INTER-PICTORIAL ENCOUNTER:

JESUITS BIBLICAL ART & INDIAN MINIATURE PAINTING

Raman P.Sinha

The cover page shows Mughal Emperor Akbar (r. 1556-1605) holds a religious assembly
in the Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) in Fatehpur Sikri; the two men dressed in black
are the Jesuit missionaries Rodolfo Acquaviva and Francisco Henriques. Illustration of
the Akbarnama, miniature painting by Nar Singh, ca. 1605

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The Mughal painting…showed that it was still possible to found a new art
on the basis of the old traditions: foreign influences were, not perhaps
easily, but at last effectually, assimilated, and the result was a new
and great art, which…is truly original.
Anand.K.Commaraswamy.1
1
The Mughal art came across European paintings, prints, engravings and
other decorative arts in early 1570s.2One of the member of first Jesuit
mission to the Mughal court (1580-1583), Anthony Monserrate noted the
presence of European art on the wall of royal dining-hall at their arrival in
Fatehpur sikri.3It is believed that the first European paintings that reached
Akbar’s court were large oil paintings of Mary, the mother of Jesus. Mary
was a known figure in Akbar’s court. She is the only woman mentioned by
name in the Qur’an, and Akbar’s mother was named Maryam, the Arabic form
of the name Mary. This mission had presented a copy of Jesuits' Bible to
Akbar that was Plantyn’s Royal Polyglot Bible with illustration done by some
Flemish painter of the school of Quintin Matsys (1466-1530) and P.Huys. It
is reported that when Akbar received this Bible, “he held them in his hands
and publicly kissed them, and placed them on his head....” A Jesuit priest
observed Akbar's behaviour in following words: removing his cap or turban,
kneeling on the ground with great devotion, he prayed before the picture of
Christ and of the Virgin, venerating thrice, once in our manner, the other in
that of the Muslims and the third in the Hindu fashion, that is to say,
prostrate, saying that God should be adored with every form of adoration.4
This Jesuit mission had also introduced some western paintings of post-

1.Coomaraswamy, Anand k., Art & swadeshi, New Delhi, Munshiram Manoharlal Pvt
Ltd.second edition 1994, pp.79-80
2. The first wave of European prints dating from the 1540s must have arrived with Francis Xavier who
was sent to India in 1542, or subsequently some of his Jesuit brothers who joined him in Goa after
1555. Some of these mid-sixteenth century prints were probably acquired by the Mughal embassy to
Goa in 1575. The second wave, dating from the latter part of the century must have arrived at the
Mughal court with the three Jesuit missions, the first in 1580, the second in 1591, and the third in
1595.
3. Correia-Afonso, John,( ed.), Letters from the Mughal court: the first Jesuit mission to Akbar,
1580-1583, Bombay: Gujarat Sahitya Prakash, Anand, 1980, p76.
4. Mac lagan, Edward Douglas, The Jesuits and the Great Mogul ,Burns, Oates & Washbourne, London,
1932, pp. 227-8

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renaissance period, especially Flemish art of Antwerp school and the work
of Johann Sadeler(1550-1600), Hieronymus Wierix (1553 – 1619),Raphael
sadeler(1555-1618)and Theodar Galle(1571-1633)---- these were

Madonna and infant Jesus

Mughal, (http://www.tribuneindia.com/2005/20051225/spectrum/main2.htm

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subsequently copied and adapted in Mughal miniature paintings and murals
by the court artists of Akbar (r. 1556-1605), and later Jahangir (r. 1605-
1627) and Shah Jahan (r. 1628-1657)at Fatehpur Sikri, Agra, Lahore and
Delhi. In 1580, Akbar allowed Portuguese Jesuit priests from Goa to set up
a chapel in his palace; there they exhibited two paintings of the Madonna
and Child before a large and excited crowd.
Douglas Galbi in his work, “Sense in Communication" describes this event in
following words: “This one was a copy of the Madonna del Popolo,
a hodigitria that Pope Gregory IX presented to a church in Rome in 1231.
Ten thousand persons came in one day in 1602 to see the painting. A great
captain, “accompanied by more than sixty men on horseback,” came to see
the painting. Although he had already seen other hodigitria, Akbar asked
that the painting be brought to him. He kept it overnight in his “sleeping
apartment,” where his wives and children lived. Soon thereafter Akbar’s
mother requested that the painting be brought to her, and so did other
socially and politically important persons. The painting became a crowd
attraction and a performance piece.” 5Du Jarrics describes this incidence in
this way:” A great crowd of people had assembled in the palace yard in the
hope of being able to see the picture…seeing that they would be able to
satisfy so large a number of persons at one time, [the Jesuit priests] placed
it where all could see it and publicly uncovered it. The moment it was
exposed to view, the noise and clamor of the crowded courtyard was hushed
as if by magic, and the people gazed on the picture in unbroken silence.” 6
Subsequent Portuguese clerics found that the gospel books brought by their
predecessors had led to murals of Christ, his mother and the Christian
saints being painted on the walls not only of the palace but also on Mughal
tombs and caravanserais:"[The emperor] has painted images of Christ our
Lord and our Lady in various places in the palace," wrote one Jesuit father,
"and there are so many saints that (...) you would say it was more like the
palace of a Christian king than a Moorish one." 7
2

5. www.galbithink.org
6. Du Jarric Pierre, Akbar and the Jesuits,(ed.), E. Denison Ross and Eileen Power, New
Delhi ,Tulshi Publishing House, ,1979, p. 168.
7. http://www.newstatesman.com/200512190021

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woodcuts, silk and woolen tapestries, illustrated books , etc. Later, Flemish
copper engravings were also introduced----it affected the current painting

An European in Mughal India,

ca. 1590
http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O17478/watercolour-portrait-of-a-european/

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Scenario of the Imperial Studio mainly in two ways: firstly some European
painting and person found their ways directly into their canvas along with
some biblical themes and secondly their style of presentation somehow
changed.There are few paintings where European paintings are shown hung
on the wall of the depicted palace and in some work European characters are
independently delineated.

Jahangir holding the picture of Madonna,

circa 1620 A.D.,
National Museum, New Delhi

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It is said that when Indian artists made copies and adapted versions of the
western paintings, prints and engravings their subject-matter and the very
grammar of their art gradually started changing. Not only Scenes from the
life of Christ like Nativity, Adoration of Magi, Flight to Egypt, Crucifixion,
Deposition, Christ and the Apostles, and Christian saints, The Madonna and
Child and Virgin Mary, European type winged angels or cherubs playing
musical instruments, became popular subjects of their canvases and murals
but the very prominent Mughal artists like Kesu Das, Basawan, Govardhan,
Payag, Bichitra and Abu ul Hasan etc had started giving the prominence in
their oeuvres, of never tested before aerial perspective and modeling,
spatial depth and chiaroscuro effect, use of full faces and frontal poses,
subdued colour of hazy landscapes and overall a kind of humanist approach.
The Madonna and Child and Virgin Mary were very popular subjects in the
Mughal court. A Madonna and Child by Kesu shows a very Baroque treatment
of drapery and the tree. Scenes from the life of Christ like Nativity,
Adoration of Magi, flight to Egypt, Crucifixion, deposition, Christ and the
apostles, and Christian saints were depicted not only in the Mughal
miniatures but also in the royal palaces. One scholar notes: “European
visitors to the palaces and tombs of the emperors of Mughal India (“Mogor”
in Portugese) between the 1590s and 1660s were amazed to find them
prominently adorned with mural paintings depicting Christ, the Virgin Mary,
and Christian saints executed in the style of the Late Renaissance. To their
astonishment, they also discovered Mughal artists at work on large numbers
of miniature paintings, exquisite jewelry, and sculptures of the same
subjects – including many which were apparently even being used as
devotional images.” 8 Mirat ul Quds (The Mirror of Holiness), one of the most
precious illuminated manuscripts of Lahore Museum and a masterpiece of
Akbar’s time, consists eleven miniatures depicting the life of Christ in the
Mughal mannerism with an influence of European traditions and Christian
Symbolism.
3

8. Bailey, Gauvin A., Art on the Jesuit missions in Asia and Latin America, 1542-1773,
Toronto ,University of Toronto Press, 1999, p. 112

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Crucifixion
By Keshu Das
http://www.flickr.com/photos/22955235@N00/1239254680/in/set-72157600028124617

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The last Supper, School of Shah Jahan,
Bharat Kala Bhavan, Banaras,
Acc, no, 690 M

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10
Adam, c.first half of the 17th century,
Chester Beatty Library, Dublin.
http://www.cbl.ie/cbl_image_gallery/collection/list.aspx?collectionId=2

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A crucifixion, with the Virgin and Saint Anne, from Akbar's court,
c.1600; in the collection of the Aga Khan Museum
http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/1500_1599/akbar/europeanart/europeanart.html

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The Deposition from the Cross, Unknown, c.1598, Mughal, Watercolour,
Gold, ink on paper,
Victoria and Albert Museum, London

http://www.conniemadson.com/artmovements/09%20islamic%20and%20mughal%20art.html

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Madonna with Infant Jesus
Unattributed ,17th century,Mughal , Prince of Wales Museum of western India.
http://www.chapatimystery.com/archives/homistan/postcolonial_skins.html

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Madonna and Christ c18th Century,
Pahadi style,
http://www.mullocksauctions.co.uk/lot-41541-
india_%E2%80%93_mughal_painting_of_christ_c18th_century.html
The exposure to European artistic traditions began to blend in with the
Mughal style and typical miniature repertoire of court scenes, portraits of
royalty, hunting parties and musical soirees were started changing. European

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characteristics like aerial perspective, spatial depth, chiaroscuro effect, use
of full faces, frontal poses, subdued colour and overall so called humanist
approach were very much evident in the work of prominent Mughal artists
like Kesu Das, Basawan, Govardhan, Payag, Bichitr and Abu ul Hasan etc.
Their portraits of dervishes, Sufis and philosophers need special mention in
this regard. It is also worth noting the fact what Som Prakash Verma
formulates:”The Mughal artist, under the influence of Renaissance humanist
movement in art added a new chapter in Indian art which is neither a direct
continuation of the pre-Islamic Indian traditions and nor explicitly Persian.
The Mughal painting, eclectic in character, evolved with the interaction of
various traditions, predominantly Indian Persian and European. The context
of naturalism, scientific perspective, and chiaroscuro—contrasts in light and
shade in Mughal painting is the gift of humanism as practiced by the
European artists of Renaissance.” 9
One of the most prominent painters of Akbar's atelier and also one of the
Jahangir’s favourite early artists was Kesu Das. He is well known for his
highly skilled copies of European engravings; especially of Minerva, St
Jerome10, the story of Joseph11, St. Matthew and the angel &
Crucifixion12.As it was pointed out by one critic,” His picture ‘St Mathew and
the angel’, executed in 1587-8, was based on a print of an engraving by Philip
Galle after Martin van Heemskrek ‘St Mathew the Evangelist’ and is almost
European in character. In his copy, the Mughal painter has successfully
delineated the folds in the robes of the saint and the facial expression in his
figure.Kesavdas’s picture ‘Joseph telling his dream to his father’ (c.1600),
based on an engraving by George Pencz, dated 1544, is another outstanding
Mughal copy of a European work revealing the artist’s full control on
European technique and style. In his picture of St Jerome adopted from
Mario Cartaro’s print of an engraving of Michelangelo’s Noah from Sistine
chapel, Kesavdas’s understanding of the subject is explicit in the rendering
of the muscular modeling close to the style of Michelangelo. Bailey observes
that Kesavdas has excelled here. In fact, the pulsating flesh of his image is
more Michelangelesque than the Italian engraving he copied.” 13 4

9. Som Prakash Verma, Interpreting Mughal Painting, New Delhi, Oxford University Press,
second Impression 2011, p103
10. See Amiuna Okada, Imperial Mughal Painters, Paris, 1992, pl.100, p.97
11. See, Milo Cleveland Beach, The Grand Mogul: Imperial Painting in India 1600-1660,
12. See, Illustrated in J.M. Rogers, Mughal Miniatures, London, 1993, pl.44, p.68
13. Som Prakash Verma, ibid, p114

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St. Matthew and the angel
Kesu Das
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Matthew

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Minerva
Kesu Das,
http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/1500_1599/akbar/europeanart/europeanart.html
Besides Kesu Basawan was another insightful painter of his time and his skill
and independence in copying European engravings and Christian iconography
is very clear in two drawings published in Imperial Mughal Painters14.
Basawan’s Minerva is quite different from the original in some radical way.
The treatment of the young woman's cloak, which rises above her shoulder
and her hand position, is depicted very different from the original .15

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Minerva
Basavan,c.1600,
http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/1500_1599/akbar/europeanart/europeanart.html

___________________________________________________________________________________-
14. Amina Okada, Imperial Mughal Painters, Paris, 1992, nos. 89 and 90, p. 89
15. An European-style Minerva stands on a pedestal, holding a string instrument and chain, confronted
by a baby and surrounded by various articles including a book and a ewer, a later inscription to the
bottom of the drawing reads Ustad Basawan or 'Master Basawan', laid down with pale green and pink
margins illuminated with gold flowers and gold, red and blue margins with blue rule on blue tinted
paper, with gold wildlife on a leafy ground, a short note below, lower margin an inscription
contemporary with the signature, verso with four diagonal lines of flowing nasta'liq signed Muhammad
Husayn [Zarrin Qalam] similarly margined, ruled and mounted, small localized areas of repair.
Miniature 7 x 3½in. (17.8 x 8.9cm); Folio 14½ x 9 3/8in. (36.8 x 23.8cm.) A note in the lower margin,
presumably intended for the binder, translates 'Facing the [painting] of the woman holding a baby in
her arm'. Minerva. Mughal India, Drawing ascribed to Basawan, Calligraphy by Muhammad Husayn
Zarrin Qalam, Circa 1600. Album leaf, brush drawing on paper,

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Traditionally Minerva is shown with a spear in her hand but Basavwan
portrays her with a string instrument, perpaps Rabab or veena in her hand
but as in original she is shown here also standing in front of books. It is
rightly emphasized that “In the context of the rendering of symbolic
images, Basawan, a prolific painter of Akbar’s court, was the foremost. He

The Virgin and Child, Basawan, Mughal

around 1590,
Opaque watercolor and gold on paper. 16 x 10 inches (40 x 24.7 cm),
Edward Binney 3rd Collection."
http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/1500_1599/akbar/europeanart/europeanart.html

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Showed a fascination for European emblematic picture/figures, and
exhibited considerable ingenuity in their adaptation by introducing some
alterations suitable to the taste of the Mughal court.” 16

Jahangir Preferring a Sufi Shaikh to Kings,

Bichitr (act. 1615–50) India, Mughal period.
Opaque watercolor, gold, and ink on paper.
Smithsonian Institution, Washington D.C.
http://resobscura.blogspot.com/2011/02/jahangirs-turkey-early-modern.html
______________________________________________________________________________________
16. Verma, Som Prakash, ibid, p109

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 detail from a watercolor painting created in 1618
by Bichitr for the Mughal emperor Jahangir(1569-1627).
Here we find the strange juxtaposition of James I and VI of England (1566-1625)
http://resobscura.blogspot.com/2011/02/jahangirs-turkey-early-modern.html

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This Mughal painting evidences a European influence, as illustrated in the
naked cupids and the image of King James I of England, with the haloed
emperor sitting on an hourglass throne. It depicts the ruler as favoring
spiritual power over worldly power and moreover to hallow him artist tried
to give him some kind of metaphysical authority. It is also to be noted that,”

Emperor Jahangir,
Bichitr, Triumphing Over Poverty, ca 1620-1625
http://collectionsonline.lacma.org/mwebcgi/mweb.exe?request=record;id=37429;type=101
The symbolic representation of God in human form in the Mughal School is
almost certainly derived from European pictures connected with the episode
of Crucifixion, where God’s portrayal in a full-fledged human form emerged

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during the fifteenth century. An application of this European symbol in the
delineation of the emblematic pictures of the Mughal emperors is
significant, since it suggests their own link with divinity.Undoubtedly, the

The King Carried Away by a Giant Bird – The Story of the Princess of the
Black Pavilion, by Dharmdasa
From the Khamsa of Nizami, Painting on paper
British Library Or. 12, 208, 1593-95,30x19.5 cms (http://asianart.com/articles/minissale/5.html)

representation of God in human form in imperial Mughal painting was a bold

step by the artists. We know that in Islamic paintings, there is always a
restraint in this regard, albeit without any inhibition in case of the portrayal
of the prophets. The application of European symbols, namely, the halo,

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angels, cherubs, and God the father in Mughal portraits added an air of
spirituality to the picture…”17
The influence of European technique of painting is also very much evident in
the use of stereoscopic perspective and Sfumato and this is certainly a
decisive break with the earlier techniques of Persian painting where figures
near the horizon differ little in size from those in the foreground and
where objects appear stacked, one upon another.

An Angel Conversing with a Group of Europeans

Mughal; c. 1610
Miniature: 17.9 × 9.5 cm,
http://www.davidmus.dk/en/collections/islamic/materials/miniatures/art/6-1981
__________________________________________________________________________________
17, ibid

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In this curious miniature, which is a free paraphrase of an engraving by the
German artist Georg Pencz, the Indian artist endeavored to render the
domed building with linear perspective, without much success. However he
did a better job at using aerial perspective, in which the intensity of the
colors decreases as distance increases.

Shapur Brings Khusrau News ofShirin

Dharmdasa
From the Khamsa of Nizami, f. 52a
Painting on paper
British Library Or. 12,208
1593-95,30x19.5 cms ( http://asianart.com/articles/minissale/4.html)

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Another technique that Mughal painter had imported from European masters
is“Sfumato”, that may be defined as the deliberate blurring of a line or
contour to make an object seem to disappear in the distance, or to add a
soft-focus effect to a face or body in the foreground. In the Khamsa, this
technique is used in conjunction with another technique, that of painting
distant landscape in pale blue in order to create the appearance of distance
through gradual shifts of colour from dark to pale tones towards the
horizon. Many of the engravings found in Mughal possession excel in the
technique of modeling – using light and dark tones to depict the direction of
light in order to conjure up the illusion of three dimensions. This is seen best
in the modeling of cloth. European engravings provided clear models of the
principle of establishing the direction of light. Although there
are several examples of Mughal artists rendering the light and shade of
folds of cloth in the Khamsa manuscript, the most impressive study appears
in Shapur Brings Khusrau News of shirin here, the curtains of the tent show
the Mughal artist’s masterful use of the European technique of modeling and
a new interest in using colours to depict light and shade, rather than solely
as areas in an overall chromatic structure. 18
Since Indian miniature painting had a long and living tradition of assimilating
different streams of conventions related with Jains, Buddhists, Rajputs and
Persian origins; the new element of European traditions also got assimilated
with passing of times. The eclectic tastes of the Mughal rulers also played a
crucial role as it gave rise to the use of various sources for artistic
persuasions among the court painters. Alongside illustrations of a few
classics of Iranian literature, they also encouraged or commissioned the
copying of great illustrated works of Indian culture like of Ramayana and
Mahabharata. No wonder they were very proud and possessive about their
artists and their patronage were extended to them across the cast, creed or
religion. It is clearly reflected in the off quoted incidence of Thomas Roe
with Jahangir “a picture of a friend of mine that I esteemed very much, and
was for curiosity rare, which I would give His Majesty as a present". When
the moment for making the presentation finally came, the Emperor "took
extreme content, showing it to every man near him: at last sent for his chief
painter, demanding his opinion. The fool answered he could make as good,
whereat the King turned to me, saying my man sayeth he can do the like and
18. Minissale, Gregory The Synthesis of European and Mughal Art in the Emperor Akbar’s Khamsa of
Nizami, (http://www.asianart.com/articles/minissale/)

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as well as this: what vow?" A wager was set, the painting handed over to the
imperial painter, and on the day appointed the King sent for me, being hasty
to triumph in his workman, and showed me six pictures, five made by his man,
all pasted on one table, so like that I was by candle light troubled to discern
which was which "for that at first sight I knew it not, he (the Emperor) was
very merry and joyful and cracked like a northern man." 19
Recent scholarship tries to explain Mughal-Christian intercultural relations
with culturally specific representations and narratives. This scholarship
analyses interest in Christian imagery as a matter of appropriating
representations:”They interpreted missionary art on their own terms and
used images of Christian saints and angels to proclaim a message based on
Islamic, Sufi, and Hindu symbolism and linked with Persian poetic metaphor.
…Far from being alien to Indo-Islamic culture, these figures carried a rich
range of associations for their Mughal audience and communicated messages
related to moral leadership, divine guidance, and royal
genealogy. Contemporary texts show that Mughal panegyrists openly alluded
to both figures in prose and poetry to promote their leaders’ rights to rule.
It naturally follows that Mughal artists encoded the same meaning into
portraits of these holy figures.” 20 But it may be perceived in different way
also as it was argued that,” It is hard to say to what degree catholic thought
influenced the Mughal’s own attitudes to the figural arts, but since the two
cultures already shared similar horizons of expectation due to ideas that
derived from a common Neoplatonic cultural heritage, it was probably more a
case of concurrence than influence.” 21

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

19. Foster, W. (ed.)The Embassy of Sir Thomas Roe to India 1615-19, Delhi,Munshiram Manoharlal
Publishers, 1990
20. Bailey, ibid, p. 37.
21. Bailey, Gauvin Alexander, The Indian Conquest of Catholic Art: The Mughals,the Jesuits,
and Imperial Mural Painting, Art Journal,vol 57,No.1,spring 1998,p.26

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___________________________________________________________________________
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
____________________________________________________________________

I hereby acknowledge with gratitude National Museum, New Delhi, Bharat Kala Bhavan,
Varanasi and the following web sites for the reproduction of the painting in this article:
http://www.asianart.com/articles/minissale/;( http://asianart.com/articles/minissale/4.html;
http://www.davidmus.dk/en/collections/islamic/materials/miniatures/art/6-1981;
(http://asianart.com/articles/minissale/5.html;
http://collectionsonline.lacma.org/mwebcgi/mweb.exe?request=record;id=37429;type=101
http://resobscura.blogspot.com/2011/02/jahangirs-turkey-early-modern.html
http://resobscura.blogspot.com/2011/02/jahangirs-turkey-early-modern.html
http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/1500_1599/akbar/europeanart/europeanart.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Matthew
http://www.mullocksauctions.co.uk/lot-41541-
india_%E2%80%93_mughal_painting_of_christ_c18th_century.html
http://www.chapatimystery.com/archives/homistan/postcolonial_skins.html
http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/1500_1599/akbar/europeanart/europeanart.html
http://www.cbl.ie/cbl_image_gallery/collection/list.aspx?collectionId=2
http://www.flickr.com/photos/22955235@N00/1239254680/in/set-72157600028124617
http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O17478/watercolour-portrait-of-a-european/
http://www.tribuneindia.com/2005/20051225/spectrum/main2.htm
http://www.conniemadson.com/artmovements/09%20islamic%20and%20mughal%20art.html
http://www.conniemadson.com/artmovements/09%20islamic%20and%20mughal%20art.html

Raman P.Sinha
Assistant Professor
Centre OF Indian Languages
Jawaharlal Nehru University
New Delhi---110067
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