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    DNA and RNA Perform Different Functions

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    Tamanda Sekar
    DNA functions to store genetic information that determines the structure and function of cells. DNA exists in two forms - prokaryotic DNA exists as a single chromosome while eukaryotic DNA is organized into multiple linear chromosomes. DNA is made of nucleotides containing nitrogenous bases, a pentose sugar, and phosphate groups. Nucleotides are linked by phosphodiester bonds to form the DNA backbone. The DNA double helix proposed by Watson and Crick explained how genetic information is stored and replicated in the form of base pair sequences along the DNA backbone.

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    DNA and RNA Perform Different Functions

    Uploaded by

    Tamanda Sekar
    35 views16 pages
    DNA functions to store genetic information that determines the structure and function of cells. DNA exists in two forms - prokaryotic DNA exists as a single chromosome while eukaryotic DNA is organized into multiple linear chromosomes. DNA is made of nucleotides containing nitrogenous bases, a pentose sugar, and phosphate groups. Nucleotides are linked by phosphodiester bonds to form the DNA backbone. The DNA double helix proposed by Watson and Crick explained how genetic information is stored and replicated in the form of base pair sequences along the DNA backbone.

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    Catatan Biologi Sel

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    Biologi Sel

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    DNA functions to store genetic information that determines the structure and function of cells. DNA exists in two forms - prokaryotic DNA exists as a single chromosome while eukaryotic DNA is organized into multiple linear chromosomes. DNA is made of nucleotides containing nitrogenous bases, a pentose sugar, and phosphate groups. Nucleotides are linked by phosphodiester bonds to form the DNA backbone. The DNA double helix proposed by Watson and Crick explained how genetic information is stored and replicated in the form of base pair sequences along the DNA backbone.

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    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as docx, pdf, or txt
    35 views16 pages

    DNA and RNA Perform Different Functions

    Uploaded by

    Tamanda Sekar
    DNA functions to store genetic information that determines the structure and function of cells. DNA exists in two forms - prokaryotic DNA exists as a single chromosome while eukaryotic DNA is organized into multiple linear chromosomes. DNA is made of nucleotides containing nitrogenous bases, a pentose sugar, and phosphate groups. Nucleotides are linked by phosphodiester bonds to form the DNA backbone. The DNA double helix proposed by Watson and Crick explained how genetic information is stored and replicated in the form of base pair sequences along the DNA backbone.

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    of 16

    DNA : The Structure of chromosomes and genes

    1. DNA and RNA perform different functions


    What is DNA ?
    • DNAs are extremely long molecules
    • DNAs consisting of deoxyribonucleotides
    • DNAs are double-stranded

    DNA – in prokaryotic cells


    The chromosome of prokaryotic cell is a single large DNA molecule, tightly bunched into a
    nuclear zone or nucleoid (Prokaryotes do not possess a membrane surrounding the genetic
    material)

    DNA – in eukaryotic cells


    • Eukaryotic cells contain many DNA molecules, each generally much larger than the
    single DNA molecule in prokaryotes.
    • DNA molecules in eukaryotes are combined with protein and organized into chromatin
    fiber in the nucleus, which is surrounded by a complex double-membrane system.

    DNA – in virus
    • Virus contains nucleic acid as their genetic material, some contain DNA and some RNA
    • Viral nucleic acid code for the characteristic proteins found in viral particles also for
    certain enzymes required for replication of the virus in its host cell.
    DNA functions
    • To store the complete genetic information required to specify the structure of all
    proteins and RNAs of each
    • To program in time and space the orderly biosynthesis of cell and tissue component
    • To determine the activities of an organism
    • To determine the individuality of a given organisms
    What is RNA?
    • Ribonucleic acid consist of long string of ribonucleotides
    • Three major classes of RNA are messenger RNA (mRNA), Transfer RNA (tRNA), and
    ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
    Messenger RNA (mRNA)
    • Functions as a template
    • Template used by ribosomes for the translation of the genetic information into the
    amino acid sequences of proteins.

    Transfer RNA (tRNA)


    • Consist of a single strand of ribonucleotides
    • Each tRNA contains a specific trinucleotide sequence called its anticodon,
    complementary to a codon

    Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)


    • The major component of ribosomes and constitute up to 65% of their weight
    • There are three kinds of rRNA in prokaryotic and four kinds in eukaryotic ribosomes.
    • rRNA play an important role in the structure and biosynthetic function of ribosomes.
    There are two additional kinds of RNAs in eukaryotic cells :
    1. Heterogeneous nuclear RNAs (hnRNAs), nuclear precursors of mRNAs
    2. Small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs), participate in RNA processing
    Small nuclear RNAs aid in removing intron RNA
    2. The nucleotide units of DNA and RNA have characteristic bases and
    pentoses
    The Nucleotide Units of DNA and RNA
    1. Nitrogenous base
    2. A pentose
    3. Phosphoric acids linked

    The principal pyrimidine and purine bases and pentoses of DNA and RNA
    The structure of the parent compounds pyrimidine and purine

    The deoxyribonucleotide units of DNA in free form at pH 7.0


    DNA also contains some minor bases :
    • Methylated form of the principal bases
    • Hydroxymethylated or glucosylated in some viral DNA.
    • Also found in RNAs, especially in tRNAs
    3. Phospho-diester bonds link the successive nucleotides on nucleic acid
    Phosphodiester bonds link
    • The successive nucleotides of both DNA and RNA are covalently linked to each other
    through phosphate-group bridge
    • Phosphate and pentose group of nucleic acid (DNA and RNA) are highly polar, since the
    phosphate group are acidic and have negative charge at the pH of the cell wall
    • Purine and pirimidine bases are hydrophobic

    The covalent backbone structures of DNA and RNA


    • The internucleotide linkage both of DNA and RNA can be chemically cleaved by
    hydrolysis and enzymatically by nucleases
    Several types of nuclease and their function :
    • Endonuclease – hydrolyze linkage between two adjacent nucleotides at internal
    positions in DNA or RNA strand
    • Exonuclease – hydrolyze only the terminal nucleotide linkage, some at the 5’ and other
    at the 3’ end
    • Deoxyribonuclease – specific for hydrolysis DNA
    • Ribonuclease – specific for hydrolysis RNA
    4. DNA store genetic information
    The history of DNA
    1. Friedrich Miescher (Swiss Biologist) – isolated phosphorous containing substance
    called nuclein from nuclei of white blood cells or leukocytes, which consist of acidic
    portion which we know to day as DNA, and a basic portion, contributed by protein
    2. The Avery-Macleod-McCarty experiment (1943)
    3. Hersey-Chase experiment (1952)

    5. DNAs different species have distinctive base composition


    Conclusion of Erwin Chargaff and his colleagues (Columbia University, 1940)
    1. DNA specimen isolated from different tissues of the same species have the same base
    composition
    2. The base composition of DNA varies from one species to another
    3. The base composition of DNA in a given species does not change with age of the
    organism, its nutritional stage, or changes in its environment.
    4. A = T and G = C, the sum of the purine residues equals the sum of the pyrimidine
    residues;
    A+G=T+C
    6. Watson and Crick postulated a double-helix model of DNA structure

    7. The base-sequence of DNA constitutes a template


    Sequences A, T, G and C are the symbols for coding the genetic information. The sequence
    functions as a template for DNA replication. Template needed for the precise replication,
    transcription, and translation of genetic information. Replication of DNA during cell division
    was postulated by Watson and Crick.
    Replication of DNA as Suggested by Watson and Crick

    8. Double-helical DNA may undergo denaturation of unwinding


    9. DNA strands from two different species can perform DNA-DNA hybrids
    Single strand of DNA from different species can hybrid each other when they have
    complementary segment.
    10. Some physical properties of double helical DNAs reflect the proportion of G=C
    versus A=T pairs
     The transition from the native duplex DNA into coiled denatures form can be detected
    by an increase in the absorption of ultraviolet light or a decrease in the viscosity of the
    DNA solution.
     Melting point – a characteristic denaturation temperature
     Buoyant density – can be used to calculated the portion of G ≡ C and A = T

    11. Native DNA molecules are very fragile


     Native DNA molecules are very fragile
     Native DNA molecules are so large that they are not readily isolated in intact form,
    since they are easily broken into fragments by mechanical shear forces (stirring,
    pipetting)
    12. Viral DNA molecules are relatively small
    Viral DNA Molecules
    • Relatively small
    • Table : The DNAs of some bacterial viruses
    • + since the complete base sequence of the ΦX174 (duplex form) is known, this figure is
    the exact number of base pairs

    13. The chromosomes of prokaryotic cells are single, very large DNA molecules
    The chromosomes of prokaryote cells (DNA in an E. coli cell)
    • A single – very large molecule
    • Double stranded circle
    • Molecular weight of about 2600 million
    • Contains about 4 million base pairs
    • Has a contour length of about 1400 um = 1.4 mm (700 times the length of the cell, 2
    um)
    • DNA molecules very tightly bunched or coiled

    14. Circular DNAs are supercoiled


     Circular viral DNAs are super-coiled or supertwisted
     Endonuclease – attack super-coiled DNA
     Topoisomerases – regulate the degree of supercoiling by introducing or removing
    super-twist
    15. Some bacteria also contain DNA in the form of plasmids
    What is plasmids?

     Extra-chromosomal DNA
     Very small
     Carry genetic information
     Can be isolated from bacterial cells
     Important in a genetic engineering
    16. Eukaryotic cells contain much more DNA than prokaryotes
     Eukaryotic cells contain much more DNA than prokaryotes

     The genetic material of eukaryote cell is subdivided into chromosomes

     Eukaryotic DNAs are linier

     Each chromosome in eukaryotes carrier a unique set of genes

     Genome

    17. Eukaryotic chromosomes consist of chromatin fibers


     Chromatin

     Histones

     Nucleosomes
    18. Histone are small basic protein
    What is histone?

     Molecular weights of histone are between 11.000 – 21.000

     Very rich in the basic amino acids (arginine and lysine)

     Have a positive charge at pH 7

    19. DNA-histone complexes form beadlike nucleosomes

    Levels of chromatin structure: loops (100 kbp), fibers, nucleosomes


    • DNA –histone complexes form beadlike nucleosomes

    • Nucleosomes are structural units of chromatin, largely serving a packaging function

    20. Eukaryotic cells also contain cytoplasmic DNA


     Mitochondria DNA (mDNA) – DNA in the cytoplasm localized in the mitochondria

     Chloroplast of photosynthetic cells also contain DNA

    21. Genes are segments of DNA that code for polypeptide chains and RNAs
    Genes

     Segments of DNA that code for polypeptide chains and RNAs

     One gene – one protein, one gene one enzyme, one gene one polypeptide

     Structural genes

     Regulatory sequence

     There are many genes in a single chromosomes

    22. There are many genes in a single chromosomes


    23. How large are genes?
    The genes that code for tRNAs are much smaller than those for polypeptide, since each
    nucleotide unit of tRNA is coded by a single nucleotide of DNA
    24. Bacterial DNA is protected by restriction-modification systems
     Modification methylase

     Restriction endonuclease

    EcoR1 Recognition Site

    25. Eukaryotic DNA contains base sequences that are repeated many times
     Highly repetitive segments

     Moderately repetitive

     Non repeated segments

     Satellite DNA – non translated segments

    26. A few eukaryotic genes occur in multiple copies


    Most of eukaryotic genes occur in only single copies, but a few genes occur in multiple
    copies.

    27. Eukaryotic DNA has many palindromes


     Polindromes - inverted repetition

     Long polindromes has potential to form cruciform loops by base pairing within each
    strand

    Secondary Structure
    28. Many eukaryotic genes contain intervening non-transcribed sequences (intron)
     Intron – intervening sequences = non translate DNA segments in genes

     Exons – the coding segment of the genes

    29. The base sequences of some DNAs have been determined


    Basic approaches to determining for sequencing DNAs :

    • Chain termination method by Sanger and his colleagues

    • Chemical method by Maxam and Gilbert

    Isolation of DNA

    UV Absorbance of DNA
    Fluorescent Dye for DNA

    Density Gradient Centrifugation

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