Class 10: Best-fitting ellipsoid

GISC-3325
16 February 2010
 The Sphere
 Sphere can be used as a first approximation to
the geoid.
 Fits well locally
 Globally it is a poor approximation.
 Difference between equatorial and polar radius:
21km
 Ellipsoid
 Rotational or biaxial ellipsoid is a good
approximation both locally and globally.
 Distance between the geoid and best-fitting ellipsoid
does not exceed 100 meters.
 Its geometry is relatively simple and so are the
computations on the ellipsoidal surface.
 Ellipsoid Characteristics
• All parallels are still circles on the ellipse
– Each is successively smaller moving to poles.
• We can calculate lengths and areas with
additional difficulty due to the convergence
of meridians.
• Most computations do not have “closed
forms” - they require iteration.
 Complications
• Ellipsoid does not possess a constant radius
of curvature.
• Radii of curvature are dependent on latitude
only.
• Two radii are of interest
– Meridian
– Prime Vertical
THE GEOID AND TWO ELLIPSOIDS
THE GEOID AND TWO ELLIPSOIDS

CLARKE 1866

GEOID
 THE GEOID AND TWO ELLIPSOIDS

CLARKE 1866
GRS80-WGS84

Earth Mass Approximately

Center 236 meters

GEOID
 NAD 83 and ITRF / WGS 84

NAD 83
ITRF / WGS 84

Earth Mass
2.2 m (3-D)
Center
dX,dY,dZ

GEOID
 Ellipsoid - geometric
 Can be defined purely in terms of its geometric
parameters: two semi-axes a and b or one
semi-axis and the flattening.

a = semi-major axis
b = semi-minor axis
 THE ELLIPSOID
MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF THE EARTH
 THE ELLIPSOID
MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF THE EARTH

S
 THE ELLIPSOID
MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF THE EARTH

S
 THE ELLIPSOID
MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF THE EARTH

S
 THE ELLIPSOID
MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF THE EARTH

S a = Semi major axis

b = Semi minor axis
f = a-b = Flattening
a
 Geometric Parameters

 a = semi-major axis length

 b = semi-minor axis length
 f = flattening = (a-b)/a
 e = first eccentricity = √((a2-b2)/a2) alternately
e2 = (a2-b2)/a2
 e’ = second eccentricity = √((a2-b2)/b2)
 Ellipsoid - Physical
 Takes into account the gravity potential of the
surface and external to it.
 Additional parameters used to define the
reference gravity potential (U):
 Mass of the Earth
 Rotation rate
 Resulting gravity on the surface of the Earth is
called normal gravity
 GRS 80 defines geometry and physical.
 Ellipsoidal Surface as
Equipotential Surface
• Originates from reference surface potential U.
• Ellipsoid height (h) can be expressed as a
function of U and N (geoid height) as a
function of the potential difference.
• Orthometric height (H) are a function of the
gravity potential W(x,y,z)
• The disturbing potential (T) = W – U
– N = f(W-U) = f(T)
 Ellipsoid Models in U.S.
• Clarke Spheroid of 1866
– a = 6,378,206.4 m
– b = 6,356,583.8 m
• Geodetic Reference System of 1980
– a = 6,378,137.0 m
– 1/f = 298.257222101
• Where a = semi-major, b = semi-minor and
1/f is inverse of flattening.
 Best-fitting ellipsoid
 An ellipsoid satisfying the condition that the
deviations between the geoid and ellipsoid (in a
global sense) are minimized.
 Computed by least squares methods.
 Distance N between the geoid and best fitting
ellipsoid is called geoidal undulation and can be
computed from: N ≈ h – H
 Geoidal undulation ≈ ellipsoid height –
orthometric height
 N≈h-H

Where h is geometric and H is physical

Distance ae2 = a2 – b2
α= tan-1(ae/b)
Distance ae^2 = a^2-b^2 where (ae) is the
semi-major axis times eccentricity (e)
We extract eccentricity by dividing both sides
by a^2:
e^2 = (a^2-b^2)/a^2
 Three Latitudes
• Geodetic latitude included angle formed by the
intersection of the ellipsoid normal with the
major (equatorial) axis.
• Geocentric latitude included angle formed by
the intersection of the line extending from the
point on the ellipse to the origin of axes.
• Parametric (reduced) latitude is the included
angle formed by the intersection of a line
extending from the projection of a point on the
ellipse onto a concentric circle with radius = a
 Geodetic latitude
Geocentric latitude
Parametric latitude

Unlike the sphere, the

ellipsoid does not possess a
constant radius of curvature.
Comparison of latitudes
 Converting latitudes from geodetic
• Parametric latitude = arctan(√(1-e2)*tan(lat))
• Geocentric latitude = arctan( (1-e2)*tan(lat))
Radius of Curvature in Prime
Vertical
• N extends from the
minor axis to the
ellipsoid surface.
• N >= M
• It is contained in a
special normal
section that is
oriented 90 or 270
degrees to the
meridian.
 Geodesic
• Analogous to the great circle on the sphere in
that it represents the shortest distance
between two points on the surface of the
ellipsoid.
• Term representing the shortest distance
between any two points lying on the same
surface.
– On a plane: straight line
– On a sphere: great circle
 The Geodesic
• It is a generic term
referring to the
shortest surface
distance between any
two points on that
surface.
• Represents the
shortest distance
between two points on
the surface of the
ellipsoid.
 Direct and Inverse Problems
• Direct solution computes positions of a new
point given a known point, geodetic length
and azimuth
• Inverse determines length and azimuth
between two points.
• There are a number of approaches to
solving including Bowring’s detailed in text.
• We now have the NGS toolkit
 The NGS approach
• NGS programs INVERSE, FORWARD as well
as INVERS3D and FORWARD3D are based
on equations developed by T. Vincenty. (on
NGS toolkit)
• See:“Direct and Inverse Solutions of
Geodesics on the Ellipsoid with Application of
Nested Equations.”
– http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/PUBS_LIB/inverse.pdf
 Geodetic Perspectives
on the USPLS
• Land ordinance of 1785 authorized the U.S.
Public Land Survey System
– The surveyors…shall proceed to divide the said
territory into townships of six miles square, by
lines running due north and south, and others
crossing them at right angles…”
• USPLSS exists in 30 of the 50 states.
• Many rules and regulations are unique to
the system.
 Brief History
• T. Jefferson wanted to have surveys done
before land sold in new territories
• Didn’t want to continue with metes and
bounds.
• 1785 Ordinance called for townships of 36
one-mile square sections.
• Subsequent legislations established a section
as 640 acres.
– http://www.utexas.edu/depts/grg/huebner/
grg312/lect23.html
 How System Works
• 31 principal meridians and base lines
• Townships numbered N or S of baseline
• Ranges numbered E or W of principal
meridian
• Initially no allowance made for convergence
and accumulated error, later error placed in
N and W portions of township
• Each 6-mile square township divided into 36
sections.
• Each section may be subdivided into smaller
parcels
• Homestead Act of 1862 granted 160 acres
to head of household was based on PLSS.
• Periodically, due to convergence, township
lines were adjusted. Every 24 miles from
the baseline a standard parallel or correction
line is used to correct for longitudinal
convergence.
 Unfortunately, the
world is not square!
 How surveys were performed
• Lines oriented to true north
– Observed the sun using the altitude method
where time was not critical
– Based on known latitude, sun’s declination and
sun’s altitude at time of observation.
• Research by Mikhail and Anderson yielded a
probable standard deviation of +/- 10-15
seconds for these azimuths.
 More considerations
• Terrestrial observations done with respect to
the local direction of gravity.
– in other words, the latitude, longitude and
azimuth determined astronomically depend on
the local direction of gravity and hence refer to
the geoid.
• Astronomical observations were not reduced
to a reference ellipsoid.
– Precision of the measurements made many
issues moot.
 Squares
• Requirement that east-west lines cross at
right angles leads to concept of rhumb line.
– Rhumb line is a line on the earth’s surface that
intersects all meridians at the same angle i.e a
line of constant azimuth.
– Parallels of latitude are special rhumb lines that
meet each meridian at right angles and remain
equidistant from poles.
 Quadrangle
• The township defined by law as two
converging straight lines forming the east
west boundaries is not square.
• North boundary is shorter than south due to
convergence.
• “Correction lines” are used to address this
problem (placing a rectangular system over
a large area).
 Convergence
• Convergence is a systematic error because
it can be quantified.
• On the ellipsoid we can more precisely
estimate convergence.
• It is not the case that forward and backward
azimuths differ by 180 degrees exactly.
– back az = fwd az + 180d + convergence
 USPLSS characteristics
• Measured distances reduced to horizontal
NOT to reference ellipsoid.
• Astronomic observations used for
orientation. System non-orthogonal due to
convergence or meridians
• East-west lines of a township are not
parallel.
• Because of convergence a perfect traverse
would not close.