Civilization concept and meaning:

The meaning of the term civilization has changed several times during its history, and even
today it is used in several ways. It is commonly used to describe human societies "with a high
level of cultural and technological development", as opposed to what many consider to be less
"advanced" societies. This definition, however, is unclear, subjective, and it carries with it
assumptions no longer accepted by modern scholarship on how human societies have changed
during their long past.

Etymologically, the word civilization relates to the Latin term civitas, or ”city”, which is why it
sometimes refers to urban state-level societies, setting aside the nomadic people who lack a
permanent settlement and those who live in settlements that are not considered urban or do not
have a state-level organization. Sometimes it can be used as a label for human societies which
have attained a specific degree of complexity. In a wide sense, civilization often means nearly
the same thing as culture or even regional traditions including one or more separate states.

In this sense, we sometimes speak of the “Aegean civilization”, “Chinese civilization”,

“Egyptian civilization”, or “Mesoamerican civilization”, but each of these may include
several cities or regions, for example: “Mesoamerican civilization” includes groups such as
the Olmec, Maya, Zapotec, Aztec, and others;

Development of the term “Civilization”

During the late 19th and early 20th centuries CE, it was widely believed among European
scholars that all human communities were involved in a process of straightforward progression
by which the conditions of a society were gradually improving. As part of these changes, it was
believed, societies experienced different stages: savagery, barbarism and, finally, civilization.
Civilization, in this context, was understood as the last stop in the long journey of human
society. The different stages of this social evolution were equated to specific human
communities: Palaeolithic and Mesolithic hunter-gatherer communities were considered part of
the savagery stage, Neolithic and Bronze Agefarmers as part of the barbarism stage, and
finally Bronze Age urban communities (particularly those in the Near East) were considered an
early phase of the civilized world. Today, this approach is no longer valid since it is linked to an
attitude of cultural superiority, by which human communities which are not yet "civilized" are
seen as somehow inferior.

Attributes of a Civilization

An influential scholar named Gordon Childe identified a list of ten attributes that
distinguish a civilization from other kind of societies; his list was reviewed and
rewritten many times. What follows is the version of Charles Redman, an American
archaeologist:
Primary characteristics

1. Urban settlements
2. Full-time specialists not involved in agricultural activities
3. Concentration of surplus production
4. Class structure
5. State-level organization (government)

Secondary characteristics

6. Monumental public building

7. Extensive trading networks
8. Standardized monumental artwork
9. Writing
10. Development of exact sciences

Mesopotamia and Egypt: 3100 BC

In about 3200 BC the two earliest civilizations develop in the region where southwest Asia joins
northeast Africa. Great rivers are a crucial part of the story. The Sumerians settle in what is now
southern Iraq, between the mouths of the Euphrates and the Tigris. Egyptdevelops in the long
narrow strip of the Nile valley.

Rivers offer two main advantages to a developing civilization. They provide water to irrigate the
fields, and they offer the easiest method of transport for a society without paved roads. Rivers
will play an equally important role in two other early civilizations - those of the Indus and of
northern China.

The Indus: 2500 BC

It is not known whether contact with Mesopotamia inspires the first civilization of India or
whether it is a spontaneous local development, but by about 2500 BC the neolithic villages along
the banks of the Indus are on the verge of combining into a unified and sophisticated culture.

The Indus civilization, with its two large cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, expands over a larger
region than Egypt and Mesopotamia combined. It will survive, in a remarkably consistent form,
for about 1000 years.
The Aegean: 2000 BC

The next region to develop a distinctive civilization centres on the Aegean Sea. The bays and
inlets of the rugged coastal regions of Greece, and the many small islands strung like pearls
across this relatively sheltered sea, combine to make this an ideal area for trade (and piracy)
among people whose levels of nautical skill make short hops a necessary precaution.

The Aegean civilizationstands at the start of the very lively tradition of Mediterranean culture. It
begins in the large island which is perfectly placed to guard the entrance to the Aegean - Crete.
China: 1600 BC

The longest consistent civilization in the human story so far is that of China. This vast eastern
empire seems set apart from the rest of the world, fiercely proud of its own traditions, resisting
foreign influences. Its history begins in a characteristically independent manner.

There are no identifiable precedents for the civilization of the Shang dynasty, which emerges in
China in about 1600 BC. Its superb bronze vessels seem to achieve an instant technological
perfection. Its written texts introduce characters recognizably related to Chinese writingtoday. This
is a civilization which begins as it will continue - with confidence.

During the Old , Middle and New Kingdom, ancient Egypt had developed a flourishing civilization. Many
aspects of Egyptian political, social, economical life have played important roles in the development of
current western civilization.

Polity – The absolute Power of Pharaoh

In ancient Egypt, the pharaohs had absolute power partly because most of these rulers governed justly,
but primarily because of the theocracy. The people believed the pharaohs were descended from a god
and were gods themselves. In theory, the pharaoh owned all the land, commanded the army, controlled
the irrigation system, and received the surpluses of crops produced on the royal estates. Since no one
person could administer a huge kingdom, the pharaoh appointed officials to assist him. However, he was
personally responsible for dispensing justice and for making all the important decisions regarding
government affairs. Beginning with the Old Kingdom, the Egyptians created a complex but efficient
administrative system that supported the absolute authority of the pharaoh.

Three classes of Egyptian society

There were three classes in the ancient Egyptian society. First was the class of people below the
pharaoh. We can call it the upper class. This included priests, the court nobility, and the landed nobility.
The priests performed the religious ceremonies, especially those having to do with the burial of the
dead. The court nobles advised the pharaoh and carried out his orders. The landed nobles managed
their great estates, and some of them also served as generals in the royal army.

The upper class people lived in palatial homes, with luxurious furnishings and elaborate gardens.
Women used cosmetics, beautified their hair, wore rouge and lipstick, and painted their nails. Both men
and women used perfume and wear jewelry. Women enjoyed a favored place in society largely because
all landed property descended from mother to daughter, rather than from father to son as in most other
ancient cultures. They could be merchants, eat and dance in public, and do most of the things men were
allowed to do. The class lower than the upper class was middle class, which included rich merchants,
traders, skilled artisans and professional people such as teachers, artists, doctors, and scribes. There was
an important place of scribes in the ancient Egypt society, because there were only a few who could
read and write.

The Lower class in ancient Egypt included slaves—usually war captives— and free laborers who worked
on farms, irrigation systems, roads, and building projects.
The free laborers, heavily burdened by taxes imposed on them by the pharaohs, had hardly any more
political rights than the slaves. They lived poorly in small, mudbrick homes with few furnishings. From
this class of free laborers, however, it was possible for bright and ambitious young Egyptians to rise to
higher rank.

Such persons might become merchants, priests, or even government officials. Sometimes loyal and able
slaves were given their freedom. On a few occasions, a talented slave was known to rise to a position of
authority in society.

Economy of the Egypt Civilization

The fertility of the Nile Valley and extensive irrigation systems enabled the Egyptians to reap large
harvests. Because farmers produced more food than they needed for themselves, many of them
became craftsmen or traders as well as farmers. Egyptian traders relied mainly on ships to transport
their goods. Trade reached its height during the New Kingdom, when Egypt controlled the trade routes
of the Near East. Egyptian ships carried products such as wheat and linens across the Mediterranean to
Europe and Asia, returning with lumber and metal weapons, which Egypt did not produce.

Religion in Egypt Civilization

Egyptian Religion was based on belief in life after death and the worship of many gods. Above is the
pyramid built about 2600 BC to hold the body of Pharaoh Khafre. It was once connected by a covered
passageway to the Great Sphinx, which has the body of a lion and the head of a man, possibly KhafreThe
papyrus scroll below was buried with a female mummy. Osiris, lord of the afterlife, sits in judgment
while his son, dog-headed Anubis, weighs the heart of the woman against the feather of truth.

Mummification

Egyptians believed that just as plants decline in autumn and reappear in the spring, so also must man
have life after death. They also believed that the body in which the soul had lived in life must be
preserved in death in order for the soul to live on. The process of preserving the body, called
mummification, developed into a highly skilled artBeliefs about the afterlife led the Egyptians to build
large tombs in which to keep the bodies of their dead rulers. Good conduct, as well as preservation of
the body, was thought necessary for immortality, or life after death.

Gods in Ancient Egypt Civilization

Polytheism, or the worship of many gods, was characteristic of Egyptian religion during the Old Kingdom
and the Middle Kingdom. The most important gods were Amon-Re (Sun god) and Osiris (God of the
underworld and lord of the afterlife). During the reign of Pharaoh Akhenaton in the New Kingdom, who
ruled from 1375 to 1358 BC, a new faith was born.

Akhenaton believed in one supreme god, rather than in many gods. The supreme god, Akhenaton
thought, was Aton, the sun. Akhenaton forbade the worship of all gods but Aton, and withdrew the
government support previously given to the priests of other gods. However, the priests were numerous
and influential. They succeeded in terrifying the already fearful people into believing that if they obeyed
Akhenaton they would suffer the wrath of the gods. While Akhenaton lived, his orders were not openly
disobeyed, but after his death the priests persuaded Egyptians to return to the worship of many
godsThe concept of one god, or monotheism, disappeared in Egypt for a time, but it was born again later
in the Hebrew religion.

Development of Hieroglyphic writing

Between 4000 and 3000 BC, Egyptians developed a kind of picture writing known as hieroglyphics. The
first writings consisted of pictures of objects, such as a house. Gradually, they started using ideas as well
as objects. For example, a picture of an eye could mean sight or eye. In time, the writers also used
picture signs to indicate sound. Although these developments were the beginnings of an alphabet, the
Egyptians did not create an alphabetical system of writing. The first Egyptian books were written as early
as 4000 B.C. on a material made from the papyrus plant, a kind of reed. Craftsmen sliced the pith of this
plant into strips, overlapped them, and pasted them together.

Papyrus (the origin of the word paper) was sold wherever Egyptian traders traveled. Egyptian books
consisted of long rolls of papyrus. (One such roll, now in the British Museum, is 17 inches wide and 135
feet long.) Egyptian writings survived the passage of centuries because they were preserved in the dry
climate of Egypt. The early Egyptian writings were about religion, such as the Book of the Dead already
mentioned. During the Middle Kingdom, some adventure stories were written. These works were
probably the first storybooks ever published.

Development of Mathematics and medicine

Because Nile floods washed away markers for land boundaries, the Egyptians surveyed the land
frequently and used practical geometry in measuring the boundaries. Their engineers also used
mathematics to work out the precise measurements necessary in the construction of their pyramids and
temples.

Thus, the science of mathematics advanced in ancient Egypt. Egyptian doctors were familiar with the
anatomy of the human body and the healing properties of certain herbs. They also knew how to set
broken bones and how to cure wounds. However, theirwritings on medicine, which describe different
illnesses and the treatments for them, show that the Egyptians put much faith in the healing
propertiesof magic.

Development of Architecture

The Egyptians were good builders in stone, and both sculptors and engineers delighted in great size. The
Great Pyramids and the Sphinx are examples of the Egyptian fondness for huge structures. Religion
inspired the building of Egyptian tombs and temples. The most famous temple was that of the god
Amon, at Karnak, which occupies part of thesite of ancient Thebes. Part of this great temple still stands.
Its hall is 400 feet long, 175feet wide—larger than a football field— and 80 feet high. The roof was
supported by rowsof giant columns. The Egyptians were the first to support roofs with columns rather
than with walls.
Mesopotamia civilization

Mesopotamia is an ancient civilization that took up pretty much everything that

today is modern Iraq and Syria, a triangular patch wedged between the Tigris
River, the Zagros Mountains, and the Lesser Zab River. Mesopotamia is
considered the first urban civilization, that is to say, it was the first society which
has provided evidence of people deliberately living in close proximity to one
another, with attendant social and economic structures to allow that to occur
peaceably.

Generally, people speak of north and south Mesopotamia, most prominently

during the Sumer (south) and Akkad (north) periods between about 3000-2000
BC. However, the histories of the north and south dating back to the sixth
millennium BC are divergent; and later the Assyrian kings did their best to unite
the two halves.

Mesopotamia is a region of southwest Asia in the Tigris and Euphrates river

system that benefitted from the area’s climate and geography to host the
beginnings of human civilization. Its history is marked by many important
inventions that changed the world, including the concept of time, math, the wheel,
sailboats, maps and writing. Mesopotamia is also defined by a changing
succession of ruling bodies from different areas and cities that seized control over
a period of thousands of years.

Mesopotamia is located in the region now known as the Middle East, which
includes parts of southwest Asia and lands around the eastern Mediterranean
Sea.

The word “mesopotamia” is formed from the ancient words “meso,” meaning
between or in the middle of, and “potamos” meaning river. Situated in the fertile
valleys between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, the region is now home to
modern-day Iraq, Kuwait, Turkey and Syria.

MESOPOTAMIAN CIVILIZATION
Humans first settled in Mesopotamia in the Paleolithic era. By 14,000 B.C.,
people in the region lived in small settlements with circular houses.Five thousand
years later, these houses formed farming communities following the
domestication of animals and the development of agriculture, most notably
irrigation techniques that took advantage of the proximity of the Tigris and
Euphrates rivers.Agricultural progress was the work of the dominant Ubaid
culture, which had absorbed the Halaf culture before it.

ANCIENT MESOPOTAMIA
Society in Mesopotamia was strictly hierarchically organized. Artificial irrigation
was the only way to produce enough food but it required better organization
than in Egypt where the annual Nile flooding was controlled by small and
economically independent communities. Heat in Mesopotamia was severer than
in Egypt, while the Tigris had much deeper stream than the Nile making
construction of the channels much more difficult and complicated. Very difficult
was also to predict the floods because they depended from snow melting in
Anatolia and could occur at the time of ripening crops in March or April which
means that the floodwater had to be held up. Besides unfavorable flooding time
the floodwater returned to the river stream just before the summer heat in June.
For that reason the fields had to be artificially irrigated all the time. However,
because of perpetual irrigation the farmers in Mesopotamia harvested twice a
year, while the Egyptians harvested only once. The irrigation systems which
were essential for agriculture required great amount of physically hard work,
complicated construction and the most important of all mobilization of sufficient
labour force and good organization. Thus artificial irrigation eventually led to
formation of larger communities and social stratification into three classes:
nobility, free citizens and slaves. Nobility, priesthood and a priest-king as
supreme religious and secular ruler were responsible for the construction,
organization and maintenance of irrigation systems. Priest-kings called en, lugal
or ensi were viewed as representatives of city’s patron god whom belonged all
the land of the city. Priest-kings lived in the temples which were both religious
and administrative centers of particular irrigation system unit. Around the
temples developed cities as administrative, religious and trade centers resulting
in the emergence of Sumerian city-states also referred as the temple-states
because of the leading role of priesthood in society.

The Sumerian cities were inhabited by nobility executing king’s will and orders
through a well organized administrative apparatus. The Sumerian priest-kings
collected taxes usually in goods to sustain the governmental and administrative
organization, while the Sumerian priest invented writing - the Cuneiform script
to simplify state administration and trading. Besides priesthood and nobility,
Sumerian city population consisted of merchants, craftsmen and others who
were mostly engaged in trade. The middle class of merchants and craftsmen in
Mesopotamia was very strong and relatively independent. Merchants and
craftsmen in Mesopotamia were allowed to take initiative and did not only work
on king’s order like the Egyptian merchants and craftsmen. Farmers, shepherds,
fishermen and hunters in Mesopotamia lived in the city surroundings and were
the lower class of the Mesopotamian society. They took care for food supply of
the cities and were mostly poor but personally free. At the very bottom of social
hierarchy in Mesopotamia were the slaves who were mostly prisoners of war.
Slaves could be bought or sold but they were allowed to marry and to have
families. Special position in both administration and economy had the scribes.

The priest-kings were replaced by monarchical rule during the Akkadian Period
(c. 2340 BC - 2150 BC) which probably resulted in greater social stratification.
Unlike during Old Sumerian Period when all land was owned by the temples the
sources from Akkadian Period mention private possession. The Old Sumerian
social order with strong middle class was mostly restored after the fall of
Akkadian Empire but society in Mesopotamia became mostly feudal about
middle of the 2nd millennium BC (Middle Babylonian Period). Noble families
held land as inalienable fiefs, while the farmers were becoming more dependent.

The Mesopotamian economy was based on bartering—that is, trading goods and
services for other goods and services. Bartering was necessary for people in
Mesopotamia to get the resources they lacked. As a result, ancient Mesopotamians
would trade with people from other areas. The Mesopotamians also used currency to
help facilitate trade. Unlike modern systems of currency, which use paper money or
coins, their system used barley. To procure this barley, people had to borrow from a
banker who kept barley. Mesopotamians also used metals such as lead, copper,
bronze, tin, gold, and silver, for currency. The writing system that developed in
Mesopotamian (first in the form of pictograms and later as cuneiform) facilitated
bartering, as scribes could keep contracts and records of trades. Once a deal was
completed, it was recorded on a cylinder.

Primarily trade and commerce which led to economic development, was triggered after
the farmers learned the art of irrigating their land. Slowly, they found they could easily
grow more food than they could possibly eat. They learnt how to sell the surplus for
goods and services.

Given its strategic location in the Fertile Crescent, Mesopotamia had a well developed
agriculture where animal products and grain were produced abundantly

Bartering was common in the absence of currencies and tangible items including
animals and goods were traded. The worth was determined by the demand, available
and quality of the products. The location between the famous Tigris and Euphrates
helped to a large extent..
In the city state of Sumer, Ur was a major center for trade and commercial activities, but
temples were the primary source of employment and were the hub of all commercial
activities. The economy of Mesopotamia depended on where the people were located.

The hill people required wheat and barley while they could sell copper, silver, gold,
limestone and timber. People who lived in the river valley could provide flax which was
woven into cloth.

River transportation:

The rivers, Tigris and Euphrates, helped in water transportation of the goods. It was
more economical. Wood went into the manufacture of boats, furniture and ships. As the
boats had to face strong river currents, they were frequently damaged.

Boats had to travel upstream and had to be dismantled after each commercial trip
downstream. But transportation through boats was feasible and economical as well.

Economy in Mesopotamia was good as the people were clever. They used different
types of boats for transporting various products. Boats were made of wood with a
triangular sail and from reeds shaped like a tub. There was a timber raft supported with
inflated animal skins.

Transportation in the economy of Mesopotamia received a boost once wheel was discovered by
Sumerians. A system of writing was developed to track accounts in the economy in
Mesopotamia.

Ancient Mesopotamian Economy

Thousands of years ago, the fertile low lands in the river basins of Euphrates and Tigris were the
home land of a rich and complex society. Mesopotamia, in its Greek terms, means “land between the
rivers”. The name is used because the area watered by the Euphrates and Tigris and its tributaries,
roughly comprising modern Iraq and part of Syria. In the third millennium, the south of modern
Bagdad, the alluvial plains of the rivers was called the land of Sumer and Akkad. Sumer is the most
southern part, while the land of Akkad is the area around modern Bagdad where the Euphrates and
Tigris are close to each other. In the second millennium, both regions together are called Babylonia, a
mostly flat country. The territory in the north (between the rivers Tigris and the Great Zab) is called
Assyria (Kreis, 2006). The alluvial plains of the Mesopotamia were very suitable for high food
production. It was even called as the “fertile crescent” for its fertile lands. Its economy was basically
dependent on agriculture (Heise, 1996). In this paper, the economy of ancient Mesopotamia will be
discussed briefly while giving emphasis on the time period between 1900 B.C and 900 B.C.
Beginnings of the Mesopotamian Civilization
Between 9000 B.C. and the beginning of the Christian era, western civilization came into being in
what historians call Ancient Western Asia which comprises of modern-day Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon,
Israel, Jordan, Turkey, southwestern Russia, Iraq and Iran. The earliest permanent settlements were
found to be occurring between 9000-6000 B.C. Also, this time was accompanied by the
domestication of plants and animals. Between 4000-3000 B.C., population growth pressured the
formation of the first cities (Kreis, 2006).

Around 10,000 B.C., there were many hunter-gatherers “living along the coastal plains of modern
Syria and Israel and in the valleys and hills near the Zagros Mountains between Iran and Iraq” (Kreis,
2006) started to devise special strategies that directed the way to a transformation in the human
community. “Rather than constantly traveling in search of food, people resided in one region and
exploited the seasonal sources of food, including fish, grain, fruits and game.” (Kreis, 2006). One
example is the community of Jericho, where people built and rebuilt their mud brick and stone huts
rather than moving on different locations as had their ancestors. In general, these communities began
to focus on seasonal food sources and so were less likely to leave in search of new sources (Kreis,
2006). This transformation led to a variety of problems that resulted in different theories. One
problem would be that if the people concentrated in a relatively small number of plants or animals; it
could spell disaster during times of famine. Some scholars have argued that the transformation of
agricultural development was greatly attributed to the increasing population and the developing
political hierarchy. In settled communities, infanticide decreased and life expectancy rose (Kreis,
2006). Kreis explained that infanticide decreased because the settled community became less
demanding. Furthermore, he said that the “children can now be used in rudimentary agricultural
tasks” (2006). The growing population pressured the local food industry to produce more crops.
Eventually, more coordination and organization was promoted by the gathering activities that led to
the development of political leadership.

Mesopotamian Agricultural Revolution

The settlements were the one responsible for the encouragements in the agriculture of the land. The
growth of crops such as barley and lentils were promoted; also, domestication of farm animals such
as pigs, goats, and sheep was developed. This ability to domesticate farm animals and to cultivate
grains and vegetables promoted the change in human communities “from passive harvesters of nature
to active partners with it.”(Kreis, 2006) Moreover, the ability of the people to expand their food
production paved the way for the expansion of permanent settlements which are of greater size and
complexity.

The economy was anchored in agriculture, mainly the cultivation of barley. Barley was used as
means of payment for wages in kind and daily rations. Barley was also the basis for the natural
beverage: beer. There are other agricultural products that include sesame seed oil, linseed oil, flax,
wheat and horticultural products. Sheep and goats are abundant during out of season periods (Heise,
1996). Wool production was large and converted to an assortment of textile fabrics.
Creation of Social Hierarchies
While the agricultural development was unstoppable, division of labor was promoted into
occupational categories. There existed a wide range of occupational categories that formed the
“backbone of a sophisticated urban economy and society: kings, priests, landowners, architects,
astronomers, scribes, long-distance traders, local merchants, artisans, cooks, farmers, soldiers,
laborers, and slaves.” (Spodek, 2005).

Trade, Economy, and Artisans in Ancient Mesopotamia

Mesopotamia was not an abundant land to begin with. There were few natural resources, that is why
people who lived there need to trade with their neighboring lands to acquire the resources that they
need to live (Spodek, 2005). Examples would be the trade of grain, oils and textiles from Babylonia
to other countries in exchange for timber, wine, precious metals and stones. Riverboats were used to
transport goods for trade. At that time, money was not usually used to pay for goods that were traded.
A barter system was formulated in which goods were directly exchanged for other goods. If money
had to be used, it was usually in the form of small silver disks (Trade, Economy, and Artisans in
Ancient Mesopotamia, n.d.).

As the communities grow a systematic form of trade, the economy eventually grew. It was such that
“Sumerians had the privilege of a free economy, and strict records were kept of all business
transactions. These documents were the first written artifacts recovered by archaeologists and helped
contribute to Sumer also being known as “the birthplace of economics”.” (Trade, Economy, and
Artisans in Ancient Mesopotamia, n.d.)

Temples were the key economic recruiter that time. It was the main location for the most commercial
activity. In addition, temples were the chief employer. Artisans, scribes, priests, local administrators,
and teachers all were employed by the temple. They gained their economic strength based on their
vast real estate holdings. They were the largest single land owner in the city-state. “The ownership of
land was so valued that even kings had to buy land. People of all classes had the opportunity to own
land, however. Many of the people who were considered poor by Sumerian standards owned houses,
gardens, and fishery ponds.” (Trade, Economy, and Artisans in Ancient Mesopotamia, n.d.)

Craftsmanship is a very important aspect of the Mesopotamian economy. The most important
craftsmen were the copper and bronze workers. “These artisans were responsible for making most of
the tools that farmers, shepherds, soldiers, and other workers needed for survival. Hoes, axes, and
plows, as well as knives, daggers, and spears were made from copper and bronze which were
plentiful and easy to work with.” (Trade, Economy, and Artisans in Ancient Mesopotamia, n.d.)
Creation of Social Hierarchies
While the agricultural development was unstoppable, division of labor was promoted into
occupational categories. There existed a wide range of occupational categories that formed the
“backbone of a sophisticated urban economy and society: kings, priests, landowners, architects,
astronomers, scribes, long-distance traders, local merchants, artisans, cooks, farmers, soldiers,
laborers, and slaves.” (Spodek, 2005).

Trade, Economy, and Artisans in Ancient Mesopotamia

Mesopotamia was not an abundant land to begin with. There were few natural resources, that is why
people who lived there need to trade with their neighboring lands to acquire the resources that they
need to live (Spodek, 2005). Examples would be the trade of grain, oils and textiles from Babylonia
to other countries in exchange for timber, wine, precious metals and stones. Riverboats were used to
transport goods for trade. At that time, money was not usually used to pay for goods that were traded.
A barter system was formulated in which goods were directly exchanged for other goods. If money
had to be used, it was usually in the form of small silver disks (Trade, Economy, and Artisans in
Ancient Mesopotamia, n.d.).

As the communities grow a systematic form of trade, the economy eventually grew. It was such that
“Sumerians had the privilege of a free economy, and strict records were kept of all business
transactions. These documents were the first written artifacts recovered by archaeologists and helped
contribute to Sumer also being known as “the birthplace of economics”.” (Trade, Economy, and
Artisans in Ancient Mesopotamia, n.d.)

Temples were the key economic recruiter that time. It was the main location for the most commercial
activity. In addition, temples were the chief employer. Artisans, scribes, priests, local administrators,
and teachers all were employed by the temple. They gained their economic strength based on their
vast real estate holdings. They were the largest single land owner in the city-state. “The ownership of
land was so valued that even kings had to buy land. People of all classes had the opportunity to own
land, however. Many of the people who were considered poor by Sumerian standards owned houses,
gardens, and fishery ponds.” (Trade, Economy, and Artisans in Ancient Mesopotamia, n.d.)

Craftsmanship is a very important aspect of the Mesopotamian economy. The most important
craftsmen were the copper and bronze workers. “These artisans were responsible for making most of
the tools that farmers, shepherds, soldiers, and other workers needed for survival. Hoes, axes, and
plows, as well as knives, daggers, and spears were made from copper and bronze which were
plentiful and easy to work with.” (Trade, Economy, and Artisans in Ancient Mesopotamia, n.d.)
Creation of Social Hierarchies
While the agricultural development was unstoppable, division of labor was promoted into
occupational categories. There existed a wide range of occupational categories that formed the
“backbone of a sophisticated urban economy and society: kings, priests, landowners, architects,
astronomers, scribes, long-distance traders, local merchants, artisans, cooks, farmers, soldiers,
laborers, and slaves.” (Spodek, 2005).

Trade, Economy, and Artisans in Ancient Mesopotamia

Mesopotamia was not an abundant land to begin with. There were few natural resources, that is why
people who lived there need to trade with their neighboring lands to acquire the resources that they
need to live (Spodek, 2005). Examples would be the trade of grain, oils and textiles from Babylonia
to other countries in exchange for timber, wine, precious metals and stones. Riverboats were used to
transport goods for trade. At that time, money was not usually used to pay for goods that were traded.
A barter system was formulated in which goods were directly exchanged for other goods. If money
had to be used, it was usually in the form of small silver disks (Trade, Economy, and Artisans in
Ancient Mesopotamia, n.d.).

As the communities grow a systematic form of trade, the economy eventually grew. It was such that
“Sumerians had the privilege of a free economy, and strict records were kept of all business
transactions. These documents were the first written artifacts recovered by archaeologists and helped
contribute to Sumer also being known as “the birthplace of economics”.” (Trade, Economy, and
Artisans in Ancient Mesopotamia, n.d.)

Temples were the key economic recruiter that time. It was the main location for the most commercial
activity. In addition, temples were the chief employer. Artisans, scribes, priests, local administrators,
and teachers all were employed by the temple. They gained their economic strength based on their
vast real estate holdings. They were the largest single land owner in the city-state. “The ownership of
land was so valued that even kings had to buy land. People of all classes had the opportunity to own
land, however. Many of the people who were considered poor by Sumerian standards owned houses,
gardens, and fishery ponds.” (Trade, Economy, and Artisans in Ancient Mesopotamia, n.d.)

Craftsmanship is a very important aspect of the Mesopotamian economy. The most important
craftsmen were the copper and bronze workers. “These artisans were responsible for making most of
the tools that farmers, shepherds, soldiers, and other workers needed for survival. Hoes, axes, and
plows, as well as knives, daggers, and spears were made from copper and bronze which were
plentiful and easy to work with.” (Trade, Economy, and Artisans in Ancient Mesopotamia, n.d.)
The ancient Chinese had lived in primitive villages, and were mainly farmers or hunters.
Many villages were surrounded by a strong wall to protect the village from enemy
attacks. The land in which the farmers worked was owned by the emperor and the
nobility. The farmers, who were also called peasants, rented the land paying for its use
by various services such as working on the nobles land or entering war.

Many ancient Chinese never let left the village they were born in. there were public wells
for drawing water and a local meeting place would be held in a courtyard. There were
markets in each village in which farmers sold their livestock, vegetables and fruit. Family
life was the heart of society in Ancient China. Events such as births and weddings were
widely celebrated by the entire village.

The men and women in each village worked together farming. An important and crucial
task the villagers shared were digging ditches, so the water would run from the canals to
the field and crops in which they would be watered.

Farmers used oxen and water buffalo to pull ploughs wagons and carts. The common
farm animals in that time were pigs and chickens. This is because there weren’t enough
large “farm” animals to provide manure, instead human faeces were used to fertilise the
crops.

Leadership and politics:

Ancient China was ruled by emperors. According to historical evidence, it was thought
that the emperor’s authority to rule was granted from heaven, in which each emperor
was called the “son of heaven” when an emperor lost power/authority, it was believed
that he had committed something wrong according to the heavens.

The emperors generally lived a different life than the ordinary people. They owned all
the land, in which great parts of it were given to the nobles. They lived in abundant
wealth, surrounded by their many wives’s, servants and cooks. A constant stream of
entertainment consisting of artists, singers, musicians and dancers were at his command.

No one was permitted to approach or speak first to the emperor. People had to bow
and kneel in his presence, showing the upmost respect.

Although it was a luxurious lifestyle, it was an isolated existence as well. Emperors rarely
left their places. On very rare occasions, the emperor would leave his palace grounds,
although the roads were blocked and the emperor was carried in a enclosed carriage.

Governors and officials assisted the emperor in the smooth running of Ancient China.
Governors were based in diverse regions throughout Ancient China where they
administered and imposed laws of the emperor of the day. They collected taxes.
Governors were also involved in management of farming and they supported the
development of new farming methods. Some officials were based in the palaces of the
emperors, assisting in simple chores such as cleaning and even keeping the emperor
informed on what is going on.

The most important officials for the emperor were his eunuchs. Eunuchs were men who
had been castrated when they were small boys. This is because as they were brought up
in the palace and worked with the emperor, they posed no sexual threat to him. In which
allowing the emperors bloodline to continue. Eunuchs worked as the emperor’s cooks,
tailors and cleaners.ÂÂ They also looked after the emperors children. Sometimes
eunuchs became powerful within the palace, they became entrusted by the emperor.

Social structure:
The social structure of China was divided into five social classes;

 Rulers: this would be the emperor and governor officials. These are people with high
authority and of great wealth.
 Nobles: the nobles were also a wealthy class. They owned large areas of land and lent it
to the farming peasants.ÂÂ In which the farmers pay was often high. Nobles wore silk
clothing, and lived a life of utter luxury. Although they were constantly aware of having
to please the emperor. If the emperor was displeased, he could in an instant wipe out a
nobles land and wealth.
 Merchants: merchants may have been quite wealthy, but they were not respected in
Ancient China. In fact they were often treated badly under the rule of various dynasties.
They were forced to pay much higher taxes than others. Despite this, they played an
important role in Ancient China. Merchants produced businesses which were essential for
day -to -day life.
 Peasants: peasants were the farmers. They were the largest part of the population in
Ancient China, making up approximately 90% of the entire population. The peasants
were generally very poor and lacked of education. Sometime peasants were forced to sell
their children into slavery in order to pay off their debts. They had to grow enough crops
to feed their family and pay large amounts of money to the nobles for the rent of land.
 Slaves: slavery was not as committed in Ancient China than other ancient civilizations.
Slave in China were forced to do strenuous hours of labour, and were treated in terrible
conditions.

Culture:
Painting:

Ancient Chinese artists painted amazing works on silk and on paper. Often flowers and
animals were depicted. Landscapes were also very common. Animals were used in their
art to represent human aspects. Ancient Chinese artists portrayed works that mainly
emphasised on “nature”
Poetry:

Poetry was very popular in Ancient China. Many poets wrote about love and sadness; in
their poets they also make comments on war and social upheaval.

Chinese writing:

Chinese writing is very different from English. English is a phonetic language. Meaning
the letters represent sounds but not meaning. Chinese writing system developed with
pictographs. These are simple drawings when combined represent/express an idea. E.g.
the pictures of ‘sun’ and ‘moon’ when drawn together mean ‘bright’

Music and dance:

Music and dance were part of everyday life in Ancient China. Drums, gongs and pipes
were common instruments used in that time. Chinese music is based on a five-tone
scale, as western music is based on an eight-tone scale. This is why it sounds so
different.

Architecture:

Most people in Ancient China could not afford to live in fancy houses. They lived in
small houses made of mud brick. The house would generally contain one room and a
dirt floor. In northern China, the doors of these houses would generally face south, in
order to keep out the cold ‘north wind’

Of course, rich people had larger and fancier houses.

All ancient Chinese architecture was built according to strict rules of design that made
Chinese buildings follow the ideas of Taoism or other Chinese philosophies.

The first design idea was that buildings should be long and low. Roofs would be held up
by large columns. The second idea was inspired by Taoism, the idea was symmetry. Both
sides of a building should be the same, balanced, just like Taoism emphasised balance.

During the different dynasties, ideas of architecture changed. The biggest architectural
change in Ancient China was during the Han dynasty (around 200 B.C.) this is when the
new reign of Buddhism was bought into Ancient China. Chinese Buddhists began to
build pagodas.

Religion
In the Shang dynasty, people in Ancient China worshipped many gods. Such as weather
gods and sky gods. Including a higher god who ruled among the other gods, this god is
called Shang-Ti. People living in the Shang dynasty also believed that their ancestors -
their grandparents and parents became like gods when they died. As well the ancestors
wanted to be worshipped, like gods.

Chinese currency and economy was very important to Chinese people and they were always
changing.
The Ancient Chinese people used lots of different types of money. First they had shells as their
money, then, after the Shang Dynasty took over, they changed it to knife money. When the Shang
Dynasty ended, the money was changed to coins, then, eventually they changed it to paper money.
From kids history's.com it says that "China was always changing the way their economy worked".
The silk road was also very important to China. It sold food, spices, gold, silver and other goods. The
silk road was over 4,000 miles long. There were no traders that thought they could travel the whole
road so they would just stop in other places and trade there instead.

The Silk Road

The silk road was a trading route that went through China. The Chinese would trade, they would trade gold, silver, spices,
everyday use. The silk road was over 4,000 miles long and went through many other areas besides China. The silk road wa
Qian. Zhang Qian decided on creating the silk road because he had a city named after himself but still wanted to expand,
became the silk road.

Money

the money in china was always changing from shells, to knife money, then coins, then paper
money. The shell money in china came before the Qin dynasty and was the currency until the Qin
dynasty changed it. the shells were called cowrie shells and china decided to use them as there
money because they were small easy to carry around and where also very bright and the Chinese
thought this was good about them. The shells also lasted the longest out of all the forms of currency.
After the shells the Qin dynasty decided to change the money and changed the currency to copper
money witch was the coins and knife money. The coins witch were formed in a ring shape lasted
from 221 b.c to 206 b.c. People in ancient times believed that the heaven is round and the earth is
square, which is one of the reasons why the copper coin has the round shape and a square hole in
the center. after these coins the knife shaped coins became very popular and were won of the main
uses of money but around this time people still used the coins.
Finally china got to paper money when Jiao Zi took over china when the paper money came the
trade increased in china. the paper money was first issued in 1023 together by 16 merchant princes
in Chengdu, Sichuan Province. This paper currency was a piece of paper printed with houses, trees,
men and cipher.