 (0.3) 11 (0.4) 12 (0.5)
Reproducibility R, mm (in.) 5 (0.2) 8 (0.3) 11 (0.4) 12 (0.5)
3.3.2.6 Simulated soffit test—The simulated soffit test

(Bartos et al. 2002) consists of a rectangular box with
reinforcing bars placed in the box in an arrangement that
simulates actual placement conditions for a given job. The
reinforcing bars can be both horizontal and vertical.
Concrete is placed in the box in a similar manner as with the
simulated filling apparatus. After the concrete is allowed to
harden, saw-cut sections of hardened concrete are removed
to judge how well the concrete filled the box and moved around
reinforcing bars. Because each apparatus is constructed based
Fig. 3.39—Penetration apparatus (1 mm = 0.039 in.). on actual field conditions, the test is not standardized, and
results from different apparatuses cannot be directly compared.
3.3.2.7 Slump flow test—The simplest and most widely
the penetration head slides through a frame, which includes used test method for SCC is the slump flow test (ASTM
a graduated scale for measuring penetration depth. Several C1611). The test was originally used to measure the consis-
different dimensions for the concrete container have been tency of underwater concrete, and has also been used to
used by different researchers. Bui et al. (2002a) set the measure highly flowable concrete.
apparatus on top of an L-box with cross-sectional dimensions To perform the test, a conventional slump cone is placed
of 200 x 200 mm (7.8 x 7.8 in.) (instead of the more on a rigid, nonabsorbent plate and filled with concrete
commonly used dimensions of 100 x 200 mm [3.9 x 7.8 in.]). without tamping. The plate should be placed on a firm, level
The container should be placed on level ground, and should surface. The slump cone is lifted and the horizontal spread of
not be moved during the test. The concrete, which is not the concrete is measured. In a variation on this test method,
consolidated with vibration or tamping, is allowed to sit for the slump cone can be filled in the inverted position. For an
2 minutes after being placed into the container. The cylinder additional measure of flowability, the time required for the
is then placed on top of the concrete surface and the depth of concrete to spread to a diameter of 500 mm (19.7 in.) can be
penetration is measured after 45 seconds. This measurement measured (T50).
is performed at a total of three different locations on the It is possible to qualitatively assess the stability of
concrete surface. When the concrete mixture is susceptible to concrete after performing the slump flow test. A visual
segregation, the coarse aggregate particles will settle from stability index (VSI) has been developed as a means of deter-
the top surface of the concrete, and the penetration depth will mining stability as shown Table 3.12 (Daczko and Kurtz
increase. If the average depth of penetration is greater 2001). A numerical score, on a scale of 0 to 3, is assigned
than 8 mm (0.3 in.), the concrete is considered to have poor based on a visual evaluation of the segregation and bleeding
segregation resistance. Alternatively, from the Testing SCC in the concrete sample. Typically, SCC with a rating of 0 or
(2005) project, the proposed criteria for the penetration test are: 1 could be considered acceptable.
• Concrete has good segregation resistance if the penetration Based on interlaboratory testing with two replicates and 20
is smaller than 20 mm (0.8 in); and operators from 10 laboratories (Testing SCC 2005), the
• Concrete has poor segregation resistance if the penetration repeatability r and the reproducibility R, according to ISO
is higher than 20 mm (0.8 in.). 5725 (International Organization for Standardization 1994)
The test method is simple and inexpensive; however, little for different values of slump flow spread and slump flow
data exist to relate test results to actual field performance. time T50, are given in Table 3.13.
Based on interlaboratory testing with two replicates and 3.3.2.8 U-box test—The U-box test (Kuriowa et al.
20 operators from 10 laboratories from the European project 1993) measures filling ability and is similar to the L-box test.
Testing SCC (2005), the repeatability r and the reproducibility The U-box test was developed in Japan, and is sometimes
R according to ISO 5725 (International Organization for referred to as the box-shaped test. Like other workability
Standardization 1994) for different values of the penetration tests for SCC, the U-box test is also applicable to highly
depth are given in Table 3.11. flowable concrete and underwater concrete.
Table 3.12—Visual stability index ratings

(ASTM C1611)
VSI value Criteria
0 = highly stable No evidence of segregation or bleeding.
1 = stable No evidence of segregation and slight bleeding

observed as a sheen on the concrete mass.
2 = unstable A slight mortar halo ≤ 0.5 in. (10 mm) or aggregate

pile in the center of the concrete mass, or both.
Clearly segregating by evidence off a larger mortar
3 = highly unstable halo >0.5 in. (10 mm), or a large aggregate pile in the
center of the concrete mass, or both.
Table 3.13—Precision slump flow spread and flow

time T50
Slump flow time
Slump flow spread, mm (in.) T50, seconds
<600 600 to 750 >750
(23.6) (23.6 to 29.5) (29.5) <3.5 3.5 to 6 >6
Repeatability r N/A 42 (1.7) 22 (0.9) 0.66 1.18 N/A
Reproducibility R N/A 43 (1.7) 28 (1.1) 0.88 1.18 N/A Fig. 3.40—U-box test apparatus (1 mm = 0.039 in.).
The apparatus consists of a U-shaped box, as shown in

Fig. 3.40. Concrete is placed in the left side of the box. An
alternative version of the apparatus features a flat bottom
instead of a curved bottom. Ideally, the box should be made
of clear plastic to permit the observation of the concrete in
the box. To start the test, the door dividing the two halves of
the box is opened, and concrete is allowed to flow from the
left half of the box into the right half. Reinforcing bars are
placed at the location of the door. Although the spacing of
the bars is adjustable, the most common arrangement is 13 mm
(1/2 in.) diameter bars with a clear spacing of 35 mm (1.4 in.).
The time from the opening of the door until the concrete
ceases to flow is recorded. The height of the concrete in each
side of the box is measured. Concrete with good filling Fig. 3.41—V-funnel test apparatus (1 mm = 0.039 in.).
ability should reach a height of at least 250 mm (9.8 in.) on
the right side of the box. In some versions of the test, a
surcharge load is applied to the concrete on the left side of SCC, the flow time should be less than 10 seconds. To
the box. This surcharge load is unnecessary for SCC, and is measure segregation resistance, the V-funnel is refilled with
generally not used. concrete and allowed to sit for a given period of time, typically
With both the L-box and U-box tests, it is unknown what 5 minutes. The door is again opened, and the flow time is
significance the effect of friction between the concrete and recorded. An increase in flow time after the concrete has
the walls has on the test results. remained at rest may indicate poor segregation resistance;
3.3.2.9 V-funnel test—The V-funnel test (Ozawa et al. however, thixotropy can also increase the flow time after
1995) is used to measure the filling ability of SCC, and can rest. Further, nonuniform flow of concrete from the funnel
also be used to judge segregation resistance. The test method suggests poor segregation resistance.
is similar to the concept of the flow cone test used for highly The average flow-through speed Vm is calculated in terms
fluid grout. of the flow-through time t0
The test apparatus, shown in Fig. 3.41, consists of a V-shaped
funnel with a height of 425 mm (16.7 in.), a top width of 0.01 2.05- ( m/s )
V m = -----------------------------------------------
- = --------- (3-13)
490 mm (19.3 in.), a bottom width of 65 mm (2.6 in.), and a ( 0.065 × 0.075 ) × t 0 t0
thickness of 75 mm (3.0 in.). At the bottom of the V-shape,
a rectangular section extends downward 150 mm (5.9 in.).
To quantify segregation resistance, the flow-through index
Alternatively, an O-shaped funnel with circular cross section
Sf is calculated in terms of initial flow-through time t0 and
can be used. The entire funnel is filled with concrete without
the flow-through time after 5 minutes t5
tamping or vibration. The door at the bottom of the funnel is
opened, and concrete is allowed to flow out of the funnel and
t5 – t0
into a bucket. The flow time for all of the concrete to exit the S f = -------------
- (3-14)
funnel is recorded as a measure of the filling ability. For t0
Table 3.14—Precision of V-funnel flow time

V-funnel flow time, seconds
3 5 8 12 >15
Repeatability r, seconds 0.4 1.1 2.1 3.4 4.4
Reproducibility R, seconds 0.6 1.6 3.1 5.1 6.6
Table 3.15—Precision of sieved portions

Sieved portion, %
<20 >20
Repeatability r, % 3.7 10.9
Reproducibility R, % 3.7 10.9
unsuitable for field use. Additionally, poor repeatability of

the test results has been reported.
Based on interlaboratory testing with two replicates and 20
operators from 10 laboratories from the European project
Testing SCC (2005), the repeatability r and the reproduc-
Fig. 3.42—Wet sieving stability test apparatus. ibility R according to ISO 5725 (International Organization
for Standardization 1994) for different values of sieved
portions are given in Table 3.15.
Based on interlaboratory testing with two replicates and
16 operators from eight laboratories (Testing SCC 2005), 3.3.3 Workability tests for pastes and grouts—Test
the repeatability r and the reproducibility R according to devices with varying degrees of complexity are available to
ISO 5725 (International Organization for Standardization measure the rheology of cement pastes and grouts. These
1994) for different values of V-funnel flow time are given devices typically use similar principles as devices used to
in Table 3.14. measure concrete, but usually feature smaller dimensions.
Some devices, such as the flow-trough test (Section 3.3.3.8),
3.3.2.10 Wet sieving stability test (GTM screen stability
are used for both concrete and grouts. Furthermore, many
test)—The wet sieving stability test was developed by a French
concrete rheometers have smaller versions available for
contractor to measure the segregation resistance of SCC.
measuring mortar.
To perform the test, a 10 L (0.35 ft3) sample of concrete is
placed inside a bucket and allowed to sit for 15 minutes to The rheology of cement paste is often measured in the
laboratory. Because, in many cases, cement paste can be
allow any segregation to occur. The container is sealed to
prevent evaporation. After sitting for 15 minutes, approxi- measured more easily and accurately than concrete, the results
of cement paste testing are more significant. Changes in
mately the top 2 L (0.07 ft3) of the concrete is poured from
cement paste rheology can be correlated to concrete rheology.
the bucket from a height of 500 mm (19.7 in.) onto a 5 mm
(0.20 in.) sieve, as shown in Fig. 3.42. Mortar from the sample 3.3.3.1 Flow cone and marsh cone tests—Several
is allowed to flow through the sieve into a lower sieve pan for versions of a funnel test are used to measure the workability
a period of 2 minutes. The mass of the concrete poured onto of pastes and grouts. These devices differ in dimensions and
the sieve, Ma, and the mass of mortar in the sieve pan, Mb , are intended use; however, they all work on the same principle
measured and used to calculate the segregation ratio of measuring the elapsed time for fresh paste or grout to flow
through the opening of a funnel.
The flow cone test (Scanlon 1994) is used for measuring
M
segregation ratio = ------b- ⋅ 100% (3-15) the flow properties of grout for preplaced-aggregate
Ma concrete, but can also be used for other highly flowable
grouts. The test is standardized in ASTM C939, and is
The segregation ratio should be between 5 and 15% for considered appropriate for use in both the field and the lab.
acceptable segregation resistance. Concrete with a segregation To perform the test, grout is poured into the flow cone, which
ratio above 15% will exhibit too much segregation. If the is shown in Fig. 3.43. The level indicator ensures that a standard
segregation ratio is less than 5%, the sample may be too volume of grout is used for each test. The opening at the
cohesive (Bartos et al. 2002). From the Testing SCC (2005) bottom of the cone is opened, and the time for the grout to
project, the proposed criteria for the sieve stability test are: flow out of the cone is recorded. ASTM procedure is
• Concrete has good segregation resistance if the sieved intended for grouts with flow times less than 35 seconds. The
portion value is lower than 20; and test is not considered applicable to grouts that become
• Concrete has poor segregation resistance if the sieved clogged in the cone and do not continuously flow out the
portion value is higher than 20. opening. Test results for such mixtures should be discarded.
Although the test results are valuable and accurate, the test According to ASTM C939, the single laboratory standard
is slow and requires an accurate balance, making it generally deviation is 0.88 seconds.
The Marsh cone test (Zhor and Bremner 1998; Ferraris

et al. 2001) is a nonstandard test most typically used for oil-
well cements. The Marsh cone is a funnel with a long neck
and an opening of 5 mm (0.20 in.). A stand holds the Marsh
cone in place above a glass graduated cylinder. After 1 L
(0.04 ft3) of cement paste is placed in the cone, the orifice at
the bottom of the neck is opened. The time for various
volumes of paste to flow out of the orifice is measured.
Because the weight of the cement paste in the funnel should
be sufficient to overcome the yield stress, the time of flow
should be related to viscosity. Ferraris et al. (2001),
however, showed that the flow time from the Marsh cone test
was not correlated to the viscosity measured with a laboratory
parallel plate rheometer and hypothesized that the lack of
correlation was related to factors such as friction and
sedimentation in the Marsh cone.
Mortsell et al. (1996) developed the FlowCyl, which is a
modification of the Marsh cone. In the FlowCyl, an electronic
ruler and data logger are used to measure the flow rate versus Fig. 3.43—Cross section of flow cone (1 mm = 0.039 in.;
fluid height in the Marsh cone. This relationship is compared 1 mL = 0.061 in.3).
with that of an ideal fluid to compute the flow resistance
ratio, which is a measure of flow properties.
3.3.3.2 Lombardi plate (plate cohesion meter)—The
Lombardi plate cohesion meter can be used to measure the
cohesiveness of the grout (Lombardi 1985; Svermova et al.
2003). The apparatus consists of an electronic scale and a
thin steel plate—100 x 100 x 1 mm (3.9 x 3.9 x 0.04 in.)—
on which the grout can stick. The clean, dry plate is weighed
and then submerged once into the grout. The plate is then
withdrawn and weighed again after any dropping of grout
has stopped (Fig. 3.44).
There was an estimated error at 95% confidence limit of
0.08 mm (0.003 in.) for grout having a mini-slump flow of
117 mm (4.6 in.), and a good relationship between mini-
slump and the plate cohesion meter was obtained (Svermova
et al. 2003).
3.3.3.3 Mini-flow test—The mini-flow test (Zhor and
Bremner 1998) is a variation of the mini-slump test Fig. 3.44—Lombardi plate (plate cohesion meter apparatus).
described in the previous subsection. The Plexiglas sheet
used in the modified version of the mini-slump test is mounted average spread of the paste, as measured along the two
to a standard flow table, as described in ASTM C230/ diagonals and two medians, is recorded.
C230M. After the mini-slump cone is lifted from the sample Zhor and Bremner (1998) modified the device to measure
of cement paste, the table is dropped 15 times in 15 seconds. the air-entraining and plasticizing effects of admixtures on
The rest of the test procedure is unchanged. The mass of the cement pastes. A clear Plexiglas sheet, which is used instead
cement paste is measured to determine air content. The of glass, is set on a balance. After the cone is removed, the
results of the mini-flow test reflect the addition of energy to concrete’s mass is measured and used to determine the air
the cement paste. The mini-flow test is more appropriate content of the paste in accordance with ASTM C185. The
than the mini-slump test for stiff mixtures. paste is left to harden on the Plexiglas for 2 days. A
3.3.3.4 Mini-slump test—The mini-slump test, originally planimeter is then used to measure the area of the hardened
developed by Kantro (1980) and later modified by Zhor and paste on the Plexiglas sheet.
Bremner (1998), measures the consistency of cement paste. Like the conventional slump test, the results of the
The mini-slump cone, as shown in Fig. 3.45, is simply a mini-slump test should be related to yield stress. Research
small version of the slump cone for concrete (ASTM C143/ conducted by Ferraris et al. (2001) into the influence of
C143M). The mini-slump cone has a bottom diameter of 38 mm mineral admixtures on the rheology of cement paste showed
(1.5 in.), a top diameter of 19 mm (0.75 in.), and a height of poor correlation between the results of the mini-slump test
57 mm (2.25 in.) (Fig. 3.45). The cone is placed in the center and yield stress, as measured with a laboratory-grade parallel
of a square piece of glass on which the diagonals and plate rheometer. Svermova et al. (2003) carried out a statistical
medians are traced. The cone is lifted, and after 1 minute, the experimental program on grouts containing limestone
Fig. 3.46—Turning tube viscometer (1 mm = 0.039 in.).
Fig. 3.45—Mini-slump flow of grout (1 mm = 0.039 in.). needle test for testing cement paste (ASTM C191). The
Vicat needle test is also used in ASTM C953 for grout for
preplaced aggregate concrete.
powder, and the results showed a good relationship between The Vicat needle apparatus consists of a 300 g (10.6 oz)
the mini-slump flow and plastic viscosity (R2 = 0.75); moveable rod with a 1 mm (0.04 in.) diameter needle at one
however, the correlation between mini-slump flow and yield end. The rod slides through a frame, where an indicator on
stress was poor (R2 = 0.57). the rod moves over a scale mounted to the frame. A specimen
3.3.3.5 Turning tube viscometer—The turning tube of fresh cement paste prepared in a certain prescribed manner is
viscometer (Hopkins and Cabrera 1985; Ferraris 1999) is placed in a conical ring below the frame. After 30 minutes,
based on the same principle as the moving sphere viscometer— the needle is placed on the cement paste specimen and
namely, Stokes’ Law—but is only considered appropriate allowed to settle under its own weight. The depth of penetration
for testing mortar (Fig. 3.46). is recorded from the scale. The test is repeated every 15 minutes
An 800 mm (31.5 in.) long, 60 mm (2.4 in.) diameter tube (10 minutes for Type III cement) until a penetration depth of
is attached to a rotating arm, which allows the tube to be less than 25 mm (1 in.) is obtained. Each subsequent reading
rotated in the vertical plane. A metal ball is allowed to fall is taken at a different location on the paste specimen.
through the fresh mortar in the tube. A magnet can be placed
Similarly, the penetration test method described in ASTM
on the specially milled end caps to ensure that the ball starts
C403/C403M is used to determine the setting time of
in the center of the tube. Inductance coils wrapped around the
concrete by measuring the penetration resistance of mortar
tube at two locations detect when the ball passes to determine
specimens sieved from concrete samples. Unlike the Vicat
the time for the ball to fall a known distance.
needle test, the apparatus used in ASTM C403/C403M
The test is conducted with different ball diameters, and the
measures the force required to cause penetration, not the
results of the test are plotted on a graph of the inverse of the
depth of penetration.
ball diameter squared versus time. The apparent viscosity of
the concrete can be calculated based on Stokes’ law. Because 3.3.3.7 ViscoCorder—The ViscoCorder is a single-point
the assumption in Stokes’ law that the ball is moving slowly device used in Germany to measure the consistency of fresh
through a fluid of infinite size is not valid for the test apparatus, mortar. Banfill (1990) modified the test to measure both the
correction factors are applied to provide a more accurate result. yield stress and plastic viscosity of mortar.
The dimensions of the device are not large enough to The device, which is depicted in Fig. 3.47, consists of a
permit the turning tube viscometer to be used for concrete. metal cylinder mounted on a rotating turntable. A paddle
The ball diameter should be significantly greater than the inserted in the cylinder is connected to a calibrated spring
maximum aggregate size so that the fluid can be considered that measures the torque on the paddle. As the cylinder is
a uniform medium. Further, the diameter of the tube should rotated, the mortar applies a torque to the paddle. Traditionally,
be sufficiently large to avoid interlocking of aggregate the device was operated at only one rotation speed. Banfill
particles, which could interfere with the ball’s descent. (1990) modified the device to measure torque at multiple
3.3.3.6 Vicat needle test—The setting time of concrete, rotation speeds. To obtain a plot of torque versus speed, the
mortar, or paste can be measured as an indication of workability speed of the cylinder is changed in steps from zero to a
(Ferraris 1999). One of the most common tests is the Vicat maximum speed and back to zero. The device can be calibrated
to correlate values for torque and speed to yield stress and

plastic viscosity.
The ViscoCorder works well for fluid mortars; however,
stiff mortars slip on the wall of the container, resulting in
torque readings that are not an accurate representation of
rheology. The container does not include any protrusions to
prevent slip. Banfill (1990) recommends that the device be
automated to change rotation speed and continuously record
torque versus time.
3.3.3.8 Wuerpel device—The Wuerpel device (Maultzsch
1990) measures the consistency of mortars by applying a
shear force to a mortar specimen and measuring deformation
energy (Fig. 3.48).
The apparatus consists of a quadratic mold with side
lengths of 100 mm (3.9 in.) and a height of 50 mm (2.0 in.). Fig. 3.47—ViscoCorder (Banfill 1990) (1 mm = 0.039 in.).
The corners of the mold are hinged to allow the mold, which
is filled with compacted mortar, to deform from a square
shape to a rhombus shape. The operation of the device is
depicted conceptually in Fig. 3.48. A load cell and a displace-
ment transducer continuously measure the deformation force
and the displacement of the mold, respectively. The area
under the resulting force-displacement curve represents the
deformation energy, which is used to characterize workability.
The test method was developed in Germany and was
briefly included in German standards in the late 1960s.
Maultzsch (1990) used the test to measure the change in Fig. 3.48—Operation of Wuerpel device.
workability with time for mortars with a maximum aggregate
size of 4 mm (0.16 in.) and found that the test device works • Workability range—Any new test method should
particularly well for stiff mortars, although it is applicable to measure the widest possible range of workability. The
a wide range of workability. The results of the test are wider the range of workability, the more versatile the
dependant on the deformation speed of the device. device will be, and the greater the chance that the
device will be adopted widely. In reality, no device can
3.4—Criteria for evaluating test methods measure all concrete, from zero-slump to SCC.
Based on the advantages and disadvantages of the existing • Aggregate size restrictions—The device should feature
workability test methods described in Section 3.3, criteria for proper geometry to allow testing of concrete with a wide
the creation and evaluation of workability test methods can be range of aggregate sizes. Based on existing tests, such as
developed. Any test method to be used in the field should the slump test, the device should measure concrete with a
measure workability in a more comprehensive way than the maximum aggregate size of up to 40 mm (1.5 in.).
slump test and be competitive with the slump test in terms of • Cost—The cost of any device, when mass produced,
cost-benefit, speed, and the value of the results. The workability should be competitive with simple, currently available
requirements should be well defined. The criteria for evaluating devices, most notably the slump test. Therefore, devices
a workability field test method are described as follows: higher in cost than the slump test should provide suffi-
• Parameters measured—Any new test method should ciently improved information to justify the higher cost.
measure dynamic properties of moderate- and low- • Sample size—The sample size should be kept to a
workability concretes, and should appropriately minimum; however, the sample size should be sufficiently
measure concrete that exhibits high thixotropy. To large to be representative of the concrete and to enable
accomplish this, the test should add energy to the accurate determination of rheological parameters.
concrete, such as with vibration. The energy added • Test speed—The speed with which the test can be
should be compared with the one experienced by the conducted should be minimized. The slump test can be
concrete during placement. For SCC, there is no added performed in several minutes. Other tests allow
energy; thus, the measured properties using vibration workability to be monitored continuously with little
will be not be reflective of the properties exhibited by the interruption of construction operations.
concrete during placement. The test should directly or • Complexity/training—Any new test device should be
indirectly measure yield stress and plastic viscosity. sufficiently simple to be performed and interpreted by
• Ruggedness—Any new test device should be suffi- field workers. Although the test may report results in
ciently rugged to be used regularly on a job site. terms of yield stress and plastic viscosity, field
Depending on the accuracy of the device, it may also be personnel not familiar with concrete rheology should be
used in the lab for research and mixture proportioning. able to interpret these values and make quick decisions.
The use of nomographs or an embedded electronic device Table 4.1—Summary of factors influencing
can facilitate the interpretation of results in the field. concrete rheology and workability
• Data processing—The results of the test should be Yield stress Plastic viscosity
obtained directly without any calculations or processing. Cement content Decrease Decrease
When data processing is required, an embedded electronic Aggregates
device should perform all calculations and display Aggregate volume fraction Increase Increase
simple results that can be used directly. Sand-aggregate volume Optimum value Optimum value
• Size and weight—The device should be small and light Shape Round or cubical preferred to flat,
elongated, or angular
so that one person can easily move it around the job site.
Smooth preferred to rough. Increase for
• Number of people required to perform test—One Texture high and/or very high aggregate volume
person should be able to quickly perform the test concentration
method and be able to perform other duties on the job Gradation Uniform gradation, high packing density
preferred
site, instead of only monitoring workability.
Microfines content Mixed Mixed
• Electricity—Although any new test device should be
Admixtures
able to operate without electricity, devices requiring
Water-reducing admixtures Decrease Mixed
power should not be eliminated. Many construction
Air-entrainment agent Mixed Decrease
sites have power readily available. Alternatively,
Viscosity-modifying Increase Increase
batteries can be used. admixture
Most importantly, the selected workability measurement Supplementary cementitious materials
device should be accepted by a wide range of participants Fly ash Decrease Mixed
within the concrete industry. As such, the device should Silica fume (low dosage) Decrease Decrease
satisfy the seemingly conflicting objectives of being simple Silica fume (high dosage) Increase Increase
and rheologically accurate. Concrete contractors will not Slag cement Mixed Increase
decide to use a new test unless it clearly adds value to their Fiber reinforcement Increase Increase
construction operations. Researchers have been skeptical of
simple devices that give a relevant indication of workability concentration, shape, and particle-size distribution of the
but do not directly measure the fundamental rheological various solid constituents as well as the use of chemical
properties of concrete. For instance, in discussing the admixtures. Due to the wide variation in materials available
inverted slump cone test for fiber-reinforced concrete, for concrete production and the infinite number of possible
Tattersall and Banfill (1983) wrote, “It is extremely unfortunate combinations of these materials, the information contained
that in a new area of concrete technology it is proposed to herein applies only to general cases. For specific combinations
establish yet another empirical and quite arbitrary test for of materials, trial batches can be tested to confirm trends.
workability; the long-term result can only be to add to the The generalization of trends in rheology, even for a change
confusion which already exists.” in a single factor while leaving all other factors constant, is
While no test method will likely incorporate all of the fraught with complications. First, a trend in rheology for one
criteria enumerated previously, a device that meets the variable is also a function of other characteristics of the
majority of these criteria stands the greatest chance of being concrete mixture. For instance, the use of an admixture may
adopted by all parties in the concrete industry. No test will be have a certain effect in one particular concrete mixture, but
as simple as the slump test; however, it is possible that tests have a reverse effect when used in a separate concrete
of greater complexity than the slump test will be used on a mixture of a different composition. Second, the interactions
widespread basis due to the value such workability between different admixtures can be significant. Third,
measuring devices add to construction operations. materials from different sources—or even the same source—
can vary widely in composition and physical characteristics.
CHAPTER 4—FACTORS AFFECTING A trend drawn from data for a single material source—such
WORKABILITY OF CONCRETE as fly ash, ground granulated blast-furnace slag, or aggregate—
4.1—Introduction can not be extended to all fly ashes, all slag cements, or all
The workability and rheological properties of concrete are aggregates of a particular mineralogy. Fourth, rheological
influenced by nearly every aspect of the mixture proportions, measurements can be a function of measurement technique.
material characteristics, and construction conditions. The As shown by Ferraris and Brower (2001), the rheological
effects of many of these factors on workability and slump are parameters measured by different concrete rheometers, even
well known and widely reported. Less data exist for concrete on the same concrete, can vary between different rheometers.
rheology. Widely available mixture proportioning methods Finally, the historical lack of suitable techniques for quantifying
often take some, but not all, factors into account. This concrete rheology has resulted in a lack of data in the literature
chapter presents an overview of the influence of key factors on the effects of various factors on concrete rheology. While
on both workability and rheology. some factors, such as high-range water-reducing admixture
The factors influencing concrete rheology and workability, (HRWRA) dosage, have been reported widely, others have
as quantified by yield stress and plastic viscosity of concrete, been reported scarcely, if at all. A broad range of data from
are summarized in Table 4.1. Rheology depends on the various sources is desirable for drawing general conclusions.
The effects of chemical admixtures and supplementary lower content of C3A and alkalis, the effects of the gypsum-
cementitious materials are often described in terms of to-hemihydrate ratio were less pronounced. Further, a reduction
cement paste rheology. By measuring only cement paste, the in the sulfate content from 3 to 1% resulted in a decrease in
influence of aggregates can be eliminated, and smaller both the yield stress and plastic viscosity.
mixtures can be tested. The role of aggregates is important,
however, in relating measurements from cement paste to 4.3—Effects of water content
concrete. In some cases, a trend in rheology for a particular An increase in the water-cementitious material ratio (w/cm)
mixture change in cement paste may be reversed in concrete in either concrete or cement paste results in reductions in
(Tattersall and Banfill 1983). both yield stress and plastic viscosity (Tattersall and Banfill
1983; Tattersall 1991; Mork 1996; Szecsy 1997; Erdogan
4.2—Effects of cement 2005). The addition of water reduces the solids concentration,
4.2.1 Cement content—An increase in the cement content, resulting in less resistance to flow. Workability is improved
at a constant water-cement ratio (w/c), provides more paste with increasing w/cm up to a certain point, after which
to coat aggregates and to fill the spaces between aggregates, segregation can become a problem.
resulting in improved workability. Smeplass (1994) found
that an increase in cementitious materials content (cement 4.4—Effects of aggregates
with 5% silica fume) relative to aggregate volume resulted in 4.4.1 Aggregate volume fraction—An increase in the total
a decrease in both yield stress and plastic viscosity. Sonebi volume fraction of aggregate in concrete results in increases
(2004a,b) studied the effect of four parameters—namely, in yield stress and plastic viscosity (Szecsy 1997; Geiker et
water-powder ratio (W/P), cement dosage, HRWRA dosage, al. 2002; Erdogan 2005). Higher volume fractions of aggre-
and fly ash percentage—using experimental design plans to gates result in reduced spacing between aggregates and, thus,
develop SCC. The results indicated that for given values of greater resistance to flow. The relationship between solids
W/P, HRWRA dosage, and fly ash percentage, the increase volume concentration and viscosity is well established for
of dosage of cement led to an increase of the slump flow for concentrated suspensions (Barnes et al. 1989).
SCC and a larger decrease in plastic viscosity than yield 4.4.2 Sand-aggregate ratio—Workability can be
stress (Sonebi 2004a,b). improved by optimizing the sand-aggregate ratio (S/A).
4.2.2 Cement characteristics—The chemical composition Optimum values of S/A exist for minimizing yield stress and
and physical characteristics of cement can significantly plastic viscosity (Tattersall 1991; Szecsy 1997). An
influence workability. Even for a single type of cement, as optimum S/A for yield stress may not be optimum for plastic
defined by ASTM C150 or C1157, the changes in cement viscosity. At high values of S/A, a reduction in sand content
characteristics will influence the rheological properties of results in a reduction in the surface area of aggregates that
the concrete. should be coated with cement paste and, thus, a reduction in
Hope and Rose (1990) examined the effects of cement the resistance to flow. When the sand content is reduced
composition on the water demand required for a constant below the optimum value, the result is a lack of fine aggregates
slump. Although the correlations between composition and to fill the voids between coarse aggregates and, thus,
water demand varied between different aggregates and increased resistance to flow.
mixture proportions, the authors were able to draw several For tests reported by Tattersall (1991), the minimum value
conclusions. The water demand increased for cement with of yield stress occurred at an S/A of approximately 0.33,
high Al2O3 or C2S contents, and decreased for cement with while the minimum value of plastic viscosity was reached at
high loss on ignition, high carbonate addition, or high C3S an S/A of approximately 0.40. The exact value was a function
content. The particle-size distribution of the cement was of w/c. When testing crushed limestone and river gravel
significant for concrete made with angular aggregate and coarse aggregates, Szecsy (1997) found that the minimum yield
less pronounced for concrete made with rounded aggregate. stress was achieved at an S/A of approximately 0.40, whereas
For the concrete with angular aggregate, the cements with a plastic viscosity was minimized at an S/A of approximately
higher portion of material smaller than 10 μm exhibited 0.30. In comparison, S/A values of approximately 0.50 are
higher water demand. The specific surface, however, had typical for SCC.
minimal influence on water demand. 4.4.3 Shape and texture—In this section, the somewhat
Vom Berg (1979) determined that increasing cement ambiguous term “particle shape” is considered to be overall
fineness resulted in exponential increases in both yield stress shape (spherical, cubical, elongated) and texture (smooth,
and plastic viscosity for cement pastes. rough) and is taken as morphology at a scale sufficiently
Mork and Gjorv (1997) found that the ratio of gypsum-to- smaller than shape so that particle of identical shape but
hemihydrate in cement could influence cement paste different roughness are barely visually distinguishable.
rheology. For cement with high contents of C3A and alkalis, Aggregate shape strongly influences concrete workability
a reduction in the gypsum-to-hemihydrate ratio resulted in a and rheology. The influence of surface texture on workability
decrease in yield stress, but little change in plastic viscosity. is less certain. In concentrated suspensions, any deviation from
When a melamine-based HRWRA was used, the trend was a spherical shape results in an increased viscosity (Barnes et
reversed, with a lower gypsum-to-hemihydrate ratio, al. 1989; Erdogan 2005). Spherical shapes are often prefer-
resulting in an increase in yield stress. For cement with a able because they more readily flow past each other and have
reduced specific surface area (Tattersall 1991). Quiroga droplet to the volume of agglomerate describes the water
(2003) found that aggregates with spherical, cubical, or requirement and the packing density.
rounded shapes and smooth textures required less cement Ho et al. (2002) evaluated the addition of either limestone
and water to achieve the same slump as aggregates with flat, or granite powder in a cement paste intended for use in SCC.
elongated, or angular shapes and rough textures. When The limestone powder and granite powder had approxi-
gradation was held constant, aggregates with greater packing mately 75 and 80% passing the No. 200 sieve, respectively,
density, which is related to shape and texture, produced and were obtained as dust from the aggregate crushing
higher slumps. Tattersall (1991) suggested that particle process. In general, the replacement of cement with the inert
shape had a greater influence on plastic viscosity than on powders at rates up to 55% reduced cement paste yielded
yield stress and that texture had no significant effect on stress and plastic viscosity. All cement paste samples incor-
rheology. Erdogan (2005) used monosized perfect artificial porated one of two different HRWRAs and maintained a
sphere and cube aggregates, of both coarse and fine sizes, constant W/P (cement and filler). The reduction in Bingham
and reported that particle shape had a greater influence on parameters was less pronounced for the granite powder,
plastic viscosity than on yield stress. Tests comparing which tended to have flat and elongated shapes.
uncoated and artificially coated glass spheres, with roughness Ghezal and Khayat (2002) examined the use of a lime-
about 1/50 of diameter, suggested that texture does not stone filler material with a Blaine fineness of 565 m2/kg and
noticeably affect yield stress or plastic viscosity for particle 97.2% of particles smaller than 45 μm. When used in SCC
concentrations usually encountered in concrete. mixtures at rates up to 100 kg/m3 (167 lb/yd3), with a
4.4.4 Gradation—The gradation, or particle-size distribution, constant W/P, the limestone filler resulted in decreased yield
of aggregate plays a critical role in the workability and stress and plastic viscosity. The change was most
rheology of concrete. Ideally, the gradation should take into pronounced at low cement levels. The use of limestone filler
account all solids, including the cementitious particles. In also enhanced the stability of the concrete mixtures.
concentrated suspensions, increasing the polydispersity, or Quiroga (2003) found that the addition of microfines
spread of sizes, decreases viscosity (Barnes et al. 1989). resulted in increased dosages of water-reducing admixture
Even when the total aggregate surface that needs to be required to achieve a constant slump; however, the effect of
wetted increases, polydispersivity increases particle surface- microfines varied widely, with limestone microfines
to-particle surface, reducing the resistance to flow. requiring less HRWRA than granite or traprock microfines,
which had lower sphericity. The rate of increase in demand for
Concrete produced with gap-graded aggregates, which
HRWRA became significantly higher when the percentage of
omit most or all of certain size fractions, can be harsh and
microfines exceeded 15% of the total fine aggregate mass.
more susceptible to segregation. Quiroga (2003) found that
Rogers (2006) compared the influence of partially
uniform aggregate particle-size distributions required less
replacing either the fine aggregate or the cement in a concrete
water for a given slump than other gradations. In designing a
mixture with microfines of various types and shapes. The case
concrete mixture, the gradation can be optimized for a
of fine aggregate replacement resulted in higher relative
variety of objectives, such as slump, packing density,
viscosities and greater flow times due to increased powder
uniformity, or plastic viscosity. Quiroga (2003) found that
content. Reduced harshness and improved segregation
mixtures optimized for maximum packing density or slump
resistance were also observed. The replacement by
produced harsh mixtures with poor workability and high
microfines of cement rather than fine aggregates was
susceptibility to segregation. Concrete mixtures above the recommended when workability and cost control were
line on the 0.45 power chart resulted in stiff mixtures, important, and high strength was not required.
whereas mixtures below the line resulted in harsh, segregating
mixtures. Therefore, Quiroga (2003) recommended selecting a
4.5—Effects of chemical admixtures
gradation that strikes a balance between high packing 4.5.1 Water-reducing admixtures—Water-reducing
density and uniform grading. admixtures enhance workability by reducing the w/cm
4.4.5 Microfines content—The addition of aggregate needed to achieve a given slump. Alternatively, they can be
microfines (finer than 75 μm) can improve or reduce work- used to increase slump for a given w/cm, reduce cement
ability, depending on the quantity and characteristics of the content while keeping the w/cm constant, or some combination
microfines and the composition of the rest of the concrete of the above applications. The exact effects of water-
mixture. Like with coarser aggregates, the quantity, shape, reducing admixtures depend on the chemical composition of
texture, and particle-size distribution of the microfines are the admixture and the mixture proportions of the concrete to
important in achieving improvements in workability. The which they are added. In general, however, water-reducing
addition of microfines increases the surface area that should admixtures result in significant decreases in yield stress, while
be wetted; however, the provision of fines can improve the plastic viscosity typically increases or decreases modestly.
particle-size distribution and result in an overall improvement The mechanisms responsible for improving the dispersion
in flow characteristics. The single-drop test is used to predict of cement grains depend on the chemical composition of the
the water demand of microfines. A droplet of water is placed admixture. Water-reducing admixtures may disperse cement
on a bed of microfines, and the resulting agglomerate is by imparting negative charges on cement particles (electro-
removed and weighed. The ratio of the volume of the water static repulsion) or by physically separating cement particles
(steric hindrance) (Dodson 1990; Kauppi et al. 2005). For Billberg et al. (1996) used melamine- and naphthalene-
instance, melamine-sulfonate- and naphthalene-sulfonate- based HRWRAs and found a reduction in both yield stress
based HRWRAs are generally thought to function by electro- and plastic viscosity. The concrete tested had an S/A of 0.57
static repulsion, as indicated in a reduction in zeta potential and a maximum aggregate size of 16 mm. The reduction in
(Collepardi 1998). Modified lignosulfonate-based HRWRAs yield stress was greater in percentage terms—whereas the
have been shown to function primarily by steric hindrance yield stress was reduced from 600 Pa to approximately 100
(Kauppi et al. 2005). In contrast to sulfonate-based to 200 Pa, the plastic viscosity was reduced from 30 Pa·s to
HRWRAs, polycarboxylate-based HRWRAs consist of approximately 15 to 20 Pa·s.
flexible, comb-like polymers with a main polycarboxylic Tattersall (1991) showed that the effects of naphthalene-
backbone and grafted polyethylene oxide side chains. The and melamine-based HRWRAs depended on cement charac-
backbone adsorbs onto a cement particle and the nonionic teristics. Further, increasing the cement content increased
side chains extend outward from the cement particle. The the potency of HRWRAs.
side chains physically separate cement particles. Polycarboxy- Faroug et al. (1999) found that the effects of naphthalene-
late-based HRWRAs have been shown to function by both and melamine-based HRWRAs were most pronounced at a
electrostatic repulsion and steric hindrance (Yoshioka et al. low w/c. The use of both types of HRWRAs in concrete
2002; Cyr and Mouret 2003; Li et al. 2005) or only by steric resulted in decreases in yield stress and plastic viscosity. The
hindrance (Blask and Honert 2003; Li et al. 2005; Hanehara admixtures had essentially no effect on plastic viscosity
and Yamada 1999). above a w/c of 0.40 or on yield stress above a w/c of 0.50.
Mork (1996) suggested that, in general, low-range water- The decline in potency with increasing w/c was attributed to
reducing admixtures decreased yield stress and plastic the increase in the ratio of total water to adsorbed capillary
viscosity, whereas HRWRAs decreased yield stress and and floc water. Although the plastic viscosity did not change
increased plastic viscosity. For both types of admixtures, the when the w/c increased to 0.50, the additional water released
changes in plastic viscosity were most pronounced at high through the action of the HRWRAs was sufficient to cause
admixture dosages. Similarly, Smeplass (1994) found that segregation.
the use of HRWRAs in concrete reduced yield stress but had Sonebi (2004a,b) carried out an experimental design
little impact on plastic viscosity. For cement paste, Ho et al. program to study the effect of W/P, which ranged between
(2002) found that two HRWRAs decreased yield stress substan- 0.38 to 0.72; cement dosage, which ranged between 60 and
tially, but resulted in minimal decreases in plastic viscosity. 216 kg/m3 (101 and 364 lb/yd3); fly ash dosage, which
ranged between 183 and 317 kg/m3 (308 and 534 lb/yd3);
Tattersall (1991) reported that the use of a lignosulfonate-
and HRWRA dosage, which ranged between 0 to 1% by
based low-range water-reducing admixture in concrete mass of powder, on slump flow and rheological parameters.
resulted in a reduction in both yield stress and plastic The results showed that the slump flow was influenced, in
viscosity, although the effect on yield stress was more order of importance, by the W/P, dosages of fly ash, and
pronounced. The decrease in these values was most HRWRA, and that the increase of these parameters led to an
pronounced at low dosages, and leveled off at higher increase in slump flow. For the yield stress, it was affected,
dosages. In contrast, the use of melamine sulfonate-, in order of importance, by the dosage of fly ash, W/P,
naphthalene sulfonate-, and lignosulfonate-based HRWRAs HRWRA, and dosage of cement. The plastic viscosity was
in concrete all resulted in dramatic reductions in yield stress, influenced, in order of importance, by W/P, dosages of
but little change in plastic viscosity. Again, the effects of cement and fly ash, and dosage of HRWRA. The increase of
using of these admixtures was most pronounced at low HRWRA led to a reduction of yield stress and plastic viscosity.
dosages and decreased with increasing dosage. 4.5.2 Air-entraining admixtures—Air-entraining admix-
Tattersall (1991) also presented data showing that the tures improve workability, particularly for lean or harsh
addition of an HRWRA resulted in an increase in viscosity mixtures or mixtures with angular or poorly graded aggregates.
when used in a concrete with a low sand content (S/A = 0.35), The presence of entrained air results in a concrete that is
but a decrease in viscosity when used in a concrete with a more cohesive; however, excessive entrained air contents can
high sand content (S/A = 0.45). The change in yield stress make concrete sticky and difficult to finish. Air entrainment
was approximately the same regardless of the sand content. also reduces segregation and bleeding (Kosmatka et al. 2002).
Tattersall and Banfill (1983) suggest that at low sand Tattersall (1991) showed that the use of air-entraining
contents, the flocculated cement paste separates coarse admixtures in concrete reduced plastic viscosity to a much
particles; therefore, when the cement is deflocculated, the greater extent than yield stress. The change in plastic
coarse particles come closer together and generate greater viscosity was essentially zero above an air content of 5%,
resistance to flow. The result is an increase in plastic although the yield stress continued to decrease at higher air
viscosity of the concrete in spite of the decrease in viscosity contents. Likewise, Mork (1996) suggested that, in general,
of the cement paste. In mixtures with a high sand content, the low dosages of air-entraining admixtures mainly reduce
sand fills more of the space between coarse particles. As a plastic viscosity, while higher dosages mainly result in
result, a reduction in viscosity of the paste results in a reductions in yield stress.
reduction in the viscosity of the concrete because the coarse In cement paste, air entrainment can increase yield stress
particles do not move sufficiently closer together. (Tattersall and Banfill 1983). This increase is thought to be
due to the apparent negative charge imparted on the air phosphates, fluorates, and selected multivalent salts (that is,
bubbles by the air-entraining admixture. This negative zinc and lead salts). With the ability to decrease the rate of
charge can attract hydrating cement grains, resulting in the cement hydration and lengthen set time, retarders are
formation of bridges between the cement grains. In concrete, commonly used to offset the set-accelerating effect attributed
the reduction in plastic viscosity is likely due to the spherical to hot weather conditions and the higher temperatures
shape of the air bubbles and the increase in paste phase associated with large masses of concrete. Another useful
volume. The yield stress of the concrete is not decreased as application is for maintaining workability for extended
significantly as the viscosity due to the increase in yield transport times and delays in placing.
stress of the cement paste. Set-retarding admixtures are commonly used in conjunction
4.5.3 Viscosity-modifying admixtures—Viscosity- with normal water-reducing admixtures, mid-range water-
modifying admixtures (VMAs), also known as anti-washout reducing admixtures, and HRWRAs to provide the required
admixtures, are typically used in SCC or for placing concrete workability retention. With a particular set of concrete
underwater. For SCC, VMAs are used to improve stability materials, concrete producers can often establish a correlation
by reducing segregation, surface settlement, and bleeding. In between the dosage rate of retarding admixture and workability
underwater concrete, VMAs reduce the washout mass loss. retention. The mechanism of retarders that provides the
VMAs typically increase both the yield stress and plastic capability to extend workability (slump retention) is
viscosity. A thorough overview of VMAs and their effects essentially based on their ability to significantly reduce
on concrete is provided by Khayat (1998). cement hydration through one of three proposed mechanisms:
A range of VMAs with various chemical compositions is 1. Adsorption on the surface of cement hydration products
commercially available. VMAs used for concrete typically (Young 1970);
consist of water-soluble polymers, such as welan gum or 2. Precipitation of insoluble hydration products (Suzuki
cellulose derivatives. Typically, these VMAs increase the and Nishi 1959); and
viscosity of the mixing water through a variety of mecha- 3. Complex formation (Tapin 1962; Young 1968, 1972;
nisms, with the precise mode of action depending on the type Daugherty and Kowalesky 1968).
of polymer. Khayat (1995) describes three modes of action All three mechanisms serve to prevent the formation of a
by which VMAs function. First, the VMA polymers adsorb network of hydration products, which in turn would result in
onto water molecules, which causes a portion of the water to a decrease in workability.
become trapped and the polymers to expand. Second, the A number of important factors should be considered when
polymers themselves develop attractive forces and block the using retarding admixtures.
motion of water. Third, the polymer chains intertwine at low 1. The manufacturer’s recommendations concerning
shear rates but break apart at higher shear rates, resulting in dosage rates should be consulted;
shear thinning behavior. 2. The time of addition can have a dramatic effect on both
The use of a VMA can result in shear-thinning, or pseudo- set retardation and workability retention, where a delayed
plastic, behavior in cement pastes or mortars. This behavior addition of retarding admixture (that is, addition of the
is advantageous for concrete because the relatively high admixture after the initial mixing of cement and water)
viscosity at low shear rates prevents segregation of aggregates, normally increases retarding capability;
while the relatively low viscosity at higher shear rates 3. Under certain circumstances, a severe overdose of
ensures excellent deformability during mixing, pumping, retarder can have an accelerating effect on cement hydration,
and placing operations. VMAs also increase thixotropy. and actually contribute to rapid slump loss (Daugherty and
4.5.4 Set-accelerating and set-retarding admixtures— Kowalesky 1968; Ramachandran 1972);
Retarding and set-accelerating chemical admixtures, whose 4. Use of an ASTM C494/C494M Type B retarding
sole function is to alter the setting time of concrete mixtures, admixture with either Type D water-reducing-retarding or
can have a profound effect on concrete rheology, depending Type G superplasticizing-retarding admixtures can result in
on the chemical composition, addition rate, and time of excessive retardation;
addition of the admixture, along with the binder composition 5. Certain interactions between selected cements, admixtures,
(portland cement and supplementary cementitious materials). and mode of addition can result in abnormal early stiffening
Unlike dual-functioning water-reducing retarding and water- (workability loss), which can probably be ascribed to two
reducing set-accelerating admixtures, the common application processes (Seligman and Greening 1964): a) rapid acceleration
of the purely set-altering admixtures do not usually affect the of the aluminate phases, and b) altering the availability of
initial workability of concrete mixtures, but rather workability sulfate resulting in either false or flash set;
retention over a specified time period. 6. The dosage of retarding admixtures often needs to be
4.5.4.1 Set-retarding admixtures—Chemical admixtures adjusted when slower-reacting supplementary cementitious
that simply retard the setting process of cementitious materials are used as partial replacement for portland
mixtures are designated as Type B under the classification cement; and
scheme per ASTM C494/C494M. Common chemical agents 7. When changing any material in a particular mixture
that provide set performance consistent with Type B proportion, especially the binder and chemical admixtures,
requirements include sugars such as dextrose and sucrose testing is recommended to understand impact on setting time
(often in the form of molasses), phosphonates, borates, and workability retention.
Further, including multiple addition rates of the retarding initial cement content, with fly ash having the greatest
admixture in the series of trial concrete mixtures can be very improvement at lower initial cement contents. When fly ash
useful to understand the correlation between dosage, work- was replaced on a volume basis instead of a mass basis, the
ability retention, and setting time. changes in yield stress and plastic viscosity were doubled,
4.5.4.2 Set-accelerating admixtures—Chemical suggesting that the increased surface area played a larger role
admixtures whose sole function is to accelerate the setting in the incremental difference in volume between the mass
process of cementitious mixtures are designated as Type C and volume replacements.
under the classification scheme per ASTM C494/C494M. Szecsy (1997) found that a 10% fly ash mass replacement
Commonly used chemical agents that provide set perfor- level in concrete mixtures resulted in an increase in yield
mance consistent with Type C requirements include the stress. From 10 to 20%, the use of fly ash reduced the yield
sodium and calcium salts of chloride, nitrate, nitrite, formate, stress. The use of 5% fly ash resulted in a reduction of plastic
and thiocyanate. These salts are often formulated with viscosity; however, further replacement of cement with fly
certain alkanolamines, such as triethanolamine. While set ash at rates up to 20% resulted in little additional change in
accelerators have the ability to increase the rate of cement plastic viscosity.
hydration and shorten set times, these admixtures normally Sonebi (2004a,b) investigated the effect of fly ash on
have little or no effect on workability, especially at the workability and rheological parameters to produce medium-
manufacturer’s recommended dosages used for concrete strength SCC. The incorporation of a high volume of fly ash
temperatures over a range of approximately 4 to 15 °C (40 to up to 220 kg/m3 (371 lb/yd3) resulted in a reduction in
60 °F). When accelerator products are used at dosages suit- dosage of cement required to achieve any given slump flow,
able for antifreeze concrete applications and protection from viscosity, passing ability, resistance to segregation, and
freezing down to approximately –5 °C (23 °F) is required, compressive strength. The increased dosage of pulverized fly
early hydration can be dramatically increased, causing rapid ash (PFA) reduced the amount of HRWRA required to main-
formation of hydration products, and resulting in rapid loss tain any given filling ability and passing ability, and decreased
of workability. For this application, ASTM C494/C494M both the yield stress and plastic viscosity (Sonebi 2004a,b).
Type F or even Type G HRWRAs are needed to allow The effects of fly ash on workability may be due to the
normal handling of the concrete (Jeknavorian et al. 1994; spherical shape of fly ash particles and the effect of fly ash
Korhonen et al. 1997). The following practices can help particles on the particle size distribution of the combined
minimize unexpected changes in concrete workability when powders. It is well established that spherical particle shapes
using set-accelerating admixtures: enhance the rheology of concentrated suspensions (Barnes et
1. Unlike set-retarding admixtures, the time of addition al. 1989). Incorporating fly ash particles with a different
may have only a minor effect on both set acceleration and particle size distribution than that of cement may improve
workability retention; the overall powder particle size distribution (increased poly-
2. When using an ASTM C494/C494M Type C set-accel- dispersity), resulting in improved flow properties (Barnes et al.
erating admixture with either Type A water-reducing 1989; Farris 1968). Separately, Helmuth (1987) suggested
admixture or Type F HRWRA, the addition sequence that the spherical shape of fly ash particles is not responsible
should have the set accelerator being added after the other for the improvement in workability associated with fly ash.
admixtures; and Instead, he suggested that negatively charged very fine fly
3. When changing any material in a particular mixture ash particles adsorb onto and cover positively charged areas
proportion, especially the binder and chemical admixtures, of cement particles, resulting in a dispersion of cement particles.
testing is recommended to understand the impact on setting 4.6.2 Silica fume—The use of silica fume can improve
time and workability retention. workability when used at low replacement rates, but can
Further, including multiple addition rates of the set-accel- reduce workability when added at higher replacement rates.
erating admixture can be useful for understanding the corre- The addition of 2 to 3% silica fume by mass of cement can
lation between the dosage rate of admixture, workability be used as a pumping aid for concrete (Tattersall 1991). Like
retention, and set time. fly ash, the spherical shape of silica-fume particles is
advantageous for workability. Due to silica fume particles
4.6—Effects of supplementary cementitious being significantly smaller than cement particles, a small
materials volume of silica fume particles may enhance the powder
4.6.1 Fly ash—The use of fly ash improves the workability particle size distribution, whereas a large volume of silica
of concrete by reducing the water content needed to achieve fume may result in a worse powder particle size distribution.
a certain slump. In terms of rheology, fly ash reduces yield When properly dispersed with an HRWRA, the silica fume
stress, but has variable effects on plastic viscosity. The particles can increase packing density, resulting in an
influence of fly ash depends on whether the cement is improvement in workability.
replaced with fly ash on a mass or volume basis. According to Tattersall (1991) and Mork (1996), a
Tattersall (1991) showed that the use of a mass replacement threshold value of the silica fume replacement level exists
of fly ash in concrete mixtures resulted in a reduction of yield for concrete mixtures, such that below the threshold value,
stress, while the plastic viscosity decreased only slightly. the use of silica fume reduces plastic viscosity, but produces
The magnitude of reduction in yield stress depended on the little change in yield stress. Above the threshold value, both
yield stress and plastic viscosity increase with increasing stress and plastic viscosity. Changing the mixing order
levels of silica fume replacement. without changing the mixture proportions or the total mixing
Faroug et al. (1999) measured the rheology of concrete time is also expected to affect the rheological properties. An
with the silica fume used as either a replacement or addition evaluation was conducted for two trials, with each batch
to cement. When used as a replacement, the yield stress mixed differently: 1) mixed fine and coarse aggregate for
increased with increasing replacement levels up to 20%, 1 minute, added the cement and continued the mixing for
above which further silica fume replacement resulted in a another minute, then added the water and continued the
reduction in yield stress. The plastic viscosity decreased up mixing for 2 minutes; and 2) mixed fine and coarse aggregate
to a 10% replacement, but then began increasing at higher for 1 minute, added half of the water and continued to mix
replacement rates so that the plastic viscosity was approxi- for 1 minute, added the cement and continued to mix for
mately unchanged from the control at a 15% replacement another minute, then added the remaining water and
rate and higher than the control at replacement rates up to continued mixing for 1 minute. This testing resulted in the
30%. When used at levels up to 10%, silica fume resulted in second mixture being nonuniform compared with the first
increased yield stress across the tested range. Plastic viscosity mixture, whereas the first mixture had a higher yield stress
increased at levels up to 7.5%, above which it began to decrease. and plastic viscosity.
Shi et al. (2002) tested mortar mixtures and found that the
addition of silica fume resulted in a reduction in both yield 4.8—Effects of temperature and time
stress and plastic viscosity at replacement rates up to 6 and 4.8.1 Effect of temperature—The temperature of fresh
9%, respectively. At higher rates, yield stress and plastic cement-based materials has a marked effect on several key
viscosity increased, such that at a 12% replacement rate, properties of the plastic material, including water demand,
both yield stress and plastic viscosity were higher than for HRWRA demand, interaction between the binder and chemical
the control mixture. admixtures, hydration kinetics of cement and its influence on
4.6.3 Slag cement—Slag cement generally improves setting and development of mechanical properties. Changes
workability; however, its effect can vary depending on the in temperature can influence the rheology of cement paste
characteristics of the concrete mixture in which it is used. through various mechanisms, such as the rate of adsorption
According to Tattersall (1991), the effect of slag cement on of HRWRA. The concentration of the residual HRWRA has
workability is much less than that of fly ash for cases when a direct effect on the rheology of the cement paste and the
a constant slump is maintained. hydration kinetics of the cement. Jolicoeur et al. (1997)
Tattersall (1991) reported results showing that the effect of showed that the concentration of adsorbed polynaphtalene
slag cement on rheology was strongly dependent on the sulfonate-based HRWRA and residual polymer remaining in
cement content and slag cement type. For a low cement the aqueous phase can vary with the temperature of the
content (200 kg/m3 [337 lb/yd3]), the addition of slag cement paste. The interaction of cement with other admixtures,
reduced yield stress and increased plastic viscosity for the such as viscosity-enhancing admixtures and HRWRAs,
two slags, which were used at replacement rates of 40 and could lead to loss of fluidity or delay in setting.
70%. At a higher cementitious materials content (400 kg/m3 Golaszewki and Szwabowski (2003) reported that the
[674 lb/yd3]), the use of one slag resulted in minimal change rheological properties of mortars made with polynaphtalene
in rheology, while the use of the other slag resulted in sulfonate HRWRAs are strongly influenced by temperature.
increases in yield stress and plastic viscosity. The water An increase in mixture temperature can lead to an increase in
content was held constant when the cementitious materials yield stress and a decrease in plastic viscosity. For mortars
content was changed; therefore, the w/cm decreased as the prepared at a w/cm of 0.40 and HRWRA dosage of 2.25% by
cementitious materials content increased. mass of the binder, and at a w/cm of 0.50 and 1% HRWRA,
4.6.4 Effects of fibers—Steel or synthetic fibers can an increase in temperature of 10 to 40 °C (50 to 104 °F) was
decrease concrete workability and increase thixotropy. shown to result in a higher rate of increase of yield stress
Tattersall (1991) showed that increasing the content of steel with time. The rate of increase in yield stress varied for
or synthetic fibers resulted in increases in both yield stress different types of binder systems.
and plastic viscosity. For the steel fibers, increasing the fiber Figures 4.1 and 4.2 show typical changes in yield stress and
length resulted mainly in an increase in yield stress, but little plastic viscosity, respectively, with temperature (T expressed in
change in plastic viscosity. Kelvin) for mortar mixtures tested at various temperatures (Petit
et al. 2006). The micromortars were based on SCC mixtures
4.7—Effect of mixing procedure of different mixture compositions, binder types, water-to-
According to Tattersall and Banfill (1983), the degree of binder ratio (W/B), and temperature. The mixture with a W/B
uniformity of concrete, which influences the workability of of 0.42 contained blended fly-ash-silica fume binder, while
fresh concrete, depends on the mixer design and the method the mixture with a W/B of 0.52 used blended cement
of loading of the aggregates, cement, and water. Although containing slag cement and limestone filler for the binder. The
there are no reported correlations between the mixing results in Fig. 4.1 and 4.2 indicate that, unlike the yield stress,
procedure and the Bingham rheological properties, one can plastic viscosity increased with the decrease in temperature.
anticipate that an increase in the mixing time will enhance This was especially the case for the micromortar made with a
the dispersion of fine particles, resulting in decreases in yield W/B of 0.42 compared with that having a W/B of 0.52.
Fig. 4.1—Changes in initial yield stress with reciprocal

temperature of micromotor mixtures proportioned with W/B
of 0.42 and 0.52 (Petit et al. 2006) (1000 Pa = 0.145 psi). Fig. 4.3—Variations in yield stress with time of SCC tested at
various temperatures ([°C × 9/5] + 32 = °F).
Fig. 4.2—Variations in initial plastic viscosity with reciprocal Fig. 4.4—Variation in plastic viscosity with time of SCC
temperature of micromortar mixtures proportioned with tested at various temperatures (1 Pa·s = 1000 cs; [°C × 9/5]
W/B of 0.42 and 0.52 (Petit et al. 2006) (1 Pa·s = 1000 cs). + 32 = °F).
Petit et al. (2006) evaluated the combined influence of Figures 4.3 and 4.4 show examples of variations in yield
temperature and time on the variations of rheological properties stress and plastic viscosity, respectively, of SCC made with
of cement-based materials. Rheological parameters were a W/B of 0.52 and blended cement containing slag cement
monitored up to the end of the dormant period, which was and limestone filler. The yield stress had limited variation
evaluated using heat-flux measurements. The evolution of initially; however, considerable spread in yield stress was
yield stress of micromortar with time and temperature was obtained with increased elapsed time. This was due to the
shown to vary in a linear fashion up to the end of the dormant accelerating effect of temperature on cement hydration,
period, tf , and could be expressed as follows which has considerable influence on the yield stress and a
lesser effect on plastic viscosity.
τo(t) = τo(0, T) + Δτeq · α · eβ/T · t (4-1) 4.8.2 Coupled effect of temperature and elapsed time—
Both temperature and elapsed time affect hydration kinetics
of the cement and, hence, rheological properties. To consider
where τo(0,T) is the initial yield stress at a given temperature
the variation in rheological parameters during the dormant
T; t is the elapsed time; and Δτeq, α, and β are experimental
period of cement hydration, Petit et al. (2006) proposed
constants.
normalizing the elapsed time to the time corresponding to
The plastic viscosity of micromortar also increases in a the end of the dormant period tf . The time tf is taken as the
linear fashion with time and temperature, as follows time corresponding to the first deviation from linearity estab-
lished of the heat-flux measurements. The data presented in
μ(t) = μ(0, T) + Δμeq · γ · eδ/T · t (4-2) Fig. 4.3 and 4.4 are replotted interns of the normalized time
t′(t ′ = t/tf) in Fig. 4.5 and 4.6, respectively. The exponential
where μ(0, T) is the initial plastic viscosity, and Δμeq, γ, and evolution of yield stress with the normalized time, t ′, can be
δ are experimental constants. described as
Petit et al. (2006) also evaluated the influence of temperature
on the variations of rheological properties of SCC in time. τo(t′) = τo(0, T)eq·t′ (4-3)
Fig. 4.5—Increase in yield stress with normalized time for

SCC tested at various temperatures.
Fig. 5.1—Intensive compaction tester m-100R, with test

cylinder and electronic pressure controller on right.
mixture. By measuring compactability only, knowledge of

workability is obtained much faster without the need to wait
for the strength results.
Other potential tests for measuring the workability of no-
slump concrete—modified Vebe-test, Kango-hammer, and
Waltz test—are cumbersome, tedious, slow, some too noisy,
and all inaccurate. Thus, they are not often used in any plant.
The casting machine operator’s opinion of the workability
Fig. 4.6—Increase in plastic viscosity with normalized time
for SCC tested at various temperatures. based on the appearance of the extruded or slipformed
product is the most common control method: the operator
takes a handful of no-slump concrete and squeezes it. This
where q is an experimental constant that depends on the type
method is comparable to the so-called trowel test with
of concrete and is equal to 2.4 for the tested SCC presented
normal flowable concrete.
in Fig. 4.5. An exponential equation can also be used to
In the late 1980s, the competition in the precast concrete
describe the evolution of plastic viscosity with the normalized
industry intensified. Thus, there was a need to improve
time t′, as follows
productivity and process control. One of the main problems
in using no-slump concrete is to measure workability in
μ(t′) = μ(0,T)eγ·t′ (4-4) quantitative terms (instead of an operator’s qualitative
opinion). This led to the further development and use of a
where γ is an experimental constant equal to 0.94 for the gyratory compactor: the intensive compaction tester (IC
tested SCC mixture. tester) (Fig. 5.1).
The design of improved casting machines for hollow slab
CHAPTER 5—EXAMPLES OF USING cores required modeling of the concrete compaction process.
WORKABILITY TEST METHODS
This chapter presents five examples of the use of work- To model the compacting process, several numeric parameters
ability test methods to improve the performance of fresh describing the compactability of various fresh concrete
concrete in the field. The examples include both grout and mixtures were required. For this purpose, extensive laboratory
concrete mixtures that vary in workability from no-slump to work was carried out. Compared with earlier studies, the
self-consolidating. new project was able to investigate the compaction process
in greater detail using new tools that improved the speed of
5.1—Use of gyratory tester to measure workability research. The IC tester, with the ability to continuously
of no-slump concrete measure shear force and with three-dimensional graphics
This example describes the experience of a large precast data presentation software, made it possible to carry out
company in measuring the workability of no-slump concrete more extensive tests and obtain more detailed data on the
in the production of hollow-core planks, roofing tiles, and compaction of stiff freshly mixed concrete.
structural elements. During a year-long test series in the laboratory and at
5.1.1 Background—Traditionally, workability of no- plants, a large number of w/c between 0.28 and 0.45 were
slump concrete is measured through compactability, which analyzed, involving about 250 different concrete mixtures
is measured by the results obtained in compressive strength and a total of approximately 3000 tests with the IC tester.
tests. This approach is justified in the sense that compressive This section presents some of the results that provide an
strength is usually directly determined by density for a given indication of the potential of gyratory compactors.
5.1.2 Lab tests—The equipment available for the tests

consisted of an IC tester with a shear force measurement
feature, a laptop for data collection, a 50 L (1.8 ft3) concrete
mixer, and standard laboratory equipment.
The concrete was mixed in batches of 20 L (0.7 ft3) in a 50 L
(1.8 ft3) pan mixer. Maximum care was taken in sampling,
that is, in filling the IC-tester cylinders, to ensure that each
sample was truly representative. This proved to be a
demanding task, especially with coarse and relatively dry
mixtures that had a tendency to segregate both in the mixer
and in filling the cylinder.
5.1.2.1 Experience from using tester—The IC tester m/88,
featuring a deformation force measuring device, was the first Fig. 5.2—Compaction curves (monotonously rising) and
unit of its kind available in the autumn of 1988, although less shear stress curves.
advanced units had been used by the company for a few years.
As the full potential of the equipment was not known, a
This information can be used in mixture proportioning and
large test series was carried out to measure the effect of such
optimization.
factors as water content, admixtures, additives, mixture
In Fig. 5.2, the lower curves present the shear stress, which
proportions, aggregate grading and quality, inert and
show the behavior of the concrete mixture under compaction.
pozzolanic fillers, and operator motivation. After the laboratory
The aging or stiffening of the mixture due to cement reactions
test series, the obtained results were verified at selected
is visible. The maximum shear stress for the first sample
precast plants.
is 36 kPa (5.2 psi), but 39 and 40 kPa (5.7 and 5.8 psi),
5.1.2.2 Density measurement—The IC tester measures respectively, for the other two.
the position of the compacting piston as a function of the The tester also measures and/or stores the following data:
compaction cycles and calculates the density of the sample • Test number;
on the basis of its predetermined mass. By selecting the mass
• Age of concrete;
of the sample properly, it is possible to achieve the desired
• Mass of test sample;
height-diameter ratio, such as 1.0, for the compacted specimen.
• Applied pressure;
The unit only measures the position of the piston, not the • Number of revolutions used; and
actual density of the sample. This is important for wet • Achieved or desired density.
concrete in particular because cement paste tends to be Some of these data are fed manually into the control unit
squeezed out through the gap between the cylinder and the of the tester and require care. To avoid mistakes in adjustment,
compaction discs toward the end of the compacting process. an electronic pressure controller with preset values for the
This means that the obtained density measurement value is most common pressures should be used. This will improve
too high. This can be avoided by selecting the range of applied the speed of adjustment and repeatability of the test.
pressure and revolutions properly or compensating the loss 5.1.2.4 User characteristics—The tester is easy and
by weighing the lost paste. Also, any sand grains between the simple to use. After reading the instructions, it takes about 15
plate on top of the sample and the piston will give an incorrect to 30 minutes to learn how to operate.
(too low) density value for the compacted sample. The m/88 tester worked well. It was checked and serviced for
Examples of obtained density values are presented in the first time after 500 compaction samples by the manufacturer.
Fig. 5.2. The curves on the upper part of the graph present Another inspection was carried out after 2000 samples.
density curves. All three samples were compacted to the Maintenance was limited to cleaning, abrasion measurements,
target density of 2430 kg/m3 (152 lb/ft3), which represents a and greasing. The only components that had to be replaced
typical density for a certain concrete product. The samples consisted of the rubber seals on the rotating lower support shaft.
are from the same concrete batch and, thus, the two later The only problems, or suggestions for improvement, were
samples required more compaction effort due to a slight related to pressure adjustment (manual at the time) and daily
stiffening of the concrete mixture. The required compaction cleaning of the unit, which have been improved in later
effort was 50 cycles for the first sample, and 62 and 80 cycles, versions.
respectively, for the later ones. 5.1.3 Repeatability—To avoid the effect of chemical reaction
5.1.2.3 Shear force measurement—Aside from density, of cement on workability, the first tests were made with
the IC tester measures the force that resists compaction. The moist aggregate mixtures. The aggregate gradation was that
internal friction curve plotted on the basis of the shear force of a typical no-slump concrete mixture, and the moisture
measurements has proven to be one of the best parameters to content was 6% of the aggregate weight. The range of variation
describe the characteristics and compaction of the concrete. in obtained density was 17 kg/m3 (1.1 lb/ft3); density varied
This information also helps to verify that each measurement is between 2239 and 2256 kg/m3 (139.8 and 140.8 lb/ft3)
performed properly. It also gives additional information (Fig. 5.3). The standard deviation in the test with 13 consecutive
about the internal friction and other related phenomena. samples was 5.3 kg/m3 (0.33 lb/ft3). This could be compared
Fig. 5.3—Repeatability of IC tester; moist aggregate mixture

(1 kg/m3 = 0.036 lb/in.3).
Fig. 5.6—Effect of w/c on workability (1 kg/m3 = 0.036 lb/in.3).
Fig. 5.4—Effect of concrete age on workability (and

compacted density) (1 kg/m3 = 0.036 lb/in.3). Fig. 5.7—Workability and water content variation from
batch to batch (1 kg/m3 = 0.036 lb/in.3).
constant value until after 50 minutes from adding water in the

mixture, after which the mixture starts to stiffen rapidly due
chemical reactions in the mixture. The standard deviation in
the measured density values of Samples 2 to 11 is 5.3 kg/m3
(0.33 lb/ft3).
The effect of aging in the workability of no-slump
concrete can be seen also in the compressive strength of the
samples (Fig. 5.5). The samples presented in Fig. 5.5 were
tested 3 days after curing at 20 ºC (68 ºF) and 95% relative
humidity.
In addition to measuring the workability, the compacted
concrete cylinders can be used either to measure the fresh
Fig. 5.5—Compressive strength at 3 days of samples presented
in Fig. 5.4 (1 MPa = 145.04 psi). strength (cohesion) or stored properly for measuring the
compressive or splitting strength at a selected age. If the
with the standard deviation of 14 kg/m3 (0.87 lb/ft3) in ASTM purpose is to measure the effect of compaction, then the
C29/C29M. samples should be compacted with a constant compaction
Repeatability of typical fresh concrete mixtures is subject effort (such as 40 cycles at 80 kPa [11.6 psi]). If the purpose
to variation caused by aging of fresh concrete, which is due is to measure the strength properties of the concrete mixture,
to the chemical reactions of cement (Fig. 5.4). The age of then the samples should be compacted to constant density.
the concrete is important if the test lasts longer than 30 to 5.1.4 Factors affecting workability—An IC tester could be
50 minutes, depending on the cement fineness and type. used to measure the effect of various factors on workability.
After this time lapse, densities obtained with constant Figure 5.6 shows the effect of w/c at different cement
compaction effort begin clearly to decrease as a result of contents on the effort needed in consolidating a fresh
chemical and physical processes taking place in the material. concrete sample to a constant consolidation degree.
The very first measurement at 5 minutes after adding water The effect of water content on workability is shown in
will give a higher density in case of early-strength cement. In Fig. 5.7. Samples from 10 consecutive concrete batches
Fig. 5.4, the following values (Samples 2 to 11) are at a were taken at a batching plant. The water content was then
measured by microwave oven drying. Simultaneously, the 5.1.4.3 Comparison of fresh concrete mixtures—Flowable
workability of the fresh concrete was measured by concrete mixtures are usually compared so that reference
compacting a sample with a constant number of compaction workability is standardized by maintaining constant slump.
cycles, and the value of obtained density was stored in the After constant slump is maintained, the effect of variables
computer. In Fig. 5.7, each obtained value is from one (admixtures, additives, mixture proportions, and compaction
measurement. The obtained density correlates well with the methods) on the properties (compressive strength and
water content in the concrete mixture (although there could durability) is compared. No similar standardized procedure
be other variations at the same time, such as dosing errors of for comparison of no-slump mixtures has been established
different aggregate fractions and temperature variations). for stiff concrete.
Sample 3 has an error. If the operator does not succeed in A recommended procedure is to measure the typical
taking a representative sample, the obtained measurement density of the concrete products in the process that will be
value is typically lower than the average variation would analyzed or controlled. Then the compaction energy range
cause. In this case, it is probable that the sample contains too (to simulate the equipment used in the industry, such as a
many larger aggregate particles, which would cause the hollow core slab extruder or roofing tile press) is selected by
so-called wall effect, or that a sand grain has fallen on the top testing a certain pressure and target density combination.
plate in the testing device. The typical density is then set as a target density, and
5.1.4.1 Applications of IC tester—During the first test workability is measured as the number of compaction cycles
series, workabilities of hollow core plank concrete mixtures needed to achieve this target density.
with a w/c of 0.27 to 0.45 and water content of 90 to 150 L/m3 5.1.4.4 Can lab results be applied to real life?—One of
(152 to 253 lb/yd3) were measured. The number of revolutions the advantages offered by laboratory-grade aggregate is that
varied from 10 to 800, and pressure varied from 10 to 240 kPa it is standardized; that is, variations in quality are minimized.
(1.45 to 34.8 psi). The IC tester was also used for testing the As a result, the number of tests can be minimized.
relatively wet roofing tile concrete with water content in the When trying to solve problems existing at plants, however,
region of 200 L/m3 (340 lb/yd3). the aggregate currently used at the plant should be used in the
The tester can be used for analyzing relatively wet freshly tests. When this is done, the test results obtained with the IC
mixed concrete, provided that the pressure and the number of tester at the lab have been directly applicable at the precast
compaction cycles are low. A suitable range for roofing tile plants. In case of serious workability problems, the cement used
concrete was 10 to 20 kPa (1.45 to 2.9 psi) at 20 to 40 cycles, at the plant should be brought to the lab for workability tests.
in which case the amount of cement paste squeezed out of the The laboratory staff should become familiar with, or at
cylinder remained below 10 g (0.35 oz), which is still within least be aware of, the processes and restraints in production
the acceptable limits. and coordinate the procedures with foremen, batching plant
operators, and casting people.
The tester was also used for analyzing the compactability
5.1.5 Use of IC tester in field—After the extensive test
of different aggregates or aggregate mixtures in connection
series in 1988 in measuring workability of no-slump
with the investigation of compaction degree and void space.
concrete, Consolis used IC testers as standard intercompany
This extra information is valuable for mixture optimization.
tools. Presently, the Consolis-group has 10 IC testers in use.
5.1.4.2 Reproducibility of results—The reproducibility Eight of the instruments are located at high-volume precast
of measurements is excellent. Aside from the age of the plants for measuring the workability for quality-control
concrete, the variation in workability/density results in purposes and for process optimization. These instruments
successive test runs depends mainly on how skillfully a are frequently loaned to nearby sister units.
laboratory technician can take representative homogeneous Two of the IC testers are used by research and development
samples. Especially with relatively dry coarse concrete, personnel for mixture optimization, process development,
segregation can easily occur both in the mixer and in filling and troubleshooting. One of these is almost constantly on the
the cylinder. If possible, the tests should be performed by the move with the material technologists who are supporting the
same person. smaller production units. The IC tester is transported in a car
As a guideline, the density variation from the average was trunk or in a mobile lab van from one plant to another. The
typically ±2 kg/m3 (0.12 lb/ft3) for roofing tile concrete, older version weighs 55 kg (120 lb), while the newer version
±5 kg/m3 (0.31 lb/ft3) for sandy hollow core plank concrete, weighs 90 kg (200 lb); thus, they can be lifted by two
and ±8 kg/m3 (0.50 lb/ft3) for coarse-aggregate concrete and persons. On the site, they are moved either by machinery, a
earth-moist aggregate mixtures, when the samples were light two-wheel cart, or carried to the selected location. The
taken by an experienced technician. With an inexperienced tester requires electric power and a small volume of pressurized
technician, variations were two to three times larger. air, which is normally available, even in field conditions. If
To achieve good reproducibility, it is necessary to keep the not, then a small generator and air compressor is taken along.
tester in good condition and to ensure that the pistons, The setup of the tester takes about an hour, including finding
compacting discs, and cylinders remain clean. Also, any a suitable location and connections to a standard electrical
grains of sand or similar contamination remaining on top of outlet and to a compressed air supply. Some of the testers are
the upper compacting disc will result in an increased scatter standard versions, while some have shear-force-measuring
in the data, and give incorrect results. capability. Normal quality control does not necessarily need
• Lignosulfonate (LS).
5.2.2.2 Rheological tests: rheometer—This test
measures the viscosity and the shear stress of a cement paste.
A Rheology International Series 2 viscometer Model RI:2:M
was used. The viscometer was chosen with a medium spring
to obtain more accurate data at low speeds. The Bingham
model was used to determine the plastic viscosity and the
yield value.
The rheology of Bingham plastics is not very sensitive to
temperature, but the rate of change of rheology with time in
a chemically reacting system containing cement is affected
Fig. 5.8—Schematic diagram showing dimensions of four- by temperature. It is preferable to standardize both the test
bladed vane spindle and beaker during testing (1 mm = temperature and the time after mixing at which the test is
0.039 in.). performed (Banfill 1994). All of the tests reported herein were
performed at 20 ± 1 °C (68 ± 2 °F). The test materials were
the shear force measurement. For troubleshooting, optimization, stored at this temperature for at least 48 hours before use.
and research purposes, the shear force measurement gives A four-bladed vane spindle (Fig. 5.8) was used for this
additional information, and is highly recommended. As the work. The vane had four rectangular blades of radius Rv of
test takes only 3 to 5 minutes, it is possible to measure, at 9.5 mm (0.37 in.) and a height h of 38 mm (1.5 in.), and was
least for certain periods, every batch at a precast plant, if placed in a cup of radius 27.5 mm (1.08 in.) centrally
needed. The gyratory compactors—in this case, IC testers— mounted on the lower plate. Because of the restricted torsion
have brought the workability measurement of no-slump of the spring, which moves the spindle, these actual
concrete to a completely new level. dimensions do not comply with those recommended by
ASTM D2573 (Rv = 19.05 mm [3/4 in.] and h = 76.2 mm
5.2—Using rheological measurements to solve [3 in.]). The actual rheometer used was capable of producing
problem with flooring grouts
5.2.1 Introduction—Cement grouts are used for a wide comparative data on which decisions regarding mixture
range of applications in the construction industry. These grouts could be made.
require a high workability, which is achieved with HRWRA. The shear stress τ was calculated from the torque T using
Some cement pastes perform better (flow faster and are the following conversion formula
workable for longer times without bleed and segregation) in
some countries than in others. These problems may be τ = 3T/(2π[Rv3 + 3Rv2h]) (5-1)
solved on an empirical basis when they arise. This project,
however, investigated the basic mechanisms involved in
5.2.2.3 Testing cycle—The testing cycle (Fig. 5.9) was
order that the performance of the cement pastes might be
chosen to stay within the restrictions of the apparatus and
predicted more effectively.
reduce the antithixotropic behavior that the material might
To do this, a relationship between the rheological properties
have. Reducing the readings on the down-curve from 20 data
of the cement paste and the chemical components, especially
points to 10 did not affect the accuracy in obtaining the yield
the different kinds of sulfates, of portland cement was
value and the viscosity. Reducing the number of points on
established. First, a relationship between the simple industrial
the down-curve helped obtain a positive value of the slope
tests such as the flow cone and the rheological properties
(viscosity) because shortening the cycle reduced the effect of
obtained by a rheometer was established. This has been
reported elsewhere (Claisse and Omari 1999; Omari 2001). shear-thickening (antithixotropy), which some cement
Subsequently, more tests were performed such as x-ray pastes have. The up-curve used 20 data points to ensure that
fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy to determine the chemical the break point could be determined more accurately.
composition of cement, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) The testing cycle was checked by performing a series of
to determine the different types of sulfates, particle-size single-point tests at fixed speeds and comparing the results
distribution, and specific surface area (SSA) tests. To relate with a test using the normal testing cycle. The results were
the chemical composition to the rheological properties, 14 very similar, which indicated that they were not a product of
different cements from various countries were analyzed. A the particular testing cycle that was used.
full report of the study is in the literature (Claisse and Omari Figure 5.9 also shows how the viscosity, yield point, and
1999; Omari 2001). break point are derived from the results of the cycle. Relating
5.2.2 Experimental methods these to practical applications, the break point indicates how
5.2.2.1 Materials—Cements were obtained from easily a mixture may be moved from a static position (resting
different commercial suppliers. Three different HRWRA in a pipe). The yield shows the resistance to flow (pumping
admixtures were used: pressure) at slow speeds, and the viscosity shows how the
• Sulfonated melamine formaldehyde (SMF); resistance to flow increases as the speed (rate of pumping)
• Sulfonated napthalene formaldehyde (SNF); and increases.
Fig. 5.10—Effect of mixing speed and mixing time on rheology

of cement pastes.
Fig. 5.9—Testing cycle.
5.2.2.4 Effect of mixing speed and time on rheological

properties—The speed of mixing affected the initial flow of
the cement paste when mixed for 5 minutes. A standard
mixing speed and mixing time was chosen for the final
testing. A series of tests on trial samples was carried out.
Different mixing speeds (900, 1100, 1300, 1500, and 1900 rpm)
and mixing times (2, 3, 4, and 5 minutes) were tested. The
samples were tested 3 minutes after finishing mixing.
Fig. 5.11—Standing time determination using SMF.
Mixing (Fig. 5.10) for longer times (4 and 5 minutes) gave
a better workability and stability for the cement pastes.
Mixing for 2 or 3 minutes was inadequate, and that caused
the unexpected increase of break point value with the
increase of speed. Mixing at very high speeds (>1100 rpm)
gave a high workability and made the cement paste too thin
for the rheometer (antithixotropic behavior). Therefore, the
following mixing method was used:
After pouring all the material into the mixing beaker,
while the mixer’s spindle was rotating at 1100 rpm, the
timing was started. After 40 seconds, the speed was raised to
1900 rpm for 20 seconds to ensure that all the lumps were
broken. The speed was reduced to 1100 rpm for 2 minutes
and 40 seconds (that is, 160 seconds), and again raised to Fig. 5.12—Standing time determination using SNF.
1900 rpm for 20 seconds. Finally, the speed was lowered to
1100 rpm for 1 final minute of mixing. This made the total time increased the yield value (Fig. 5.11 and 5.12). A
mixing time equal to 5 minutes. When not using any water- standing time of 1 minutes was chosen to give enough time
reducer or when using lignosulfonate WRA, the mixing speed to load the sample into the rheometer and start testing.
was kept at 1900 rpm for the entire 5 minutes to ensure that 5.2.2.6 Mixture proportions—After studying all the initial
the material would be workable enough for the rheometer. This tests, the final mixture proportions were chosen as follows:
mixing method was used to ensure that no lumps would form
and the cement paste would be properly mixed. Blank sample without water-reducing admixture
Relating this mixing to the methods used in practice is Cement 100%
difficult because no shearing was used. In a commercial w/c 0.50
grout mixer, the pumping action will shear the mixture; this SNF/SMF sample
will provide effective mixing at relatively low speeds. In Cement 99.70%
concrete, the aggregate will shear the paste during mixing. SNF/SMF 0.30%
5.2.2.5 Standing time of cement paste—The standing w/c 0.40
time of the cement paste before testing affected its rheological
properties. Three samples were tested at different standing LS sample
times: 0.5, 1, 2, 3, and 4 minutes. Increasing the standing Cement 99.70%
The final flow models for the break point were (Fig. 5.13):
• Break point (blank) (Pa) =
–1171(Pa) + 1178 Hemihydrate% (Pa) + 6 SSA (Pa·kg/m2)
• Break point (SMF)(Pa) =
–7205(Pa) – 22,380 Cr2O3%(Pa) –10,890 Na2O%(Pa)
+ 1242 Al2O3% (Pa)+ 17 SSA (Pa·kg/m2)
• Break point (SNF)(Pa) =
– 20,344(Pa) + 2343 Al2O3%(Pa) + 31 SSA (Pa·kg/m2)
• Break point (LS)(Pa) =
Fig. 5.13—Model for break point (1 kN/m2 = 0.14 lb/in.2). –6244(Pa) –24,468 Cr2O3%(Pa) + 1128 Al2O3%(Pa) +
7 SSA(Pa·kg/m2)
The final flow models for the yield value were (Fig. 5.14):
• Yield (blank) (Pa) =
–1259(Pa) + 1352 Hemihydrate% (Pa) + 6 SSA(Pa·kg/m2)
• Yield (SMF)(Pa) =
–8999(Pa) – 26012 Cr2O3%(Pa) + 1228 Al2O3%(Pa) +
17 SSA(Pa·kg/m2)
• Yield (SNF) (Pa) =
–17,278(Pa) + 1965 Al2O3%(Pa) + 28 SSA(Pa·kg/m2)
Fig. 5.14—Model for yield (1 kN/m2 = 0.14 lb/in.2). • Yield (LS) (Pa)=
–10,504(Pa) + 1138 Al2O3%(Pa) + 19 SSA(Pa·kg/m2)
The final flow model for the plastic viscosity was (Fig. 5.15):
• Plastic viscosity (blank) [Pa·s] =
77(Pa·s) + 50 Hemihydrate% (Pa·s) – 14 Al2O3%(Pa·s)
No models for plastic viscosity for the superplasticized

samples could be developed.
5.2.4 Discussion—The main observations from these
results are:
Fig. 5.15—Model for viscosity (1 kN·s/m2 = 0.14 lb·s/in.2). • Plastic viscosity alone does not reveal the significant
trends in the data. A full rheological analysis, including
yield and break point, is necessary to understand the
LS 0.30% system;
w/c 0.45 • The present results do not indicate that any given factor
The amount of powder used in the samples was 300 g (10.6 oz). does not have an effect on results—they only indicate
5.2.3 Results—The chemical and physical properties of that it is not an effect that is statistically significant at
the cements were correlated to the rheological properties of the 5% level;
cement pastes using statistical computer programs. The flow • It is not indicated that the effect of sulfate morphology
of cement paste is dependent mainly on SSA and particle- (that is, the relative amounts of gypsum, hemihydrate,
size distribution, which is correlated to SSA. The effect of and anhydrite) is very significant. The hemihydrate is
SSA was removed to reveal other factors, which could affect only significant where no admixtures are used. This
the flow. The other main factors were removed in turn. The partially contradicts the findings that were indicated in
most important factor to consider when building a model is the the literature and the preliminary work; however, these
level of significance (P-value) of each estimated coefficient— results refer to total amounts present rather than the
the lower the P-value, the more significant the contribution of amounts in solution. Another factor (the chromate
that variable to the model. A 0.05 P-value indicates a 5% discussed as follows) could be controlling solubility
probability that the relationship between two variables could and, thus, be more significant;
have happened by chance. The highest acceptable level of • The aluminate phases have a significant impact on
significance in the present analysis was 0.05. rheology, which was expected from the literature; and
Multiple regression could sometimes suggest spurious • An unexpected effect of the chromate phases was
relationships between variables, particularly where the observed. A brief additional experimental program was
independent variables are highly correlated. Care was taken carried out to investigate this observation.
to ensure that relationships could be supported by experimental Blue Circle Wardale (BCW) cement was chosen to study
evidence. Precautions were also taken against the danger of the effect of various levels of Cr2O3 (0, 0.05, 0.07, 0.10,
building a theory on one or two pieces of influential data, 0.15, and 0.20%) on the flow. This particular cement was
which could be rogue values or outliers. chosen because it contains no Cr2O3. All mixtures were
Table 5.1—Test methods for SCC

Characteristics Test method Description
Slump flow/VSI
For slump flow, refer to

Filling ability Section 3.3.2.7. The VSI
(deformability) is determined by rating
and stability the apparent stability of
the slump flow patty.
J-ring
Fig. 5.16—Effect of Cr2O3 on the beak point.
Refer to Section 3.3.2.3.
For this study, the differ-
ence in spread between
performed using the standard mixing method used for the Passing ability
the J-ring measure and
the standard slump flow
blank mixture. Figure 5.16 illustrates the effect of Cr2O3. measure was used to
These experimental results suggest that the significant determine passing
relationship between break point and Cr2O3 found by statistical ability.
analysis is genuine (Fig. 5.16). Chromates are known to be
retarders and, in some cements, special measures are taken to
reduce the adverse effects of CrVI by reducing it to CrIII. V-funnel
Further investigation would be required to determine how
Refer to Section 3.3.2.9.
this would affect the models for their workability when The flow time for all of
HRWRA is added. In particular, the effect of chromates on the concrete to exit the
sulfate solubility may be significant. Relative funnel is recorded as a
viscosity measure of filling
5.2.5 Conclusions ability. For SCC, the
• The most significant effects were not revealed by a flow time should be less
simple study of viscosity. Several rheological parameters than 10 seconds.
were needed;
• For all cementitious mixtures, the SSA of the cement
Column segregation
had the greatest influence on workability;
• For cementitious paste mixtures without admixtures,
the hemihydrate content had a significant effect on
Refer to Section
workability; 3.3.1.3.7. The lower the
• For cementitious mixtures with SMF, SNF, or LS Stability segregation ratio, the
admixtures, the workability generally increased with greater the stability of the
sample.
decreasing aluminate content; and
• For mixtures with SMF and LS admixtures, the workability
generally increased with increasing chromate content.
5.3—Measuring batch-to-batch consistency

of self-consolidating concrete Statistical data was generated on the batches tested to
Concrete manufacturing operations need to maintain evaluate production consistency. Table 5.3 contains that data.
batch-to-batch consistency of fresh concrete properties. 5.3.3 Conclusion—Other than the slump flow from the
Batch-to-batch concrete reproducibility is often tested by first batch tested on 4/27/04, the consistency and control of
measuring slump. In the case of SCC mixtures, the slump the production SCC mixtures were found to be good. SCC
measure is not sufficient to characterize batch-to-batch properties, such as viscosity, passing ability, and segregation
consistency completely. resistance, cannot be evaluated with a single slump
This example describes how several test methods were measurement. Multiple measures of SCC properties can
used to determine reproducibility of production of SCC batches. ensure that batch-to-batch consistency of SCC properties is
5.3.1 Sample preparation and methods—Two days were maintained.
spent obtaining and testing samples of SCC mixtures used in
production. Table 5.1 describes the test methods used and 5.4—Troubleshooting self-consolidating
the SCC properties that were evaluated. concrete mixtures
5.3.2 Results—The specific mixture proportions were 5.4.1 Introduction—An architectural precast producer was
fixed for all test batches and raw materials were the same for implementing the use of SCC into its facility. During the
all mixtures. Table 5.2 provides the data recorded during the implementation process, several difficulties were experienced.
2 days of batch-to-batch testing. A series of laboratory trials was conducted in an effort to
Table 5.2—Test data

Mixture date 04/27/04 04/27/04 04/27/04 04/28/04 04/28/04 04/28/04 04/28/04
Mixture time (clock) 10:30 1:45 4:00 10:30 11:30 1:30 3:45
Slump flow, mm (in.) 500 (19.75) 660 (26) 595 (23.5) 620 (24.25) 635 (25) 635 (25) 650 (25.5)
VSI 0 2 0 0 0 0.5 1
T50, seconds N/A 0.9 1.3 1.2 1 1.2 1.1
J-ring, mm (in.) 475 (18.75) 635 (25) 565 (22.25) 580 (22.75) 595 (23.5) 610 (24) 620 (24.5)
Difference, mm (in.) 25 (1.00) 25 (1.00) 30 (1.25) 40 (1.50) 40 (1.50) 25 (1.00) 25 (1.00)
V-funnel, seconds 1.97 1.67 2.12 2.02 1.87 1.82 1.86
Column segregation ratio 7 10.7 4.2 5.3 7.9 9.7 8.6
Table 5.3—Statistical data for production SCC dosage of HRWRA was being used. The elevated dosage of
Column V-funnel, Slump flow, J-ring difference, HRWRA caused a significant increase in mixture cost and
segregation, % seconds mm (in.) mm (in.) made SCC uneconomical. The second issue was the inability
Mean 7.63 1.90 613 (24.14) 30 (1.18) to maintain a consistent level of mixture stability in the
Standard 2.32 0.15 53 (2.10) 6 (0.24) specific mixture being used. During production trials, the
deviation
instability was noted, qualitatively, as the tendency for the
Coefficient of
variation, % 30 7.9 8.7 20 paste to severely separate from the aggregate. The final
Range 6.50 0.45 160 (6.25) 13 (0.50) problem was workability loss experienced during production.
Minimum 4.20 1.67 500 (19.75) 25 (1.00) The concrete was mixed and then transferred to a transport
Maximum 10.70 2.12 660 (26.00) 25 (1.00) bucket on a tow motor and delivered to the forms. The
degree of workability loss was such that when the discharge
door on the bucket was opened, the concrete remained in the
Table 5.4—Cumulative percent passing for fine
and coarse aggregate bucket. The standard procedure for removing this stiffened
concrete from the bucket was to place stinger vibrators into the
Screen Fine aggregate Coarse aggregate
concrete, which then regained much of its lost workability.
12.7 mm (1/2 in.) 100 100
The first two problems were addressed by mixture
9.5 mm (3/8 in.) 100 89.6
proportioning adjustments while the other problem was
4.75 mm (No. 4) 99.1 24.1
investigated by evaluating the rheological characteristics of the
2.36 mm (No. 8) 79.9 8.6
concrete. Because the reported problem included a description
1.18 mm (No. 16) 62.8 6.1
of losing fluidity, and subsequently regaining it by imparting
0.6 mm (No. 30) 46.9 5.1
vibration, the characteristic of thixotropy was also measured.
0.3 mm (No. 50) 19.3 4.0
The remainder of this example outlines the process taken to
0.15 mm (No. 100) 5.3 2.7
make mixture adjustments and the resulting performance
0.075 mm (No. 200) 2.16 0.7
characteristics of those mixtures.
more fully understand the causes of the difficulties and how 5.4.2 Materials—Samples of materials were obtained
best to correct them. Measurements of yield stress and from the producer’s plant, including cement (Cement 1) and
plastic viscosity were made to determine the rheological fly ash as well as both fine and coarse aggregates. Sieve
properties of the trial mixtures. In addition to the measurement analysis information on the aggregates is presented in Table 5.4.
of yield stress and plastic viscosity, a shear history plot was In addition to the customer cement, a laboratory standard
developed for several mixtures to characterize any tendency ASTM Type I cement (Cement 2) was used in one mixture
for thixotropy. for comparison purposes.
SCC is a technology that is growing in use throughout North The admixtures used included a polycarboxylate-based
America. The issue of proportioning SCC mixtures has seen HRWRA, an organic VMA, and a nonchloride accelerator
considerable evolution. Therefore, the question arises as to (NCA).
how one can troubleshoot SCC mixtures when the propor- 5.4.3 Test methods—All concrete mixtures were prepared
tioning procedures themselves vary from location to location. in 57 L (2 ft3) batches and mixed in a standard laboratory
This section presents one case history in troubleshooting an drum mixer. The batching sequence of the materials was the
SCC mixture for use in precast architectural products. VMA and NCA added into the initial mixture water followed
The precast producer’s goal was to have a mixture with a by the stone, cement, and sand. The final trim water and
slump flow between 640 to 690 mm (25 to 27 in.) that was HRWRA were added last to achieve the target slump flow.
stable and could provide a blemish-free architectural surface. In measuring the fluidity and stability characteristics of the
In some cases, the producer also wanted to use the mixture mixtures, the following test procedures were used:
for an exposed aggregate finish. Three issues were outlined • Slump flow (Section 3.3.2.7);
as the obstacles to incorporating SCC. The first was an • T50 measurement (Section 3.3.2.7);
inability to obtain an appropriate level of mixture fluidity • Characterization of yield stress, plastic viscosity,
needed for good surface finish, even though a very high and thixotropy—A commercially available concrete
Table 5.5—Concrete mixture proportions and performance data

Mixture identification 1 2 3 4 5
Cement 1, kg/m3 (lb/yd3) 417 (703) 0 (0) 411 (692) 427 (720) 365 (616)
Cement 2, kg/m3 (lb/yd3) 0 417 (703) 0 0 0
Fly ash, kg/m3 (lb/yd3) 0 0 0 59 (99) 117 (198)
Coarse aggregate, kg/m3 (lb/yd3) 996 (1679) 996 (1679) 794 (1338) 790 (1331) 777 (1309)
Fine aggregate, kg/m3 (lb/yd3) 618 (1041) 622 (1048) 800 (1348) 796 (1342) 782 (1318)
S/A 0.38 0.38 0.50 0.50 0.50
3 3 203 (343) 203 (343) 201 (338) 209 (352) 208 (350)
Water, kg/m (lb/yd )
PC HRWRA, mL/100 kg cementitious (oz/100 lb cementitious) initial 2480 (38) 1500 (23) 2020 (31) 1630 (25) 1370 (21)
PC HRWRA, mL/100 kg cementitious (oz/100 lb cementitious) final — — — 2150 (33) 1560 (24)
VMA, mL/m3 (oz/yd3) 75 (2) 75 (2) 75 (2) 75 (2) 75 (2)
NCA, mL/100 kg cementitious (oz/100 lb cementitious) 980 (15) 980 (15) 980 (15) 980 (15) 980 (15)
Air, % 2.2 NA 5.5 1.2 1.4

Slump flow, mm (in.) initial 545 (21.5) 620 (24.5) 535 (21) 545 (21.5) 560 (22)
Slump flow, mm (in.) final — — — 680 (26.75) 680 (26.75)
T50, S initial 7.5 4.2 5.4 6.9 3.5
T50, S final — — — 4.2 3.4
VSI, initial 3 3 1 0 0
VSI, final — — — 1 1
25-minute slump flow, mm (in.) 200 (8.0) slump NA 430 (17) 635 (25) 675 (26.5)
25-minute IBB yield stress, Nm NA NA –0.17 –0.7 –0.8
25-minute IBB plastic viscosity, Nms NA NA 8.17 7.5 5.7
rheometer was used to quantify the rheological charac- This indicated that initial measurements were taken, the
teristics of the mixtures (Section 3.3.1.4.11). Because concrete was placed back into the mixer, more HRWRA was
of the phenomena of losing significant workability and added, and the final measurement was taken.
then regaining that workability when vibration is 5.4.5 Analysis of concrete mixture proportions—As
applied to the concrete, a special IBB rheometer Table 5.5 shows, the HRWRA dosage for Mixture 1 (original
program was developed for evaluating these mixtures. mixture) was extremely high, even with a substantial water
The program includes the measurement of several content. The first step in determining the cause and remedy
points at identical rotation speeds on both the upward for the elevated HRWRA dosage was to simply examine the
and downward portion of the speed loop. The resulting effect of cement. When the same mixture was run (Mixture 2)
plot shows the shear history of the concrete. Differ- with Cement 2, the HRWRA dosage was decreased by 40%
ences in the torque values at the various speeds provide while achieving even higher levels of fluidity. This clearly
insight into how the concrete’s rheological properties indicated that the Cement 1 was a significant source of the
are affected by time and energy input. Because thixotropy problems being experienced. Although the HRWRA dosage
is time dependent, the concrete was placed in a wheel- could be reduced by using an alternate cement, in practice,
barrow with plastic draped over the top and allowed to this would not be an option and the mixture, as designed, was
sit for 25 minutes, then, without remixing, the concrete still underperforming. The instability of the mixture can be
was scooped from the wheelbarrow into the rheometer seen by the VSI ratings of Mixtures 1 and 2 in Table 5.5 as well
and tested. An additional slump flow test was as a picture of Mixture 1 in Fig. 5.17. Therefore, some adjust-
performed at this time as well; and ments to the overall mixture proportions were necessary.
• Visual stability index (VSI) (Section 3.3.2.7). The aggregate particle-size distribution is known to affect
5.4.4 Concrete mixtures—Table 5.5 contains the mixture the fresh properties of concrete. In analyzing SCC mixtures,
proportions tested and the fresh properties measured. The one of the first steps is to review the overall aggregate
concrete evaluation consisted of running the original SCC gradation. The combined aggregate gradation of the original
mixture that was developed in the field, then making successive production mixture is presented in Fig. 5.18. As this figure
adjustments to the mixture proportions to provide the demonstrates, the original mixture proportions incorporated
appropriate workability and stability characteristics. In addition a high amount of 4.75 mm (No. 4) particle size material into
to developing an appropriate mixture, the goal was to the mixture. The results of this aggregate grading are evident
develop an understanding of why some of the problems were in Fig. 5.17. It is evident from this picture that the mixture is
occurring. To accomplish this, on some mixtures, multiple very harsh and appears to contain a high volume of coarse
data points were taken, listed in Table 5.5 as initial and final. aggregate. The total coarse aggregate volume, however, is
Fig. 5.19—Mixture 3 with VSI of 1.

Fig. 5.17—Mixture 1 with VSI of 3.
4.75 mm (No. 4) sized particles even further because of the

need to appropriately yield the concrete mixture.
5.4.6 Analysis of rheological behavior and thixotropy—
Mixture 5 added approximately 120 kg/m3 (200 lb/yd3) of
fly ash and reduced the cement by 60 kg/m3 (100 lb/yd3).
The incorporation of more fly ash and reduction in cement
decreased the effect of the cement on the HRWRA dosage
and helped to reduce the dosage. In addition, the fly ash
promoted a higher fluidity level and further reduced the
HRWRA requirement.
The 25-minute slump flow test provided significant
insight into the practical issues experienced during the
Fig. 5.18—Aggregate particle-size distribution for Mixture 1. production trials of the original SCC mixtures. After 25
minutes of rest without agitation, Mixture 1 changed from a
SCC mixture to a mixture with a slump of 200 mm (8 in.).
not extreme, but because of the particle-size distribution, the
No rheometer measurements were available for this mixture.
volume of 4.75 mm (No. 4) sized particles is. This high
As the mixture proportions were adjusted to decrease the
volume of a single particle size resulted in particle-to-
coarse aggregate content, the mixture was able to hold its
particle interference, thereby inhibiting flow of the concrete
fluidity level slightly better. As more fly ash was added to
mixture. Based on both the sieve analysis and the results of
the mixture, cement reduced and slump flow increased, and
the mixture, a decrease in the coarse aggregate content was
deemed necessary. Mixture 3 was the result of this adjustment. the fluidity retention was dramatically improved. On
Because the producer wanted to use this mixture for an Mixture 5, only 5 mm (0.2 in.) of slump flow was lost after
exposed-aggregate finish, the decrease in coarse aggregate 25 minutes of static rest. In addition, as the changes were
content had to be limited. The adjustment resulted in over made from Mixtures 3 through 5, a reduction in mixture
120 kg/m3 (200 lb/yd3) of this 4.75 mm (No. 4) sized material viscosity was observed. This decrease in viscosity would
being removed from the mixture, reducing particle-to- promote a better surface finish on architectural pieces.
particle interference, and allowing for a more flowable Figure 5.20 presents the shear history curves of Mixtures 3
mixture. In addition, this adjustment resulted in a lower through 5. The area outlined by these flow curves relates to
HRWRA dosage than Mixture 1 and a more stable mixture the energy needed to break down the thixotropic structure in
(VSI 1), as can be seen in Fig. 5.19. the mixtures. The greater the area, the greater the amount of
Mixture 3 still did not achieve the desired level of perfor- thixotropic structure developed. The area occupied by the
mance. The HRWRA dosage was still fairly high, and the curves for the three mixtures is quite different. While slump
fluidity of the mixture was not at the level needed (slump loss or slump flow loss is typically associated with false set
flow of 640 to 690 mm [25 to 27 in.]) The next adjustment or cement/admixture incompatibility, in this case, the materials
that was made was to raise the total cementitious content by used in this mixture tended to produce thixotropic charac-
adding fly ash. Mixture 4 added approximately 60 kg/m3 teristics in the concrete. Because of the smaller amount of
(100 lb/yd3) of fly ash to the mixture, resulting in the ability slump flow loss and the smaller hysteresis curve when
to achieve a higher level of fluidity while still maintaining replacing some of the cement in Mixture 4 with more fly ash
good stability (VSI 1). The S/A was held constant; therefore, in Mixture 5, it was concluded that the cement was the main
this increase in cementitious content reduced the amount of variable causing the thixotropic behavior.
5.4.7 Conclusions—An architectural precast concrete

producer was experiencing three basic problems while
implementing SCC into production. The three problems,
their cause, and solutions are presented as follows.
1. An inability to attain an appropriate level of fluidity
even at extremely high HRWRA dosages.
Cause: A mixture proportion using a coarse aggregate
containing a high volume of 4.75 mm (No. 4) sized
particles resulted in particle-to-particle interference and
a cement that required high water and HRWRA contents.
Solution: The cement source could not be changed, so
additional fly ash was used as a cement replacement. The
S/A was adjusted to reduce particle-to-particle interference. Fig. 5.20—Shear history plot of torque versus rotation
speed.
2. An inability to maintain an appropriate level of mixture
stability.
Cause: A mixture proportion using a coarse aggregate Khayat et al. (1997) compared the performance of cement
containing a high volume of 4.75 mm (No. 4) sized grouts that can be used for crack injection of submerged
particles resulted in particle-to-particle interference that concrete bridge elements. The investigation included a
required high water and HRWRA contents, resulting in laboratory study to optimize grout mixture proportions and
a highly dispersed paste that could easily exhibit bleeding. compare the performance of a selected cement-based grout
Solution: The S/A was adjusted to reduce particle-to- to that of epoxy resin grout commonly used for the injection
particle interference, and thereby reduce HRWRA dosage. grouting of submerged elements. Blended silica fume and
3. A tendency for the mixture to stiffen severely during microfine cements were used in the laboratory investigation.
transport. The resistance to washout of the grouts made with silica-
Cause: The particular cement being used resulted in the fume cement was further enhanced using welan gum and
development of thixotropic stiffening in the concrete. cellulose-based antiwashout admixtures. The microfine
Solution: The total cementitious content was increased cement had a mean particle diameter of 3.5 μm compared
by approximately 60 kg/m3 (100 lb/yd3) and the cement with 14 μm for the blended silica-fume cement. Four optimized
content was reduced by approximately 60 kg/m3 (100 lb/ grouts were investigated. The microfine cement grout (MF-1)
yd3), resulting in a mixture using 25% fly ash. This also was proportioned with a 0.6 w/cm. The Control, AWA-1, and
allowed for an increase in the slump flow level, further AWA-2 were proportioned without antiwashout admixture
dispersing the cementitious material. (AWA), with welan gum, and with cellulose AWA,
Based on the presented data, the following conclusions respectively, and were prepared with blended silica-fume
can be made: cement and a 0.45 w/cm. As shown in Fig. 5.21, the MF-1
1. Too much of a single particle size in the aggregate grout exhibited considerably lower viscosity at low and high
distribution inhibits flow, and can promote instability and shear rates than the other grouts made with silica-fume
increase the HRWRA dosage requirement; cement. The optimized grouts in Fig. 5.21 had relatively low
apparent viscosities at high shear rates that dominate during
2. Some cements can impart thixotropic properties to a
mixing and pumping operations. Unlike the other mixtures,
concrete mixture, resulting in workability loss with time; and
the MF-1 grout maintained low viscosity at low shear rates,
3. A concrete rheometer is a useful tool in diagnosing flow
which were predominant at the end of grouting when the grout
retention problems and can quantify behavior experienced in
can further flow into place by gravity and capillary action.
the field.
The use of a modified Marsh cone did not provide enough
This example was adapted from Daczko and Kolokithas
sensitivity in detecting the variations in fluidity between the
(2005).
Control and MF-1 grouts at high shear rates. On the other
hand, the measurement of flow time was more sensitive in
5.5—Use of rheological approach to optimize
cement-based grout for underwater crack detecting variations in fluidity between the AWA-1 and
injection of damaged bridge AWA-2 mixtures, which exhibited similar mini-slump
Repair grout suitable for sealing cracks should be fluid values. A coaxial cylinder viscometer was used to evaluate
enough to facilitate injectability under relatively low pressure. rheological properties of cement grout. The apparent
Low injection pressure is necessary to reduce the risk of viscosity μ was determined on 350 mL (11.8 oz) samples of
crack propagation in rehabilitation work of unconfined grout at 11 rotation speeds corresponding to shear rates of
concrete. The grout should exhibit sufficient stability to 1.7 to 1020 s–1.
reduce sedimentation, bleeding, and water dilution. Other The MF-1 grout also presented high resistance to washout
critical characteristics include the ability of the grout to and the highest fluidity, as indicated in Fig. 5.22. The
penetrate fine cracks, its strength and adhesion to repair washout mass loss was evaluated using a 500 mL (11.8 oz)
concrete, its mechanical and thermal compatibility with grout sample poured into a beaker of an equivalent volume
repair surfaces, and its permeability. containing water. The washout mass loss was determined by
cement grout was mixed and tested on a working barge

floating near the bridge pier shafts that were repaired. The
cement-based grout was sampled to determine unit weight,
fluidity using the mini slump and modified Marsh cone tests,
and washout mass loss. Such quality-control tests were easy
to set up on a barge, and simple and quick to perform; hence,
they did not interfere with the grouting operation. Rheological
properties were also determined using a coaxial viscometer.
Core samples taken from repair pier elements showed that
the selected grout developed bond strength to submerged
concrete that was similar to that of a high-quality epoxy resin
used also for underwater injection grouting of two pier shafts
and footings. The relatively low viscosity of the MF-1 grout
compared with that of epoxy resin resulted in lower requirement
of injection pressure. Despite the lower injection pressure, the
grout intake was reported to be 2.8 times greater per linear
meter of surface crack than that observed for the epoxy resin
Fig. 5.21—Pseudo-plastic behavior of four optimized grout grout. The mean volumes of injected cement-based and
mixtures. MF-1 grout was selected for pier repairs given its epoxy resin grouts per linear meter of surface crack were
relatively low shear-thinning response. approximately 2.08 and 0.73 L/m (0.17 and 0.06 gal./ft),
respectively. The greater injectablity of the microfine
cement grout reflects greater intake and higher penetrability
of the low-viscosity grout with fine cement grains compared
with the more viscous epoxy resin grout. The low viscosity
of the cement-based grout also led to faster grout placement
where the mean injection volumes per hour of the epoxy
resin and microfine cement grouts were approximately 10
and 50 L/h (2.6 and 13 gal/h), respectively.
Sonic tomography was used to reconstitute the spatial
distribution of stress wave velocities within the massive pier
footings. These measurements indicated that the quality of
concrete was significantly improved following injection
with cement-based grout. This improvement was attributed
to the high penetrability of the microfine cement grout.
CHAPTER 6—REFERENCES
6.1—Referenced standards and reports
The standards and reports listed below were the latest
editions at the time this document was prepared. Because
Fig. 5.22—Variations of washout mass loss of cement grout these documents are revised frequently, the reader is advised
with mini slump flow. MF-1 grout selected for underwater to contact the proper sponsoring group if it is desired to refer
pier repair exhibits the best combined flow-stability response.
to the latest version.
measuring the difference in mass of the grout before and American Concrete Institute
after freefall in water (Khayat and Yahia 1996). 211.3R Guide for Selecting Proportions for No-Slump
Based on the rheological characteristics of the investigated Concrete
grout mixtures and their set time and strength development 309.1R Behavior of Fresh Concrete During Vibration
properties, the MF-1 grout was selected for the field investi- 544.2R Measurement of Properties of Fiber-Reinforced
gation. The MF-1 grout was found to be robust as it exhibited Concrete
limited sensitivity in rheological parameters, flow and
washout characteristics, set time, and development of ASTM International
compressive strength when small changes in w/c, HRWRA C29/C29M Test Method for Bulk Density (Unit
dosage, and material temperature were made. Weight) and Voids in Aggregate
The optimized MF-1 grout was used to repair two bridge C124 Method of Test for Flow of Portland-
pier shafts and footings. The majority of surface crack Cement Concrete by Use of the Flow Table
widths were between 2 and 10 mm (0.08 and 0.4 in.) at the (withdrawn)
surface; however, crack widths were significantly reduced C143/C143M Test Method for Slump of Hydraulic-
beyond the outer 300 mm (12 in.) from the surface. The Cement Concrete
C150 Specification for Portland Cement Banfill, P. F. G., 1990, “Use of the ViscoCorder to Study
C185 Test Method for Air Content of Hydraulic the Rheology of Fresh Mortar,” Magazine of Concrete
Cement Mortar Research, V. 42, No. 153, pp. 213-221.
C187 Test Method for Normal Consistency of Banfill, P. F. G.; Yongmo, X.; and Domone, P. L. J., 1999,
Hydraulic Cement “Relationship Between the Rheology of Unvibrated Fresh
C191 Test Methods for Time of Setting of Concrete and Its Flow Under Vibration in a Vertical Pipe
Hydraulic Cement by Vicat Needle Apparatus,” Magazine of Concrete Research, V. 51, No. 3,
C230/C230M Specification for Flow Table for Use in pp.181-190.
Tests of Hydraulic Cement Barnes H. A.; Hutton J. F.; and Walters K., 1989, An
C360 Test Method for Ball Penetration in Introduction to Rheology, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 199 pp.
Freshly Mixed Hydraulic Cement Bartos, P. J. M., 1992, Fresh Concrete: Properties and
Concrete (withdrawn) Tests, Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam, 292 pp.
C403/C403M Test Method for Time of Setting of Bartos, P. J. M., 1994, “Assessment of Properties of
Concrete Mixtures by Penetration Resis- Underwater Concrete by the Orimet Test,” Proceedings,
tance Special Concretes: Workability and Mixing, P. J. M. Bartos,
ed., RILEM, pp. 191-200.
C494/C494M Specification for Chemical Admixtures
for Concrete Bartos, P. J. M.; Sonebi, M.; and Tamimi, A. K., eds.,
2002, Workability and Rheology of Fresh Concrete:
C939 Test Method for Flow of Grout for
Compendium of Tests, RILEM, 156 pp.
Preplaced-Aggregate Concrete (Flow
Cone Method) Beaupre, D., and Mindess, S., 1994, “Rheology of Fresh
Shotcrete,” Proceedings, Special Concretes: Workability
C953 Test Method for Time of Setting of
and Mixing, P. J. M. Bartos, ed., RILEM, pp. 225-235.
Grouts for Preplaced-Aggregate
Billberg, P.; Petersson, O.; and Norberg, J., 1996, “New
Concrete in the Laboratory
Generation of Superplasticizers,” Production Methods and
C995 Test Method for Time of Flow of Fiber-
Workability of Concrete, Proceedings of the Conference, P.
Reinforced Concrete Through Inverted
J. M. Bartos, C. L. Marrs, and D. J. Cleland, eds., RILEM,
Slump Cone
E&FN Spon, pp. 295-306.
C1157 Performance Specification for Hydraulic
Blask, O., and Honert, D., 2003, “The Electrostatic Potential
Cement
of Highly Filled Cement Suspension Containing Various
C1170 Test Method for Determining Consistency Superplasticizers,” Seventh CANMET/ACI International
and Density of Roller-Compacted Symposium on Superplasticizers and Other Chemical
Concrete Using a Vibrating Table Admixtures in Concrete, SP-217, V. M. Malhotra, ed., Amer-
C1362 Standard Test Method for Flow of Freshly ican Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI., pp. 87-101.
Mixed Hydraulic Cement Concrete British Standards Institute, 1975a, “Methods of Test for
C1610/C1610M Test Method for Static Segregation of Self- Stabilized Soils,” BS 1924:1975, London.
Consolidating Concrete Using Column British Standards Institute, 1975b, “Vibrating Hammer
Technique Methods,” BS 1377:1975, London.
C1611/C1611M Test Method for Slump Flow of Self- British Standards Institute, 1993, “Testing Concrete.
Consolidating Concrete Method for Determination of Compaction Factor,” BS 1881-
C1621/C1621M Test Method for Passing Ability of Self- 103:1993, London.
Consolidating Concrete by J-Ring Bui, V. K.; Montgomery, D.; Hinczak, I.; and Turner, K.,
D698 Test Methods for Laboratory Compaction 2002a, “Rapid Testing Method for Segregation Resistance of
Characteristics of Soil Using Standard Self-Consolidating Concrete,” Cement and Concrete
Effort (12,400 ft-lbf/ft3 (600 kN-m/m3)) Research, V. 32, pp. 1489-1496.
D1557 Test Methods for Laboratory Compaction Bui, V. K.; Akkaya, Y.; and Shah, S. P., 2002b, “Rheolog-
Characteristics of Soil Using Modified ical Model for Self-Consolidating Concrete,” ACI Materials
Effort (56,000 ft-lbf/ft3 (2,700 kN-m/m3)) Journal, V. 99, No. 6, Nov.-Dec., pp. 549-559.
D2573 Test Method for Field Vane Shear Test in Cabrera, J. G., and Hopkins, C. J., 1984, “A Modification
Cohesive Soil of the Tattersall Two-Point Apparatus for Measuring
Concrete Workability,” Magazine of Concrete Research,
6.2—Cited references V. 36, No. 129, pp. 237-240.
Abrams, D. A., 1922, “Proportioning Concrete Mixtures,” Chidiac, S. E., and Habibbeigi, F., 2005, “Modelling the
ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 18, No. 2, Feb., pp. 174-181. Rheological Behaviour of Fresh Concrete: An Elasto-Visco-
Amziane, S.; Ferraris, C. F.; and Koehler, E. P., 2005, plastic Finite Element Approach,” Computers and Concrete,
“Measurement of Rheological Properties of Fresh Concrete V. 2, No. 2, pp. 97-110.
Using a Mixing Truck,” Journal of Research of the National Chidiac, S. E.; Maadani, O.; Razaqpur, A. G.; and Mailva-
Institute of Standards and Technology, V. 110, pp. 55-66. ganum, N. P., 2000, “Controlling the Quality of Fresh
Concrete,” Magazine of Concrete Research, V. 52, No. 5, Effect of Shape on Concrete Rheology,” PhD dissertation,
pp. 353-363. The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 321 pp.
Claisse, P. A., and Omari, M. A., 1999, “The Effect of European Committee for Standardization, 2000a, “Testing
Changes in Cement on the Properties of Cement Grouts with Fresh Concrete—Part 2: Slump Test,” EN12350-2: 2000, 5 pp.
Superplasticising Admixtures,” Proceedings, The Role of European Committee for Standardization, 2000b, “Testing
Admixtures in High-Performance Concrete, RILEM Interna- Fresh Concrete—Part 3: Vebe Test,” EN12350-3: 2000, 5 pp.
tional Symposium, Monterrey, Mexico, Mar. 21-26. European Committee for Standardization, 2000c, “Testing
Claisse, P. A.; Omari, M. A.; and Lorimer, P., 2001, Fresh Concrete—Part 4: Degree of Compactability,”
“Workability of Cement Pastes,” ACI Materials Journal, EN12350-4: 2000, 4 pp.
V. 98, No. 6, Nov.-Dec., pp. 476-482. European Committee for Standardization, 2000d, “Testing
Collepardi, M., 1998, “Admixtures Used to Enhance Fresh Concrete—Part 5: Flow Table Test,” EN12350-5:
Placing Characteristics of Concrete,” Cement and Concrete 2000, 5 pp.
Composites, V. 20, pp. 102-112. Faroug, F.; Szwabowski, J.; and Wild, S., 1999, “Influence
Cyr, M., and Mouret, M., 2003, “Rheological Character- of Superplasticizers on Workability of Concrete,” Journal of
ization of Superplasticized Cement Pastes Containing Materials in Civil Engineering, V. 11, No. 2, pp. 151-157.
Mineral Admixtures: Consequences of Self-Consolidating Farris, R. J., 1968, “Prediction of the Viscosity of Multi-
Concrete Design,” Seventh CANMET/ACI International modal Suspensions from Unimodal Viscosity Data,” Trans-
Symposium on Superplasticizers and Other Chemical actions of the Society of Rheology, V. 12, No. 2, pp. 281-301.
Admixtures in Concrete, SP-217, V. M. Malhotra, ed., Amer- Ferraris, C. F., 1999, “Measurement of the Rheological
ican Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, pp. 241-255. Properties of High Performance Concrete: State of the Art
Daczko, J. A., 2002, “A Proposal for Measuring Rheology Report,” Journal of Research of the National Institute of
of Production Concrete,” Concrete International, V. 22, No. 5, Standards and Technology, V. 104, No. 5, pp. 461-478.
May, pp. 47-49. Ferraris, C. F., and Brower, L. E., eds., 2001, Comparison
Daczko J. A., and Kolokithas A., 2005, “Troubleshooting of Concrete Rheometers: International Tests at LCPC
Self-Consolidating Concrete Mixtures: A Case Study,” (Nantes, France) in October 2000, NISTIR 6819, National
Proceedings SCC 2005, S. P. Shah, ed., Hanley Wood, Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD,
pp. 1083-1088. 147 pp.
Ferraris, C. F., and de Larrard, F., 1998, “Modified Slump
Daczko, J. A., and Kurtz, M., 2001, “Development of High
Test to Measure Rheological Parameters of Fresh Concrete,”
Volume Coarse Aggregate Self-Compacting Concrete,”
Cement, Concrete, and Aggregates, V. 20, No. 2, pp. 241-247.
Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Self-
Compacting Concrete, Tokyo, Japan, pp. 403-412. Ferraris, C. F., and Lobo, C., 1998, “Processing of HPC,”
Concrete International, V. 20, No. 4, Apr., pp. 61-64.
Daugherty, K. E., and Kowalesky, M. J., Jr., 1968,
Ferraris, C. F.; Obla, K. H.; and Hill, R., 2001, “The
Proceedings 5th International Symposium Chemistry
Influence of Mineral Admixtures on the Rheology of
Cements, 4, Tokyo, p. 42.
Cement Paste and Concrete,” Cement and Concrete
de Larrard, F., 1999, “Why Rheology Matters,” Concrete
Research, V. 31, No. 2, pp. 245-255.
International, V. 21, No. 8, Aug., pp. 79-81.
Geiker, M. R.; Brandl, M.; Thrane, L. N.; and Nielsen, L. F.,
de Larrard, F.; Hu, C.; Sedran, T.; Szitkar, J. C.; Joly, M.; 2002, “On the Effect of Coarse Aggregate Fraction and
Claux, F.; and Derkx, F., 1997, “A New Rheometer for Soft- Shape on the Rheological Properties of Self-Compacting
to-Fluid Fresh Concrete,” ACI Materials Journal, V. 94, No. 3, Concrete,” Cement, Concrete, and Aggregates, V. 24, No. 1,
May-June, pp. 234-243. pp. 3-6.
Deutsches Institut für Normung e.V., 1991, “Testing Ghezal, A., and Khayat, K., 2002, “Optimizing Self-
Concrete: Testing of Fresh Concrete,” DIN 1048-1: 1991. Consolidating Concrete with Limestone Filler by using
Dodson, V., 1990, Concrete Admixtures, Van Nostrand Statistical Factorial Design Methods,” ACI Materials
Reinhold, New York, 211 pp. Journal, V. 99, No. 3, May-June, pp. 264-272.
Domone, P. L.; Xu, Y.; and Banfill, P. F. G., 1999, Gjorv, O., 1998, “Workability: A New Way of Testing,”
“Developments of the Two-Point Workability Test for High- Concrete International, V. 20, No. 9, Sept., pp. 57-60.
Performance Concrete,” Magazine of Concrete Research, Golaszewki, J., and Szwabowski, J., 2003, “Influence of
V. 51, No. 3, pp. 171-179. Superplasticizer on Rheological Behaviour of Fresh Cement
EFNARC, 2005, “The European Guidelines for Self- Mortars,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 34, No. 2,
Compacting Concrete,” European Federation of Producers pp. 235-248.
and Contractors of Specialist Products for Structures, 63 pp. Habibbeigi, F., 2003, “Modeling the Rheological Behaviour
El-Chabib, H., and Nedhi, M., 2006, “Effect of Mixture of Fresh Concrete,” MS thesis, McMaster University,
Design Parameters on Segregation of Self-Consolidating Canada.
Concrete,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 103, No. 5, Hackley, V. A., and Ferraris C. F., 2001, The Use of
pp. 374-383. Nomenclature in Dispersion Science and Technology,
Erdogan, S. T., 2005, “Determination of Aggregate Shape Special Report 960-3, National Institute of Standards and
Properties Using X-ray Tomographic Methods and the Technology, Gaithersburg, MD.
Hanehara, S., and Yamada, K., 1999, “Interaction Juvas, K., 1994, “Very Dry Precasting Concrete,”
between Cement and Chemical Admixture from the Point Proceedings, Special Concretes: Workability and Mixing,
of Cement Hydration, Adsorption Behavior of Admixture, P. J. M. Bartos, ed., RILEM, Paisley, Scotland, pp. 153-168.
and Paste Rheology,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 29, Kantro, D. L., 1980, “Influence of Water-Reducing Admix-
pp. 1159-1165. tures on Properties of Cement Paste—A Miniature Slump
Helmuth, R., 1987, Fly Ash in Cement and Concrete, Test,” Cement, Concrete, and Aggregates, V. 2, pp. 95-102.
Portland Cement Association, Skokie, IL, 203 pp. Kauppi, A.; Andersson, K. M.; and Bergstrom, L., 2005,
Helmuth, R.; Hills, L.; Whitting, D.; and Bhattacharja, S., “Probing the Effect of Superplasticizer Adsorption on the
1995, “Abnormal Concrete Performance in the Presence of Surface Forces Using the Colloidal Proble AFM Technique,”
Admixtures,” PCA R&D Serial No. 2006, RP333, Portland Cement and Concrete Research, V. 35, pp. 133-140.
Cement Association, Skokie, IL, 92 pp. Khayat, K. H., 1995, “Effects of Antiwashout Admixtures
Ho, D. W. S.; Sheinn, A. M. M.; Ng, C. C.; and Tam, C. T., on Fresh Concrete Properties,” ACI Materials Journal, V. 92,
2002, “The Use of Quarry Dust for SCC Applications,” No. 2, Mar.-Apr., pp. 164-171.
Cement and Concrete Research, V. 32, No. 4, pp. 505-511. Khayat, K. H., 1998, “Viscosity-Enhancing Admixtures
Hope, B. B., and Rose, K., 1990, “Statistical Analysis for Cement-Based Materials—An Overview,” Cement and
of the Influence of Different Cements on the Water Concrete Composites, V. 20, No. 2-3, pp. 171-188.
Demand for Constant Slump,” Properties of Fresh Khayat, K. H., 1999, “Workability, Testing, and Performance
Concrete, Proceedings of the RILEM Colloquium., H.-J. of Self-Consolidating Concrete,” ACI Materials Journal,
Wierig, ed., RILEM, Chapman and Hall, pp. 179-186. V. 96, No. 3, May-June, pp. 346-353.
Hopkins, C. J., and Cabrera, J. G., 1985, “The Turning- Khayat, K. H.; Ballivy, G.; and Gaudreault, M., 1997,
Tube Viscometer: An Instrument to Measure the Flow “High-Performance Cement Grout for Underwater Crack
Behavior of Cement-PFA Pastes,” Magazine of Concrete Injection,” Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, V. 24,
Research, V. 37, No. 131, pp. 101-106. No. 3, pp. 405-418.
Hu, C.; deLarrard, F.; Sedran, T.; Bonlag, C.; Bose, F.; and Khayat, K. H., and Yahia, A., 1998, “Simple Field Tests to
Deflorenne, F., 1996, “Validation of BTRHEOM, the New Characterize Fluidity and Washout Resistance of Structural
Rheometer for Soft-to-Fluid Concrete,” Materials and Cement Grout,” ASTM Cement, Concrete, and Aggregates
Structures, V. 29, No. 194, pp. 620-631. Journal, V. 20, No. 1, pp. 145-156.
Hwang, S.-D.; Bonneau, O.; and Khayat, K. H., 2006, Koehler, E. P., 2004, “Development of a Portable Rheometer
“Performance-Based Specifications of Self-Consolidating for Fresh Portland Cement Concrete,” MS thesis, University
Concrete Used in Structural Applications,” ACI Materials of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 419 pp.
Journal, V. 103, No. 2, Mar.-Apr., pp. 121-129. Komlos, K., 1964, “A Simple Penetration Test Using
International Organization for Standardization (ISO), Vibration,” ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 61, No. 1, Jan.,
1994, “Accuracy (Trueness and Precision) of Measurement pp. 108-110.
Methods and Results,” ISO, Geneva, 41 pp. Korhonen, C.; Cortez, E.; Jeknavorian, A. A.; and
Jeknavorian, A. A.; Berke, N. S.; and Shen, D. F., 1994, Durning, T., 1997, “Antifreeze Admixtures for Concrete,”
“Performance Evaluation of Set Accelerators for Concrete,” Special Report 97-26, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 54 pp.
Fourth CANMET/ACI International Conference on Kosmatka, S. H.; Kerkhoff, B.; and Panarese, W. C., 2002,
Superlasticizers and Chemical Admixtures in Concrete, Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures, Portland Cement
SP-148, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Association, Skokie, IL, 358 pp.
MI, pp. 385-406. Krieger I. M., 1972, “Rheology of Monodisperse Latices,”
Johnston, C. D., 1994, “Comparative Measures of Advances in Colloid and Interface Science, 1972, pp. 111-136.
Workability of Fibre-Reinforced Concrete Using Slump, V-B Kuroiwa, S.; Matsuoak, Y.; Hayakawa, M.; and Shindoh, T.,
and Inverted Cone Tests,” Proceedings, Special Concretes: 1993, “Application of Super Workable Concrete to
Workability and Mixing, P. J. M. Bartos, ed., RILEM, Construction of a 20-Story Building,” High-Performance
Paisley, Scotland, pp. 107-118. Concrete in Severe Environments, SP-140, P. Zia, ed., Amer-
Jolicoeur, C.; Sharman, J.; Otis, N.; Lebel, A.; Simard, M. A., ican Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, pp. 147-161.
and Page, M., 1997, “The Influence of Temperature on the Leivo, M., 1990, “Rheological Modeling of the Compaction
Rheological Properties of Superplasticized Cement Pastes,” Properties of Concrete,” Properties of Fresh Concrete,
Fifth CANMET/ACI International Conference on Superplasti- Proceedings of the RILEM Colloquium, H.-J. Wierig, ed.,
cizers and Other Chemical Admixtures in Concrete, SP-173, RILEM, Chapman and Hall, pp. 277-285.
V. M. Malhotra, ed., American Concrete Institute, Farmington Li, C.-Z.; Feng, N. Q.; Li, Y.-D.; and Chen, R.-J., 2005,
Hills, MI, pp. 379-406. “Effects of Polyethylene Oxide Side Chains on the Perfor-
Juvas, K., 1990, “Experiences in Measuring Rheological mance of Polycarboxylate-Type Water Reducers,” Cement
Properties of Concrete Having Workability from High-Slump and Concrete Research, V. 35, pp. 867-873.
to No-Slump,” Properties of Fresh Concrete, Proceedings of Lombardi, G., 1985, “The Role of Cohesion in the Cement
the RILEM Colloquium, H.-J. Wierig, ed., RILEM, Chapman Grouting of Rock,” Proceedings of Fifteenth Congress on
and Hall, pp. 179-186. Large Dams, Lausanne, p. 235-261.
Lowke, D.; Wiegrink, K.-H.; and Schiessl, P., 2003, “A Petit, J. Y.; Khayat, K. H.; and Wirquin, E., 2006,
Simple and Significant Segregation Test for SCC,” 3rd “Coupled Effect of Time and Temperature on Variations of
International Symposium on Self-Compacting Concrete, Yield Value of Highly Flowable Micromortar,” Journal of
Reykjavik, Iceland, pp. 356-366. Cement and Concrete Research, V. 36, No. 5, pp. 832-841.
Maultzsch, M., 1990, “New Methods for the Determination Powers, T. C., 1968, Properties of Fresh Concrete, John
of Consistency and Workability Parameters,” Proceedings Wiley and Sons, New York, 664 pp.
10, Properties of Fresh Concrete, H.-J. Wierig, ed., RILEM, Quiroga, P. N., 2003, “The Effect of Aggregate Charac-
Hanover, West Germany, pp. 187-194. teristics on the Performance of Portland Cement Concrete,”
McWhannell, G., 1994, “The Effects of Polypropylene PhD dissertation, University of Texas at Austin. Austin, TX,
Fibers in Fresh Concrete,” Proceedings, Special Concretes: 399 pp.
Workability and Mixing, P. J. M. Bartos, ed., RILEM, Ramachandran, V. S., 1972, Thermochimica Acta, 343 pp.
Paisley, Scotland, pp. 99-106. Ritchie, A. G. B., 1962, “The Triaxial Testing of Fresh
Mork, J. H., 1996, “A Presentation of the BML Viscometer,” Concrete,” Magazine of Concrete Research, V. 14, No. 4,
Production Methods and Workability of Concrete, Proceedings pp. 37-41.
of the Conference, P. J. M. Bartos, C. L. Marrs, and D. J. Rogers, G. J., 2006, “The Role of Aggregate Characteristics
Cleland, eds., RILEM, E&FN Spon, pp. 369-376. and Microfines in Self-Consolidating Concrete,” MS thesis,
Mork, J. H., and Gjorv, O. E., 1997, “Effect of Gypsum- University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 236 pp.
Hemihydrate Ratio in Cement on Rheological Properties of Rols, S.; Ambroise, J.; and Pera, J., 1999, “Effects of
Fresh Concrete,” ACI Materials Journal, V. 94, No. 2, Mar.- Different Viscosity Agents on the Properties of Self-
Apr., pp. 142-146. Compacting Concrete,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 29,
Mortsell, E.; Maage, M.; and Smeplass, S., 1996, “A pp. 261-266.
Particle-Matrix Model for Prediction of Workability of
Rooney, M., 2002, “Assessment of the Properties of Fresh
Concrete,” Production Methods and Workability of Concrete,
Self-Compacting Concrete with Reference to Aggregate
Proceedings of the Conference, P. J. M. Bartos, C. L. Marrs,
Segregation,” PhD dissertation, University of Paisley,
and D. J. Cleland, eds., RILEM, E&FN Spon, pp. 429-438.
Paisley, Scotland, 347 pp.
Murata, J., and Kikukawa, H., 1992, “Viscosity Equation
Sachan, A. K., and Kameswara Rao, C. V. S., 1988, “A Cone
for Fresh Concrete,” ACI Materials Journal, V. 89, No. 3,
Penetration Test for Workability of Fibre Reinforced
May-June, pp. 230-237.
Concrete,” Materials and Structures, V. 21, No. 6, pp. 448-452.
Nasser, K. W., 1976, “New and Simple Tester for Slump
Scanlon, J. M., 1994, “Factors Influencing Concrete Work-
of Concrete,” ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 73, No. 10,
ability,” Significance of Tests and Properties of Concrete and
Oct., pp. 561-565.
Concrete-Making Materials, STP 169 C, P. Klieger and J. F.
Nasser, K. W., and Al-Manaseer, A. A., 1988, “Interoperator
Lamond, eds., ASTM International, West Conshohocken,
Test Program to Determine the Reliability of the K-Slump
PA.
Tester,” ACI Materials Journal, V. 85, No. 3, May-June,
pp. 197-201. Schowalter, W. R., and Christensen, G., 1998, “Toward a
Nasser, K. W., and Rezk, N. M., 1972, “New Probe for Rationalization of the Slump Test for Concrete: Compari-
Testing Workability and Compaction of Fresh Concrete,” sons of Calculations and Experiments,” Journal of
ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 69, No. 5, May, pp. 270-277. Rheology, V. 42, No. 4, pp. 865-870.
Neville, A., 1996, Properties of Concrete, John Wiley and Seligman, P., and Greening, N. R., 1964, Highway
Sons, New York, 844 pp. Research Record, V. 62, 105 pp.
Nordtest, 1994, “Concrete, Fresh: Compactability with IC Shi, Y.; Matsui, I.; and Feng, N., 2002, “Effect of
Tester (Intensive Compaction Tester),” NT Build 427, Compound Mineral Powders on Workability and Rheological
NORDTEST, ISSN: 0283-7153. Property of HPC,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 32,
Omari M., 2001, “Workability of Cement Pastes,” PhD No. 1, pp. 71-78.
thesis, Coventry University, United Kingdom. Smeplass, S., 1994, “Applicability of the Bingham Model
Ozawa, K.; Sakata, N.; and Okamura, H., 1995, “Evaluation to High Strength Concrete,” Proceedings, Special
of Self-Compactability of Fresh Concrete Using the Funnel Concretes: Workability and Mixing, P. J. M. Bartos, ed.,
Test,” Proceedings, Japan Society of Civil Engineering 25, Paisley, Scotland: RILEM, pp. 145-151.
pp. 59-75. Sobolev, K., 2004, “The Development of a New Method for
Pashias, N.; Bogera, D. V.; Summers, J.; and Glenister, D. J., the Proportioning of High-Performance Concrete Mixtures,”
1996, “A Fifty Cent Rheometer for Yield Stress Measure- Cement and Concrete Composites, V. 26, pp. 901-907.
ment,” Journal of Rheology, V. 40, No. 6, pp. 1179-1189. Sonebi, M., 2004a, “Medium Strength Self-Consolidating
Petersson, Ö.; Billberg, P.; and Van, B. K., 1996, “A Concrete Containing Fly Ash: Modeling Using Factorial
Model for Self-Compacting Concrete,” Proceedings of Experimental Plans,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 34,
International RILEM Conference on Production Methods No. 7, pp. 1199-1208.
and Workability of Concrete, P. J. M. Bartos, C. L. Mars, and Sonebi, M., 2004b, “Applications of Statistical Models in
D. J. Cleland, eds., Chapman & Hall, Paisley, Scotland, Proportioning Medium-Strength Self-Compacting Concrete,”
pp. 483-490. ACI Materials Journal, V. 101, No. 5, Sept.-Oct., pp. 339-346.
Sonebi, M., and Bartos, P. J. M., 1999, “Hardened SCC Tattersall, G. H., 1990, “Progress in Measurement of
and its Bond with Reinforcement,” Proceedings of the First Workability by the Two-Point Test,” Properties of Fresh
International RILEM Symposium on Self-Compacting Concrete, Proceedings of the RILEM Colloquium, H.-J.
Concrete, Stockholm, pp. 275-289. Wierig, ed., RILEM, Chapman and Hall, pp. 203-212.
Sonebi, M., and Bartos, P. J. M., 2002, “Filling Ability and Tattersall, G. H., 1991, Workability and Quality Control of
Plastic Settlement of Self-Compacting Concrete,” Materials Concrete, E&FN Spon, London, 262 pp.
and Structures, V. 35, No. 252, pp. 462-469. Tattersall, G. H., and Baker, P. H., 1988, “The Effect of
Sonebi, M., and Bartos, P. J. M., 2003,“Investigation of Vibration on the Rheological Properties of Fresh Concrete,”
Performances of Two Strength Classes C35 and C60 of Self- Magazine of Concrete Research, V. 40, No. 142, pp. 79-89.
Compacting Concrete,” Proceedings of International Tattersall, G. H., and Baker, P. H., 1989, “An Investiga-
Conference on the Performance of Construction: Materials tion on the Effect of Vibration on the Workability of Fresh
in the New Millennium, Egypt, 18-23, V. 1, M. El-Dieb, Concrete Using a Vertical Pipe Apparatus,” Magazine of
Taha, and S. Lissel, eds., pp. 139-148. Concrete Research, V. 41, No. 146, pp. 3-9.
Sonebi, M.; Bartos, P. J. M.; and Tamimi, A. K., 2001, Tattersall, G. H., and Banfill, P. F. G., 1983, The Rheology of
“Flexural Response and Performance of Reinforced Beams Fresh Concrete, Pitman Publishing, Marshfield, MA, 356 pp.
Cast with Self-Compacting Concrete,” Proceedings of the Tattersall, G. H., and Bloomer, S. J., 1979, “Further
2nd International Symposium on Self-Compacting Concrete, Development of the Two-Point Test for Workability and
K. Ozawa and M. Ouchi, eds., Tokyo, Japan, pp. 517-526. Extension of its Range,” Magazine of Concrete Research,
Sonebi, M.; Rooney, M.; and Bartos, P. J. M., 2003, V. 31, No. 109, pp. 202-210.
“Assessment of the Segregation Resistance of Fresh Self- Testing SCC, 2005, “Measurement of Properties of Fresh
Compacting Concrete,” Proceedings of the 6th CANMET/ Self-Compacting Concrete,” Final Report, Testing-SCC
ACI International Conference in Recent Advances in Concrete Growth Project, http://www.civeng.ucl.ac.uk/research/
Technology, Bucharest, V. M. Malhotra, ed., pp. 465-476. concrete/Testing-SCC/.
Sonebi, M.; Rooney, M.; and Bartos, P. J. M., 2007, “Test
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1974, “Method of Test for
Method to Evaluate the Dynamic Segregation of Fresh Self-
Remolding Effort of Freshly Mixed Concrete (CRD-C 6-74),”
Compacting Concrete Using the Settlement Column Test,”
Handbook for Cement and Concrete, 4 pp.
Proceedings of Fifth International RILEM Symposium on
U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, 1975, “Device for
Self-Compacting Concrete, Ghent, Belgium.
Measuring the Workability and Compaction of Fresh
Steiner, T., 1996, “Continuous Control of Fresh Concrete
Concrete,” United States Patent 3,863,494, Feb. 4.
Using the FCT 101 Tester,” Production Methods and Work-
U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, 1982a, “Slump Testing
ability of Concrete, Proceedings of the Conference, P. J. M.
Device,” United States Patent 4,332,158, June 1.
Bartos, C. L. Marrs, and D. J. Cleland, eds., RILEM, E&FN
Spon, pp. 365-367. U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, 1982b, “Process and
Struble, L.; Puri, U.; and Ji, X., 2001, “Concrete Rheom- Apparatus for Continuously Measuring Slump,” United
eter,” Advances in Cement Research, V. 13, No. 2, pp. 53-63. States Patent 4,356,723, Nov. 2.
Suzuki, S., and Nishi, S., 1959, Semento Gijutsu Nempo, U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, 1986, “Concrete Slump
13, 160 pp. Measuring Device,” United States Patent 4,578,989, Apr. 1.
Svermova, L.; Sonebi, M.; and Bartos, P. J. M., 2003, U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, 1989, “Method of and
“Influence of Mix Proportions on Rheology of Cement an Apparatus for Measuring the Properties, Particularly the
Grouts Containing Limestone Powder,” Cement, Concrete Compactability of a Stiff Mass to be Cast,” United States
and Composites, V. 25, No. 7, pp. 737-749. Patent 4,794,799, Jan. 3.
Szecsy, R. S., 1997, “Concrete Rheology,” PhD dissertation, U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, 1990, “Method for the
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 215 pp. Determination of the Properties of Moldable Materials,
Tanaka, K.; Sato, K.; Watanabe, S.; Arima, I.; and Particularly for the Determination of the Plastic and Rheo-
Suenaga, K., 1993, “Development and Utilization of High logic Properties Thereof,” United States Patent 4,930,346,
Performance Concrete for the Construction of the Akashi June 5.
Kaikyo Bridge,” High-Performance Concrete in Severe U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, 1995, “Concrete
Environments, SP-140, P. Zia, ed., American Concrete Insti- Slump Testing,” United States Patent 5,437,181, Aug. 1.
tute, Farmington Hills, MI, pp. 147-161. U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, 2001, “System and
Tang, C.; Yen, T.; Chang, C.; and Chen, K., 2001, “Opti- Method for Controlling Concrete Production,” United States
mizing Mixture Proportions for Flowable High Performance Patent 6,227,039, May 8.
Concrete Via Rheology Tests,” ACI Materials Journal, V. 98, Vom Berg, W., 1979, “Influence of Specific Surface and
No. 6, Nov.-Dec., pp. 493-502. Concentration of Solids Upon the Flow Behavior of Cement
Tanigawa, Y., and Mori, H., 1989, “Analytical Study on Pastes,” Magazine of Concrete Research, V. 31, No. 109,
Deformations of Fresh Concrete,” Journal of Engineering pp. 211-216.
Mechanics, V. 115, No. 3, pp. 493-508. Wallevik, O. H., 1990, “The Rheology of Fresh Concrete
Tapin, J. H., 1962, Proceedings of the 4th International and its Application on Concrete with and without Silica
Symposium Chemistry of Cements, Washington, DC, 924 pp. Fume,” Dr.ing. thesis No. 1990:45, The Norwegian Univer-
sity of Science and Technology (Previously the Norwegian Wong, G. S.; Alexander, A. M.; Haskins, R.; Poole, T. S.;
Institute of Technology), Trondheim, Norway. Malone, P. G.; and Wakeley, L., 2000, Portland-Cement
Wallevik, O. H., 2003, “Rheology—A Scientific Concrete Rheology and Workability: Final Report, FHWA-
Approach to Develop Self-Compacting Concrete,” Third RD-00-025, United States Federal Highway Administration,
International Symposium on SCC, RILEM, Reykjavik, McLean, VA, 117 pp.
Iceland, Aug. 2003, pp. 23-31. Yen, T.; Tang, C.; Chang, C.; and Chen, K., 1999, “Flow
Wallevik, O. H., and Gjørv, O. E., 1990, “Development of Behavior of High Strength High-Performance Concrete,”
Coaxial Cylinder Viscometer for Fresh Concrete,” Proceed- Cement and Concrete Composites, V. 21, No. 5, pp. 413-424.
ings of the RILEM Colloquium: Properties of Fresh Yoshioka, K.; Tazawa, E.; Kawai, K.; and Enohata, T.,
Concrete, 1990, pp. 213-224. 2002, “Adsorption Characteristics of Superplasticizers on
Cement Component Minerals,” Cement and Concrete
Wallevik, O. H.; Hjartarson, B.; and Palsson, O. P., 2006,
Research, V. 32, pp. 1507-1513.
“Rheometer-4SCC, a Portable Rheometer for Self
Young, J. F., 1968, Proceedings of the 5th International
Compacting Concrete,” Nord Design, Reykjavik, Iceland,
Symposium Chemistry Cements, 2, Tokyo, 256 pp.
Aug. 2006.
Young, J. F., 1970, Journal of the Ceramic Society, V. 53,
Walz, K., 1964, “Kennzeiichung der Betonkonsistenz
65 pp.
durch das Verdichtungsmass,” Beton Herstellung Verwendung,
Young, J. F., 1972, Cement and Concrete Research, V. 2,
V. 14, pp. 505-509.
415 p.
Washa, G. W., 1998, “Workability,” Concrete Construc- Yurugi, M.; Sakata, N.; Iwai, M.; and Sakai, G., 1993,
tion Handbook, J. Dobrowolski, ed., McGraw-Hill, New “Mix Proportion for Highly Workable Concrete,” Proceedings,
York, pp. 5.3-5.11. Concrete 2000, Dundee, pp. 579-589.
Wig, R. J., 1912, “Comparative Tests of the Strength of Zhor, J., and Bremner, T. W., 1998, “Advances in Evalu-
Concrete in the Laboratory and the Field,” Proceedings of ation of Lignosulphonates and Concrete Admixtures,”
the National Association of Cement Users, pp. 522-525. Fourth CANMET/ACI/JCI Conference: Advances in
Wilby, C. B., 1991, Concrete Materials and Structures, Concrete Technology, SP-179, American Concrete Institute,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 431 pp. Farmington Hills, MI, pp. 1011-1042.
®
As ACI begins its second century of advancing concrete knowledge, its original chartered purpose
remains “to provide a comradeship in finding the best ways to do concrete work of all kinds and in
spreading knowledge.” In keeping with this purpose, ACI supports the following activities:
· Technical committees that produce consensus reports, guides, specifications, and codes.
· Spring and fall conventions to facilitate the work of its committees.
· Educational seminars that disseminate reliable information on concrete.
· Certification programs for personnel employed within the concrete industry.
· Student programs such as scholarships, internships, and competitions.
· Sponsoring and co-sponsoring international conferences and symposia.
· Formal coordination with several international concrete related societies.
· Periodicals: the ACI Structural Journal and the ACI Materials Journal, and Concrete International.
Benefits of membership include a subscription to Concrete International and to an ACI Journal. ACI
members receive discounts of up to 40% on all ACI products and services, including documents, seminars
and convention registration fees.
As a member of ACI, you join thousands of practitioners and professionals worldwide who share a
commitment to maintain the highest industry standards for concrete technology, construction, and
practices. In addition, ACI chapters provide opportunities for interaction of professionals and practitioners
at a local level.

38800 Country Club Drive
Farmington Hills, MI 48331
U.S.A.
Phone: 248-848-3700
Fax: 248-848-3701
www.concrete.org
The AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE

was founded in 1904 as a nonprofit membership organization dedicated to public
service and representing the user interest in the field of concrete. ACI gathers and
distributes information on the improvement of design, construction and
maintenance of concrete products and structures. The work of ACI is conducted by
individual ACI members and through volunteer committees composed of both
members and non-members.
The committees, as well as ACI as a whole, operate under a consensus format,

which assures all participants the right to have their views considered. Committee
activities include the development of building codes and specifications; analysis of
research and development results; presentation of construction and repair
techniques; and education.
Individuals interested in the activities of ACI are encouraged to become a member.

There are no educational or employment requirements. ACI’s membership is
composed of engineers, architects, scientists, contractors, educators, and
representatives from a variety of companies and organizations.
Members are encouraged to participate in committee activities that relate to their

specific areas of interest. For more information, contact ACI.
www.concrete.org
®

ACI 238.1R-08 Report On Measurements of Workability and Rheology of Fresh Concrete - MyCivil - Ir PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ACI 238.1R-08 Report On Measurements of Workability and Rheology of Fresh Concrete - MyCivil - Ir PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

ACI 238.1R-08 Report On Measurements of Workability and Rheology of Fresh Concrete - MyCivil - Ir PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

What is the purpose of the document?

What is the purpose of the document?

What topics does the document cover?

What topics does the document cover?

ACI 238.

Reported by ACI Committee 238

Report on Measurements of Workability

American Concrete Institute

Report on Measurements of Workability

Chiara F. Ferraris Eric Koehler

Sofiane Amziane Neil J. Crockett Kamal H. Khayat Konstantin Sobolev

Other contributors (non-members): C. Cornman, A. Mekhatria, J. Daczko, A. Jeknavorian, and E. Nordenswan.

CHAPTER 1—INTRODUCTION 2.2—Definitions

plastic viscosity ηpl —(1) for ideal Bingham materials,

2.3—Shear flow curves • Power Law

• Casson More advanced concrete production systems have not

Table 3.1—Classes of workability measurement Table 3.2—Single-point and multi-point workability

Table 3.4—Categorization of workability test methods*

Table 3.5—Interpretation of compaction factor

(3/4 in.). A larger apparatus is available for concretes with

Table 3.6—Precision of Orimet flow time (with

of flow of the fresh concrete. For SCC mixtures, a modified

Bartos 1992; Scanlon 1994; Ferraris 1999; Wong et al. 2000;

• The test gives an indication of both yield stress and

ranging from 0 to 250 mm (0 to 10 in.). The equation is not

where τ0 = yield stress in Pa, s = slump in mm, and ρ =

• The results of the slump test can be converted to yield

top of the container is measured at the four corners of the

qualitatively: in concrete mixtures that are susceptible to

• Important test parameters are not standardized; therefore,

Fig. 3.15—Powers remolding test container incorporating

separate 210 mm (8.25 in.) diameter ring is attached at the

used. In Test Method B, the surcharge is not used. Both the

Fig. 3.19—Vibrating slope apparatus (Wong et al. 2000).

through one of the plates. In a coaxial cylinders rheometer,

two-dimensional shearing, whereas the concrete in the

is a workability measurement system for normal concrete

plate rheometers, respectively. From these equations, the

The original version of the recording plastometer was

Fig. 3.29—Impeller for Rheometer-4SCC.

Fig. 3.30—Correlation between BML viscometer (ConTec

• The results are not computed in fundamental units; and

frame. A hydraulic drive unit motor turns an impeller that is

• Over long periods of time, the device can cause

The fourth test device, which is applicable to pumped

percent static segregation = (3-11)

3.3.2.2 Fill box test (simulated filling test, filling

The closer the filling capacity is to 100%, the greater the

Fig. 3.38—L-box test apparatus (1 mm = 0.039 in.).

maximum aggregate size. Various dimensions for the L-box

Table 3.10—Precision of L-box blocking ratio h2/h1

Table 3.11—Precision of penetration depth

3.3.2.6 Simulated soffit test—The simulated soffit test

Table 3.12—Visual stability index ratings

1 = stable No evidence of segregation and slight bleeding

2 = unstable A slight mortar halo ≤ 0.5 in. (10 mm) or aggregate

Table 3.13—Precision slump flow spread and flow

The apparatus consists of a U-shaped box, as shown in

Table 3.14—Precision of V-funnel flow time