MATHEMATICS – USS

CONTENTS
 
Algebra
(1) leqPp; fl)kUr rFkk lEcU/k & 1 – 19 (167)
(2) y?kqx.kd] ?kkrkad ,oa dj.kh] vkaf'kd fHkUusa – 20 – 41 (149)
(3) lfEeJ la[;k;sa – 42 – 103 (417)
(4) Jsf.k;k¡ – 104 – 170 (429)
(5) oxZ lehdj.k ,oa vlfedk;sa – 171 - 218 (317)
(6) Øep; ,oa lap; – 219 - 254 (281)
(7) f}in çes; rFkk xf.krh; vkxeu – 255 – 294 (254)
(8) pj?kkrkadh rFkk y?kqx.kdh; Jsf.k;k¡ – 295 – 315 (126)
(9) lkjf.kd rFkk vkO;wg – 316 – 386 (471)
Trigonometry
(10) f=dks.kferh; Qyu ,oaa f=dks.kferh; vuqikr – 387 - 439 (355)
(11) f=dks.kferh; lehdj.k ,oa vlfedk,¡] f=Hkqtksa ds xq.k] Å¡pkbZ ,oa nwjh – 440 – 506 (428)
(12) çfrykse f=dks.kferh; Qyu – 507 – 534 (167)
(13) vfrijoyf;d Qyu – 535 – 548 (87)
Co-ordinate Geometry of Two Dimensions
(14) ledks.kh; dkrhZ; funsZ'kkad – 549 – 575 (187)
(15) ljy js[kk – 576 – 621 (308)
(16) js[kk;qXe – 622 – 648 (191)
(17) o`Ùk rFkk o`Ùkksa dk fudk; – 649 – 715 (444)
(18) 'kkado ifjPNsn – 716 – 784 (459)
Vector and Co-ordinate Geometry of Three Dimensions
(19) lfn'k chtxf.kr – 785 – 854 (521)
(20) f=foeh; funsZ'kkad T;kfefr – 855 – 898 (302)
Calculus
(21) Qyu] lhek] lkraR; rFkk vodyuh;rk – 899 – 978 (590)
(22) vodyu rFkk vodyu ds vuqç;ksx – 979 – 1082 (732)
(23) vfuf'pr lekdyu – 1083 – 1145 (418)
(24) fuf'pr lekdyu ,oa oØksa ls f?kjk {ks=Qy – 1146 – 1213 (453)
(25) vody lehdj.k – 1214 – 1253 (273)
Mechanics
(26) fLFkfr foKku – 1254 – 1294 (195)
(27) xfr foKku – 1295 – 1340 (229)
Probability and Statistics
(28) çkf;drk – 1341 – 1405 (474)
(29) dsUæh; ço`fÙk ds eki – 1406 – 1424 (118)
lglEcU/k ,oa lekJ;.k – 1425 – 1438 (92)
Miscellaneous Topics
(30) vkafdd fof/k;k¡ – 1439 – 1452 (84)
(31) jSf[kd çØeu – 1453 – 1468 (95)
(32) lewg fl)kUr – 1469 – 1476 (62)
(33) xf.krh; rdZ'kkL= ,oa cwyh; chtxf.kr – 1477 – 1488 (91)
(34) lax.kuk rFkk f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k;sa – 1489 – 1500 (53)
 42 lfEeJ la[;k;sa

Chapter

3
lfEeJ la[;k;sa
lfEeJ la[;k;sa okLrfod rFkk vf/kdfYir la[;kvksa dk la;kstu gSA ;fn z = 3 – 4i, rks Re(z) = 3 rFkk Im(z) = – 4.
lfEeJ la[;kvksa dh ewy vo/kkj.kk ;fn lfEeJ la[;k z dk dkYifud Hkkx 'kwU; gks vFkkZr~ Im(z) = 0,
(Basic concepts of Complex number) rc la[;k iw.kZr% okLrfod rFkk ;fn okLrfod Hkkx 'kwU; gks vFkkZr~
Re(z) = 0, rc iw.kZr% dkYifud ¼vf/kdfYir½ dgykrh gSA
(1) ifjHkk"kk % x + iy ds :i dh la[;k] tgk¡ x , y ∈ R
lfEeJ la[;kvksa ij chtxf.krh; lafØ;k;sa
rFkk i = − 1 gks] lfEeJ la[;k dgykrh gSA − 1 dks ‘i’ ls iznf'kZr (Algebraic operations with complex numbers)
djrs gSa] ftls ^vk;ksVk* dgrs gSaA vr% i = − 1 .
ekuk nks lfEeJ la[;k;sa z1 = a + ib rFkk z 2 = c + id gSa] rc
,d lfEeJ la[;k dks lkekU;r% z ls iznf'kZr djrs gSa] rFkk lfEeJ
la[;kvksa ds leqPp; dks C ls çnf'kZr djrs gSaA ;ksxQy : (a + ib) + (c + id) = (a + c) + i(b + d )
vFkkZr~ C = { x + i y : x ∈ R, y ∈ R, i = − 1 }
vUrj ¼O;odyu½ : (a + ib) − (c + id) = (a − c) + i(b − d )
xq.ku : (a + ib)(c + id) = (ac − bd ) + i(ad + bc )
mnkgj.kkFkZ % 5 + 3i, − 1 + i, 0 + 4 i, 4 + 0 i vkfn lfEeJ la[;k;sa gSaA
a + ib
(i) vk;yj izFke xf.krK Fks ftUgksaus izrhd i (vk;ksVk) dks – 1 ds oxZewy foHkktu : (tcfd c rFkk d esa ls de ls de ,d v'kwU; gks)
c + id
ds fy, ç;qDr fd;kA bl izrhd (symbol) dks vf/kdfYir bdkbZ Hkh dgrs gSaA
(ii) fdlh /kukRed okLrfod la[;k a ds fy,] a + ib (a + ib) (c − id)
= . (ifjes;hdj.k djus ij)
c + id (c + id) (c − id)
− a = −1×a = −1 a =i a
a + ib (ac + bd ) i(bc − ad )
(iii) xq.k/keZ a b = ab rHkh lR; gS tc a vkSj b esa de ls de = + 2 .
c + id c 2 + d 2 c +d2
,d v_.kkRed gksA ;fn a rFkk b nksuksa _.kkRed gks]a rc a b = − ab chtxf.krh; lafØ;kvksa ds xq.k/keZ
(2) vk;ksVk (I) dh iw.kkZad ?kkrsa% ;fn i = − 1 , rks i2 = −1 ,
i3 = −i rFkk i4 = 1 . i n (n > 4 ), ds eku Kkr djus ds fy, lcls igys 90
80
n dks 4 ls foHkkftr djrs gSAa ekuk q HkkxQy rFkk r 'ks"kQy gS] rc
70
n = 4 q + r , tgk¡ 0 ≤ r ≤ 3 vFkkZr~ n = 4 q + r tcfd 0 ≤ r ≤ 3 60
in = i 4 q +r = (i4 )q . (i)r = (1)q . (i)r = ir 50 East
40 West
vr%] ;fn n > 4, rc in = ir , tgk¡ r 'ks"kQy gSA 30 North
lkekU;r% i 4 n = 1, i 4 n +1 = i, i 4 n + 2 = −1 , i4 n +3 = −i , tgk¡ n dksbZ 20
10
iw.kkZad gSA
0
lfEeJ la[;k ds okLrfod rFkk dkYifud Hkkx 1st Qtr 2nd Qtr 3rd Qtr 4th Qtr
(Real and Imaginary parts of a complex number)
;fn x vkSj y nks okLrfod la[;k;sa gksa] rks z = x + iy ds :i dh : ekuk z 1 , z 2 rFkk z 3 dksbZ rhu lfEeJ la[;k;sa gS]a rc mudh
la[;k dks lfEeJ la[;k dgrs gSaA ;gk¡ x dks z dk okLrfod Hkkx rFkk y chtxf.krh; lafØ;k;sa fuEu fu;eksa dk ikyu djrh gSa
dks z dk dkYifud ¼vf/kdfYir½ Hkkx dgrs gSaA z ds okLrfod Hkkx dks (i) lfEeJ la[;kvksa dk ;ksxQy] Øe fofues; rFkk lkgp;Z fu;eksa
Re(z) rFkk dkYifud ¼vf/kdfYir½ Hkkx dks Im(z) ls iznf'kZr djrs gSaA
dk ikyu djrk gSA
 lfEeJ la[;k;sa 43
vFkkZr~ z 1 + z 2 = z 2 + z 1 rFkk (z 1 + z 2 ) + z 3 = z 1 + (z 2 + z 3 ). (3) lfEeJ la[;k dk izfrykse % v'kwU; lfEeJ la[;k
(ii) lfEeJ la[;kvksa dk xq.kuQy] Øefofues; rFkk lkgp;Z fu;eksa z = a + ib dk çfrykse z −1 =
1
=
z
=
z
dk ikyu djrk gSA z z . z | z| 2
vFkkZr~ z1 z 2 = z 2 z1 rFkk (z 1 z 2 )z 3 = z 1 (z 2 z 3 ). lfEeJ la[;k dk ekikad (Modulus of a complex
(iii) lfEeJ la[;kvksa dk xq.kuQy] forj.k fu;e dk ikyu djrk gSA
number)
vFkkZr~ z 1 (z 2 + z 3 ) = z 1 z 2 + z 1 z 3 rFkk (z 2 + z 3 )z 1 = z 2 z 1 + z 3 z 1 .
lfEeJ la[;k z = a + ib dk ekikad /kukRed okLrfod la[;k
nks lfEeJ la[;kvksa dh lekurk Y
(Equality of two complex numbers) | z | = a2 + b 2 }kjk ifjHkkf"kr gS] tgk¡ a,
P(z)
b okLrfod la[;k;sa gSaA T;kferh; :i esa]
nks lfEeJ la[;k;sa z 1 = x 1 + iy1 rFkk z 2 = x 2 + iy 2 leku
|z| dks fcUnq P dh ewyfcUnq ls nwjh }kjk
dgykrh gSa] ;fn vkSj dsoy ;fn muds okLrfod Hkkx rFkk dkYifud fu:fir fd;k tkrk gSA
Hkkx i`Fkd~-i`Fkd~ leku gksaA
vFkkZr~ z 1 = z 2 ⇒ x 1 + iy1 = x 2 + iy 2 ⇔ x 1 = x 2 o y 1 = y 2 . vFkkZr~ |z| = OP. X
O M
;fn |z| = 1, rks lfEeJ la[;k dks
lfEeJ la[;k Øe dk xq.k/keZ ugha j[krh gS vFkkZr~
bdkbZ ekikad lfEeJ la[;k dgrs gSaA Li"Vr% z, bdkbZ f=T;k okys o`Ùk
(a + ib) < vFkok > (c + id) ifjHkkf"kr ugha gSA
ij fLFkr gS] ftldk dsUæ (0, 0) gSA
mnkgj.kkFkZ % 9 + 6 i > 3 + 2i dk dksbZ vFkZ ughaa gSA ekikad ds xq.k/keZ
lfEeJ la[;k dk la;Xq eh (Conjugate of a complex (i) z ≥ 0 ⇒ z = 0 ,;fn vkSj dsoy ;fn z = 0 rFkk |z | > 0 ,
number) ;fn vkSj dsoy ;fn z ≠ 0
(1) la;Xq eh lfEeJ la[;k % ;fn ,d lfEeJ la[;k z = (ii) − z ≤ Re (z ) ≤ z rFkk − z ≤ Im (z ) ≤ z
a + i b, (a , b ) ∈ R, rks bldk la;Xq eh z = a − i b ls ifjHkkf"kr gksrk gSA (iii) z = z = − z = − z =| zi |
Y
2
(iv) z z = z =| z | 2
dkYifud v{k

P(z)
(v) z 1 z 2 = z 1 z2

θ O;kid :i esa] z 1 z 2 z 3 ...... z n = z 1 z2 z 3 .... z n

O X
–θ okLrfod v{k
z1 z1
(vi) = , (z 2 ≠ 0 )
z2 z2
Q (z )
z+z z−z (vii) | z n | =| z | n , n ∈ N
vr% Re(z ) = rFkk Im (z ) = . T;kferh; :i esa] z dk
2 2i (viii) z1 ± z 2 2
= (z1 ± z 2 )(z1 ± z 2 )
la;qXeh] okLrfod v{k ds lkis{k z dk fcUnq izfrfcEc gksrk gSA 2 2
(2) la;qXeh ds xq.k/keZ % ;fn z , z 1 rFkk z 2 lfEeJ la[;k;sa = z1 + z2 ± (z1 z 2 + z1 z 2 )
gksa] rks ge fuEu ifj.kke izkIr djrs gSa % vFkok | z 1 | 2 + | z 2 | 2 ± 2 Re(z 1 z 2 )
(i) (z ) = z 2 2 2 z1
(ix) z 1 + z 2 = z1 + z2 ⇔ iw.kZr% dkYifud gS
(ii) z 1 + z 2 = z 1 + z 2 z2

(iii) z 1 − z 2 = z 1 − z 2 z⎛ ⎞
vFkok Re⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ = 0
(iv) z 1 z 2 = z 1 z 2 , ⎝
z2 ⎠

= 2 ⎧⎨ z 1
2 2 2 2⎫
O;kid :i esa] z 1 .z 2 .z 3 ..... z n = z 1 .z 2 .z 3 ..... z n (x) z 1 + z 2 + z1 − z 2 + z2 ⎬
⎩ ⎭
⎛z ⎞ z1 (lekarj prqHkqZt dk fu;e)
(v) ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟=
⎟ , z2 ≠0
⎝ z2 ⎠ z2 lfEeJ la[;k dk dks.kkad (Argument of a complex
(vi) (z )n = (z n ) number)
(vii) z + z = 2 Re(z ) = 2 Re(z ) = iw.kZRk% okLrfod ekuk z = a + ib ,d lfEeJ la[;k gSA ;fn bl lfEeJ la[;k dks
(viii) z − z = 2i Im(z ) = iw.kZRk% dkYifud T;kferh; :i esa fcUnq P }kjk Y
iznf'kZr fd;k tk,] rks js[kk OP (–,+) (+,+)
(ix) z z =| z | 2 = iw.kZRk% okLrfod π – θ θ
}kjk okLrfod v{k ds lkFk
(x) z 1 z 2 + z 1 z 2 = 2 Re( z 1 z 2 ) = 2 Re(z 1 z 2 ) cuk;k x;k dks.k z dk dks.kkad π-θ
dgykrk gS rFkk
θ θ
X' X
θ θ
O

(–, –) (+,–)
2π–θ
– π +θ Y'
 44 lfEeJ la[;k;sa
⎛b⎞ (z n ) n. arg (z)
arg (z ) = θ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ ,
⎝a⎠ (z 1 .z 2 ) arg (z1) + arg (z2)
θ = ∠POM , ⎛ z1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ arg (z1) – arg (z2)
lfEeJ la[;k dk dks.kkad vf}rh; ugha gksrk gSA pw¡fd ;fn dks.kkad dk ⎜z ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
eku θ gS] rks 2n π + θ , tgk¡ n∈ I , Hkh dks.kkad gksxkA
(1) arg (z) dk eq[; eku (Principal value of arg (z)) : lfEeJ la[;k dk oxZey
w (Square root of a complex number)
dks.kkad dk seq[; eku dgykrk gSA z ds dks.kkad dk eq[; eku ;fn z = a + ib ,d lfEeJ la[;k gS]
α , α − θ , − α + θ rFkk −θ gksxk]
Y ⎡ | z | +a | z | −a ⎤
tks z ds Øe'k% 1st , 2nd , 3rd rks a + ib = ± ⎢ +i ⎥ , b> 0 ds fy,
rFkk 4th prqFkkZa'k esa fLFkr gksus ij π–α α ⎣⎢ 2 2 ⎦⎥
(–,+) (+,+)
fuHkZj djrk gS] tgk¡ X ⎡ | z | +a | z | −a ⎤
X' O (+,–) = ±⎢ −i ⎥,b<0 ds fy,
b (–,–)
α = tan −1 (U;wu dks.k) ⎣⎢ 2 2 ⎦⎥
a – (π – –α
a − ib dk oxZewy Kkr djus ds fy, mijksDr ifj.kkeksa esa i ds
(2 dks.kkad ds xq.k/keZ Y' LFkku ij – i j[krs gSaA
(i) lfEeJ la[;k dk fu:i.k
arg (z 1 z 2 ) = arg(z 1 ) + arg(z 2 ) + 2k π , (k = 0 ;k 1 ;k – 1) (Various representations of a complex number)
O;kid :i esa] s arg (z 1 z 2 z 3 ......... z n ) = arg(z 1 ) + arg(z 2 )
,d lfEeJ la[;k fuEu :iksa esa fu:fir gksrh gS
+ arg(z 3 ) + ...... + arg(z n ) + 2k π , (k = 0 ;k 1 ;k –1) (1) T;kferh; fu:i.k ¼dkrhZ; fu:i.k½ % nks ledks.kh; v{kksa
(ii) arg (z 1 z 2 ) = arg(z 1 ) − arg(z 2 ) XO X ′ rFkk YO Y ′ , ftUgsa Øe'k% okLrfod rFkk vf/kdfYir ¼dkYifud½
v{k dgrs gSa] ds lkis{k] fdlh lfEeJ la[;k z = a + ib dks ,d fcUnq
⎛z ⎞
(iii) arg⎜⎜ 1 ⎟ = arg z 1 − arg z 2 + 2k π , (k = 0
⎟ ;k 1 ;k – 1) P, ftlds funsZ'kkad (a, b) gSa] ls fu:fir fd;k tkrk gSA ,d lfEeJ
⎝ z2 ⎠ la[;k z dks fcUnq :i esa ftl ry esa fu:fir fd;k tkrk gS ml ry
⎛z⎞ esa fLFkr lHkh fcUnq] lfEeJ la[;k ls iznf'kZr gksrs gSaA bl ry dks
(iv) arg⎜ ⎟ = 2arg z + 2k π , (k = 0 ;k 1 ;k – 1)
⎝z⎠ vkxZ.M ry (Argand plane) ;k lfEeJ ry vFkok xkWfl;u ry
(Gaussian plane) dgrs gSaA Y
(v) arg(z n ) = n arg z + 2k π , (k = 0 ;k 1 ;k – 1) dkYifud v{k P(a, b)
⎛z ⎞ ⎛z ⎞ | z | = a2 + b 2
(vi) ;fn arg ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟ = θ,
⎟ rks arg ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟ = 2k π − θ , tgk¡ k ∈ I
⎟ b
⎝ z1 ⎠ ⎝ z2 ⎠ θ
X′okLrfod v{k a M X
1 O
(vii) arg z = −arg z = arg
z
(viii) arg (z − z ) = ±π / 2
Y′
(ix) arg (− z ) = arg (z ) ± π fdlh lfEeJ la[;k dh ewyfcUnq ls nwjh dks lfEeJ la[;k dk
(x) arg(z ) − arg(z ) = ±π (;fn z 'kq) dkYifud la[;k gS) ekikad dgrs gSa rFkk bls |z| vFkkZr~ | z | = a 2 + b 2 ls fu:fir djrs gSAa
(xi) z 1 z 2 + z 1 z 2 = 2 | z 1 | | z 2 | cos (θ 1 − θ 2 ), fdlh lfEeJ la[;k z }kjk okLrfod v{k dh /kukRed fn'kk ds
tgk¡ θ 1 = arg(z 1 ) rFkk θ 2 = arg(z 2 ) lkFk cuk;s x;s dks.k dks z dk dks.kkad dgrs gSa] vFkkZr~
⎛b ⎞
(xii) arg(z ) dk O;kid eku 2n π − arg(z ) gksrk gSA amp (z ) = arg (z ) = tan −1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝a⎠
lkj.kh % 3.1 lfEeJ la[;kvksa ds dks.kkad ds eku (2) f=dks.kferh; ¼/kzo
q h;½ fu:i.k % f=Hkqt OPM es]a ekuk OP = r ,
rks a = r cos θ rFkk b = r sin θ , vr% z dks z = r(cos θ + i sin θ ) ls
lfEeJ la[;k dks.kkad dk eku
fu:fir fd;k tk ldrk gS] tgk¡ r = |z| rFkk θ = arg (z ) dk eq[; eku
'kq) /kukRed okLrfod la[;k 0
π arg (z ) ds O;kid eku ds fy,] z = r[cos(2nπ + θ ) + i sin(2nπ + θ )]
'kq) _.kkRed okLrfod la[;k
'kq) /kukRed dkYifud la[;k π /2 dHkh-dHkh (cos θ + i sin θ ) dks la{ksi esa cisθ Hkh fy[krs gSaA
3π / 2 ;k −π / 2 (3) lfn'k fu:i.k % ;fn P (a, b) vkxZ.M ry esa lfEeJ la[;k
'kq) _.kkRed okLrfod la[;k
| θ ± π |, ;fn θ Øe'k% /kukRed z = a + ib ds lkis{k ,d fcUnq gS] rks OP = aˆi + bˆj ,
– (z)
rFkk _.kkRed gks ∴ | OP | = a 2 + b 2 =| z |
⎧π ⎫
rFkk arg z = lfn'k OP dh fn'kk = tan −1 ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟
b
(iz) ⎨ + arg (z )⎬
⎩ 2 ⎭ ⎝a⎠
⎧ π⎫
–(iz) ⎨arg (z ) − ⎬
⎩ 2⎭
 lfEeJ la[;k;sa 45
(4) vk;yj ¼pj?kkrkadh½ fu:i.k % ge tkurs gSa] ⇒
z1 − z 2 z 2 − z 3 z1 − z 3
= = .
e iθ = cos θ + i sin θ , vr% z dks z = re iθ ls fu:fir fd;k tk ldrk gS] z1 − z 2 z 2 − z 3 z1 − z 3
tgk¡ | z | = r rFkk θ = arg (z) (iv) ljy js[kk dk O;kid lehdj.k : ljy js[kk dk O;kid
lehdj.k a z + az + b = 0 , tgk¡ a ,d lfEeJ la[;k rFkk b okLrfod
lfEeJ la[;k dk y?kqx.kd (Logarithm of a complex number) la[;k gSA
(v) js[kk dh izo.krk ¼<ky½ : js[kk a z + az + b = 0 dh lfEeJ
log(x + iy) = log e (re iθ ) = log e r + log e e iθ = log e r + iθ
a z dk xq.kkad
⎛y⎞ izo.krk − = − rFkk js[kk a z + az + b = 0 dh okLrfod
= log e ( x 2 + y 2 ) + i tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ a z dk xq.kkad
⎝x⎠
Re(a) (a + a )
⇒ log e (z ) = log e | z | + i amp (z ) izo.krk − = −i gksxhA
Im(a) (a − a )
funsZ'kkad T;kfefr esa lfEeJ la[;kvksa dk mi;ksx (Use of (vi) yac dh yackbZ : fcUnq z 1 ls js[kk az + az + b = 0 ij Mkys x,
complex numbers in co-ordinate geometry)
| a z 1 + az 1 + b | | a z 1 + az 1 + b |
(1) nks fcUnqvksa ds chp dh nwjh : nks fcUnqvksa P (z 1 ) rFkk Q(z 2 ) yac dh yackbZ vFkok gksrh gSA
| a| +| a | 2| a|
ds e/; dh nwjh, PQ =| z 2 − z1 | = |affix of Q – affix of P|
Q(z2) (5) o`Ùk dk lehdj.k % (i) ml o`Ùk dk lehdj.k] ftldk dsUnz
fcUnq z 0 ij gS rFkk f=T;k r gS] | z − z o | = r gksxkA
(ii) ;fn o`Ùk dk dsUnz ewyfcUnq rFkk f=T;k r gks, rks bldk
lehdj.k | z | = r gksxkA
(2) foHkktu lw= P(z1)
% ekuk R(z), rFkk Q(z 2 ) dks feykus okys
P (z 1 )
js[kk[k.M dks m 1 : m 2 (m 1 , m 2 > 0) ds vuqikr esa foHkkftr djrk gSA (iii)| z − z 0 | < r , o`Ùk | z − z 0 | = r ds vanj dk Hkkx iznf'kZr

(i) ;fn R(z) js[kk[k.M PQ dks m 1 : m 2 ds vuqikr esa var% foHkkftr

djrk gS rFkk | z − z 0 | > r , o`Ùk | z − z 0 | = r P(z)

m1 z 2 + m 2 z1
ds ckgj ds Hkkx dks fu:fir djrk gS] blh r
djrk gS] rks z = izdkj] | z − z 0 | > r o`Ùk ds ckgj fLFkr lHkh
m1 + m 2 C(z0)
fcUnqvksa dk leqPp; gS rFkk | z − z 0 | ≥ r o`Ùk ds
(ii) ;fn R(z) js[kk[k.M PQ dks m1 : m 2 ds vuqikr esa ckár%
ckgj rFkk o`Ùk | z − z 0 | = r ij fLFkr lHkh
m1 z 2 − m 2 z1
foHkkftr djrk gS] rks z = fcUnqvksa dk leqPp; gSA
m1 − m 2
(iv) o`Ùk dk O;kid lehdj.k : o`Ùk dk O;kid lehdj.k
(3) yEc lef}Hkktd dk lehdj.k % ;fn P(z 1 ) rFkk Q(z 2 ) nks z z + az + a z + b = 0 gksrk gS] tgk¡ a ,d lfEeJ la[;k gS rFkk b ∈ R .
fLFkj fcUnq gksa rFkk R(z ) ,d pj fcUnq bl izdkj gS fd bldh P(z 1 )
rFkk Q(z 2 ) ls nwjh lnSo leku gks] ∴ o`Ùk ds dsUnz rFkk f=T;k Øe'k% – a rFkk | a | 2 −b gksrs gSaA
P(z1)
vFkkZr~ PR = QR (v) o`Ùk dk O;kl :i esa lehdj.k : ;fn O;kl ds fljs A(z 1 ) rFkk
vFkok | z − z1 | =| z − z 2 | B (z 2 ) gks]a rFkk P(z ) o`Ùk ij dksbZ vU; fcUnq gks] rks
R(z) (z − z 1 ) (z − z 2 ) + (z − z 2 )(z − z 1 ) = 0 ,
gy djus ij]
tks fd o`Ùk dk O;kl :i esa vHkh"V lehdj.k gSA
z (z1 − z 2 ) + z (z1 − z 2 ) =| z1 | 2 − | z 2 | 2
vr% z, z 1 rFkk z 2 ds yac lef}Hkktd
Q(z2) ?kw.kZu izes; (Rotation theorem)
ij fLFkr gSA ?kw.kZu izes; vFkkZr~ nks izfrPNsnh js[kkvksa ds e/; dk dks.k] bls dksuh
(4) ljy js[kk dk lehdj.k (Coni) fof/k Hkh dgrs gSaA
ekuk z 1 , z 2 rFkk z 3 Øe'k% rhu fcUnq A, B rFkk C dks vkxZUM ry
(i) çkpy lehdj.k % fcUnqvksa z 1 rFkk z 2 dks feykus okyh js[kk dk
lehdj.k z = t z 1 + (1 − t)z 2 , tcfd t ∈ R esa fu:fir djrs gksa] rks AC = z 3 − z 1 Y C(z3)
B(z2)
(ii) vçkpy lehdj.k : fcUnqvksa z 1 rFkk z 2 dks feykus okyh js[kk rFkk AB = z 2 − z 1 rFkk ekuk α
z z 1 arg AC = arg (z 3 − z 1 ) = θ rFkk A(z1)
dk lehdj.k z 1 z 1 1 = 0 AB = arg (z 2 − z 1 ) = φ
z2 z2 1 φ θ
ekuk ∠CAB = α , X
⇒ z (z 1 − z 2 ) − z (z 1 − z 2 ) + z 1 z 2 − z 2 z 1 = 0 Q ∠CAB = α = θ − φ O

z1 z1 1 = arg AC − arg AB = arg (z 3 − z 1 ) − arg (z 2 − z 1 )

(iii) (a) rhu fcUnq z 1 , z 2 , z 3 lejs[kh; gksaxs] ;fn z 2 z 2 1 = 0 ⎛ z − z1 ⎞
z3 z3 1 = arg ⎜⎜ 3 ⎟
⎟
⎝ z 2 − z1 ⎠
(b) ;fnrhu fcUnq A(z1 ), B(z 2 ), C(z 3 ) lajs[k gksa] rks vFkok AC rFkk AB ds e/; dk dks.k
AB dh ço.krk = BC dh ço.krk = AC dh izo.krk ⎛ affix of C − affix of A ⎞
= arg ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ affix of B − affix of A ⎠
 46 lfEeJ la[;k;sa
(1 vkxZUM ry esa ?kw.kZu ladsr ds :i esa lfEeJ la[;k % xqtjus okyh rFkk x-v{k ij θ dks.k ij >qdh gqbZ ljy js[kk gksrh gSA
ekuk z = r(cos θ + i sin θ ) = re iθ ..…(i) ;g /;ku j[ksa fd fcUnq z 1 fcUnqiFk ls ckgj gksrk gSA
r. e iθ
,d lfEeJ la[;k gS] tks vkxZUM ry esa fcUnq P dks fu:fir (3) ;fn vkxZ.M ry esa z ,d pj fcUnq rFkk z 1 , z 2 nks fLFkj fcUnq
djrh gSA gksa] rks
rc] OP =| z | = r rFkk ∠POX = θ (i) | z − z 1 | =| z − z 2 | ⇒ z dk fcUnqiFk] z 1 rFkk z 2 dks feykus

eJ la[;k z 1 = ze iφ dks ysus

lfEeJ Y okys js[kk[k.M dk yEc lef}Hkktd gksrk gSA
Q(zeiφ) (ii) | z − z 1 | + | z − z 2 | = fu;rkad (≠| z 1 − z 2 | ) ⇒ z dk
ij vFkok z 1 = re iθ .e iφ = re i(θ +φ )
P(z) fcUnqiFk] ,d nh?kZo`Ùk gksrk gSA
{lehdj
lehdj.k
.k (i) ls} φ
θ (iii) | z − z 1 | + | z − z 2 | = | z 1 − z 2 |
Li"Vr%] lfEeJ la[;k z 1 vkxZUM X' X
O
⇒ z dk fcUnqiFk] z 1 rFkk z 2 dks feykus okyk js[kk[k.M gksxkA
ry esa fcUnq Q dks fu:fir djrh gS]
tc OQ = r rFkk ∠QOX = θ + φ . (iv) | z − z 1 | − | z − z 2 | = | z 1 − z 2 | ⇒ z dk fcUnqiFk] z 1 rFkk
Y'
Li"Vr%] z rFkk e iφ ds xq.kuQy ls z 2 dks feykus okyh ljy js[kk gksxh] ijUrq z, z 1 rFkk z 2 ds e/; fLFkr
lfn'k OP , φ dks.k ls okekorZ fn'kk esa ?kwe tkrk gSA blh izdkj z dk ugha gksxkA
e −iφls xq.kuQy ls izkIr lfn'k OP nf{k.kkorZ fn'kk esa ?kwe tkrk gSA (v) | z − z 1 | − | z − z 2 | = fLFkjkad (≠| z 1 − z 2 |) ⇒ z dk fcUnqiFk

(i) ;fn z 1 , z 2 rFkk z 3 fcUnq A, B, C ds funsZ'kkad bl izdkj ls gSa ,d vfrijoy; gksxkA

fd AC = AB rFkk ∠CAB = θ , (vi) | z − z 1 | 2 + | z − z 2 | 2 =| z 1 − z 2 | 2 ⇒ z
dk fcUnqiFk ,d o`Ùk
C(z3) gksxkA tgk¡ z 1 rFkk z 2 o`Ùk ds O;kl ds fljs gksaxsA
blfy, AB = z 2 − z 1 , AC = z 3 − z 1 .
(vii) | z − z 1 | = k | z − z 2 | k ≠ 1 ⇒ z dk fcUnqiFk o`Ùk gksrk gSA
rc AC , AB dks θ dks.k ls
okekorZ fn'kk esa ?kqekus ls izkIr gksrk
B(z2) ⎛ z − z1 ⎞
θ (viii) arg ⎜⎜ ⎟ =α
⎟ ¼fLFkj½ ⇒ z dk fcUnqiFk] o`Ùk[k.M gksrk gSA
gS] blfy, AC = AB e iθ A(z1) ⎝ z − z2 ⎠
⎛ z − z1 ⎞
z 3 − z1 (ix) arg ⎜⎜ ⎟ = ± π / 2 ⇒ z dk
⎟ fcUnqiFk ,d o`Ùk gksxk] ftlds
vFkok (z 3 − z 1 ) = (z 2 − z 1 )e iθ vFkok = e iθ ⎝ z − z2 ⎠
z 2 − z1
O;kl ds 'kh"kZ z 1 rFkk z 2 gSaA
(z 3 − z1 ) CA iθ
(ii) ;fn AC ≠ AB rc = .e ⎛ z − z1 ⎞
(z 2 − z1 ) BA (x) arg ⎜⎜ ⎟= 0 vFkok π ⇒ z dk fcUnqiFk] z 1 rFkk z 2 ls
⎟
(2) ;fn pkj fcUnq z 1 , z 2 , z 3 o z 4 pØh; Øe esa gS]a rks ⎝ z − z2 ⎠
xqtjus okyh ljy js[kk gksrh gSA
(z 4 − z 1 ) (z 2 − z 3 ) ⎛ (z − z 3 ) (z 4 − z 1 ) ⎞
(z 4 − z 2 ) (z 1 − z 3 )
= okLrfod ;k arg⎜⎜ 2 ⎟ = ± π, 0
⎟ Mh eks;oj izes; (De Moivre's theorem)
⎝ (z 1 − z 3 ) (z 4 − z 2 ) ⎠
(1) ;fn n dksbZ iw.kkZad gks] rks
f=Hkqt dh vlfedk;sa (Triangle's inequalities)
(cos θ + i sin θ )n = cos n θ + i sin n θ .
fdlh f=Hkqt esa] nks Hkqtkvksa dk ;ksx] rhljh Hkqtk ls vf/kd rFkk nks (2) ;fn z = (cos θ 1 + i sin θ 1 ) (cos θ 2 + i sin θ 2 )
Hkqtkvksa dk varj] rhljh Hkqtk ls de gksrk gSA bl ewy fl)kar ds mi;ksx
(cos θ 3 + i sin θ 3 ) ...... (cosθn + i sinθn )
ls lfEeJ la[;kvksa ds leqPp; ds fy, fuEu ifj.kke izkIr gksrs gSaA
(1) | z 1 + z 2 | ≤| z 1 | + | z 2 |
rc z = cos(θ1 + θ 2 + θ 3 + ..... + θ n ) + i sin(θ1 + θ 2 + θ 3 + ..... + θ n ) ,
tgk¡ θ 1 , θ 2 ,θ 3 .....θ n ∈ R .
(2) | z 1 − z 2 | ≤| z 1 | + | z 2 |
(3) ;fn z = r(cos θ + i sin θ ) rFkk n ,d /kukRed iw.kkZad gks] rks
(3) | z 1 + z 2 | ≥| | z 1 | − | z 2 ||
⎡ ⎛ 2k π + θ ⎞ ⎛ 2k π + θ ⎞⎤
z 1 / n = r 1 / n ⎢cos ⎜ ⎟ + i sin⎜ ⎟⎥ ,
(4) | z 1 − z 2 | ≥|| z 1 | − | z 2 || ⎣ ⎝ n ⎠ ⎝ n ⎠⎦
vkxZ.M lery esa ekud fcUnqiFk tgk¡ k = 0, 1, 2, 3,.....( n − 1) .
(Standard loci in the argand plane) egRoiw.kZ ifj.kke % ;fn n ∈ Q , rks
;fn vkxZ.M lery esa ,d pj fcUnq z bl izdkj gks] fd
(1) (i) (cos θ − i sin θ )n = cos n θ − i sin n θ
arg (z ) = θ , rks z dk fcUnq iFk] (ewy fcUnq ds vfrfjä) ewyfcUnq ls gksdj
(ii) (cos θ + i sin θ )−n = cos n θ − i sin n θ
xqtjus okyh rFkk x-v{k ls θ dks.k ls >qdh gqbZ ljy js[kk gksrh gSA
(iii) (cos θ − i sin θ )−n = cos n θ + i sin n θ
(2) ;fn z ,d pj fcUnq gS rFkk z 1 ,d fLFkj fcUnq] vkxZUM ry esa
⎛π ⎞ ⎛π ⎞
bl izdkj gS fd (z − z 1 ) = θ , rks z dk fcUnqiFk] z 1 ls iznf'kZr fcUnq ls (iv) (sin θ + i cos θ )n = cos n ⎜ − θ ⎟ + i sin n⎜ − θ ⎟
⎝2 ⎠ ⎝2 ⎠
 lfEeJ la[;k;sa 47
;fn n ,d ifjes; la[;k ugha gS ;k lfEeJ la[;k cos θ + i sin θ (vi) z1/n ds lHkh ewy ml o`Ùk dh ifjf/k ij fLFkr gksrs gSa]
ds :i esa ugha gS] rks ;g çes; oS| ugha gSA ftldk dsUnz ewyfcUnq rFkk f=T;k | z | 1 / n gSA ;s ewy o`Ùk dks n leku
‘C + iS’ fof/k }kjk Js.kh dk ;ksxQy Hkkxksa esa foHkkftr Hkh djrs gaSa rFkk n Hkqtkvksa dk ,d le cgqHkqt cukrs
(Summation of series ‘C + is’ method) gSAa
;g ,d lkekU; fof/k gS rFkk fuEu :i dh Js.kh dk ;ksxQy Kkr (2) bdkbZ ds n osa ewy : bdkbZ ds n osa ewy fuEu lehdj.k dk
djus ds fy, iz;qDr dh tkrh gSA gy leqPp; gksx a s
a0 sin α + a1 sin(α + β ) + a2 sin(α + 2 β ) + ..... x n = 1 = cos 0 + i sin 0 = cos 2k π + i sin 2k π
;k a0 cos α + a1 cos(α + β ) + a2 cos(α + 2 β ) + ..... x = [cos 2k π + i sin 2k π ]1 / n
;fn S = a0 sin α + a1 sin(α + β ) + a2 sin(α + 2 β ) + ... 2k π 2k π
rFkk C = a0 cos α + a1 cos(α + β ) + a2 cos(α + 2 β ) + ..... x = cos + i sin , tgk¡ k = 0, 1, 2, ....., (n − 1) .
n n
∴ C + iS = a0 [cos α + i sin α ] + a1 [cos(α + β ) + i sin(α + β )] + .... bdkbZ ds n ewyksa ds xq.k/keZ
= a0 e iα + a1e i(α + β ) + a2 e i(α + 2 β ) + ........ 2π 2π
(i) ekuk α = cos + i sin = e i(2π / n) , bdkbZ ds n ewyksa dks
vfUre Js.kh dk ;ksxQy fuEufyf[kr Jsf.k;ksa esa fdlh ,d dk n n
mi;ksx djds Kkr dh tk ldrh gSA Js.kh 1, α , α 2 ,..... α n −1 ds }kjk iznf'kZr fd;k tkrk gSA Li"Vr% ;g ,d
(1) sine, cosine, sinh ;k cosh Jsf.k;k¡
xq.kksÙkj Js.kh gS] ftldk lkokZUrj α , vFkkZr~ e i(2π / n) gSA
x3 x5
x− + − ...... ∞ = sin x (ii) bdkbZ ds lHkh n ewyksa dk ;ksx 'kwU; gksrk gS] vFkkZr~
3! 5 !
1 + α + α 2 + ..... + α n −1 = 0 .
x2 x4
1− + − ...... ∞ = cos x (iii) bdkbZds lHkh n ewyksa dk xq.kuQy (−1)n −1 gksrk gSA
2! 4 !
x3 x5 (iv) bdkbZ ds n ewyksa dh p oha ?kkrksa dk ;ksxQy
x+ + + ...... ∞ = sinh x ⎧⎪0, tc p, n
3! 5! dk xq.kt ugha gS
1 + α p + α 2 p + ..... + α (n −1) p = ⎨
x 2
x 4 ⎪⎩n, tc n, p
dk xq.kt gS
1+ + + ...... ∞ = cosh x
2! 4 ! (v) ;fn bdkbZ ds n ewyksa dks lfEeJ ry esa fu:fir fd;k tk,]
(2) xzsxjht Jsf.k;k¡ rks ;g bdkbZ o`Ùk ftldk dsUnz ewyfcUnq gS] ds varxZr fLFkr n Hkqtkvksa
okys lecgqHkqt ds 'kh"kksZa dks iznf'kZr djrs gSaA
x3 x5
x− + − ...... ∞ = tan −1 x (3) bdkbZ ds ?kuewy % bdkbZ ds ?kuewy] lehdj.k x 3 − 1 = 0
3 5
⇒ x = (1)1 / 3 dk gy leqPp; gksaxsA
x3 x5 1 1+ x
x+ + + ....... ∞ = tanh −1 x = log 2k π ⎛ 2k π ⎞
3 5 2 1−x ⇒ x = (cos 0 + i sin 0)1 / 3 ⇒ x = cos + i sin⎜ ⎟,
3 ⎝ 3 ⎠
lfEeJ la[;k ds ewy (Roots of a complex number) tgk¡ k = 0, 1, 2 .
(1) lfEeJ la[;k ds n ewy (z1/n) : ekuk bl izdkj] bdkbZ ds ?kuewy
z = r(cos θ + i sin θ ) ,d lfEeJ la[;k gSA lfEeJ la[;k ds ewy 2π 2π 4π 4π
1, cos + i sin , cos + i sin vFkok 1, e 2π i / 3 , e 4 π i / 3 gSaA
Kkr djus ds fy,] loZizFke bls dks.kkad ds O;kid eku ds lkFk /kzqoh; 3 3 3 3
:i esa ifjofrZr djrs gSa rFkk fM-ekboj izes; dk iz;ksx djrs gSAa fM- oSdfYid fof/k : x = (1)1 / 3 ⇒ (x − 1)(x 2 + x + 1) = 0
ekboj izes; ds }kjk fdlh lfEeJ la[;k ds n osa ewy ds n fofHké eku −1 + i 3 −1 − i 3
⎡ 2k π + θ 2k π + θ ⎤ x = 1, ,
Kkr gksrs gSa] vr% z 1/n
=r 1/n
⎢cos + i sin ⎥
2 2
⎣ n n ⎦ ;fn ,d lfEeJ ewy ω gks] rks nwljk ewy ω 2 gksxk rFkk bldk
tgk¡ k = 0, 1, 2,....., (n − 1). foykse Hkh lR; gSA
bdkbZ ds ?kuewyksa ds xq.k/keZ
z1/n ds ewyksa ds xq.k/keZ
(i) 1 + ω + ω 2 = 0
(i) z1/n ds lHkh ewy xq.kksÙkj Js.kh esa gksrs gSa] ftldk lkokZuqikr (ii) ω 3 = 1
e 2π i / ngSA ⎧0 , ; fn n, 3 dk xq.kt ugh a gS
(ii) z1/n ds lHkh ewyksa dk ;ksxQy 'kwU; gksrk gSA (iii) 1 + ω n + ω 2n = ⎪⎨
⎪⎩ 3 , ; fn n, 3 dk xq.kt gS
(iii) z 1 / n ds lHkh ewyksa dk xq.kuQy (−1)n −1 z gksrk gSA (iv) ;fn bdkbZ ds ?ku ewyksa dks lfEeJ ry esa fu:fir fd;k tk,]
(iv) z1/n ds lHkh ewyksa ds ekikad leku gksrs gSa rFkk izR;sd dk rks ewy] bdkbZ f=T;k ds o`Ùk ftldk dsUnz ewyfcUnq gS] ds varxZr fLFkr
eku r 1/n
vFkok | z | 1 / n ds cjkcj gksrk gSA leckgq f=Hkqt ds 'kh"kksZa dks iznf'kZr djrs gSa] ftldk ,d 'kh"kZ /kukRed
okLrfod v{k ij gksrk gSA
(v) z1/n ds lHkh ewyksa ds dks.kkad lekUrj Js.kh esa gksrs gSa] (v) ,d lfEeJ la[;k a + ib, ftlds fy, | a : b | = 1 : 3 vFkok
2π
ftldk lkokZUrj gSA 3 :1 gks] dks lnSo i, ω , ω 2 esa O;Dr dj ldrs gSaA
n
 48 lfEeJ la[;k;sa
(vi) – 1 ds?kuewy − 1, − ω , − ω 2 gksrs gSaA ,d nwljs dh la;qXeh lfEeJ la[;k,¡ gSaA
(4) bdkbZ ds prqFkZ ewy % bdkbZ ds pkj] prqFkZ ewy lehdj.k " i dk xq.kuQy : pw¡fd z = r (cos θ + i sin θ ) rFkk
x 4 − 1 = 0 ds gy leqPp; ls izkIr gksrs gSaA ⎛ π π⎞ ⎡ ⎛π ⎞ ⎛π ⎞⎤
i = ⎜ cos + i sin ⎟ , rks iz = ⎢cos ⎜ + θ ⎟ + i sin⎜ + θ ⎟ ⎥
x 4
− 1 = 0 ⇒ (x − 1)(x + 1) = 0 ⇒ x = ± 1, ± i
2 2 ⎝ 2 2⎠ ⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦
bdkbZ ds prqFkZ ewy ,d oxZ ds 'kh"kZ gksrs gSa] tks fd funsZ'kk{kksa ij vr% z dks i ls xq.kk djus ij] z /kukRed fn'kk esa ledks.k ls ?kwe
fLFkr gksrs gSaA tkrk gSA ,d lfn'k esa –1 ls xq.kk djus ij og nks ledks.k ls ?kwe
tkrk gSsA ,d lfn'k dkss (cos θ + i sin θ ) ls xq.kk djus ij og
/kukRed fn'kk esa θ dkss.k ls ?kwe tkrk gSA
" ;fn z 1 o z 2 nks lfEeJ la[;k;sa bl izdkj gSa fd | z 1 z 2 |
z1 r ⎛z ⎞
= r1 r2 ; arg(z1 z 2 ) = θ1 + θ 2 rFkk = 1 , arg ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ = θ 1 − θ 2 rFkk
z2 r2 ⎝ z2 ⎠
" ,d lfEeJ la[;k dks okLrfod la[;kvksa ds Øfer ;qXe ds :i tgk¡ | z1 | = r1 ,| z 2 | = r2 , arg(z1 ) = θ1 rFkk arg(z 2 ) = θ 2 .
esa Hkh ifjHkkf"kr dj ldrs gSa rFkk bls (a, b) ls iznf'kZr djrs gSaA 1
" f=Hkqt dk {ks=Qy] ftlds 'kh"kZ z, iz rFkk z + iz gSa] | z|2 gksrk gSA
lfEeJ la[;k dks ifjHkkf"kr djus ds fy, nks okLrfod la[;kvksa dk 2
fo'ks"k Øe esa gksuk vko';d gSA " f=Hkqt dk {ks=Qy] ftlds 'kh"kZ z, wz rFkk z + wz gks]a
" 0 = 0 + 0 i ;ksxQy ds fy, rRled vo;o gSA 3 2
| z | gksrk gSA
" 1 = 1 + i0 xq.kuQy ds fy, rRled vo;o gSA 4

" lfEeJ la[;k z = a + ib dk ;ksT; izfrykse − z gksrk gS] " ;fn z1 , z 2 , z 3 ,d leckgq f=Hkqt ds 'kh"kZ gksa rFkk z o ifjdsUnz
(vFkkZr~ – a – ib)- gks] rks z12 + z 22 + z 32 + = 3z 02 .
" izR;sd v'kwU; lfEeJ la[;k z ds fy,] xq.ku izfrykse 1/z gksrk gSA
" ;fn z1 , z 2 , z 3 ..... zn fdlh n Hkqtkvksa ds lecgqHkqt ds 'kh"kZ gksa
" | z | ≥| Re(z)| ≥ Re(z) rFkk | z | ≥| Im(z )| ≥ Im(z ) .
z rFkk z 0 mldk dsUnzd gks] rks z12 + z 22 + ..... + zn2 = nz 02 .
" lnSo ,d bdkbZ ekikad lfEeJ la[;k gksrh gS] ;fn z ≠ 0
z " ;fn z1 , z 2 , z 3 ,d f=Hkqt ds 'kh"kZ gks]a rks f=Hkqt leckgq gksxk]
" | Re(z )| + | Im(z )| ≤ 2 | z | ;fn vkSj dsoy ;fn (z1 − z 2 )2 + (z 2 − z 3 )2 + (z 3 − z1 )2 = 0
" || z1 | − | z 2 || ≤| z1 + z 2 | ≤| z1 | + | z 2 | vFkok] z12 + z 22 + z 32 = z1 z 2 + z 2 z 3 + z 3 z1
vr% | z1 + z 2 | dk laHkkfor egÙke eku gksxk | z1 | + | z 2 | rFkk
1 1 1
| z1 + z 2 | dk laHkkfor U;wure eku || z1 | − | z 2 || gksxkA vFkok] + + =0.
z1 − z 2 z 2 − z 3 z 3 − z1
1
" ;fn z + = a, rks | z | ds egÙke rFkk U;wure eku Øe'k% " ;fn z 1 , z 2 , z 3 fdlh lef}ckgq f=Hkqt ds 'kh"kZ gSa] tks fd z 2
z
ij ledks.kh; gS] rks z12 + z 22 + z 32 = 2 z 2 (z1 + z 3 ) .
a + a2 + 4 − a + a2 + 4
rFkk gksaxsA " ;fn z1 , z 2 , z 3 fdlh ledks.k lef}ckgq f=Hkqt ds 'kh"kZ gksa] rks
2 2
(z1 − z 2 )2 = 2(z1 − z 3 ) (z 3 − z 2 ) .
" | z1 + z12 − z 22 | + | z 2 − z12 − z 22 | =| z1 + z 2 | + | z1 − z 2 |
" ;fn z1 = z 2 ⇔ z1 = z 2 rFkk arg z 1 = arg z2. " ;fn Δ ABC ds 'kh"kZ A, B, C Øe'k% z 1 , z 2 , z 3 }kjk fu:fir gksrs
a(sec A)z1 + b(sec B)z 2 + c(sec C)z 3
" z1 + z 2 = z1 | + | z 2 ⇔ arg (z1 ) = arg (z 2 ) vFkkZr~ z1 rFkk gS] rc bl f=Hkqt dk yEcdsUæ gksxkA
a sec A + b sec B + c sec C
z2 lekUrj gSaA " lehdj.k | z − z1 | 2 + | z − z 2 | 2 = k (tgk¡ k ,d okLrfod
" z1 + z 2 = z1 | + | z 2 ⇔ arg (z1 ) − arg (z 2 ) = 2nπ , tgk¡ n 1
iw.kkZad gSA la[;k gS) ,d o`Ùk dks fu:fir djrk gS ftldk dsUæ (z1 + z 2 )
2
" | z1 − z 2 | = | | z1 | − | z 2 || ⇔ arg(z1 ) − arg(z 2 ) = 2nπ , tgk¡ n 1 1
rFkk f=T;k 2k − | z1 − z 2 | 2 gSa] tgk¡ k ≥ | z1 − z 2 | 2 .
iw.kkZad gSA 2 2
" z 1 + z 2 = z 1 − z 2 ⇔ arg (z 1 ) – arg (z 2 ) = π / 2 . " (iz ) = −iz , Re(iz) = − Im(z ), Im(iz) = Re(z) .
" ;fn | z1 | ≤ 1,| z 2 | ≤ 1 rks " ;fn z 1 o z 2 lfEeJ la[;k;sa bl izdkj gSa fd z 1 + z 2 ,d
(i) z 1 + z 2
2
( z1 −
≤ z2 )2 + (arg (z 1 ) − arg (z 2 ))2 . okLrfod la[;k gS] rks ;g vko';d ugha gS fd z 1 o z 2 ,d nwljs
z1 + z 2 ≥ ( z1 + z 2 ) − (arg (z ) − arg (z )) .
(ii)
2 2 2 dh la;qXeh gSaA
1 2
" ;fn z 1 o z 2 lfEeJ la[;k;sa bl izdkj gSa fd z 1 z 2 ,d
"
2 2 2
z1 + z 2 = z1 + z2 + 2| z 1 | | z 2 | cos(θ 1 − θ 2 ).
okLrfod la[;k gS] rks ;g vko';d ugha gS fd z 1 o z 2 ,d nwljs
" z 1 − z 2 = z 1 + z 2 − 2| z 1 | | z 2 | cos(θ 1 − θ 2 ).
2 2 2
dh la;qXeh gSaA
" ;fn | z1 | =| z 2 | rFkk amp (z1 ) + amp (z 2 ) = 0, rks z 1 vkSj z 2 " pw¡fd | z | 2 = [Re(z )]2 + [Im(z )]2 , blfy, Re(z) ≤| z |, Im(z) ≤| z | .
 lfEeJ la[;k;sa 49

" fdlh a, b ∈ R ds fy,

(i) a + ib + a − ib = 2{ a 2 + b 2 + a}

(ii) a + ib − a − ib = i 2{ a 2 + b 2 − a}
" | z | + | z 2 | +...... + | zn | =| z1 + z 2 + ..... + zn | dsoy rHkh lEHko
gS tc z 1 , z 2 , ..... z n ds dks.kkad cjkcj gksaA
" nks lfEeJ la[;kvksa dk ;ksxQy ,oa xq.kuQy ,d lkFk
okLrfod gksxk ;fn ,oa dsoy ;fn os ,d-nwljs ds la;qXeh gSaA
" ;fn ω rFkk ω 2 bdkbZ ds lfEeJ ?kuewy gSa] rc
(i) (aω + b ω 2 )(aω 2 + b ω ) = a 2 + b 2 − ab
(ii) (a + b )(aω + b ω 2 )(aω 2 + b 2ω ) = a 3 + b 3

(iii) (a + bω + cω )(a + bω + cω) = a + b + c − ab − bc − ca

2 2 2 2 2

(iv) (a + b + c)(a + bω + cω 2 )(a + bω 2 + cω) = a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc

" ;fn rhu fcUnq z1 , z 2 , z 3 lEcU/k az1 + bz 2 + cz3 = 0 ds }kjk
lEcfU/kr gks]a tgk¡ a + b + c = 0 , rks rhuksa fcUnq lejs[kh; gksaxsA
" ;fn z ,d lfEeJ la[;k gS] rc e z vkorhZ gSA
" ;fn rhu lfEeJ la[;k;sa lekUrj Js.kh esa gSa] rc os lfEeJ ry
esa ,d ljy js[kk ij fLFkr gksrh gSAa
 104 Jsf.k;k¡

Chapter-4
AP GP & HP

,d Js.kh og vuqØe gS] ftlds in fdlh fo'ks"k :i esa gksa vFkkZr~ lekarj Js.kh dk O;kid in (General term of an A.P.)
ftlds in fdlh fuf'pr fu;e ds vUrxZr O;ofLFkr gksaA
mnkgj.kkFkZ % 1, 3, 5, 7, 9,…….. ,d Js.kh gS] ftlds in Tn = 2n − 1 (1) ekuk fdlh lekUrj Js.kh dk çFke in ‘a’ o lkokZUrj ‘d’ gS]s rks
ds vUrxZr O;ofLFkr fd;s x, gSa] tgk¡ Tn Js.kh (Progression) ds n osa bldk n ok¡ in a + (n − 1)d gksxk vFkkZr~ Tn = a + (n − 1)d .
in dks O;Dr djrk gSA (2) lekUrj Js.kh dk] vUr ls n ok¡ in : ekuk n inksa okyh
Js.kh ds eq[;r% rhu izdkj gSa % lekUrj Js.kh] xq.kksRrj Js.kh rFkk lekUrj Js.kh dk izFke in ‘a’ o lkokZUrj ‘d’ gks] rks Js.kh dk vUr ls p
gjkRed Js.khA ok¡ in] çkjEHk ls (n − p + 1) ok¡ in gksxk vFkkZr~]
fdUrq ;gk¡ Js.kh ds v/;;u dks ik¡p Hkkxksa esa ck¡Vk x;k gS vUr ls p ok¡ in = T(n − p +1) = a + (n − p )d .
• lekUrj Js.kh • xq.kksÙkj Js.kh
• lekUrjh; -xq.kksRrj Js.kh • gjkRed Js.kh lekarj Js.kh ds fy, inksa dk p;u
• fofo/k Jsf.k;k¡ Selection of terms in an A.P.)

lekUrj Js.kh tc ;ksxQy fn;k x;k gks] rks fuEu çdkj ls inksa dk p;u djrs gSa %
lkj.kh 4 : 1
ifjHkk"kk (Definition)
la[;kvksa dk ,d vuqØe < t n > lekUrj Js.kh dgykrk gS] tc inksa dh la[;k p;fur in
vUrj t n − t n −1 ,d vpj jkf'k gks] ∀n ∈ N . ;g vpj] lekUrj Js.kh 3 a – d, a, a + d
4 a – 3d, a – d, a + d, a + 3d
dk lkokZUrj dgykrk gS] ftls lkekU;r% d ls O;Dr djrs gSaA
5 a – 2d, a – d, a, a + d, a + 2d
;fn ‘a’ çFke in rFkk ‘d’ lkokZUrj gks] rks lekUrj Js.kh dks
fuEukafdr :i esa O;Dr fd;k tk ldrk gSA lkekU;r%] fdlh lekUrj Js.kh esa ;fn (2r + 1) in (vFkkZr~ inksa dh
a, a + d , a + 2 d , a + 3 d ,........ la[;k-fo"ke) ysuk gks] rks fuEukafdr inksa dk p;u djrs gSa %
a – rd, a – (r – 1)d, ……., a – d, a, a + d, ……, a + (r – 1)d, a + rd
mnkgj.kkFkZ : 2, 7, 12, 17, 22, …… ,d lekUrj Js.kh gS] ftldk çFke
in 2 rFkk lkokZUrj 5 gSaA rFkk a − (2r − 1)d, a − (2r − 3)d, ......., a − d , a + d , ......., a + (2r − 1)d ,
,d vuqØe lekUrj Js.kh gS ;k ugha] bls Kkr djus dh dk;Z-fof/k ;fn 2r in ysuk gksA
fuEufyf[kr gS] ;fn ;ksxQy ugha fn;k x;k gS] rks fuEu izdkj ls inksa dk p;u
Step I: an (vuqØe dk n ok¡ in) Kkr djsaA djrs gSa %
Step II: a n esa n dh txg n – 1 j[kdj a n −1 Kkr djsaA lkj.kh 4 : 2
Step III: an − an −1 dk eku Kkr djsaA inksa dh la[;k p;fur in
;fn a n − a n −1 , n ij fuHkZj ugha djrk gS] rks vuqØe ,d lekUrj 3 a, a + d , a + 2d
Js.kh gksxk] vU;Fkk ughaA lekUrj Js.kh ,d js[kh; Qyu gS] ftldk 4 a, a + d , a + 2 d , a + 3 d
çkUr (domain) izkd`r la[;kvksa dk leqPp; gSA 5 a, a + d , a + 2 d , a + 3 d , a + 4 d
∴ tn = An + B , lekarj Js.kh dk n ok¡ in çnf'kZr djrk gS]
ftldk lkokZUrj A gSA
lekUrj Js.kh ds n inksa dk ;ksxQy
 Jsf.k;k¡ 105

(Sum of n terms of an A.P.)

Js.kh a + (a + d ) + (a + 2d ) + ....... + {a + (n − 1) d } ds n inksa dk
ifjHkk"kk (Definition)
n n ,d Js.kh xq.kksRrj Js.kh gksxh] ;fn blds çR;sd in rFkk blls
;ksxQy S n = [2a + (n − 1) d ] vkSj S n = (a + l) , tgk¡ l = vafre in iwoZorhZ in dk vuqikr lnSo fu;r gksA ;g fu;r vuqikr lkokZuqikr
2 2
= a + (n − 1) d . dgykrk gS] ftls lk/kkj.kr% r ls O;Dr djrs gSaA
mnkgj.kkFkZ : vuqØe 4, 12, 36, 108, ….. ,d xq.kksRrj Js.kh gS] D;ksafd
lekarj ek/; (Arithmetic mean) 12 36 108
= = = ..... = 3 , tks fd fu;rkad gSA
;fn a, A, b lekUrj Js.kh esa gksa] rks A dks a o b dk lekUrj ek/; 4 12 36
dgrs gSaA Li"V :i ls] bl xq.kksRrj Js.kh dk çFke in 4 rFkk lkokZuqikr 3 gSA
(1) ;fn a, A1 , A2 , A3 ,....., An , b lekUrj Js.kh esa gksa] rks a vkSj b 1 1 3 9
ds chp n lekUrj ek/; A1 , A2 , A3 , ......, An gksaxsA vuqØe , − , , − , .... ,d xq.kksRrj Js.kh gS] ftldk çFke
3 2 4 8
(2) lekUrj ek/; dk lekos'k
lkokZuqikr ⎛⎜ − ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ = − gSA
1 1 1 3
in rFkk
(i) a o b ds chp ,d lekUrj ek/; % ;fn a vkSj b nks okLrfod 3 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
3 2
a+b
la[;k,¡ gSa] rks a vkSj b ds chp lekUrj ek/; = xq.kksÙkj Js.kh dk O;kid in (General term of a G.P.)
2
(ii) a o b ds chp n lekUrj ek/; - ;fn A1 , A 2 , A 3 , ......., A n ; a
(1) ge tkurs gSa] fd vuqØe a, ar, ar 2 , ar 3 , ..... arn −1 ,d xq.kksRrj
,oa b ds chp n lekUrj ek/; gSa] rks
Js.kh gSA
b −a b −a
A1 = a + d = a + , A2 = a + 2 d = a + 2 , ;gk¡ çFke in ‘a’ rFkk lkokZuqikr ‘r’ gSA
n +1 n +1
b −a b −a xq.kksRrj Js.kh dk O;kid in ;k n ok¡ in Tn = arn −1 gksxk] tgk¡
A3 = a + 3 d = a + 3 , ……., An = a + nd = a + n .
n +1 n +1 T2 T3
r= = = ......
T1 T2
lekarj Js.kh ds xq.k/keZ (Properties of A.P.)
(2) fdlh xq.kksRrj Js.kh dk vUr ls p ok¡ in : ;fn fdlh xq.kksRrj
(1) ;fn a1 , a2 , a3 ..... lekUrj Js.kh esa gSa] ftldk lkokZUrj d gS] rks Js.kh esa ‘n’ in gSa] rks vUr ls p ok¡ in = çkjEHk ls (n − p + 1) ok¡ in
,d v'kwU; fLFkj la[;k k ∈ R ds fy,] = ar n − p
(i) a1 ± k , a2 ± k , a3 ± k ,..... lekUrj Js.kh esa gksaxs] ftldk lkokZUrj
rFkk ml xq.kksRrj Js.kh dk vUr ls p ok¡ in] ftldk vfUre in l
d gksxkA p −1
rFkk lkokZuqikr r gS] l ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟
1
(ii) ka1 , ka 2 , ka 3 .... lekUrj Js.kh esa gksaxs] ftldk lkokZUrj = kd gksxkA
⎝r⎠
gksxkA
(iii)
a1 a2 a3
, , ... lekUrj Js.kh esa gksaxs] ftldk lkokZUrj = d/k gksxkA xq.kksÙkj Js.kh esa inksa dk p;u (Selection of terms in a G.P.)
k k k
(1) ;fn inksa dk xq.kuQy fn;k x;k gks] rks fuEukafdr fof/k }kjk
(2) fdlh lekUrj Js.kh esa] çkjEHk rFkk vUr ls lenwjLFk inksa dk
inksa dk p;u djrs gSa
;ksxQy ,d fu;rkad gksrk gS] tks fd çFke rFkk vfUre inksa ds
;ksxQy ds cjkcj gksrk gS] vFkkZr~ a1 + an = a2 + an −1 = a3 + an − 2 = .... lkj.kh 4 : 3
(3) ;fn fdlh lekUrj Js.kh esa inksa dh la[;k fo"ke gS] rks inksa dk inksa dh la[;k p;fur in
;ksxQy] e/; in rFkk inksa dh la[;k ds xq.kuQy ds cjkcj gksrk gSA a
3 , a, ar
(4) ;fn fdlh lekUrj Js.kh esa inksa dh la[;k le gS] rks e/; ds r
nks inksa dk lekUrj ek/;] çFke rFkk vfUre in ds lekUrj ek/; ds a a
cjkcj gksrk gSA 4 , , ar, ar 3
r3 r
(5) ;fn fdlh lekUrj Js.kh esa inksa dh l[a;k fo"ke gS] rks bldk
a a
e/; in] çFke rFkk vfUre in ds lekUrj ek/; ds cjkcj gksrk gSA 5 , , a, ar, ar 2
r2 r
(6) ;fn a1 , a2 , ...... an rFkk b1 , b2 , ...... bn nks lekUrj Jsf.k;k¡ gSa]
rks a1 ± b 1 , a 2 ± b 2 , ...... a n ± b n Hkh lekUrj Js.kh esa gksaxs] ftldk (2) ;fn xq.kuQy ugha fn;k x;k gS] rks fuEukafdr fof/k ds }kjk
lkokZUrj d 1 ± d 2 gksxk] tgk¡ d 1 ,oa d 2 nh xbZ lekUrj Jsf.k;ksa ds inksa dk p;u djrs gSa
lkokZUrj gSaA lkj.kh 4 : 4
(7) rhu la[;k,¡ a, b, c lekUrj Js.kh esa gksaxh] ;fn vkSj dsoy ;fn inksa dh la[;k p;fur in
2b = a + c .
3 a, ar, ar 2
(8) ;fn Tn , Tn +1 rFkk Tn + 2 fdlh lekUrj Js.kh ds rhu Øekxr
in gSa] rks 2Tn +1 = Tn + Tn + 2 4 a, ar, ar 2 , ar 3

(9) ;fn fdlh lekUrj Js.kh ls leku vUrjky ij fLFkr in pqus 5 a, ar, ar 2 , ar 3 , ar 4
tk,¡] rks os lekUrj Js.kh esa gksaxsA
xq.kksÙkj Js.kh ds çFke ‘n’ inksa dk ;ksxQy
xq.kksÙkj Js.kh (Sum of first ‘n’ terms of a G.P.)
 106 Jsf.k;k¡

;fn fdlh xq.kksRrj Js.kh dk çFke in a, lkokZuqikr r gks] rks Js.kh rhu v'kwU; la[;k,¡ a, b, c xq.kksRrj Js.kh esa gksaxh] ;fn vkSj
(7)
ds çFke n inksa dk ;ksxQy dsoy ;fn] b 2 = ac .
a(1 − r n ) a − lr (8) ;fn n inksa dh fdlh xq.kksRrj Js.kh dk izFke in a rFkk vfUre
Sn = , Sn = , tc |r|< 1 in l gS] rks lHkh inksa dk xq.kuQy (al)n / 2 gksxkA
1−r 1−r
a(r n − 1) lr − a (9) ;fn fdlh xq.kksRrj Js.kh] ftldk lkokZuqikr r gS] esa n jkf'k;k¡ gSa]
Sn = , Sn = , tc |r|> 1 rFkk S m izFke m inksa ds ;ksxQy dks O;Dr djrk gS] rks izR;sd nks-nks inksa
r −1 r −1
S n = na , tc r = 1 r
dks ,d lkFk ysdj izkIr xq.kuQyksa dk ;ksxQy S n S n −1 gksxkA
r +1
xq.kksÙkj Js.kh ds vuUr inksa dk ;ksxQy (10) ;fn a x 1 , a x 2 , a x 3 ,...., a x n xq.kksRrj Js.kh esa gksa] rks
x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ,...., x n lekarj Js.kh esa gksaxsA
(Sum of infinite terms of a G.P.)
a
gjkRed ek/;
(1) tc |r|< 1, (;k −1 < r < 1) ; S ∞ =
1−r ifjHkk"kk (Definition)
(2) ;fn r ≥ 1, rks S ∞ dk vfLrRo ugha gksxkA
,d Js.kh gjkRed Js.kh (H.P.) dgykrh gS] ;fn blds inksa ds
xq.kksÙkj ek/; (Geometric mean) O;qRØe lekUrj Js.kh esa gksaA
1 1 1
;fn a, G, b xq.kksRrj Js.kh esa gSa] rks G dks a ,oa b dk xq.kksRrj ek/; ekud :i : + + + ....
a a + d a + 2d
dgrs gSaA
(1) ;fn a, G1 , G 2 , G 3 ,..... Gn , b xq.kksRrj Js.kh esa gSa] rks 1 1 1 1
mnkgj.kkFkZ : vuqØe 1, , , , ,.... ,d gjkRed Js.kh gS]
3 5 7 9
G1 , G 2 , G3 ,.... Gn ; a ,oa b ds chp n xq.kksRrj ek/; dgykrs gSaA
D;ksafd vuqØe 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, …..,d lekUrj Js.kh gSA
(2) xq.kksRrj ek/; LFkkfir djuk % (i) a ,oa b ds chp ,d
xq.kksRrj ek/;: ;fn a rFkk b nks okLrfod la[;k,¡ gSa] rks a ,oa b ds chp gjkRed Js.kh dk O;kid in (General term of an H.P.)
,d xq.kksRrj ek/; = ab - 1 1 1
(ii) a ,oa b ds chp n xq.kksRrj ek/; : ;fn G1 , G 2 , G 3 , ......, Gn ; a ;fn gjkRed Js.kh , , , .... gS] rks laxr lekUrj
a a + d a + 2d
,oa b ds chp n xq.kksRrj ek/; gSa] rks Js.kh a, a + d , a + 2d , ..... gksxhA
1 2
⎛b ⎞ n +1 ⎛b ⎞ n +1 lekUrj Js.kh dk n ok¡ in = a + (n − 1)d
G1 = ar = a⎜ ⎟ , G 2 = ar 2 = a⎜ ⎟ ,
⎝a⎠ ⎝a⎠ 1
∴ gjkRed Js.kh dk n ok¡ in =
3 n a + (n − 1) d
⎛b ⎞ n +1 ⎛b ⎞ n +1
G3 = ar 3 = a⎜ ⎟ ,……….., Gn = ar n = a⎜ ⎟ gjkRed Js.kh ds iz'uksa ds gy ds fy,] laxr lekUrj Js.kh cukuk pkfg,A
⎝a⎠ ⎝a⎠
1
∴ O;kid in : Tn = ;k gjkRed Js.kh dk O;kid
xq.kksÙkj Js.kh ds xq.k/keZ (Properties of G.P.) a + (n − 1) d
1
(1) ;fn fdlh xq.kksRrj Js.kh ds lHkh inksa dks fdlh v'kwU; fu;rkad in =
ls xq.kk fd;k tk, ;k Hkkx fn;k tk,] rc ifj.kkeh vuqØe Hkh ,d lekUrj Js.kh dk O;kid in
xq.kksRrj Js.kh gksrk gS] ftldk lkokZuqikr ogh gksxkA gjkRed ek/; (Harmonic mean)
(2) fdlh xq.kksRrj Js.kh ds inksa dk O;qRØe ,d xq.kksRrj Js.kh
cukrk gS] ftldk lkokZuqikr nh xbZ xq.kksRrj Js.kh ds lkokZuqikr dk ;fn rhu ;k vf/kd la[;k,¡ gjkRed Js.kh esa gSa] rks çFke rFkk
O;qRØe gksrk gSA vfUre inksa ds chp dh la[;k,¡ muds chp gjkRed ek/; dgykrh gSaA
(3) ;fn fdlh lhfer xq.kksRrj Js.kh ¼ftldk lkokZuqikr r gS½ ds 1 1 1 1 1
izR;sd in dk leku ?kkr (k) fy;k tk,] rks çkIr vuqØe Hkh xq.kksRrj mnkgj.kkFkZ % 1, , , , gjkRed Js.kh esa gSaA vr% 1 rFkk ds
3 5 7 9 9
Js.kh esa gksxk] ftldk lkokZuqikr r k gksxkA 1 1 1
(4) fdlh lhfer xq.kksRrj Js.kh esa] çkjEHk rFkk vUr ls leku e/; , , rhu gjkRed ek/; gSaA
3 5 7
vUrjky ij fLFkr inksa dk xq.kuQy lnSo leku gksrk gS vkSj ;g çFke
rFkk vfUre in ds xq.kuQy ds cjkcj gksrk gSA ;fn a, H, b gjkRed Js.kh esa gSa] rks H dks a rFkk b ds chp gjkRed
vFkkZr~] ;fn a1 , a2 , a3 , ...... an xq.kksRrj Js.kh esa gSa] rks ek/; dgrs gSaA
a1 an = a2 an −1 = a3 an − 2 = a4 an − 3 = .......... = ar . an −r +1
gjkRed ek/; LFkkfir djuk
2ab
(5) ;fn fdlh xq.kksRrj Js.kh esa ls leku vUrjky ij fLFkr inksa dk (i) a o b ds chp ,d gjkRed ek/; =
p;u fd;k tk,] rks bl çdkj çkIr vuqØe xq.kksRrj Js.kh esa gksxkA a+b
(6) ;fn a1 , a2 , a3 , ....., an ...... ,d v'kwU; v_.kkRed inksa dh (ii) n v'kwU; la[;kvksa a1 , a2 , a3 , ...., an dk gjkRed ek/; H gS] rks
xq.kksRrj Js.kh gS] rks log a1 , log a2 , log a3 , ..... log an , ...... ,d lekUrj 1
+
1
+ .... +
1
Js.kh gksxh rFkk bldk foykse Hkh lR; gSA 1 a a2 an
= 1
H n
 Jsf.k;k¡ 107

(iii) ekuk a o b nh xbZ nks la[;k,¡ gSaA ;fn a o b ds e/; n la[;k,¡ (2) vuUr vuqØe dk ;ksxQy % ekuk rks r n , r n −1 → 0 ,
|r|< 1,
H 1 , H 2 , ...... H n bl izdkj yh tk;sa fd vuqØe
tcfd n → ∞ vkSj ;g lR;kfir fd;k tk ldrk gS fd n . r n → 0 ,
a, H 1 , H 2 , H 3 ...... H n , b gjkRed Js.kh esa gksa] rks H 1 , H 2 , ...... , H n ; a
a dr
o b ds e/; n gjkRed ek/; dgykrs gSaA tc n → ∞, vr% S n → + , tc n → ∞
1 − r (1 − r)2
vc, a, H 1 , H 2 ,..... H n , b gjkRed Js.kh esa gSa
nwljs 'kCnksa esa] tc |r|< 1 rks lekUrjh;-xq.kksRrj Js.kh ds vuUr inksa
1 1 1 1 1
⇒ , , , ...... , lekUrj Js.kh esa gksaxsA a dr a dr
a H1 H 2 Hn b dk ;ksxQy S ∞ = + , S∞ = + .
1 − r (1 − r)2 1 − r (1 − r)2
ekuk bl lekUrj Js.kh dk lkokZUrj D gS] rks
1
= (n + 2) ok¡ in = Tn + 2
;ksXkQy Kkr djus dh fof/k (Method for finding sum)
b
1 1 a−b
;g fof/k n inksa rFkk vuUr inksa ds ;ksxQy] nksuksa ds fy, ç;qDr
= + (n + 1) D ⇒ D = gksrh gSA
b a (n + 1) ab
ekuk Js.kh dk ;ksxQy S gS] rc bls lkokZuqikr ls xq.kk dj ?kVk,¡A
vr% nh xbZ nks la[;kvksa a vkSj b ds chp n gjkRed ek/; LFkkfir fd;s bl rjg gesa ,d xq.kksRrj Js.kh izkIr gksrh gS] ftldk ;ksxQy vklkuh
a−b ls fudkyk tk ldrk gSA
tk,¡] rks laxr lekUrj Js.kh dk lkokZUrj D= gksxk rFkk
(n + 1) ab vUrj fof/k (Method of difference)
1 1 1 1 1 1 a−b
= +D, = + 2 D ,…., = + nD ,tgk¡ D = . ;fn fdlh Js.kh ds Øekxr inksa dk vUrj lekUrj Js.kh ;k
H1 a H2 a Hn a (n + 1) ab
xq.kksRrj Js.kh esa gks] rks Js.kh dk n ok¡ in fuEufyf[kr fof/k ls fudkyk
gjkRed Js.kh ds xq.k/keZ (Properties of H.P.) tk ldrk gS:
(1) gjkRed Js.kh dk dksbZ in 'kwU; ugha gks ldrk gSA Step I: n osa in dks Tn ls rFkk Js.kh ds n inksa ds ;ksxQy dks S n
(2) ;fn a vkSj b ds chp gjkRed ek/; H gS] rks ls O;Dr djsaA
1 1 1 1 Step II: nh xbZ Js.kh dks iqu% bl izdkj fy[kas fd izR;sd in nkfguh
(i) + = +
H −a H −b a b vksj ,d LFkku vkxs gksA
(ii) (H − 2 a)(H − 2b ) = H 2 Step III: nwljh Js.kh dks igyh Js.kh ls ?kVkdj Tn dk eku Kkr djsaA
H +a H +b Step IV: Tn ls S n , ;ksxQy dh mi;qDr fof/k ls fudkyk tk ldrk gSA
(iii) + =2
H −a H −b mnkgj.kkFkZ % Js.kh 1 + 3 + 6 + 10 + 15 +……..n inksa rd] dk ;ksxQy
Kkr djus ds fy, Øekxr inksa dk vUrj 3 – 1, 6 – 3, 10 – 6, 15 –
lekUrjh; - xq.kksÙkj Js.kh 10…..vFkkZr~ 2, 3, 4, 5….. tks fd lekUrj Js.kh esa gSA ;g vUrj xq.kksÙkj
ifjHkk"kk (Definition) Js.kh esa Hkh gks ldrk gSA
vc S = 1 + 3 + 6 + 10 + .......... + Tn −1 + Tn
lekUrj rFkk xq.kksÙkj Js.kh ds la;kstu dks lekUrjh; xq.kksÙkj Js.kh S = 1 + 3 + 6 + 10 + ........ + Tn −1 + Tn
dgrs gSaA
?kVkus ij] 0 = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + .......... + (Tn − Tn −1 ) − Tn
lekUrjh;–xq.kksÙkj Js.kh dk n ok¡ in (nth term of A.G.P.) ⇒ Tn = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ......... n inksa rd
;fn ,d lekUrj Js.kh gS rFkk
a1 , a 2 , a3 , ......, an , ...... 1 1
⇒ Tn = n(n + 1) , ∴ S n = ΣTn = [Σn 2 + Σn]
b1 , b 2 , ......, bn , ...... ,d xq.kksRrj Js.kh gS] rks vuqØe a1b1 , a 2 b 2 , a3 b 3 , 2 2
......, an bn , ..... ,d lekUrjh;-xq.kksRrj vuqØe dgykrk gSA 1 ⎡ n(n + 1)(2n + 1) n (n + 1) ⎤
= ⎢ +
vr% lekUrjh;-xq.kksRrj vuqØe dk O;kid :i 2⎣ 6 2 ⎥⎦
a, (a + d ) r, (a + 2 d ) r 2 , (a + 3 d ) r 3 , ..... gksxkA n (n + 1)(n + 2)
= .
lefefr ls ge ikrs gSa] fd bl vuqØe dk n ok¡ in 6
[a + (n − 1) d ] r n −1 gksxkA
fofo/k Jsf.k;k¡
;fn a, (a + d ) r, (a + 2d ) r 2 , (a + 3 d ) r 3 , ..... ,d lekUrjh;-xq.kksRrj
vuqØe gS] rks a + (a + d ) r + (a + 2d ) r 2 + (a + 3 d ) r 3 + ... ,d lekUrjh;- fo'ks"k Jsf.k;k¡ (Special series)
xq.kksRrj Js.kh gksxhA (1) çFke n çkd`r la[;kvksa dk ;ksxQy
n (n + 1)
n
lekUrjh; & xq.kksÙkj Js.kh dk ;ksxQy (Sum of A.G.P.) = 1 + 2 + 3 + ....... + n = ∑r = .
r =1
2
(1) n inkas dk ;ksxQy % fdlh lekUrjh;-xq.kksRrj vuqØe
(2) çFke n çkd`r la[;kvksa ds oxksZa dk ;ksxQy
a, (a + d ) r, (a + 2d ) r , (a + 3 d ) r , .....
2 3
ds n inksa dk ;ksxQy fuEu
n (n + 1)(2n + 1)
n
lw= }kjk fn;k tkrk gS] = 1 2 + 2 2 + 3 2 + ....... + n 2 = ∑r
r =1
2
=
6
.
⎧ a (1 − r n −1 ) {a + (n − 1) d }r n
⎪ + dr − , tc r ≠ 1 (3) çFke n çkd`r la[;kvksa ds ?kuksa dk ;ksxQy
⎪1 − r (1 − r)2 1−r
Sn = ⎨ n 2
⎡ n (n + 1) ⎤
⎪ n [2 a + (n − 1) d ], tc r = 1
⎪⎩ 2
= 1 3 + 2 3 + 3 3 + 4 3 + ....... + n 3 = ∑ r =1
r3 = ⎢
⎣ 2 ⎦
⎥ .
 108 Jsf.k;k¡

nks la[;kvksa ds chp lekUrj] xq.kksÙkj rFkk gjkRed (3) lekUrj] xq.kksRrj rFkk gjkRed Js.kh dh igpku % ;fn
ek/;ksa ds xq.k/keZ (Properties of Arithmetic, Geometric, a−b a
a, b, c fdlh vuqØe ds rhu Øekxr in gSa rFkk ;fn = , rc a,
Harmonic means between two given numbers) b−c a
a−b a
ekuk nks la[;kvksa a vkSj b ds lekUrj] xq.kksRrj rFkk gjkRed ek/; b, c lekUrj Js.kh esa gksaxsA ;fn = , rc a, b, c xq.kksRrj Js.kh esa
b −c b
a+b 2 ab
Øe'k% A, G vkSj H gSa] vr% A = , G = ab rFkk H = gksaxsA
2 a+b a−b a
a+b 2ab ;fn = , rc a, b, c gjkRed Js.kh esa gkssaxsA
rc A= , G = ab rFkk H = . b −c c
2 a+b (4) ;fn fdlh [email protected]@gjkRed Js.kh esa inksa dh la[;k
bu rhuksa ek/;ksa ds fuEufyf[kr xq.k gSa % fo"ke gS] rks çFke rFkk vfUre in dk [email protected]@gjkRed
(1) A ≥ G ≥ H ek/;] Js.kh dk e/; in gksxkA
a+b 2 ab (5) ;fn fdlh [email protected]@gjkRed Js.kh esa inksa dh la[;k
A= , G = ab rFkk H =
2 a+b le gS] rks çFke rFkk vfUre in dk [email protected]@gjkRed ek/;] chp
a+b ( a − b )2 ds nks inksa ds Øe'k% [email protected]@gjkRed ek/; ds cjkcj gksxkA
∴ A−G = − ab = ≥0 (6) ;fn fdlh xq.kksRrj Js.kh ds p os]a q osa rFkk r osa in xq.kksRrj
2 2
⇒ A≥G …..(i) Js.kh esa gksa] rks p, q, r lekUrj Js.kh esa gksaxsA
(7) ;fn a, b, c lekUrj Js.kh rFkk xq.kksRrj Js.kh esa gksa] rks
2ab ⎛ a + b − 2 ab ⎞
G − H = ab − = ab⎜ ⎟ = ab ( a − b )2 ≥ 0 a=b =c.
a+b ⎜ a+b ⎟ a+b
⎝ ⎠ ;fn a, b, c lekUrj Js.kh esa gSa] rks x a , x b , x c xq.kksRrj Js.kh esa
(8)
⇒ G≥H …..(ii) gksaxs] (tcfd x ≠ ±1) .
(i) rFkk (ii) ls, A ≥ G ≥ H
/;ku nas fd cjkcj dk fpUg rHkh lR;kfir gS] tc a = b.
(2) A, G, H ,d xq.kksRrj Js.kh cukrs gSa] vFkkZr~ G 2 = AH
a + b 2ab
AH = × = ab = ( ab ) 2 = G 2 . vr% G 2 = AH .
2 a+b
(3) og lehdj.k ftlds ewy a o b gSa] x 2 − 2 Ax + G 2 = 0 gksxkA " ;fn fdlh lekUrj Js.kh ds in T rFkk T fn, gq, gksa] rks T
k p n

∴ x 2 − (a + b )x + ab = 0 T −T T −T
⎡ a+b ⎤
Kkr djus ds fy, lw= gS] n k = p k -
⇒ x 2 − 2 Ax + G 2 = 0 , rFkk G = n−k p −k
⎢Q A = 2 ab ⎥
⎣ ⎦ " ;fn fdlh lekUrj Js.kh ds fy,] pT = qT , rks T = 0.
p q p+q

ewyksa a o b ds eku A ± A − G }kjk fn;s tkrs gSaA

2 2 " ;fn fdlh lekUrj Js.kh dk p ok¡ in q rFkk q ok¡ in p gS, rks
(4) ;fn A, G, H nh xbZ rhu la[;kvksa a, b rFkk c ds lekUrj] T = 0 rFkk T = p + q – n.
p+q n

xq.kksRrj rFkk gjkRed ek/; gSa] rks og lehdj.k ftlds ewy a, b rFkk c 1 1
" ;fn fdlh lekUrj Js.kh dk p ok¡ in rFkk q ok¡ in gS,
3G 3 q p
gSa] x 3 − 3 Ax 2 + x − G3 = 0 gksxkA rks bldk pq ok¡ in 1 gksxkA
H
" fdlh lekUrj Js.kh dk lkokZUrj d = S 2 − 2S 1 }kjk Kkr
1 1 1
+ + fd;k tkrk gS] tcfd S 2 çFke nks inksa dk ;ksxQy o S 1 çFke
a+b +c 1
A= , G = (abc )1 / 3 rFkk = a b c
3 H 3 in dk ;ksxQy ;k çFke in gSA
3G 3 " ;fn n inksa dk ;ksxQy S n fn;k gqvk gks] rks O;kid in
⇒ a + b + c = 3 A, abc = G 3 rFkk = ab + bc + ca
H Tn = S n − S n −1 , tgk¡ S n −1 lekUrj Js.kh ds (n – 1) inksa dk ;ksx gSA
og lehdj.k] ftlds ewy a, b, c gSa] " ,d lekUrj Js.kh ds n inksa dk ;ksxQy] An 2 + Bn (n esa
x 3 − (a + b + c)x 2 + (ab + bc + ca)x − abc = 0 gksxk f}?kkr O;atd) ds :i esa gksrk gS] rks mldk lkokZUrj n 2 ds xq.kkad
3G 3 dk nks xquk vFkkZr~ 2A gksrk gSA
⇒ x 3 − 3 Ax 2 + x − G3 = 0 . " egRoiw.kZ ifj.kke
H
• çFke n fo"ke çkd`r la[;kvksa dk ;ksxQy
lekUrj] xq.kksÙkj rFkk gjkRed Jsf.k;ksa esa lEcU/k n

(Relation between A.P., G.P. and H.P.) = 1 + 3 + 5 + ..... + (2n − 1) = ∑ (2r − 1) = n

r =1
2
.

(1) ;fn A, G, H ; a vkSj b ds chp lekUrj] xq.kksRrj rFkk gjkRed • çFke n le çkd`r la[;kvksa dk ;ksxQy
⎧ A, tc n = 0 n

∑ 2r = n (n + 1) .
n +1 n +1
a +b ⎪ = 2 + 4 + 6 + ...... + 2n =
ek/; gSa] rks = ⎨G, tc n = −1 / 2
a + bn
n
⎪ H , tc n = −1 r =1
⎩ " •
fdlh lekUrj Js.kh esa] ;fn p inksa dk ;ksxQy q rFkk q inksa
(2) ;fn a vkSj b ds chp nks lekUrj ek/; A1 , A2 , nks xq.kksRrj ek/; dk ;ksxQy p gks, rks (p + q) inksa dk ;ksxQy {–(p + q)} gksxkA
G1 G 2 A + A2 • ;fn fdlh lekUrj Js.kh ds p inksa dk ;ksxQy] q inksa ds
G1 , G 2 rFkk nks gjkRed ek/; H 1 , H 2 gksa] rks = 1
H1 H 2 H1 + H 2 ;ksxQy ds cjkcj gks] rks (p + q) inksa dk ;ksxQy 'kwU; gksxkA
 Jsf.k;k¡ 109

1 1
• ;fn fdlh lekUrj Js.kh dk p ok¡ in rFkk q ok¡ in
q p
1
gS, rks pq inksa dk ;ksxQy S pq = ( pq + 1) gksxkA
2
" a vkSj b ds chp n lekUrj ek/;ksa dk ;ksxQy] a vkSj b ds e/;
,d lekUrj ek/; ds n xquk ds cjkcj gksrk gS] vFkkZr~
⎛a+b⎞
lekUrj Js.kh
A1 + A2 + A3 + .......... + An = n ⎜ ⎟.
⎝ 2 ⎠ 5 6
" ;fn A1 rFkk A 2 , a ,oa b ds chp nks lekUrj ek/; gksa] rks 1. vuqØe , , 7 , ....... gS
7 7
1 1
A1 = (2a + b), A2 = (a + 2b) . (a) gjkRed Js.kh esa (b) xq.kksÙkj Js.kh esa
3 3
m lekUrj
ek/;ksa dk ;ksxQy m (c) lekUrj Js.kh esa (d) mijksä lHkh
" nks la[;kvksa ds e/;, = .
n lekUrj
ek/;ksa dk ;ksxQy n
Js.kh ⎛⎜ 3 − ⎞⎟ + ⎛⎜ 3 − ⎞⎟ + ⎛⎜ 3 − ⎞⎟ + .... dk pok¡ in gksxk
1 2 3
2.
" ;fn fdlh Js.kh esa inksa dh la[;k fo"ke gS] rks dsoy ,d e/; ⎝ n⎠ ⎝ n⎠ ⎝ n⎠
⎛ n +1 ⎞
in gksxk] tks ⎜ ⎟ ok¡ in gksxkA ⎛ p⎞ ⎛ p⎞
⎝ 2 ⎠ (a) ⎜3 + ⎟ (b) ⎜ 3 − ⎟
⎝ n⎠ ⎝ n⎠
" ;fn fdlh Js.kh esa inksa dh la[;k le gS] rks nks e/; in gksaxs]
⎧ n ⎫ ⎛ n⎞ ⎛ n⎞
tks fd ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ ok¡ rFkk ⎨⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ + 1⎬ ok¡ in gksaxsA
n (c) ⎜⎜ 3 + ⎟⎟ (d) ⎜⎜ 3 − ⎟⎟
⎝2⎠ ⎩⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎭ ⎝ p⎠ ⎝ p⎠

" ;fn fdlh xq.kksRrj Js.kh ds in T o T ds eku fn;s x;s gksa] rks
k p 3. Js.kh 2 2 + 2 + 0 + ..... dk 8ok¡ in gksxk
1 1
⎛ Tn ⎞ n −k ⎛ Tp⎞ p −k (a) −5 2 (b) 5 2
T dks lw= ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ds }kjk Kkr fd;k tk ldrk gSA
⎝ Tk ⎠ ⎝ Tk ⎠
n

(c) 10 2 (d) − 10 2
" ;fn a, b, c xq.kksRrj Js.kh esa gSa] rks
4. ;fn fdlh lekarj Js.kh dk 9ok¡ in 'kwU; gks] rks mlds 29osa rFkk
b c a+b b +c a−b a a+b a
= ⇒ = ;k = ;k = . 19osa inksa dk vuqikr gS
a b a−b b −c b −c b b+c b
(a) 1 : 2 (b) 2 : 1
" ekuk fdlh xq.kksRrj Js.kh dk çFke in /kukRed gS rFkk ;fn
(c) 1 : 3 (d) 3 : 1
r > 1, rc ;g ,d o/kZeku xq.kksRrj Js.kh gksxh] fdUrq ;fn r /kukRed
gS rFkk 1 ls de gS] vFkkZr~ 0 < r < 1, rks ;g ,d âkleku xq.kksRrj 5. fuEu esa ls dkSu lh Js.kh lekUrj Js.kh gS
Js.kh gksxhA (a) f (n) = an + b; n ∈ N (b) f (n) = kr n ; n ∈ N
" ekuk] fdlh xq.kksRrj Js.kh dk çFke in _.kkRed gS rFkk ;fn
r >1 gks] rc ;g ,d âkleku xq.kksRrj Js.kh gksxh] fdUrq ;fn (c) f (n) = (an + b ) kr n ; n ∈ N (d) f (n) =
1
;n ∈ N
0 < r < 1, rks ;g ,d o/kZeku xq.kksRrj Js.kh gksxhA ⎛ b⎞
a⎜ n + ⎟
" ;fn a, b, c, d,… xq.kksRrj Js.kh esa gSa] rks os lrr~ lekuqikr esa ⎝ n⎠
a b c 1 Js.kh (−8 + 18 i), (−6 + 15 i), (−4 + 12 i) ,...... dk dkSu lk in
gksaxs] vFkkZr~ ] = = = .... = . 6.
b c d r
'kq) vf/kdfYir la[;k gS
" a ,oa b ds chp n xq.kksRrj ek/;ksa dk xq.kuQy] muds chp ,d
xq.kksRrj ek/; ds n oha ?kkr ds cjkcj gksrk gS (a) 5 ok¡ (b) 7 ok¡

vFkkZr] G1 G 2 G 3 ...... G n = ( ab )n . (c) 8 ok¡ (d) 6 ok¡

" dk xq.kksRrj ek/; = (a1 a 2 a 3 ..... a n )1 / n

a1 a 2 a 3 ...... a n
7. fdlh lekUrj Js.kh dk n ok¡ in (2n − 1) gS] rks ml Js.kh ds n
inksa dk ;ksx gksxk
" ;fn nks la[;kvksa a ,oa b ds chp nks xq.kksRrj ek/; G1 rFkk
G 2 gSa] rks G1 = (a 2 b )1 / 3 , G 2 = (ab 2 )1 / 3 . (a) n2 − 1 (b) (2n − 1)2

1 (c) n2 (d) n 2 + 1
" a ,oa ds chp n xq.kksRrj ek/;ksa dk xq.kuQy 1 gksrk gSA
a 8. Js.kh (1 × 3) + (3 × 5) + (5 × 7) + (7 × 9) + ....... dk nok¡ in gksxk
" ;fn a ,oa b ds chp n xq.kksRrj ek/; LFkkfir fd, x, gSa] rks (a) n (2n + 1)
1
⎛ b ⎞ n +1 2n (2n − 1)
r=⎜ ⎟ . (b)
⎝a⎠
(c) (2n + 1)(2n − 1)
" ;fn a vkSj b ds chp nks gjkRed ek/; H 1 rFkk H 2 gksa] rks
3 ab 3 ab (d) 4n2 + 1
H1 = rFkk H 2 = -
a + 2b 2a + b
 oxZ lehdj.k ,oa vlfedk;sa 171

Chapter

5
oxZ lehdj.k ,oa vlfedk;sa
cgqin (Polynomial) oxZ lehdj.k nks izdkj ds gksrs gSa
lkj.kh : 5.1
cgqin Qyu og chth; O;atd gS] ftlesa cx n ds :i esa ,d ls
vf/kd in gksa] tcfd n ,d v_.kkRed iw.kkZd gSA 'kq) oxZ lehdj.k iw.kZ oxZ lehdj.k
f (x ) = a0 + a1 x + a 2 x 2 + a3 x 3 + ...... + an −1 x n −1 + an x n , tgk¡ x ax 2 + c = 0 , tgk¡ ax 2 + bx + c = 0 , tgk¡

,d pj gS] a0 , a1 , a 2 , ....... an vpj gSa rFkk an ≠ 0 a, c ∈ C vkSj b = 0, a ≠ 0 a, b, c ∈ C vkSj a≠0, b≠0

mnkgj.kkFkZ : 4 x 4 + 3 x 3 − 7 x 2 + 5 x + 3 , 3 x 3 + x 2 − 3 x + 5 . oxZ lehdj.k ds ewy (Roots of a quadratic equation) : pj x ds og

(1) okLrfod cgqin (Real polynomial) : ekuk a0 , a1 , a 2 ....... an eku] tks oxZ lehdj.k dks larq"V djrs gSa] oxZ lehdj.k ds ewy
okLrfod la[;k;sa gSa rFkk x ,d okLrfod pj gSA dgykrs gSaA
rc f (x ) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + a3 x 3 + ...... + an x n okLrfod pj x
oxZ lehdj.k dk gy (Solution of quadratic equation)
dk okLrfod xq.kkadksa ds fy;s okLrfod cgqin dgykrk gSA
mnkgj.kkFkZ: 3 x 3 − 4 x 2 + 5 x − 4 , x 2 − 2 x + 1 vkfn okLrfod (1) xq.ku[k.M fof/k (Factorization ekuk method) :
cgqin gSaA ax + bx + c = a(x − α )(x − β ) = 0 , rc x = α rFkk x = β fn;s x;s
2

(2) lfEeJ cgqin (Complex polynomial) : ;fn a0 , a1 , a 2 ....... an lehdj.k dks larq"V djrs gaSA vr% lehdj.k dks js[kh; xq.ku[kaMksa esa
lfEeJ la[;k;sa gSa rFkk x ,d ifjorhZ lfEeJ la[;k gS] rc foHkDr djrs gSa rFkk çR;sd xq.ku[kaM dks 'kwU; ds cjkcj j[kdj
f ( x ) = a0 + a1 x + a 2 x 2 + a3 x 3 + ...... + an x n lfEeJ pj x dk lfEeJ lehdj.k ds ewy çkIr djrs gSaA
xq.kkadksa ds fy;s lfEeJ cgqin dgykrk gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ % 3 x 2 − 2 x + 1 = 0 ⇒ (x − 1)(3 x + 1) = 0 ;
mnkgj.kkFkZ: 3 x 2 − (2 + 4 i)x + (5 i − 4 ), x 3 − 5 i x 2 + (1 + 2i)x + 4 x = 1, − 1 / 3
vkfn lfEeJ cgqin gSaA
(3) cgqin dh ?kkr (Degree of polynomial) : fdlh cgqin esa pj x (2) Jh/kjkpk;Z fof/k (Sri Dharacharya method): f}?kkr lehdj.k dks
dh vf/kdre ?kkr dks cgqin dh ?kkr dgrs gSaA b c
fuEu çdkj iw.kZ oxZ cukrs gSa( ax 2 + bx + c = 0 ⇒ x 2 + x + =0
a a
mnkgj.kkFkZ : f (x ) = a0 + a1 x + a 2 x 2 + ...... + an −1 x n −1 + an x n
,d n ?kkr dk cgqin gSA ⎛ b ⎞
2 ⎡ b 2 − 4 ac ⎤
2
tksM+us rFkk ?kVkus ij, ⎢⎛⎜ x + ⎞⎟ −
b
⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = 0 ls,
f (x ) = 4 x 3 + 3 x 2 − 7 x + 5
,d 3 ?kkr dk cgqin gSA ⎝ 2a ⎠ ⎢⎣⎝ 2a ⎠
2
4a ⎥⎦
f}?kkr ds cgqin dks lkekU;r% oxZ cgqin dgrs gSaA ?kkr 3 rFkk 4
ds cgqinksa dks Øe'k% f=?kkrh; cgqin rFkk prqFkZ ?kkrh; cgqin dgrs gSaA − b ± b 2 − 4 ac
x= .
2a
(4) cgqinh; lehdj.k (Polynomial equation) : ;fn f(x) ,d okLrfod
;k lfEeJ cgqin gS] rc f(x)=0 cgqinh; lehdj.k dgykrk gSA bl çdkj] oxZ lehdj.k ax 2 + bx + c = 0 (a ≠ 0) ds nks ewy
oxZ lehdj.k ds çdkj (Types of quadratic equation) − b + b 2 − 4 ac − b − b 2 − 4 ac
α = , β = gksaxsA
og lehdj.k ftlesa vKkr jkf'k dh vf/kdre ?kkr nks gks] oxZ 2a 2a
lehdj.k dgykrk gSA çR;sd oxZ lehdj.k ds nks rFkk dsoy nks ewy gksrs gSaA
 172 oxZ lehdj.k ,oa vlfedk;sa

ewyksa dh çd`fr (Nature of roots) (v) | α − β | = (α + β )2 − 4αβ

oxZ lehdj.k ax + bx + c = 0 esa eku ysrs gSa fd a, b, c ( a ≠ 0 )
2
(vi) α 2 − β 2 = (α + β )(α − β )
okLrfod la[;k;sa gSaA bl ifjfLFkfr esa ewyksa dh çd`fr ds lEcU/k esa (vii) α 3 − β 3 = (α − β )[(α + β )2 − αβ ]
fuEufyf[kr rF; lR; gSa %
(viii) α 4 − β 4 = (α + β )(α − β )(α 2 + β 2 )
(1) lehdj.k ds ewy okLrfod rFkk fHkUu (vleku) gksrs gSa ;fn
vkSj dsoy ;fn D ≡ b 2 − 4 ac > 0 . mPp ?kkr ds lehdj.k (Higher degree equations)
(2) lehdj.k ds ewy okLrfod rFkk lEikrh (leku) gksrs gSa ;fn
lehdj.k p(x ) = a0 x n + a1 x n −1 + ..... + an −1 x + an = 0 …..(i)
vkSj dsoy ;fn D ≡ b 2 − 4 ac = 0 .
(3) lehdj.k ds ewy lfEeJ α ± iβ , α ≠ 0, β ≠ 0 ∈ R tgk¡ xq.kkad a0 , a1 ,......., an ∈ R (;k C) rFkk a0 ≠ 0 gS] dks nosa
(vf/kdfYir) gksrs gSaA ;fn vkSj dsoy ;fn D ≡ b 2 − 4 ac < 0 . ?kkr dk lehdj.k dgrs gSaA rc] n ewy α1 , α 2 ,........, α n ∈ C gksrs gSa
(4) lehdj.k ds ewy ifjes; gksaxs ;fn vkSj dsoy ;fn a, b, c ∈ Q rFkk ge fy[k ldrs gSa
p(x ) = a0 (x − α1 ) (x − α 2 )......( x − α n )
(ifjes; la[;k) rFkk D ≡ b 2 − 4 ac ,d (ifjes; la[;k dk) iw.kZ oxZ gSA
(5) lehdj.k ds ewy (vleku) vifjes; vFkok dj.kh ds :Ik esa = a0 { x n − (Σα1 )x n −1 + (Σα1α 2 )x n − 2 − ..... + (−1)n α1α 2 .....α n }
gksaxs ;fn vkSj dsoy ;fn D ≡ b 2 − 4 ac > 0 rFkk iw.kZ oxZ ugha gks (a, b ……(ii)
rFkk c ds ifjes; gksus ij Hkh) ;fn p + q ( p, q ifjes;) ,d vifjes; a1
(i) o (ii) dh rqyuk djus ij] Σα 1 = α 1 + α 2 + ....... + α n = −
ewy gks rc p − q Hkh ,d ewy gksxk (a, b, c ifjes;)A a0

(6) α + iβ , tgk¡ ( α , β (≠ 0 ) ∈ R ,d ewy gksrk gS ;fn vkSj dsoy a2

Σα1α 2 = α1α 2 + ..... + α n −1α n =
;fn α − iβ ,d la;qXeh ewy gks] vFkkZr~ lfEeJ ewy lnSo ,d oxZ a0
lehdj.k esa ;qXe ds :i esa fo|eku gksrs gSaA ;fn lehdj.k nks lfEeJ an
la[;kvksa ls vf/kd lUrq"V gksrh gS rc og lehdj.k ,d loZlfedk rFkk blh izdkj α1α 2 .....α n = (−1)n
a0
(identity) 0 . x 2 + 0 . x + 0 = 0 vFkkZr~ a = 0 = b = c esa ifjf.kr gksrh gSA
f=?kkrh; lehdj.k (Cubic equation) ;fn n = 3 gks rks lehdj.k
ewyksa rFkk xq.kakdksa ds e/; lEcU/k ax + bx 2 + cx + d = 0 ,d f=?kkr (cubic) lehdj.k gksrk gS rFkk
3

(Relations between roots and coefficients) b c d

blds fy, α + β + γ = − ; αβ + βγ + γα = ; αβγ = −
(1) oxZ lehdj.k ds ewyksa rFkk xq.kkadksa ds e/; lEcU/k a a a
;fn α
(Relation between roots and coefficients of quadratic equation) : prqFkZ?kkrh; lehdj.k% ;fn prqFkZ?kkrh; lehdj.k
rFkk β , oxZ lehdj.k ax + bx + c = 0 , (a ≠ 0) ds ewy gSa] rc] ewyksa
2
ax 4 + bx 3 + cx 2 + dx + e = 0 ds ewy α, β, γ, rFkk δ gSa] rc
−b x dk xq.kkad b
dk ;ksxQy = S = α + β = =− 2 σ1 = α + β + γ + δ = −
a x dk xq.kkad a
c vpj in σ 2 = αβ + αγ + αδ + βγ + βδ + γδ =
c
ewyksa dk xq.kuQy = P = α .β = = 2
a x dk xq.kkad a
(2) fn;s x;s ewyksa ls lehdj.k dk fuekZ.k (Formation of an σ 3 = αβγ + αβδ + αγδ + βγδ = −
d
equation with given roots) : oxZ lehdj.k (x − α )(x − β ) = 0 ls çkIr a
ewy α rFkk β gS]a e
σ 4 = αβγδ =
∴ x 2 − (α + β )x + αβ = 0 , vFkkZr~ x 2 – (ewyksa dk ;ksx) x + ewyksa a
dk xq.kuQy = 0 fn;s x;s ewyksa ls cgqin lehdj.k dk fuekZ.k% ;fn
∴ x 2 − Sx + P = 0 α1 , α 2 , α 3 ,..... α n , n ?kkr ds ,d cgqin lehdj.k ds ewy gksa rks
(3) ewyksa ds lefer Qyu % α o β esa ,d Qyu lefer Qyu lehdj.k gksxk x n − σ 1 x n −1 + σ 2 x n − 2 − σ 3 x n − 3 +...... + (−1)n σ n = 0
dgykrk gS] ;fn α o β dks vkil esa ifjofrZr djus ij] Qyu esa
dksbZ ifjorZu u gksA tgk¡ σ r = ∑ α1α 2 .....αr .
mnkgj.kkFkZ % α 2 + β 2 + 2αβ , α o β dk ,d lefer Qyu gS f=?kkrh; lehdj.k % ;fn α , β , γ ,d f=?kkrh; lehdj.k ds
tcfd α 2 − β 2 + 3αβ , α o β dk ,d lefer Qyu ugha gSA ewy gksa rks] x 3 − σ 1 x 2 + σ 2 x − σ 3 = 0
α rFkk β esa lefer Qyu Kkr djus ds fy, fn;s x;s O;atd
;k x 3 − (α + β + γ )x 2 + (αβ + αγ + βγ )x − αβγ = 0 .
dks α + β o αβ ds inksa esa O;Dr djrs gSaA dqN egRoiw.kZ ifj.kke
fuEufyf[kr gSaA prqFkZ ?kkrh; lehdj.k % ;fn α , β , γ , δ ,d prqFkZ?kkrh;
(i) α 2 + β 2 = (α + β )2 − 2αβ lehdj.k ds ewy gksa rks lehdj.k gksxk
(ii) α 3 + β 3 = (α + β )3 − 3αβ (α + β ) x 4 − σ1x 3 + σ 2x 2 − σ 3 x + σ 4 = 0
(iii) α 4 + β 4 = (α 3 + β 3 )(α + β ) − αβ (α 2 + β 2 ) ;k x 4 − (α + β + γ + δ )x 3 + (αβ + αγ + αδ
(iv) α + β = (α + β )(α + β ) − α β (α + β )
5 5 3 3 2 2 2 2
+ βγ + βδ + γδ )x 2 − (αβγ + αβδ + αγδ + βγδ ) x + αβγδ = 0
 oxZ lehdj.k ,oa vlfedk;sa 173

mHk;fu"B ewyksa ds fy, çfrcU/k (iv) ;fn a > 0, (< 0) rc f (x ) dk fufEu"B vFkok mfPp"B eku
(Condition for common roots) b 4 ac − b 2
x =− ds fy, gksrk gS rFkk ;g eku [ f (x )]min (max) =
(1) dsoy ,d mHk;fu"B ewy gks (Only one root is common): ekuk 2a 4a
gksrk gSA
oxZ lehdj.kksa a1 x 2 + b1 x + c1 = 0 rFkk a2 x 2 + b2 x + c2 = 0 dk ,d
(2) f}?kkrh; O;atd dh fpUg ifjikVh (Sign of quadratic
mHk;fu"B ewy α gSA
expression) : ekuk f (x ) = ax + bx + c ;k
2
y = ax 2 + bx + c ,
∴ a1α 2 + b1α + c1 = 0 , a2α 2 + b2α + c2 = 0
tgk¡ a, b, c ∈ R rFkk a ≠ 0, x ds dqN ekuksa ds fy;s f(x) /kukRed]
α2 α 1 _.kkRed ;k 'kwU; gks ldrk gSA blls fuEu fLFkfr;k¡ çkIr gksrh gSaA
Øsej fu;e ls: = =
− c1 b1 a1 − c1 a1 b1 (i) a > 0 rFkk D < 0, vr% f ( x ) > 0 , x ∈ R ds fy;s, vFkkZr~
− c2 b2 a2 − c2 a2 b2 f (x ) , x ds leLr okLrfod ekuksa ds fy;s /kukRed gSA
α2 α 1 (ii) a < 0 rFkk D < 0, vr% f ( x ) < 0 , x ∈ R ds fy;s, vFkkZr~ f(x)
;k = =
b1 c 2 − b 2 c1 a 2 c 1 − a1 c 2 a1 b 2 − a 2 b 1 x ds leLr okLrfod ekuksa ds fy;s _.kkRed gSA
a 2 c 1 − a1 c 2 b 1 c 2 − b 2 c 1 (iii) a > 0 rFkk D = 0, vr% f ( x ) ≥ 0 , x ∈ R ds fy;s, vFkkZr~ f(x),
∴ α= = , α ≠0
a1 b 2 − a 2 b 1 a 2 c 1 − a 1 c 2 'kh"kZ ds vfrfjDr x ds leLr okLrfod ekuksa ds fy, /kukRed gSA 'kh"kZ
vr% ,d mHk;fu"B ewy ds fy;s çfrca/k ij f (x ) = 0 gksxkA
(c1a2 − c2 a1 )2 = (b1c2 − b 2 c1 )(a1b2 − a2b1 ) gksxkA (iv) a < 0 rFkk D = 0, vr% f ( x ) ≤ 0 x ∈ R ds fy;s, vFkkZr~ f(x),
(2) nksuksa ewy mHk;fu"B gksa (Both roots are common) : vHkh"V 'kh"kZ ds vfrfjDr x ds lHkh ekuksa ds fy;s _.kkRed gSA 'kh"kZ ij
a1 b1 c1 f (x ) = 0 gksxkA
çfrca/k = = gksxkA
a2 b 2 c 2 (v) a > 0 rFkk D > 0 ekuk f ( x ) = 0 ds nks okLrfod ewy α rFkk
β gSa (α < β ) , rc f ( x ) > 0 , x ∈ (−∞, α ) ∪ (β , ∞) ds fy;s rFkk
oxZ lehdj.kksa ds xq.k (Properties of quadratic equation)
f (x ) < 0 , x ∈ (α , β ) ds fy;sA
(1) ;fn f(a) rFkk f(b) ds fpUg foijhr gSa] rc lehdj.k f (x ) = 0
(vi) a < 0 rFkk D > 0 ekuk f (x ) = 0 ds nks okLrfod ewy
ds a rFkk b ds e/; de ls de ,d vFkok O;kid :i esa] fo"ke la[;k
esa ewy gksaxsA α rFkk β gSa (α < β ) , rc f ( x ) < 0 , x ∈ (−∞, α ) ∪ (β , ∞) ds fy;s
(2) ;fn f (a) = f (b ) , rc a rFkk b dk e/; fcUnq c bl çdkj rFkk f (x ) > 0 , x ∈ (α , β ) ds fy;sA
fo|eku gksxk] fd f ′(c) = 0 , a < c < b . (3) f}?kkrh; O;atd dk xzkQ % eku y = ax 2 + bx + c = f (x )
(3) ;fn α lehdj.k f (x ) = 0 dk ewy gS] rc cgqin f (x ) , ⎡⎛ b ⎞
2
D ⎤ D ⎛ b ⎞
2
y = a ⎢⎜ x + ⎟ − ⎥ ⇒ y + = a ⎜ x + ⎟
(x − α ) ls iw.kZ :i ls foHkkT; gksxk vFkok (x − α ) , lehdj.k f (x ) dk ⎢⎣⎝ 2a ⎠ 4 a 2 ⎥⎦ 4a ⎝ 2a ⎠
xq.ku[kaM gSA
D b
(4) ;fn oxZ lehdj.kksa a1 x 2 + b 1 x + c 1 = 0 , ekuk y + = Y rFkk X = x +
4a 2a
a 2 x 2 + b 2 x + c 2 = 0 ds ewyksa dk vuqikr leku gSA 1
Y = a. X 2 ⇒ X 2 = Y
α1 α 2 b2 ac a
vFkkZr~ = , rc 12 = 1 1 . (i) y = f (x ) dk xzkQ ijoy;kdkj gksrk gSA
β1 β 2 b 2 a2 c 2
b
(ii) ijoy; dk v{k X = 0 ;k x + = 0 , ¼vFkkZr~ y-v{k ds
oxZ O;atd (The quadratic expression) 2a
lekUrj) gSA
(1) ekuk fd f (x ) ≡ ax 2 + bx + c, a, b, c ∈ R , a > 0 ,d oxZ (iii) (a) ;fn a > 0, rc ijoy; Å/oZeq[kh gksxkA
⎧ b ⎞ ⎛⎜ b 2 − 4 ac ⎞⎟⎫⎪
2
(b) ;fn a < 0, rc ijoy; v/kkseq[kh gksxkA
O;atd gSA pw¡fd f (x ) = a ⎪⎨⎛⎜ x + ⎟ −⎜ ⎬ ……(i)
⎪⎩⎝ 2 a ⎠ ⎝ 4 a 2 ⎟⎠⎪ x-v{k
⎭
gS] blfy, (i) ls lR; gSA a > 0, D < 0
a < 0, D < 0
(i) f (x ) > 0 (< 0 ) ∀ x ∈ R ;fn vkSj dsoy ;fn a > 0 (< 0) x-v{k
rFkk D ≡ b 2 − 4 ac < 0 . (iv) v{kksa
ls çfrPNsnu
(ii) f (x ) ≥ 0 (≤ 0 ) ;fn vkSj dsoy ;fn a > 0 (< 0 ) rFkk (a) x-v{k : x-v{k ds fy, y = 0 ⇒ ax + bx + c = 0
2

D ≡ b − 4 ac = 0 , bl ifjfLFkfr (D = 0) es]a f ( x ) = 0 ;fn vkSj

2
−b ± D
⇒ x =
b 2a
dsoy ;fn x =−
2a −b ± D
⇒ ax 2 + bx + c = 0 ⇒ x =
(iii) ;fn D ≡ b 2 − 4 ac > 0 rFkk a > 0 (< 0) gks] rc 2a
⎡< 0(> 0 ), f (x ) = 0, ds ewyksa ds e/; lHkh x ds fy, D > 0 ds fy;s] ijoy; x-v{k dks nks okLrfod rFkk fHkUu-fHkUu
⎢
f (x ) ⎢> 0(< 0 ), f (x ) = 0, ds ewyksa ds e/; u gksus okys lHkh x ds fy, −b ± D
⎢ = 0, f (x ) = 0, ds lHkh ewyksa ds fy, fcanqvksa ij dkVrk gS] vFkkZr~ x = .
⎣ 2a
 174 oxZ lehdj.k ,oa vlfedk;sa
D = 0 ds fy;s] ijoy; x-v{k dks ,d fcanq ij Li'kZ djrk gS] (3) le?kkr dk çR;sd lehdj.k ftldk vpj in _.kkRed rFkk
x = −b / 2a . çFke in dk xq.kkad /kukRed gks] de ls de nks okLrfod ewy ,d
a < 0, D>0 /kukRed rFkk ,d _.kkRed jgrk gSA
x-v{k
mnkgj.kkFkZ% x 4 + 4 x 3 + 3 x 2 + 5 x − 2 = 0 ds nks okLrfod ewy
x-v{k ,d /kukRed o ,d _.kkRed gSA
a > 0, D >0 (4) ;fn ,d lehdj.k dsoy ,d fpUg~ ifjorZu j[krk gS] rc ;g
a < 0, D=0 ,d /kukRed ewy j[krk gS vkSj vf/kd ughaA
x-v{k (5) ;fn ,d lehdj.k ds lHkh in /kukRed gSa rFkk lehdj.k x
dh fo"ke ?kkrksa dks ugha j[krk] rc blds lHkh ewy lfEeJ gksrs gSaA
x-v{k
a > 0, D=0
D < 0 ds fy;s] ijoy; x-v{k dks ugha dkVrk gS (vFkkZr~ x dk fpUg~ksa dk fMLdkVZ dk fu;e (Descarte's rule of signs)
dkYifud eku çkIr gksrk gS) A
fdlh cgqin lehdj.k f (x ) = 0 ds vf/kdre /kukRed ewyksa dh
a < 0, D<0
x-v{k la[;k] f(x) esa fpUg ifjorZu dh la[;k ds cjkcj gksrh gSA
cgqin lehdj.k f (x ) = 0 esa vf/kdre _.kkRed ewyksa dh la[;k]
x-v{k f (− x ) esa fpUg ifjorZu dh la[;k ds cjkcj gksrh gSA
a > 0, D<0
(b) y-v{k % y-v{k ds fy;s x = 0 , y = c ifjes; chth; vlfedk;sa (Rational algebraic inequations)
rjaxoØ fof/k (Wavy curve method) ds okLrfod ekuksa ds fy;s ifjes; O;atd P(x)/Q(x) ds
(1) x
eku] tgk¡ P(x) rFkk Q(x) f}?kkrh; O;atd gSa % x ds okLrfod ekuksa ds
ekuk f (x ) = (x − a1 )k1 (x − a2 )k 2 (x − a3 )k 3
a1 x 2 + b1 x + c1
fy;s ds :i ds ifjes; O;atd dk eku Kkr djus ds
.......( x − an −1 )k n −1 (x − an )k n …..(i) a2 x 2 + b 2 x + c 2
fy;s fuEu fØ;k fof/k viukrs gSaA
tgk¡ k1 , k 2 , k 3 ..., k n ∈ N rFkk a1 , a2 , a3 , ......, an vpj çkd`r fØ;kfof/k %
la[;k;sa gSa] tks çfrcU/k a1 < a2 < a3 ..... < an −1 < an dks larq"V djrh gSaA Step I: fn;s x;s ifjes; O;atd dks y ds cjkcj j[krs gSaA
Step II: step I ds O;atd dk ljyhdj.k dj x esa f}?kkrh; lehdj.k
loZçFke] ge okLrfod v{k ij la[;kvksa a1 , a2 , a3 , ......, an dks çkIr djrs gaSaA
fpfUgr djrs gSa rFkk a n ds nk¡;h vksj /kukRed fpUg~ j[krs gSaA Step III: Step II ds f}?kkrh; lehdj.k dk
fofoDrdj Kkr djrs gSaA
Step IV: fofoDrdj ≥ 0 j[krs gSa rFkk
vlfedk dks y ds fy;s gy
;fn kn le gS] rc ge an ds ck¡;h vksj /ku fpUg~ j[krs gSa rFkk djrs gSaA bl çdkj çkIr y ds eku fn;s x, O;atd ds ekuksa dk leqPP;
;fn k n fo"ke gS] rc an ds ck¡;h vksj _.k fpUg~ j[krs gSaA vxys dgykrs gSaA
vUrjky esa fpUg~ksa dks fuEufyf[kr fu;e ds vuqlkj j[krs gaS % (2) ifjes; chth; vlfedkvksa dk gy % ;fn P(x) rFkk Q(x), x
P( x ) P(x ) P( x )
tc fcUnq an −1 ls xqtjrs gSa] rc cgqin dk fpUg~ ifjofrZr gksrk gS] esa cgqin gSa] rc vlfedkvksa > 0, <0, ≥0 rFkk
Q( x ) Q( x ) Q( x )
;fn k n −1 ,d fo"ke la[;k gS rFkk cgqin f(x) dk fpUg~ ogh jgrk gS] P( x )
≤0 dks ifjes; chth; vlfedk;sa dgrs gSaA
;fn k n −1 ,d le la[;k gSA rc ge vxys vUrjky esa fpUg j[kus ds Q( x )
fy;s blh çfØ;k dks viukrs gS]a blh çdkj lHkh vUrjkyksa ij fopkj bu vlfedkvksa dks gy djus ds fy;s ge fuEu fØ;kfof/k dk
djrs gSaA f (x ) > 0 dk gy mu lHkh vUrjkyksa dk la?k (Union) gksrk gS] mi;ksx djrs gSaA
ftlesa /kukRed fpUg gksrk gS rFkk f (x ) < 0 dk gy mu lHkh varjkyksa fØ;kfof/k %
Step I: P(x) rFkk Q(x) Kkr djrs gSaA
dk la?k (Union) gksrk gS] ftlesa _.kkRed fpUg gksrk gSA Step II: P(x) rFkk Q(x) dks js[kh; xq.ku[k.Mksa esa foHkDr djrs gSaA
Step III: lHkh xq.ku[k.Mksa esa x ds xq.kkad dks /kukRed cukrs gSaA
ewyksa dh fLFkfr (Position of roots)
Step IV: lHkh xq.ku[kaMksa dks 'kwU; ds cjkcj j[kdj pje fcanq Kkr
(1);fn f (x ) = 0 ,d lehdj.k gS rFkk a, b nks okLrfod la[;k;sa djrs gSaA
bl izdkj gSa fd f (a). f (b) < 0 rc lehdj.k f (x ) = 0 , a rFkk b ds Step V: la[;k js[kk ij pje fcUnqvksa dks vafdr djrs gSaA ;fn pje fcUnqvksa
chp esa de ls de ,d okLrfod ewy ;k okLrfod ewyksa dh fo"ke dh la[;k n gks] rc ;s la[;k js[kk dks (n + 1) Hkkxksa esa foHkkftr djrs gSaA
la[;k j[krk gSA f(a) rFkk f(b) ds leku fpUg dh fLFkfr esa a rFkk b ds P( x )
Step VI: nk¡;h vksj] vafre Hkkx esa O;atd /kukRed fpUg
chp esa f (x ) = 0 ds ;k rks dksbZ okLrfod ewy ugha ;k le la[;k esa Q( x )
okLrfod ewy vkrs gSaA j[krk gS rFkk vU; Hkkxksa esa O;atd /kukRed ;k _.kkRed fpUg j[krk
(2) ;fn çFke in dk xq.kkad /kukRed gks rc fo"ke ?kkr dk çR;sd
gS] tks xq.ku[akMksa dh ?kkrksa ij fuHkZj djrk gSA
(3) ySxjkUt loZlfedk (Lagrange’s identity)
lehdj.k de ls de ,d okLrfod ewy j[krk gS ftldk fpUg~
lehdj.k ds vpj in ds fpUg dk foijhr gksrk gSA ;fn a1 , a2 , a3 , b1 , b 2 , b3 ∈ R rks
mnkgj.kkFkZ % x 3 − 3 x + 2 = 0 dk ,d okLrfod _.kkRed ewy gSA (a12 + a22 + a32 )(b12 + b 22 + b 32 ) − (a1b1 + a2 b 2 + a3 b 3 )2
= (a1b 2 − a2 b1 )2 + (a2 b 3 − a3 b 2 )2 + (a3 b1 − a1b 3 )2
 oxZ lehdj.k ,oa vlfedk;sa 175

jSf[kd] f}?kkrh; rFkk prqFkZ?kkrh; lehdj.k esa ifjorZu

gksus ;ksX; lehdj.k (Equations which can be reduced to
linear, Quadratic and Biquadratic equations)

Type I : (x − a)(x − b)(x − c)(x − d ) = A ds :i dk lehdj.k

tgk¡ a < b < c < d , b − a = d − c dks pj esa ifjorZu dj gy " n ?kkr ds lehdj.k ds n ewy ¼okLrfod ;k dkYifud½ gksrs gSaA
dj ldrs gSaA " fo"ke ?kkr dk lehdj.k de ls de ,d okLrfod ewy j[krk
(x − a) + (x − b) + (x − c) + (x − d ) gS] ftldk fpUg lehdj.k ds vfUre in (vpj in) ds foijhr gksrk
vFkkZr~ y=
4 gS] tcfd mPpre ?kkr ds in dk xq.kkad /kukRed gks A
(a + b + c + d ) " çR;sd le ?kkr dk lehdj.k ftldk vpj in _.kkRed rFkk
y=x− .
4 mPpre ?kkr ds in dk xq.kkad /kukRed gks] de ls de nks
okLrfod ewy j[krk gS] ftlesa ,d /kukRed o ,d _.kkRed gksrk
Typ II : (x − a)(x − b )(x − c)(x − d ) = Ax 2 ds :i dk lehdj.k gSA
tgk¡ ab = cd dks pj y = x +
ab
esa ifjorZu }kjk nks oxZ ;fn f (α ) = 0 o f ′(α ) = 0 , rks α oxZ lehdj.k f (x ) = 0 dk
x −b
lehdj.kksa esa ifjofrZr dj ldrs gSaA iqujko`Ùk ewy gksxk rFkk f (x ) = a(x − α )2 , Li"Vr% α = .
2a
Type III : (x − a)4 + (x − b)4 = A ds :i dk lehdj.k pj esa " ;fn α oxZ lehdj.k f (x ) = ax 2 + bx + c = 0 dk ,d
(x − a) + (x − b ) iqujko`Ùk ewy gS rks α , f ' (x ) = 0 dk Hkh ,d ewy gksxkA
ifjorZu vFkkZr~ y = esa çfrLFkkfir dj gy dj ldrs gSaA
2
" ;fn α nks oxZ lehdj.kksa f (x ) = 0 rFkk φ (x ) = 0 dk ,d
dqN egRoiw.kZ ifj.kke (Some important results) iqujko`Ùk mHk;fu"B ewy gS] rks α oxZ lehdj.kksa f ' (x ) = 0 rFkk
φ ' ( x ) = 0 dk Hkh ,d mHk;fu"B ewy gksxkA
oxZ lehdj.k ax 2 + bx + c = 0 ds fy,
(1)
" oxZ lehdj.k ax 2 + bx + c = 0 [a, b, c ∈ R] es]a ;fn
(i) ,d ewy nwljs ewy dk O;qRØe gksxk ;fn a = c .
a + b + c = 0 rks lehdj.k ds ewy 1, c/a gksaxs rFkk ;fn
(ii) ,d ewy 'kwU; gksxk ;fn c = 0 . a − b + c = 0 , rks ewy –1 o – c/a gksaxsA
(iii) nksuksa ewy ifjek.k esa cjkcj ijUrq fpUg esa foijhr gksaxs ;fn b = 0 .
" ;fn oxZ lehdj.k ax 2 + bx + c = 0 ds ewy p : q esa gks] rks
(iv) nksuksa ewy 'kwU; gksaxs ;fn b = c = 0 . pqb 2 = ( p + q)2 ac .
(v) nksuksa ewy /kukRed gksaxs ;fn a o c leku fpUg~ ds gksa rFkk b
dk fpUg foijhr gksA " ;fn oxZ lehdj.k ax 2 + bx + c = 0 dk ,d ewy nwljs dk nohaa
1 1
(vi) nksuksa ewy foijhr fpUg ds gksaxs ;fn a o c ds fpUg~ foijhr gksaA ?kkr gS rks (ac n )n +1 + (an c)n +1 + b = 0 .
(vii) ewy _.kkRed gksaxs ;fn a, b, c ds fpUg leku gksaA
" ;fn oxZ lehdj.k ax 2 + bx + c = 0 ds ewy α , β , gksa] rks
(2) ;fn f (x ) = ax + bx + c , tgk¡ a > 0 rc
2
1 1
cx 2 + bx + a = 0 ds ewy , gksaxsA
(i) f (x ) = 0 ds nksuksa ewyksa ds ,d nh xbZ la[;k k ls vf/kd gksus α β
−b " oxZ lehdj.k ax 2 + bx + c = 0 ds ewy a′x 2 + b ′x + c′ = 0
dk çfrcU/k b 2 − 4 ac ≥ 0; f (k ) > 0; >k.
2a
ds ewyksa ds O;qRØe gksaxs ;fn (cc′ − aa′)2 = (b a′ − cb ′)(ab ′ − b c′) .
(ii) f (x ) = 0 ds nksuksa ewyksa ds ,d nh xbZ la[;k k ls de gksus
−b " ;fn oxZ lehdj.k ax 2 + bx + c = 0 dk ,d ewy nwljs dk k
dk çfrcU/k b − 4 ac ≥ 0 , f (k ) > 0,
2
<k .
2a (k + 1)2 b 2
xquk gksa] rks = .
k ac
(iii) la[;k k, f (x ) = 0 ds ewyksa ds chp esa fLFkr gksxh] ;fn
b − 4 ac > 0 ; f (k ) < 0 .
2 " ;fn ,d lehdj.k dsoy ,d fpUg~ ifjorZu j[krk gS] rc ;g
,d /kukRed ewy j[krk gSa vkSj vf/kd ughaA
(iv) f (x ) = 0
ds nksuksa ewyksa dk k 1 o k 2 ds chp esa fLFkr gksus
" ;fn ,d lehdj.k ds lHkh in /kukRed gSa rFkk lehdj.k x dh
dk f (k1 ) f (k 2 ) < 0, b 2 − 4 ac > 0 gSA fo"ke ?kkrksa dks ugha j[krk] rc blds lHkh ewy lfEeJ gksrs gSaA
(v) nksuksa la[;kvksa k 1 o k 2 dk f (x ) = 0 ds ewyksa ds chp esa " nks oxZ lehdj.kksa esa mHk;fu"B ewy Kkr djus ds fy,] f}?kkr
fLFkr gksus dk çfrcU/k f (k1 ) > 0, f (k 2 ) > 0, b 2 − 4 ac ≥ 0 rFkk ds in ds xq.kkad ds nksuksa lehdj.kksa esa leku dj ?kVkrs gSaA bl
−b
çdkj çkIr x dk eku vHkh"V mHk;fu"B ewy gSaA
k1 < < k 2 , tgk¡ k1 < k 2 .
2a " ifjes; xq.kkadksa okys nks fofHkUu oxZ lehdj.kksa esa ,d vifjes;
;k dkYifud ewy mHk;fu"B ugha gks ldrk gS D;ksafd vifjes; rFkk
nksuksa la[;kvksa k 1 o k 2 dk f (x ) = 0 ds ewyksa ds chp esa fLFkr
(vi)
dkYifud ewy lnSo ;qXe :i esa fo|eku gksrs gSaA
gksus dk çfrcU/k b 2 − 4 ac > 0; f (k1 ) < 0; f (k 2 ) < 0 gSA
 Øep; ,oa lap; 219

Chapter

6
Øep; ,oa lap
r-LFkku :
Øep; 1 2 3 4 •• •
r

fodYiksa dh la[;k : n (n – 1) (n – 2) (n – 3) n – (r – 1)
çLrkouk (Introduction)
(1) Øexq.ku ;fn n dksbZ /kukRed iw.kkZad gS] rks çFke
(Factorial) : foU;klksa dh la[;k = r LFkkuksa dks Hkjus ds rjhdksa dh la[;k
n izkd`r la[;kvksa dk lrr~ xq.kuQy] Øexq.ku n dgykrk gS] ftls n ! ;k = n(n − 1)(n − 2).......( n − r + 1)
n ls O;Dr djrs gSaA Øexq.ku 'kwU; ifjHkkf"kr gS] vFkkZr~ 0 ! = 1. n(n − 1) (n − 2).....( n − r + 1)((n − r)!) n!
tc n _.kkRed ;k fHké gks] rks n ! ifjHkkf"kr ugha gksxk] fdUrq = = = n Pr
(n − r)! (n − r)!
1
=0- vr%, n ! = n (n – 1) (n – 2) ......3.2.1 (2) n fofHkUu oLrqvksa esa ls ,d lkFk lHkh dks ysdj cus foU;klksa
(−n)!
dh la[;k = Pn = n !
n
(2) vHkkT; p dk n ! esa ?kkrkad (Exponent of Prime p in n!) :
vHkkT; p dk n! esa ?kkrkad E p (n!) ls çnf’kZr gksrk gS rFkk • n
P0 =
n!
= 1; n Pr = n .n −1 Pr −1
n!
⎡n ⎤ ⎡ n ⎤ ⎡ n ⎤ ⎡ n ⎤
E p (n! ) = ⎢ ⎥ + ⎢ 2 ⎥ + ⎢ 3 ⎥ + .... + ⎢ ⎥ , tgk¡ p k < n < p k +1 rFkk
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
p p p ⎣ pk ⎦ iqujko`fÙk ds lkFk Øep;ksa dh la[;k
⎡n⎤ n (Number of permutations with repetition)
⎢ ⎥ egRre iw.kkZad dks O;Dr djrk gS] tks fd ds cjkcj ;k blls de gSA
⎣p⎦ p
(1) n fofHkUu oLrqvksa esa ls ,d le; esa r oLrq,¡ ysdj cus
mnkgj.kkFkZ % 100! esa 3 dk ?kkrkad Øep;ksa (foU;klkas) dh la[;k] tcfd izR;sd oLrq ,d] nks] rhu]------]r ckj
⎡ 100 ⎤ ⎡ 100 ⎤ ⎡ 100 ⎤ ⎡ 100 ⎤ rd fdlh Hkh O;oLFkk esa yh tk ldrh gS = r LFkkuksa dks Hkjus ds rjhdksa
= E3 (100 ! ) = ⎢ ⎥+⎢ 2 ⎥+⎢ 3 ⎥+⎢ 4 ⎥
⎣ 3 ⎦ ⎣ 3 ⎦ ⎣ 3 ⎦ ⎣3 ⎦ dh la[;k] tgk¡ izR;sd LFkku n oLrqvksa esa ls fdlh ,d ls Hkjk tk
= 33 + 11 + 3 + 1 = 48 . ldrk gSA

Øep; dh ifjHkk"kk (Definition of permutation)

r-LFkku : 1 2 3 4 r
fdlh fn, gq, O;fDr;ksa vFkok oLrqvksa ds lewg esa ls ,d ckj esa
dqN de vFkok lHkh O;fDr;ksa vFkok oLrqvksa dks ysdj fHké-fHké fodYiksa dh la[;k : n n n n n
foU;klksa] ftuesa Øe dks egRo fn;k x;k gks] dks Øep; dgrs gSaA
mnkgj.kkFkZ % rhu fofHké oLrq,¡ a, b rFkk c nh xbZ gSa rks bu rhu
esa ls nks oLrqvksa dks ysdj cus foU;kl ab, ac, bc, ba, ca, cb gksaxsA vr% Øep;ksa dh la[;k = r LFkkuksa dks Hkjus ds rjhdksa dh la[;k = (n)r
Øep;ksa dh la[;k 6 gSA
(2) ;fn n oLrqvksa esa ls p oLrq,¡ ,d izdkj dh] q oLrq,¡ nwljs
iqujko`fÙk jfgr Øep;ksa dh la[;k izdkj dh] r oLrq,¡ rhljs izdkj dh gksa rFkk 'ks"k oLrq,¡ fHkUu-fHkUu çdkj
(Number of permutations without repetition) dh gksa] rks lHkh n oLrqvksa dks ,d lkFk ysdj cus Øep;ksa dh la[;k
n!
(1) noLrqvksa esa ls] ,d le; esa r oLrq,¡ ysdj foU;kl cukuk gksxhA
p! q! r!
rFkk n oLrqvksa ls r LFkkuksa dks Hkjuk lerqY; gSA
 220 Øep; ,oa lap;

çfrcfU/kr Øep; (Conditional permutations) pØh; Øep; ls lEcfU/kr izes;

(1) n fofHkUu oLrqvksa esa ls r oLrqvksa dks ,d lkFk ysdj cuk, tk çes; (i) : n fofHkUu oLrqvksa ds pØh; Øep;ksa dh la[;k
(n − 1) !gksrh gSA
ldus okys Øep;ksa dh la[;k] tcfd p fuf'pr oLrq,¡ lnSo lfEefyr
gksa = n − p C r − p r! . çes; (ii) : ,d xksy est dh ifjf/k esa n O;fDr;ksa dks (n − 1)!
(2) n fofHkUu oLrqvksa esa ls r oLrqvksa dks ,d lkFk ysdj cuk,
rjhds ls cSBk;k tk ldrk gSA
tk ldus okys Øep;ksa dh la[;k] tcfd p fuf'pr oLrq,¡ dHkh Hkh çes; (iii) : n fofHkUu ef.k;ksa dks ,d ekyk esa O;ofLFkr djus ds
1
lfEefyr u gksa = n− p C r r! . izdkj (n − 1)! gksrs gSaA
2
(3) n fofHkUu oLrqvksa esa ls r ls vf/kd oLrq,¡ ,d lkFk u ysdj
(vFkkZr~ r ;k mlls de oLrq,¡ ,d lkFk ysdj) cuk, tk ldus okys lap;
dqy Øep;ksa dh la[;k] tcfd izR;sd oLrq dh fdruh Hkh ckj iqujko`fÙk
gks ldrh gS]
n(n r − 1)
gksxhA
lap; dh ifjHkk"kk (Definition of combination)
n −1 nh xbZ oLrqvksa esa ls dqN ;k lHkh oLrqvksa dks lkFk ysdj fcuk
(4) n fofHkUu oLrqvksa esa ls lHkh dks ,d lkFk ysdj cuk, tk Øe dk /;ku j[ks] tks fofHkUu lewg ;k leqnk; (groups) cuk, tkrs gSa]
ldus okys Øep;ksa dh la[;k] tcfd m fof'k"V oLrq,¡ lnSo ,d lkFk mUgsa mu oLrqvksa dk lap; dgrs gSaA
gksa] m !× (n − m + 1)! gksxhA ladsr (Notation): n oLrqvksa esa ls r oLrq,¡ ,d lkFk ysdj cuk;s
(5) n fofHkUu oLrqvksa esa ls lHkh dks ,d lkFk ysdj cuk, tk ⎛n⎞
ldus okys Øep;ksa dh la[;k] tcfd m fof'k"V oLrq,¡ dHkh ,d lkFk tk ldus okys lap;ksa dh la[;k dks C (n, r) ;k n Cr ;k ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ls iznf'kZr
u gksa] n !−m ! × (n − m + 1) ! gksxhA
r ⎝ ⎠
djrs gSaA
(6) ekuk n oLrq,¡ gSa] ftuesa m oLrq,¡ ,d izdkj dh rFkk 'ks"k
(n − m ) oLrq,¡ nwljs izdkj dh gSa] rks bu oLrqvksa dks ysdj cuk, tk ldus
n
Cr lnSo ,d çkd`r la[;k gksrh gSA
okys ijLij fofHkUu viothZ Øep;ksa dh la[;k
n!
gksxhA Øep; o lap; esa varj % (i) lap; esa dsoy p;u fd;k tkrk
(m !) × (n − m ) ! gS] tcfd Øep; esa u dsoy p;u djrs gSa] cfYd ,d p;u esa fofHkUu
mijksDr izes; dk vkxs foLrkj fd;k tk ldrk gS] vFkkZr~ ;fn n Øe dh O;oLFkkvksa ij Hkh /;ku nsrs gSaA
oLrq,¡ gkssa] ftuesa p 1 ,dleku ,d izdkj dh] p 2 ,dleku nwljs (ii) izR;sd lap; ds laxr vusd Øep; gksrs gSaA
izdkj dh] p 3 ,dleku rhljs izdkj dh]......, pr ,dleku r osa izdkj dh mnkgj.kkFkZ : 6 Øep; ABC, ACB, BCA, BAC, CBA rFkk CAB ds
oLrq,¡ bl izdkj gSa fd p 1 + p 2 + ...... + p r = n ; rks bu oLrqvksa dks ysdj laxr ,d gh lap; ABC gSA
n! fcuk iqujko`fÙk ds lap;ksa dh la[;k
cuk, tk ldus okys Øep;ksa dh la[;k gksxhA
( p 1 !) × ( p 2 !) × ...... × ( p r !) (Number of combinations without repetition)

pØh; Øep; (Circular permutations) n fHkUu oLrqvksa esa ls r(0 ≤ r ≤ n) oLrqvksa dks ,d lkFk ysdj
cuk, tk ldus okys lap;ksa (p;u ;k lewg) dh la[;k
pØh; Øep; esa] fdlh oLrq dh nwljksa ds lkis{k fLFkfr n!
egRoiw.kZ gksrh gSA vr% pØh; Øep; esa ge fdlh ,d oLrq dh fLFkfr
n
Cr = gksrh gS] tcfd Cr = C n − r .
n n
r !(n − r) !
dks fLFkj ekurs gSa vkSj rc vU; oLrqvksa dks lHkh lEHko rjhds ls
O;ofLFkr djrs gSaA ekuk dqy p;uksa ;k lewgksa dh la[;k = x, izR;sd lewg esa r oLrq,¡
gSa] tks r ! izdkj ls O;ofLFkr dh tk ldrh gSa] vr% r oLrqvksa dh
pØh; Øep; nks izdkj ds gksrs gSa :
(i) pØh; Øep;] ftlesa nf{k.kkorZ rFkk okekorZ Øe fHkUu O;oLFkkvksa dh la[;k = x × (r !), fdUrq O;oLFkkvksa dh la[;k = n Pr .
Øep; nsrs gSaA mnkgj.k ds fay,] ,d xksy est dh ifjf/k esa O;fDr;ksa n
Pr n!
⇒ x × (r!) = n Pr ⇒ x = ⇒x= =n Cr .
dks cSBkus dh O;oLFkkA r! r !(n − r) !
(ii) pØh; Øep;] ftlesa nf{k.kkorZ rFkk okekorZ Øe leku Øep;
nsrs gSaA mnkgj.k ds fy, : ,d ekyk cukus ds fy, ef.k;ksa dh O;oLFkkA iqujko`fÙk ds lkFk Øep;ksa dh la[;k
nf{k.kkorZ rFkk okekorZ O;oLFkk esa vUrj (Difference between (Number of permutations with repetition)
;fn nf{k.kkorZ rFkk okekorZ
clockwise and anticlockwise arrangement) : (i)
(1) n fHkUu oLrqvksa esa ls r dks ,d lkFk ysdj cus lap;ksa dh
Øe dh O;oLFkk,¡ fHkUu ugha gSa tSls ekyk esa ef.k;ksa dh O;oLFkk] ekyk esa
la[;k tcfd dksbZ Hkh oLrq fdrus Hkh ckj vk ldrh gS
Qwyksa dh O;oLFkk bR;kfn] rks n fofHkUu oLrqvksa ds pØh; Øep;ksa dh
(n − 1)! = (1 + x + x 2 + ....... + x r )n esa x r dk xq.kkad = (1 − x )−n esa
la[;k gksxhA
2 x dk xq.kkad = n + r −1 C r
r

(ii) n fofHkUu oLrqvksa esa ls r ,d lkFk ysus ij pØh; Øep;ksa dh (2) n oLrqvksa esa ls dqN vFkok lHkh dks ,d lkFk ysdj cus

la[;k
n
Pr
gksrh gS] tc nf{k.kkorZ rFkk okekorZ Øe fHkUu Øep; nsrs gSaA lEHkkfor lewgksa vFkok lap;ksa dh la[;k n C 1 + n C 2 + ..... + n C n
r vFkkZr~ 2 n − 1 gksxhA
(iii) n fofHkUu oLrqvksa esa ls r dks ,d lkFk ysus ij pØh; (3) n = (n1 + n 2 + ....) oLrqvksa esa ls dqN vFkok lHkh oLrqvksa dks
n
Pr ysdj cus lEHkkfor lewgksa vFkok lap;ksa dh la[;k (tcfd n1 oLrq,¡
Øep;ksa dh la[;k gksrh gS] tcfd nf{k.kkorZ rFkk okekorZ Øe
2r
,d izdkj dh] n2 nwljs izdkj dh rFkk vU; blh izdkj ls gks)a
leku Øep; nsrs gSaA
{(n1 + 1) (n 2 + 1)......} − 1 gksaxhA
 Øep; ,oa lap; 221

(4) n leku oLrqvksa esa ls r oLrqvksa ds p;u ds rjhdksa dh la[;k mi-ifj.kke (Corollary): ;fn m = n = p , rks lewg leku vkdkj
1 gksrh gSA ds gkasxsA bu lewgksa dk foHkktu nks izdkj ls gksxkA
(5) n leku oLrqvksa esa ls 'kwU; ;k vf/kd oLrqvksa ds p;u dh çdkj I : ;fn lewg dk Øe egRoiw.kZ u gks : 3p vleku oLrqvksa dks
la[;k n + 1 gksrh gSA rhu lewgksa esa cjkcj-cjkcj ck¡Vus dh dqy fof/k;k¡
(3 p )!
gksaxhA
(6) a1 + a2 + a3 + ...... + an + k oLrqvksa esa ls] (tgk¡ a1 ,d 3!( p!)3
leku ,d izdkj dh] an ,d leku n osa izdkj dh rFkk k fHkUu oLrq,¡ çdkj II : ;fn lewg dk Øe egRoiw.kZ gS : 3p vleku oLrqvksa dks
gSa) de ls de ,d oLrq ds p;u dh la[;k rhu fHkUu lewgksa esa cjkcj-cjkcj ckWVus dh dqy fof/k;k¡
(3 p)! (3 p ) !
[(a1 + 1) (a 2 + 1) (a 3 + 1).......( a n + 1)] 2 k − 1 gksxhA 3
. 3! = gksaxhA
3!( p!) ( p! ) 3
izfrcfU/kr lap; (Conditional combinations) • ;fn lewg dk Øe egRoiw.kZ u gks : mn vleku oLrqvksa dks m
mn !
(1) n vleku oLrqvksa esa ls r oLrq,¡ ,d lkFk ysdj cus lap;ksa lewgksa esa cjkcj-cjkcj ck¡Vs tkus dh dqy fof/k;k¡ gksaxhA
(n!)m m !
dh la[;k] tcfd k fo'ks"k oLrq,¡
• ;fn lewg dk Øe egRoiw.kZ gks: mn vleku oLrqvksa dks m
(i) lnSo lfEefyr dh tk;sa = n − k Cr − k fofHkUu lewgksa esa cjkcj-cjkcj ck¡Vs tkus dh dqy fof/k;k¡
lfEefyr u gksa = n −k Cr
(ii) dHkh (mn )! (mn )!
m
× m! = gksaxhA
(n!) m ! (n!)m
(2) n oLrqvksa esa ls] ftuesa p oLrq,¡ ,dleku gSa] r oLrqvksa dks
,d lkFk ysdj cus lap;ksa dh la[;k O;frØe (Derangement)
= n − p C r + n − p C r −1 + n − p C r − 2 + ....... + n − p C 0 , ;fn r ≤ p rFkk
n− p
fn;s x;s Øe esa fdlh Hkh izdkj dk ifjorZu O;frØe dgykrk gSA
C r + n − p C r −1 + n − p C r − 2 + ....... + n − p C r − p , ;fn r > p
;fn n oLrqvksa dks ,d iafDr esa O;ofLFkr fd;k x;k gS] rc
budks O;frØfer (Deranged) djus ds dqy çdkj] ftlls fd dksbZ Hkh
lewg esa foHkktu (Division into groups) oLrq viuh ewy fLFkfr ij u jgs]
fLFkfr I : (1) n vleku oLrqvksa dks r fofHkUu lewgksa esa O;ofLFkr ⎛ 1 1 1 1⎞
n ! ⎜⎜ 1 − + − + ...... + (−1)n . ⎟⎟ gksaxsA
djus dh dqy fof/k;k¡ n + r −1 Pn ;k n ! n −1 Cr −1 gksaxhA (fjDr lewg ⎝ 1! 2! 3 ! n !⎠
ekU; gS ;k ugha ds vuqlkj)
(2) n vleku oLrqvksa dks r fofHkUu lewgksa esa ck¡Vus dh dqy T;kferh; leL;kvksa ls lEcfU/kr dqN egRoiw.kZ ifj.kke
fof/k;k¡ gksaxh (Some important results related to geometrical problems)
r n − r C 1 (r − 1)n + r C 2 (r − 2)n − ......... + (−1)n −1 n C r −1 ;k n ! ,d lery ij n fcUnqvksa dks feykus ls cuus okyh dqy
(1)
(e x − 1)r esa x n dk xq.kkad A fofHkUu js[kkvksa dh la[;k n C 2 − m C 2 + 1 gSa] tcfd m(<n) lejs[kh;
;gk¡ fjDr lewg ekU; ugha gSA fcUnq gSaA
(2) ,d lery ij n fcUnqvksa dks feykus ls cuus okys f=Hkqtksa dh
(3) m × n vleku oLrqvksa dks n O;fDr;ksa esa (;k vafdr lewg es)a
cjkcj-cjkcj ck¡Vus dh dqy fof/k;¡k = (lewg esa foHkkftr djus dh la[;k n C 3 − m C 3 gSa] tcfd m (< n) lejs[kh; fcUnq gSaA
(mn ) ! n ! (mn ) ! (3) n Hkqtkvksa okys cgqHkqt esa fod.kksZa dh la[;k n C 2 − n gksrh gSA
fof/k;ksa dh la[;k) × (lewgksa dh la[;k) ! = n
= .
(m !) n! (m !)n (4) ;fn ,d lery esa m lekUrj js[kk,¡] n vU; lekUrj js[kkvksa
fLFkfr II : (m + n) vleku oLrqvksa dks m rFkk n oLrqvksa ds nks }kjk izfrPNsfnr dh tkrh gSa] rks bl izdkj cuus okys lekUrj prqHkqZtksa
lewgksa esa foHkkftr djus dh dqy fof/k;k¡ mn (m − 1)(n − 1)
dh la[;k m
C 2 × n C 2 vFkkZr~ gksrh gSA
(m + n) ! 4
m +n
= Cm . Cn =
n
,m ≠ n . (5)fdlh o`Ùk dh ifjf/k ij n fcUnq fn, x, gSa] rks mUgsa feykus
m ! n!
ij] (i) ljy js[kkvksa dh la[;k = n C 2 (ii) f=Hkqtksa dh la[;k = n C 3
miifj.kke (Corollary) : ;fn m = n , rks lewg leku vkdkj ds
gksaxsA bu lewgksa dk foHkktu nks izdkj ls gksxkA (iii) prqHkqZtksa dh la[;k = n C 4 .
çdkj I : ;fn lewg dk Øe egRoiw.kZ u gks : 2n vleku (6) fdlh lery ij n ljy js[kk,¡ bl çdkj [khaaph tk;sa] fd
oLrqvksa dks nks lewgksa esa cjkcj-cjkcj ck¡Vs tkus dh dqy fof/k;k¡ dksbZ Hkh nks js[kk,¡ ijLij lekUrj ugha gSa rFkk dksbZ Hkh rhu js[kk,¡ ,d
(2n)! fcUnq ls ugha xqtjrh gSa] rks ;s js[kk,¡ lery dks ( 1 + Σn ) Hkkxksa esa
gksaxhA foHkkftr djsaxhA
2!(n!) 2
(7) ,d n × n oxZ esa fdlh Hkh vkdkj ds vk;rksa dh la[;k
çdkj II : ;fn lewg dk Øe egRoiw.kZ gS : (1) 2n vleku oLrqvksa n n
dks nks fHkUu lewgksa esa cjkcj-cjkcj ck¡Vs tkus dh dqy fof/k;k¡ ∑r
r =1
3
rFkk fdlh Hkh vkdkj ds oxkZsa dh la[;k ∑r
r =1
2
gksrh gSA
(2n)! (2n)!
× 2! = gksaxhA
2!(n!)2 (n!)2 (8) ,d n × p, (n < p) vk;r eas fdlh Hkh vkdkj ds vk;rksa dh
(2) (m + n + p) vleku oLrqvksa dks Øe'k% m, n rFkk p oLrqvksa ds la[;k
np
(n + 1) ( p + 1) rFkk fdlh Hkh vkdkj ds oxksZa dh la[;k
rhu laxzgksa esa ck¡Vus dh dqy fof/k;k¡ 4
n
(m + n + p )!
m +n + p
Cm .n + p Cn . p C p =
m !n ! p !
,m ≠ n ≠ p gksaxhA ∑ (n + 1 − r) (p + 1 − r) gksrh gSA
r =1
 222 Øep; ,oa lap;

cgqin izes; (Multinomial theorem) (2) 1 vkSj N dks cfg"d`r djrs gq, N ds dqy foHkktdksa dh la[;k
= (α1 + 1) (α 2 + 1) (α 3 + 1).....( α k + 1) − 2
ekuk x1 , x 2 , ......., x m iw.kkZad gSa] rks lehdj.k
(3) 1 ;k N dks cfg"d`r djrs gq, N ds dqy foHkktdksa dh la[;k
x1 + x 2 + ...... + x m = n .....(i) = (α1 + 1) (α 2 + 1) (α 3 + 1).....( α k + 1) − 1
ds gyksa dh la[;k] izfrcU/k (4) bu foHkktdksa dk ;ksx
a1 ≤ x 1 ≤ b1 , a2 ≤ x 2 ≤ b 2 ,......., am ≤ x m ≤ bm .....(ii)
= ( p10 + p11 + p12 + ...... + p1α 1 )( p 20 + p 12 + p 22 + ... + p α2 2 ).....
ds vUrxZr]
( p k0 + p k1 + p k2 + .... + p αk k )
(x a1 + x a1 +1 + ...... + x b1 ) (x a 2 + x a 2 +1 + ..... + x b 2 )......
(5) N dks nks foHkktdksa ds xq.kuQy ds :i esa O;Dr djus ds
(x am + x am +1 + ..... + x bm ) ......(iii)
rjhdksa dh la[;k gS
esa x n ds xq.kkad ds cjkcj gSA
⎧ 1
,slk blfy, gS fd ftrus çdkj ls (i) esa m iw.kkZadksa dk ;ksx n ⎪ 2 (α 1 + 1) (α 2 + 1)....(α k + 1), ;fn N iw.kZ oxZ ugha gS
gksxk] mrus gh çdkj ls (iii) esa x n vk;sxkA ⎨1
⎪ [(α 1 + 1) (α 2 + 1).....( α k + 1) + 1], ;fn N iw.kZ oxZ gS
foHkktu ds çdkjksa dh la[;k Kkr djus esa js[kh; lehdj.k ⎪⎩ 2
ds gy rFkk izlkj esa fdlh ?kkr ds xq.kkad dk ç;ksx % ,d fefJr la[;k N dks mu nks foHkktdksa] tks ,d-nwljs ds
(6)
(i) x 1 + x 2 + x 3 + ...... + x r = nds iw.kkZad gyksa dh la[;k] lkis{k vHkkT; gSa] ds xq.kuQy esa O;Dr djus ds 2 n −1 rjhdsa gksaxs] tgk¡
tgk¡ x 1 ≥ 0, x 2 ≥ 0, ...... x r ≥ 0 , tks n leku oLrqvksa dks r O;fDr;ksa esa n, N ds fofHkUu foHkktdksa dh la[;k gSA
ck¡Vsa tkus okys rjhdksa dh la[;k ds cjkcj gSA
;g (x 0 + x 1 + x 2 + x 3 + ......) r ds izlkj esa x n ds xq.kkad ds
cjkcj gSA
r
⎛ 1 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ esa x n dk xq.kkad = (1 − x )−r esa x n dk xq.kkad
⎝1 − x ⎠
= ⎧⎨1 + rx + r(r + 1) x 2 + ...... + r(r + 1)(r + 2)......( r + n − 1) x n + ....... " n
C 0 =n Cn = 1, n C1 = n .
⎩ 2! n!
" n
Cr + n Cr −1 =n +1Cr .
esa x dk xq.kkad
n

r(r + 1)(r + 2)....( r + n − 1) (r + n − 1)! n +r −1 " n

C x =n C y ⇔ x = y vFkok x + y = n .
= = = C r −1
n! n!(r − 1)!
" n . n −1 Cr −1 = (n − r + 1)n C r −1 .
(ii) x 1 + x 2 + x 3 + ..... + x r = nds iw.kkZad gyksa dh la[;k
(tgk¡ x 1 ≥ 1, x 2 ≥ 1,....... x r ≥ 1 ) n leku oLrqvksa dks r O;fDr;ksa esa ck¡Vs " ;fn n le gS] rks n C r dk egRre eku n C n / 2 gksxkA
tkus ds rjhdksa dh la[;k ds cjkcj gS] tgk¡ izR;sd dks de ls de 1
oLrq feysA ;g (x 1 + x 2 + x 3 + ......) r ds izlkj esa x n ds xq.kkad ds " ;fn n fo"ke gS] rks n
Cr dk egRre eku n Cr ;k n C n +1 ;k
2
cjkcj gSA n
r
C n −1 .
⎛ x ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ esa x n dk xq.kkad = x r (1 − x )−r esa x n dk xq.kkad 2
⎝1 − x ⎠
n n −1
⎧ r (r + 1) 2 r (r + 1) (r + 2).....( r + n − 1) n ⎫ " n
Cr = . Cr −1 .
= x r ⎨1 + rx + x + ..... + x + ..... ⎬ r
⎩ 2! n! ⎭
" n fofHkUu oLrqvksa esa ls 'kwU; ;k vf/kd oLrqvksa ds p;uksa dh
esa x n dk xq.kkad
⎧ r(r + 1) 2 r(r + 1)(r + 2).....( r + n − 1) n ⎫
la[;k n C0 + n C1 + n C 2 + ..... + n Cn = 2 n gksrh gSA
= ⎨1 + rx + x + ..... + x + ..... ⎬
⎩ 2! n ! ⎭ " ,d ;k vf/kd iz'ukas ds mÙkj nsus ds rjhdksa dh la[;k] tcfd
esa x n − r dk xq.kkad çR;sd ç'u fodYi j[krk gS = 3 n − 1 .
r(r + 1) (r + 2)......( r + n − r − 1) r(r + 1) (r + 2).....( n − 1) " lHkh n ç'uksa ds mÙkj nsus ds rjhdksa dh la[;k tcfd izR;sd
= = =
(n − r) ! (n − r)! iz'u fodYi j[krk gS = 2 n .
(n − 1) !
= n −1 C r − 1 . " n
C0 + n C 2 + n C 4 + ...... =n C1 + n C 3 + n C5 + ..... = 2 n −1 .
(n − r)!(r − 1)!
2 n +1
foHkktdksa dh la[;k (Number of divisors) " C0 + 2 n +1C1 + 2 n +1C 2 + ..... + 2 n +1Cn = 2 2 n .

ekuk N = p1α1 . pα2 2 . pα3 3 ...... pαk k , tgk¡ p1 , p 2 , p 3 ,...... pk fofHkUu " n
Cn + n +1Cn + n + 2 Cn + n + 3 Cn + .... + 2 n −1Cn = 2 n Cn +1 .
vHkkT; la[;k;sa gSa rFkk α1 , α 2 , α 3 ,......, α k izkd`r la[;k,¡ gSa] rks " n fofHkUu oLrqvksa esa ls lHkh dks ,d lkFk ysus ij lap;ksa dh
(1) 1 vkSj N dks 'kkfey djrs gq, N ds dqy foHkktdksa dh la[;k n! 1
la[;k n Cn = = = 1 , (Q 0 ! = 1) .
= (α1 + 1) (α 2 + 1) (α 3 + 1)....(α k + 1) n !(n − n) ! 0 !
 Øep; ,oa lap; 223

" vUrjky fof/k (Gap method) : ekuk fd 5 iq:"kksa A, B, C, D, E dks

,d iafä esa × A × B × C × D × E × çdkj ls O;ofLFkr fd;k x;k gSA
bu ik¡p O;fDr;ksa ds chp esa 6 fjDr LFkku gSa] pkj e/; esa rFkk nks
çR;sd dksus ij gSaA vc ;fn rhu efgykvksa P, Q, R dks bl izdkj
O;ofLFkr djuk gS fd muesa ls dksbZ Hkh nks ,d lkFk u jgsa] rks ge
vUrjky-fof/k iz;ksx esa ykrs gSa vFkkZr~ bu rhu efgykvksa dks 6 P3
izdkj ls O;ofLFkr dj ldrs gSaA Øep; dh ifjHkk"kk] iqujko`fÙk jfgr rFkk iqujko`fÙk ds
lkFk-lkFk (Together) : ekuk fd gesa 5 O;fDr;ksa dks ,d iafDr esa [kM+k
lkFk Øep;ksa dh la[;k] çfrcfU/kr Øep;
djuk gS] rks ;g 5 ! = 120 izdkj ls fd;k tk ldrk gSA ijUrq ;fn nks 1. ;fn lcls vPNk rFkk lcls [kjkc ç’u-i= lkFk-lkFk u j[ks
fo'ks"k O;fDr;ksa dks lkFk-lkFk gh j[kuk gS] rks ge ;g eku ysrs gSa fd tk;sa rks 6 ijh{kk ç’u-i=ksa dks fdrus çdkj ls j[kk tk ldrk gS
bu nks O;fDr;ksa dks ,d lkFk ck¡/k fn;k x;k gSA vr% vc dqy 5 (a) 120 (b) 480
– 2 + 1 bdkbZ;k¡ gksaxh ftUgsa 4! = 24 izdkj ls O;ofLFkr fd;k tk (c) 240 (d) buesa
ls dksbZ ugha
ldrk gSA ijUrq bu nks O;fDr;ksa dks Hkh 2 ! izdkj ls ck¡/kk tk ldrk
gSA vr% dqy fofHkUu izdkj = 24 × 2 = 48. 2. ds ç;ksx ls 3000 vkSj 4000 ds chp ,slh fdruh
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
la[;k;sa cuk;h tk ldrh gSa tks 5 ls foHkkftr gks ldrh gSa
dHkh ,d lkFk u jgsa] rc vHkh"V izdkj = dqy – lkFk-lkFk ¼tcfd vadksa dh iqujko`fÙk u gks½
= 120 – 48 = 72. (a) 6
P2 (b) 5
P2
" ,d çdkj dh fofHkUu n oLrqvksa rFkk nwljs izdkj dh fofHkUu n (c) 4
P2 (d) 6
P3
oLrqvksa dks ,d iafä esa ,d ds ckn ,d j[kus ds dqy rjhdksa dh
la[;k = 2 .n !.n ! . 3. ,d gkFk dh 4 v¡xqfy;k¡ esa 6 v¡xwfB;k¡ fdrus çdkj ls iguh tk
ldrh gSa [AMU 1983]
" m ,d izdkj dh rFkk n nwljs izdkj dh oLrqvksa dks gkj ds :i
(a) 46 (b) 6
C4
esa j[kus ds rjhds] tcfd
(c) 64 (d) buesa ls dksbZ ugha
m !n!
(i) nwljs izdkj dh lHkh oLrq;sa ,d lkFk gksa = 4. vadksa ls dqy fdruh la[;k;sa cukbZ tk ldrh gSa tcfd
1, 2, 3, 4
2
fdlh Hkh vad dh iqujko`fÙk u gks
(m − 1)n P
(ii) nwljs izdkj dh dksbZ Hkh nks oLrq;sa ,d lkFk gksa = n (a) 4
P4 (b) 4
P3
2
(c) 4
P1 + 4 P2 + 4 P3 (d) 4
P1 + 4 P2 + 4 P3 + 4 P4
" lHkh la[;k,¡ ftudk vafre vad ,d le la[;k 0, 2, 4, 6 ;k 8
gS] os 2 ls foHkkftr gksaxhA 5. ,d in ds fy;s 3 mEehnokj gSa] ftuesa ls ,d O;fä 7 O;fä;ksa
ds erksa ls pquk tkuk gS] rc fdrus çdkj ls ernku fd;k tk
" lHkh la[;k,¡] ftuds vadksa dk ;ksx 3 ls foHkkftr gS] os 3 ls ldrk gS
foHkkftr gksaxhA mnkgj.kkFkZ % 534 esa vadksa dk ;ksx 12 gS] tks 3 ls
foHkkftr gS] vr% 534 Hkh 3 ls foHkkftr gksxhA (a) 73 (b) 37
(c) 7
C3 (d) buesa ls dksbZ ugha
" lHkh la[;k,¡] ftuds vafre nks vadksa ls cuh la[;k 4 ls
foHkkftr gS] os 4 ls foHkkftr gksaxhA mnkgj.kkFkZ % 7312 o 8936 bl 6. Hkksiky rFkk Xokfy;j ds chp 4 cl pyrh gSaA ,d vkneh
izdkj gSa fd 12 o 36, 4 ls foHkkftr gSa] vr% nh xbZ la[;k,¡ Hkh 4 ls Xokfy;j ls Hkksiky tkrk gS rFkk fdlh vU; cl }kjk Xokfy;j
foHkkftr gkasxhA okfil vkrk gS] rks dqy lEHko çdkj gksaxs
(a) 12 (b) 16
" lHkh la[;k,¡ ftudk vafre vad 0 ;k 5 gS] os 5 ls foHkkftr gksaxhA
(c) 4 (d) 8
" la[;k,¡] tks ,d lkFk 2 rFkk 3 nksuksa ls foHkkftr gksa] os 6 ls 7. ;fn n P5 = 20 . nP3 , rks n =
foHkkftr gksaxhA mnkgj.kkFkZ % 108, 756 bR;kfnA
(a) 4 (b) 8
" lHkh la[;k,¡ ftuds vafre rhu vadksa ls cuh la[;k,¡ 8 ls (c) 6 (d) 7
foHkkftr gksa] osa 8 ls foHkkftr gksaxh A 8. 'kCn UNIVERSAL ds v{kjksa ls 3 v{kjksa okys fdrus 'kCn cuk;s tk
" lHkh la[;k,¡ ftuds vadksa dk ;ksx 9 ls iw.kZr% foHkkT; gSa] os 9 ldrs gSa
ls foHkkftr gksaxhA (a) 504 (b) 405
(c) 540 (d) 450
" lHkh la[;k,¡ ftuds vfUre nks vadksa ls cuh la[;k 25 ls
foHkkftr gksa] os 25 ls foHkkftr gksaxhA mnkgj.kkFkZ % 73125, 2400 9. ;fn n P4 : nP5 = 1 : 2 , rks n = [MP PET 1987; RPET 1996]

bR;kfnA (a) 4 (b) 5

(c) 6 (d) 7
" ;fn n fofHkUu vad (a, a2 , a3 .......... an ) fn;s x;s gksa] rc 10. mn i=ksa dks fdrus çdkj ls n i=-isfV;ksa esa Mkyk tk ldrk gS
iqujko`fÙk ds fcUkk fufeZr lHkh la[;kvksa ds bdkbZ LFkku ij fLFkr n mn
(a) (mn ) (b) m
vadksa dk ;ksx (n − 1)!(a1 + a2 + a3 + ...... + an ) gksrk gSA bl fLFkfr
esa lHkh la[;kvksa dk ;ksx (n − 1)!(a1 + a2 + a3 + ...... + an ) . (1111......... (c) n mn
(d) buesa ls dksbZ ugha
n ckj) gksrk gSA
 f}in çes; rFkk xf.krh; vkxeu 255

Chapter

7
f}in çes; rFkk xf.krh; vkxeu
(2) lehdj.k (i) esa x ds LFkku ij 1 vkSj y ds LFkku ij x j[kus ij]
f}in çes;
(1 + x )n = n C 0 x 0 + n C 1 x 1 + n C 2 x 2 + ...... + n C r x r + ...... + n C n x n ,
f}in O;atd (Binomial expression) n
vFkkZr~ (1 + x )n = ∑ n C r x r ;g izlkj x ds vkjksgh Øe esa gSA
nks inksa ds chtxf.krh; O;atd] ftlesa in /ku (+) ;k _.k (&) r =0
fpUgksa ls lEcfU/kr gksrs gSa] f}in O;atd dgykrs gSaA (3) lehdj.k (i) esa x ds LFkku ij 1 vkSj y ds LFkku ij – x j[kus
⎛ p q ⎞ ⎛1 4 ⎞ ij] (1 − x)n = nC0 x 0 − nC1x1 + nC2 x 2 − ...... + (−1)r nCr x r + .... + (−1)n nCn x n ,
mnkgj.kkFkZ : (a + b), (2 x − 3 y ), ⎜ 2 − 4 ⎟ , ⎜⎜ + 3 ⎟
⎟ bR;kfnA
⎝x x ⎠ ⎝ x y ⎠ n
vFkkZr~ (1 − x )n = ∑ (−1)r n C r x r
/kukRed iw.kkZa±d ?kkrkad ds fy, f}in izes; r =0

(Binomial theorem for positive integral index) (4) (x + y) + (x − y)n = 2 [nC0 x ny 0 +nC2 x n−2y 2 +nC4 x n−4 y 4 + .......]
n

tc ,d f}in O;atd dk fdlh Hkh ?kkr ds fy, ,d Js.kh ds :i vkSj (x + y )n − (x − y )n

esa foLrkj (Expansion) fd;k tkrk gS] rks bl lw= dks f}in izes; dgrs
gSaA ;fn n ,d /kukRed iw.kkZad vkSj x, y ∈ C gks] rc = 2 [n C1 x n −1 y 1 + n C3 x n − 3 y 3 + n C5 x n − 5 y 5 + .......]

(x + y )n =n C0 x n − 0 y 0 + n C1 x n −1 y 1 + n C 2 x n − 2 y 2 + ........ (5) (1 + x)n ds izlkj esa (r + 1) osa in dk xq.kkad n C r gSA

+ n Cr x n − r y r + ...... + n Cn −1 xy n −1 + n Cn x 0 y n (6) (1 + x )n ds izlkj esa x r dk xq.kkad n C r gSA
n
vFkkZr~ (x + y )n = ∑ n C r . x n −r .y r .....(i) O;kid in (General term)
r =0

;gk¡ n
C 0 , n C 1 , n C 2 ,...... n C n f}in xq.kkad dgykrs gSa vkSj çlkj dk O;kid in (r + 1) ok¡ in gksrk gSA ftls lkekU;r;k
Tr +1 ls iznf’kZr fd;k tkrk gS rFkk Tr +1 =n Cr x n −r y r
n!
n
Cr = , 0 ≤r≤n.
r !(n − r) ! y (x − y )n ds izlkj esa] O;kid in] Tr +1 = (−1)r n C r x n −r y r

dqN egRoiw.kZ foLrkj (Some important expansions) y (1 + x )n ds izlkj esa] Tr +1 = n C r x r

(1) lehdj.k (i) esa y ds LFkku ij – y j[kus ij] y (1 − x )n ds izlkj esa] Tr +1 = (−1)r n C r x r .
(x − y )n =n C0 x n − 0 .y 0 −n C1 x n −1 .y 1 + n C 2 x n − 2 . y 2 − .... y (x + y )n ds izlkj esa vUr ls p ok¡ in] izkjaHk ls (n − p + 2) osa
+ (−1)r n Cr x n − r .y r + .... + (−1)n n Cn x 0 .yη
in ds cjkcj gksrk gSA
n Lora=k in ;k vpj in (Independent term or constant term)
vFkkZr~ (x − y )n = ∑ (−1)r n C r x n −r .y r .....(ii)
r =0 f}in O;atd ds izlkj esa ftl pj in dk ?kkrkad 'kwU; gksrk gS og
(x − y ) ds izlkj esa ,dkUrj Øe esa /kukRed vkSj _.kkRed in
n in Lora= in ;k vpj in dgykrk gSA
gksrs gSa] vfUre in n ds le ;k fo"ke gksus ds vuqlkj /kukRed ;k izfrcU/k : [ x + y ]n ds izlkj esa] (n − r) [x dh ?kkr] + r . [y dh
_.kkRed gksrk gSA ?kkr] = 0
 256 f}in çes; rFkk xf.krh; vkxeu

(a + b + c)n vkSj (a + b + c + d)n ds izlkj esa inksa dh ∴

n −r +1
| x |≥ 1 ;k r ≤
(n + 1)
| x | ......(i)
la[;k (Number of terms in the expansion of (a + b + c) and n r (1+ | x |)
n
(a + b + c + d) ) vc n vkSj x ds eku lehdj.k (i) esa izfrLFkkfir djus ij
r≤m + f ;k r ≤ m
(a + b + c)n dk foLrkj fuEu izdkj djrs gSa : tgk¡ m ,d /kukRed iw.kkZad vkSj f ,d fHké bl izdkj gS fd]
(a + b + c) = {(a + b ) + c} n
n
0 < f <1 .
tc n le gks] rc Tm +1 egÙke in gksrk gS] tc n fo"ke gks] rc Tm
= (a + b )n + n C 1 (a + b )n −1 (c)1 + n C 2 (a + b )n − 2 (c) 2 + ..... + n C n c n
vkSj Tm +1 egÙke in gksrs gSa ,oa nksuksa ds vkafdd eku leku gksrs gSAa
= (n + 1) in + n in + (n − 1) in + ... + ,d in
laf{kIr fof/k % (1 + x )n ds izlkj esa egÙke in ¼la[;kRed :i ls½
∴ inksa dh dqy la[;k
Kkr djuk
(n + 1)(n + 2)
= (n + 1) + (n) + (n − 1) + ...... + 1 = . x (n + 1)
2 (i) m = dh x.kuk djrs gSa
x +1
blh izdkj] (a + b + c + d ) ds foLrkj esa dqy inksa dh la[;k
n
(ii) ;fn m iw.kkZad gS] rks Tm vkSj Tm +1 cjkcj gSa ,oa nksuksa egÙke
(n + 1)(n + 2)(n + 3)
= . in gSaA
6
(iii) ;fn m iw.kkZad ugha gS] rks T[m ]+1 egÙke in gksrk gS] tgk¡ [.]
e/; in (Middle term) egÙke iw.kkZad Hkkx gSA
e/; in] n ds eku ij fuHkZj djrk gS (2) egÙke xq.kkad (Greatest coefficient)
(1) tc n le iw.kkZZad gks] rc (x + y )n ds izlkj esa dqy inksa dh (i) ;fn n le gS] rks egÙke xq.kkad n C n / 2 gksxkA
(ii) ;fn n fo"ke gS] rks egÙke xq.kkad n C n +1 vkSj n C n + 3 gksaxsA
la[;k n + 1 (fo"ke) gSA blfy, dsoy ,d e/; in] vFkkZr~ ⎛⎜ + 1 ⎞⎟ ok¡
n
⎝2 ⎠ 2 2

in gksxk( T⎡ n = Cn / 2 x
n n/2
y n/2 f}in xq.kkadksa ds xq.k/keZ (Properties of binomial coefficients)
⎤
⎢ 2 +1 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
(1 + x)n ds f}in foLrkj esa]
(2) tc n fo"ke iw.kkZad gks] rc ( x + y )n ds izlkj esa dqy inksa dh
(1 + x )n = n C 0 + n C 1 x + n C 2 x 2 + ..... + n C r x r + .... + n C n x n .
n +1⎞ ⎛n + 3⎞
la[;k n + 1 (le) gksrh gS] vr% nks e/; in] ⎛⎜ ⎟ osa o ⎜ ⎟ osa tgk¡ n C 0 , n C 1 , n C 2 ,......, n C n , x dh fofHké ?kkrksa ds xq.kkad gSa]
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
gksaxsA tksfd f}in xq.kkad dgykrs gSaA
n +1 n −1 n −1 n +1 budks C 0 , C 1 , C 2 , ..... C n ls fu:fir djrs gSaA
T⎛ n +1 ⎞ = n C n −1 x 2 y 2 rFkk T⎛ n + 3 ⎞ = n C n +1 x 2 y 2 . vr%, (1 + x )n = C 0 + C 1 x + C 2 x 2 + ..... + C r x r + ..... + C n x n
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2
.....(i)
y tc izlkj esa nks e/; in gksa] rc muds f}in xq.kkad leku gksrs gSaA
(1) (1 + x) ds foLrkj esa f}in xq.kkadksa dk ;ksx 2 gksrk gSA
n n
y e/; in dk f}in xq.kkad egÙke f}in xq.kkad gksrk gSA
lehdj.k (i) esa x = 1 j[kus ij]
f}in foLrkj esa fo'ks"k in dks Kkr djuk 2 n = C 0 + C 1 + C 2 + ..... + C n .....(ii)
(To determine a particular term in the expansion)
(2) ,dkUrj Øe esa fy, x;s fpUgksa ds f}in xq.kkadksa dk ;ksx %
⎛ α 1 ⎞
n
lehdj.k (i) esa] x = −1 j[kus ij]
⎜x ± β ⎟ ds izlkj esa] ;fn Tr +1 esa x m vkrk gS] rks 0 = C 0 − C 1 + C 2 − C 3 + ...... …..(iii)
⎝ x ⎠
nα − m (3) (1 + x) n
ds foLrkj esa fo"ke inksa ds xq.kkadksa dk ;ksx] le inksa ds
n α − r(α + β ) = m ⇒ r =
α+β xq.kkadksa ds ;ksx ds cjkcj gksrk gS rFkk izR;sd 2 n −1 ds cjkcj gksrk gSA
;fn fn, gq, izlkj esa] Tr +1 esa x vkrk gS] rks n α − r(α + β ) = 0
0
lehdj.k (iii) ls,
nα C 0 + C 2 + C 4 + ..... = C 1 + C 3 + C 5 + ........ ......(iv)
⇒ r=
α+β vFkkZr~ le inksa dk ;ksx] fo"ke inksa ds ;ksx ds cjkcj gksrk gSA
lehdj.k (iii) o (iv) ls,
egÙke in vkSj egÙke xq.kkad
C 0 + C 2 + C 4 + ..... = C 1 + C 3 + C 5 + ..... = 2 n −1 ......(v)
(Greatest term and Greatest coefficient)
n n −1 n n −1 n−2
(1) egÙke in (Greatest term) : ;fn (1 + x )n ds foLrkj esa r ok¡ (4) n C r = C r −1 = . C r−2
r r r −1
vkSj (r + 1) ok¡ in Tr vkSj Tr +1 gks] rks (5) xq.kkadksa ds xq.kuQyksa dk ;ksxQy % lehdj.k (i) esa x ds
Tr +1 n
Cr x r n −r +1 n
LFkku ij j[kus ij] ⎛⎜1 + ⎞⎟ = C 0 + 1 + 22 + ... nn .... ….(vi)
= n = x 1 1 C C C
Tr C r −1 x r −1 r x ⎝ x⎠ x x x
ekuk vk¡fdd :i ls] mi;qZä izlkj esa Tr +1 egÙke in gS] rks lehdj.kksa (i) o (vi) dk xq.kk djus ij,
Tr +1 (1 + x ) 2 n ⎛ C C ⎞
Tr +1 ≥ Tr ;k ≥1 = (C 0 + C 1 x + C 2 x 2 + ......) ⎜⎜ C 0 + 1 + 22 + ..... ⎟⎟
Tr xn ⎝ x x ⎠
 f}in çes; rFkk xf.krh; vkxeu 257

vc nksuksa i{kksa esa x r ds xq.kkadksa dh rqyuk djus ij] vr% (I + f ) (1 − f ) = (I + f ) f ′ = ( A + B)n ( A − B)n
2n
C n +r = C 0 C r + C 1 C r +1 + ...... + C n −r C n .....(vii) = ( A − B 2 )n = K n .
(6) xq.kkadksa ds oxksZa dk ;ksxQy % lehdj.k (vii) esa r = 0 j[kus
ij] 2n
Cn = C02 + C12 + ...... + Cn2 cgqin izes; ¼/kukRed iw.kkZa±d ?kkrkad ds fy,½
(Multinomial theorem for (+ve) integral index)
(7) n Cr + n Cr −1 =n +1Cr
;fn n /kukRed iw.kkZad gS ,oa a1 , a 2 , a 3 , .... a n ∈ C , rc
(8) C1 + 2 C 2 + 3 C3 + .......... . + n. Cn = n . 2 n −1
∑ n !n
n!
(9) C1 − 2C 2 + 3 C3 − .......... ...... = 0 (a1 + a 2 + a 3 + ... + a m )n = a1n1 a 2n2 ... a mnm
1 2 ! n 3 !...n m !
(10) C0 + 2 C1 + 3 C 2 + ........ + (n + 1)Cn = (n + 2)2 n −1 tgk¡ n1 , n2 , n3 ,..... nm lHkh v_.kkRed iw.kkZad bl izdkj gSa fd]
(11) C02 + C12 + C 22 + .......... . + Cn2 =
(2n) ! n1 + n 2 + n 3 + ..... n m = n .
(n ! )2
(1) (a1 + a 2 + a 3 + .... a m )n ds izlkj esa] a1n1 .a 2n 2 ..... a mnm dk
⎧ 0, ;fn n fo" ke gS
(12) C 02 − C12 + C 22 − C 32 + .......... . = ⎪⎨ n!
⎪⎩(−1) . Cn / 2 , ;fn n le gS
n/2 n xq.kkad gSA
n 1 ! n 2 ! n 3 !....n m !
f}in çes; esa vodyu o lekdyu dk mi;ksx (2) (a1 + a 2 + a 3 + .... a m )n ds izlkj esa egÙke xq.kkad
(Use of differentiation and integration in binomial theorem) n!
gSA
(1) vodyu dk mi;ksx (Use of Differentiation) : bl fof/k dk (q!)m −r [(q + 1)!]r
mi;ksx rHkh djrs gSa] tc f}in xq.kkad] vad xq.ku esa gksaA tgk¡ q HkkxQy ,oa r 'ks"kQy gS] tc n dks m ls Hkkx nsrs gSaA
gy fof/k (Solution process) : (i) ;fn Js.kh dk vfUre in m gks (3) ;fn n /kukRed iw.kkZad gS ,oa a1 , a2 ,..... am ∈ C , rc
¼/kukRed ;k _.kkRed fpUg dks NksM+dj½] rc m dks n ls Hkkx nsus ij] (a1 + a 2 x + ..... a m x m −1 )n ds izlkj esa xr dk xq.kkad
;fn HkkxQy q rFkk 'ks"kQy r gks] vFkkZr~ m = nq + r , rc nh gqbZ Js.kh
∑ n !n !n !.....n ! (a ) gSA
n! n1
esa x ds LFkku ij x q j[krs gSa ,oa nksuksa i{kksa esa x r ls xq.kk djrs gSa A 1 . a2n 2 ......... amnm
1 2 3 m
(ii) Step (i) ds ckn, nksuksa i{kksa dk x ds lkis{k vodyu djus ij ,oa
tgk¡ n1 , n2 ..... nm lHkh v_.kkRed iw.kkZad bl izdkj gSa fd]
x = 1 ;k −1 ;k i ;k – i bR;kfn] nh gqbZ Js.kh ds vuqlkj j[krs gSaA
n1 + n 2 + ..... n m = n vkSj n 2 + 2n 3 + 3 n 4 + .... + (m − 1)n m = r
(iii) ;fn f}in xq.kkadksa ds xq.ku esa vadksa dk oxZ ;k vadksa dk ?ku
gks] rks vodyu nks ckj ;k rhu ckj djrs gSaA (4) (a1 + a 2 + a 3 + .... a m )n ds izlkj esa fofHké inksa dh la[;k
n + m −1
(2) lekdyu dk mi;ksx (Use of Integration) : bl fof/k dk C m −1 gksrh gSA
mi;ksx rHkh djrs gSa] tc f}in xq.kkadksa ds gj vadksa esa gksaA
gy fof/k (Solution process)
fdlh Hkh ?kkrkad ds fy, f}in izes;
(Binomial theorem for any index)
;fn (1 + x )n = C 0 + C 1 x + C 2 x 2 + ..... + C n x n gks] rc ge
mi;qä lhek esa] nksuksa i{kksa dk lekdyu djrs gSa] ftlls vHkh"V Js.kh n(n − 1)x 2 n(n − 1) (n − 2) 3
dFku : (1 + x )n = 1 + nx + + x + ....
izkIr gksrh gSA 2! 3!
(i) ;fn xq.kkadksa ds ;ksx esa] C 0 , C 1 , C 2 ,....... C n ¼lHkh /kukRed n(n − 1)......( n − r + 1) r
+ x + ... ∞
fpUgksa esa½ gksa] rc lekdyu dh lhek 0 ls 1 gksrh gSA r!
(ii) ;fn xq.kkadksa ds ;ksx esa] ,dkUrj Øe esa fpUg ¼/kukRed o tc f}in dh ?kkr n dksbZ _.kkRed iw.kkZad ;k fHké gks] tgk¡
_.kkRed½ gksa] rc lekdyu dh lhek – 1 ls 0 gksrh gSA −1 < x < 1 , vU;Fkk foLrkj vlEHko gksxkA
;fn x < 1 gks] rks mijksä izlkj esa in ?kVrs gq, Øe esa gksrs gSa
(iii) ;fn ;ksxQy esa] fo"ke xq.kkad (vFkkZr~ C , C , C .....) gksa] rc
0 2 4
,oa 1 dh rqyuk esa x cgqr NksVk gS] rc ge ns[krs gSa fd izkIr gksus okys
lekdyu dh lhek –1 ls 1 gksrh gSA
in NksVs gksrs tkrs gSa vkSj ,d fLFkfr vkrh gS] tc mPp ?kkr ds in
(iv) ;fn ;ksxQy esa le xq.kkad (vFkkZr~ C 1 , C 3 , C 5 .....) gksa] rc (i)
ux.; gks tkrs gSa] rc (1 + x )n = 1 + nx .
ls (ii) ?kVkdj 2 ls Hkkx nsrs gSaA
;fn çFke in 1 ugha gS] rc fuEu çdkj ls çFke in dks bdkbZ
(v) ;fn f}in xq.kkadksa ds gj esa nks vadksa dk xq.ku gS] rc nks ckj n
cukrs gSa] (x + y)n = x n ⎡⎢1 +
lekdyu djrs gSaA loZizFke lhek 0 ls x ysrs gSa vkSj iqu% mfpr lhek y⎤ y
, ;fn <1.
ysrs gSaA ⎣ x ⎥⎦ x
O;kid in (General term)
egRoiw.kZ izes; (An important theorem) n(n − 1)(n − 2)......( n − r + 1) r
Tr + 1 = x
r!
;fn ( A + B)n = I + f , tgk¡ I vkSj n /kukRed iw.kkZad gSa] n fo"ke
dqN egRoiw.kZ izlkj (Some important expansions)
gS vkSj 0 ≤ f < 1 , rc (I + f ) . f = K n , tgk¡ A − B 2 = K > 0 vkSj n(n − 1) 2
(i) (1 + x )n = 1 + nx + x +
A −B <1. 2!
•;fn n le iw.kkZad gS] rc ( A + B)n + ( A − B)n = I + f + f ′ n(n − 1)(n − 2)......( n − r + 1) r
....... + x + ......
r!
vr% ck;ka i{k (L.H.S.) vkSj I iw.kkZad gSaA
∴ f + f ′ Hkh iw.kkZad gS ⇒ f + f ′ = 1 ; ∴ f ′ = (1 − f )
 258 f}in çes; rFkk xf.krh; vkxeu
n(n − 1) 2
(ii) (1 − x )n = 1 − nx +
2!
x − ....... xf.krh; vkxeu
+
n(n − 1)(n − 2).....( n − r + 1)
(− x )r + .......
xf.krh; vkxeu dk izFke fl)kar
r! (First principle of mathematical induction)
n(n + 1) 2 n(n + 1)(n + 2) 3
(iii) (1 − x )− n = 1 + nx + x + x + fuEu rhu fLFkfr;ksa ds }kjk xf.krh; vkxeu dk lR;kiu fd;k
2! 3!
n(n + 1)......( n + r − 1) r
tkrk gS :
..... + x + .....
r! Step I : (lR;kiu) : loZizFke izkjfEHkd eku “i” ds fy, lR;kiu djrs
n(n + 1) 2 n(n + 1)(n + 2) 3 gSaA
(iv) (1 + x )− n = 1 − nx + x − x +
2! 3! Step II : (vkxeu) : eku ysa “k” ds fy, dFku lR; gS] k ≥ i vkSj k
n(n + 1)......( n + r − 1) + 1 ¼tks vxyk iw.kkZad gS½] ds fy, fl) djrs gSa fd dFku lR; gSA
..... + (− x )r + ......
r!
Step III : (O;kid :i es)a : mijksDr nksuksa fLFkfr;ksa dks feykus ij]
(v) (1 + x )−1 = 1 − x + x 2 − x 3 + ....... ∞ dFku p(n), n ds lHkh /kukRed iw.kkZad ekuksa ds fy, lR; gksxk] ;fn vkSj
(vi) (1 − x )−1 = 1 + x + x 2 + x 3 + ....... ∞ dsoy ;fn
(vii) (1 + x )−2 = 1 − 2 x + 3 x 2 − 4 x 3 + ....... ∞ (i) ;g n = 1 ds fy, lR; gks] vFkkZr~ p(1) lR; gks vkSj
−2
(viii) (1 − x ) = 1 + 2 x + 3 x + 4 x + ....... ∞
2 3
(ii) ;fn p(n), n = m ds fy, lR; gks] rks ;g n =m + 1 ds fy, Hkh
−3
(ix) (1 + x ) = 1 − 3 x + 6 x 2 − .......... ..... ∞ lR; gksxk vFkkZr~ p(m) lR; gS ⇒ p(m + 1) lR; gSA
(x) (1 − x )−3 = 1 + 3 x + 6 x 2 + .......... ....... ∞
xf.krh; vkxeu dk f}rh; fl)kar
rhu@pkj Øekxr in ,oa xq.kkad (Second principle of mathematical induction)
(Three/Four consecutive terms or coefficients) fuEu fLFkfr;ksa ds }kjk xf.krh; vkxeu dk lR;kiu fd;k tkrk gS
(1) ;fn Øekxr xq.kkad fn, gksa % bl fLFkfr esa Øekxr xq.kkadksa Step I : (lR;kiu) : loZizFke izkjfEHkd eku i vkSj (i + 1) ds fy,
dks ;qXe ds :i esa Hkkx nsrs gSa] rc izkIr lehdj.k dks gy djrs gSaA lR;kiu djrs gSaA
(2) ;fn Øekxr in fn, gksa% bl fLFkfr esa Øekxr inksa Step II : (vkxeu) : eku
ysa k – 1 vkSj k ds fy, dFku lR; gS] k≥
dks ;qXe ds :i esa Hkkx nsrs gSa] vFkkZr~ ;fn pkj Øekxr in i + 1 vkSj rc fl) djrs gSa fd dFku k + 1 ds fy, Hkh lR; gSA
Tr Tr +1 Tr + 2
Tr , Tr +1 , Tr + 2 , Tr + 3 gksa] rc , , ⇒ λ1 , λ 2 , λ 3 (eku ys)a , Step III : (O;kid :i es)a : mijksDr nksuksa fLFkfr;ksa dks feykus ij
Tr +1 Tr + 2 Tr + 3
rc λ1 dks λ 2 vkSj λ 2 dks λ 3 ls Hkkx nsdj gy djrs gSaA dFku p(n), n ds lHkh /kukRed iw.kkZad ekuksa ds fy, lR; gksxk] ;fn vkSj
dsoy ;fn]
dqN egRoiw.kZ fcUnq (Some important points) (i) p(1) lR; gks] vFkkZr~ p(n), n = 1 ds fy, lR; gks] vkSj
(1) ikLdy f=Hkqt (Pascal's triangle) : ds] n = 1 ls n = m rd lHkh /ku iw.kkZadksa] vFkkZr~ 1 ≤ n ≤ m
(ii) p(n)
1 (x + y )0 ds fy, lR; gksus ij] p(m + 1) Hkh lR; gksA rc p(n) lHkh izkd`r
la[;kvksa ds fy, lR; gSA
1 1 (x + y )1
1 2 1 (x + y )2 a ≠ b ds fy,, O;atd a n − b n fuEu ds }kjk foHkkftr gS
(a) a + b, ;fn n le gSA (b) a – b, ;fn n le ;k fo"ke gSA
1 3 3 1 (x + y )3
1 4 6 4 1 (x + y )4 foHkkftrk leL;k;sa (Divisibility problems)
1 5 10 10 5 1 (x + y ) 5
dksbZ O;atd ,d iw.kkZad ls foHkkftr gS] bls fl) djus ds fy,
ikLdy f=Hkqt çR;{k :i ls f}in xq.kkad nsrs gSaA
(i)loZizFke] a pn +r = a pn . a r = (a p )n . a r , :i esa fy[krs gSa] tgk¡ a,
mnkgj.kkFkZ : (x + y ) 4 = x 4 + 4 x 3 y + 6 x 2 y 2 + 4 xy 3 + y 4 .
p, n, r /kukRed iw.kkZad gSaA
(2) (a 1 / p + b 1 / q )N ∀a, b ∈ vHkkT;
la[;k;sa] ds izlkj esa (ii) ;fn gesa fl) djuk gS fd fn;k x;k O;atd c ls foHkkT; gS]
dj.khxr fpUgksa ls Lora= inksa ;k ifjes; inksa dks Kkr djus dh rks a p dks fuEukafdr :i esa O;Dr djrs gSaA
N −r r

fof/k % O;kid in] Tr +1 = N C r (a 1 / p ) N −r (b 1 / q )r = N C r a p

.b q a p = [1 + (a p − 1] , ;fn (a p − 1) dh dqN ?kkr c dh xq.kt gksA
0≤r≤ N ds eku j[kus ij] tcfd a vkSj b ds ?kkrkad iw.kkZad gSaA a p = [2 + (a p − 2)] , ;fn (a p − 2) dh dqN ?kkr c dh xq.kt gksA
y vifjes; inksa dh la[;k = dqy inksa dh la[;k – ifjes; inksa dh
a p = [K + (a p − K )], ;fn (a p − K ) dh dqN ?kkr c dh xq.kt gksA
la[;kA
 f}in çes; rFkk xf.krh; vkxeu 259

" (x + y )n ds izlkj esa inksa dh la[;k (n + 1) gksrh gSaA f}in çes; dk çlkj
" (x + y )n ds izlkj esa izR;sd mÙkjksÙkj in esa x dh ?kkr Øe ls
1. ( 2 + 1)6 − ( 2 − 1)6 = [MP PET 1984]
?kVrh tkrh gS rFkk y dh ?kkr Øe ls c<+rh tkrh gS] ijUrq izR;sd
in esa x o y dh ?kkrksa dk ;ksx lnSo f}in dh ?kkr n ds cjkcj (a) 101 (b) 70 2
jgrk gSA (c) 140 2 (d) 120 2
" izkjaHk rFkk vUr ls ,d leku nwjh ds inksa ds f}in xq.kkad 2. x + 10 x a + 40 x a + 80 x a + 80 xa 4 + 32 a 5 =
5 4 3 2 2 3

leku gksrs gSa] vFkkZr~ n Cr =n Cn − r . (a) (x + a)5

" (x + y )n = fo"ke inksa dk ;ksx + le inksa dk ;ksx (b) (3 x + a)5
Tr +1 ⎛ n − r + 1 ⎞ y (c) (x + 2 a)5
" (x + y )n ds izlkj esa] n ∈ N ; =⎜ ⎟
Tr ⎝ r ⎠x (d) (x + 2 a)3
" ;fn (1 − x)n ds çlkj esa p osa] q osa in ds xq.kkad cjkcj gks] rks m (m − 1) m − 2 2
3. lw= (a + b)m = am + ma m −1b + a b + .... vuUr
p+q =n+2 . 1 .2
rd lR; gksxk] ;fn
n(n + 1)
" (x − 1)(x − 2).......( x − n) ds izlkj esa x n −1 dk xq.kkad = − (a) b<a (b) a < b
2
(c) | a | <| b | (d) | b | <| a |
" (x + 1)(x + 2).....( x + n) ds izlkj esa x n −1 dk xq.kkad
4. (x + a)100 + (x − a)100 dks foLrkj dj ljy djus ds ckn inksa
n(n + 1)
= dh dqy la[;k gksxh [Pb. CET 1990]
2
(a) 202 (b) 51
" (x + y )n ds foLrkj esa] egÙke in Kkr djus ds fy, ge fn, (c) 50 (d) buesa ls dksbZ ugha
n
⎡ y⎤ 1
gq, f}in O;atd dks (x + y )n = x n ⎢1 + ⎥ ds :i esa fy[krs gSaA 5. dk f}in çes; ls foLrkj fd;k tk ldrk gS] ;fn
⎣ x⎦ 5 + 4x
n (a) x <1 (b) | x | < 1
ds izlkj esa egÙke in = x n . ⎛⎜1 + ⎞⎟ ds izlkj esa
y
" ( x +y ) n

⎝ x⎠ (c) | x | <
5
(d) | x | <
4
egÙke inA 4 5

" ;fn n fo"ke gS] rks (x + y )n + (x − y )n vkSj (x + y )n − (x − y )n 6. ( 5 + 1)5 − ( 5 − 1)5 dk eku gS [MP PET 1985]
(a) 252 (b) 352
n +1⎞
nksuksa ds çlkj esa] inksa dh la[;k ⎛⎜ ⎟ gksrh gSA (c) 452 (d) 532
⎝ 2 ⎠
7. O;atd 1 + (1 + x ) + (1 + x )2 + ..... + (1 + x )n ds foLrkj esa x k dk
" ;fn n le gS] rks (x + y ) + (x − y ) ds çlkj esa inksa dh la[;k
n n
xq.kkad (0 ≤ k ≤ n) gS [RPET 2000]
⎛n ⎞ n n +1 n
⎜ + 1⎟ rFkk (x + y )n − (x − y )n ds çlkj esa inksa dh la[;k gksrh gSA (a) C k +1 (b) Ck
⎝2 ⎠ 2
(c) n
C n −k −1 (d) buesa ls dksbZ ugha
" ;fn n ,d _.k iw.kkZad ;k fHkUu gS] rks (1 + x)n ds çlkj esa
inksa dh la[;k vuUr gksrh gSA 8. 99 50 , 100 50 o 101 50 esa ls dkSu lk cM+k gS [IIT 1980]

n + r −1 (a) 99 50 + 100 50 nksuksa cjkcj gSa

(b)
" (x 1 + x 2 + ......... + x 2 )n = C r −1 ds çlkj esa inksa dh
n + r −1 (c) 101 50
(d) buesa dksbZ ugha
la[;k C r −1 gksrh gSA
9. (1 + x ) − nx − 1 foHkkT; gS (tgk¡ n ∈ N )
n

" ;fn (1 + x)n ds çlkj esa r os,a (r + 1) osa] o (r + 2) osa inksa ds

(a) 2 x ds }kjk
xq.kkad gjkRed Js.kh esa gSa] rks n + (n − 2r)2 = 0 .
(b) x 2 ds }kjk
" ;fn (1 + x)n ds çlkj esa r os,a (r + 1) osa o (r + 2) osa inksa ds (c) 2x 3 ds }kjk
xq.kkad lekUrj Js.kh esa gks] rks n 2 − n(4 r + 1) + 4 r 2 − 2 = 0 . (d) mijksä lHkh ds }kjk
 Exponential and Logarithmic Series 295

Chapter

8
pj?kkrkadh rFkk y?kqx.kdh; Jsf.k;k¡
xn
pj?kkrkadh Js.kh ∴ Tn +1 = e x ds çlkj esa O;kid in =
n!
rFkk e x ds çlkj esa
ifjHkk"kk ¼la[;k e½ (Definition (The number e)) xn dk xq.kkad =
1
.
n n!
tc n vuUr dh vksj vxzlj gks] rks ⎛⎜1 + ⎞⎟ dh lhek ds eku
1
⎝ n⎠ mijksDr Js.kh dks pj?kkrkadh Js.kh dgrs gSa rFkk e x dks
dks e ls çnf'kZr djrs gSa] pj?kkrkadh Qyu dgrs gSaA pj?kkrkadh Qyu dks exp ls Hkh fu:fir
n djrs gSa] vFkkZr~ exp A = e A ; ∴ exp x = e x
vFkkZr~ e = lim ⎛⎜ 1 + ⎞⎟ = 1 + + + + + ......... ∞
1 1 1 1 1
n → ∞⎝ n⎠ 1! 2! 3! 4! x ds LFkku ij – x j[kus ij]
= 2.71 (lfUudV)
x x
2
x3 xn
e −x = 1 − + − + ........ + (−1)n + ........ ∞
e ds xq.k/keZ (Properties of e) 1! 2! 3! n!
xn
(1) e dk eku 2.7 rFkk 2.8 ds e/; fLFkr gksrk gS] vFkkZr~ 2.7 ∴ Tn +1 = e − x ds çlkj esa O;kid in = (−1)n rFkk e − x ds
n!
1 1
< e < 2.8 (p¡wfd ≤ , n ≥ 2 ds fy,)A (−1)n
n! 2 n −1 çlkj esa x n dk xq.kkad e − x = .
n!
(2) e dk n'keyo ds ckn nl LFkkuksa rd lgh eku pj?kkrkadh Qyu a , ¼tgk¡ a > 0) x

2.7182818284 gksrk gSA

(Exponential function a , where a > 0) x

(3) e ,d vifjes; la[;k gSA x

Q a x = e log e a = e x log e a
(4) e çkd`frd y?kqx.kd ¼usfi;j y?kqx.kd½ dk vk/kkj gksrk gS]
vFkkZr~ ln x = log e x rFkk log10 e dks usfi;j fLFkjkad dgrs gSAa ∴a x = e α x ....(i) , tgk¡ α = log e a ,
log 10 e = 0 . 43429448 , ln x = 2 . 303 log 10 x x x2 x3 xr
ex =1 + + + ........ + + ........ ∞
1! 2! 3! r!
⎞
(Qln x = log 10 x . log e 10 rFkk =
1
= 2 .30258509 ⎟
⎟ x ds LFkku ij α x j[kus ij]
log 10 e ⎠
α x α2x2 α3x3 αrxr
pj?kkrkadh Js.kh dk çlkj (Expansion of exponential series) eα x = 1 + + + + ..... + + ..... ∞
1! 2! 3! r!
x x2 x3 xr vr% lehdj.k (i) ls]
x∈R ds fy,] e x = 1 + + + + ...... + + ...... ∞
1! 2! 3! r!
log e a (log e a)2 2 (log e a)r x r
∞
xn ax = 1 + x+ x + ....... + + ........ ∞
vFkok e x = ∑ 1! 2! r!
n =0
n!
 296 pj?kkrkadh rFkk y?kqx.kdh; Jsf.k;k¡

pj?kkrkadh Js.kh ds dqN egRoiw.kZ ifj.kke ⎡

(ii) log e (1 + x ) − log e (1 − x ) = 2 ⎢ x +
x3 x5
+
⎤
+ ........ ∞ ⎥
(Some standard results from exponential series) ⎣⎢ 3 5 ⎦⎥
1+ x ⎞ ⎡ ⎤
;k log e ⎛⎜
∞
1 ∞ ∞ x3 x5
(1) ∑ = ∑
1
=∑
1
= e ⎟ = 2⎢x + + + ........ ∞ ⎥
⎝1− x ⎠ ⎣⎢ 3 5 ⎦⎥
n = 0 n! n = 0 (n − 1)! n = 0 (n − k )!

∞
(2) ;fn | x | dk eku 1 ls de ugha gS] rks log e (1 + x ) dk çlkj
1 1 1 1
(2) ∑ n! = 1! + 2! + 3! +.......... ∞ = e − 1 vlaHko gSA y?kqx.kdh; Js.kh esa x=1 j[kus ij]
n =1
1 1 1 1 1
∞ log e 2 = 1 − + − + − + ........ ∞
(3) ∑ = + + + ......... ∞ = e − 2
1 1 1 1 2 3 4 5 6
n = 2 n! 2! 3! 4 ! 1 1 1
= + + + ........ ∞
∞ 1 .2 3 .4 5 .6
1 1 1 1
(4) ∑ = + + + ......... ∞ = e − 1
n = 0 (n + 1)! 1! 2! 3! (3) tc x = −1 , rc y?kqx.kdh; Js.kh dk ;ksx Kkr ugha dj
∞
ldrs gSa] D;ksafd log(1–1) dk eku laHko ugha gSA
∑ (n + 2)! = 2! + 3! + 4 ! + ......... ∞ = e − 2
1 1 1 1
(5)
n =0
pj?kkrkadh rFkk y?kqx.kdh; Js.kh esa varj
(Difference between the exponential and logarithmic series)
∞
1 1 1 1
(6) ∑ = + + + ......... ∞ = e − 2
x x2 x3
n =1 (n + 1)! 2! 3! 4 ! (1) pj?kkrkadh Js.kh e x = 1 + + + + .......... ∞, esa lHkh
1! 2! 3!
−x ∞
e +e
x
x 2
x x 4 6
x 2n
(7) =1+ + + + ....... ∞ = ∑ in /kukRed gksrs gSa] tcfd y?kqx.kdh; Js.kh
2 2! 4 ! 6! n = 0 (2n)! 2 3 4
x x x
log e (1 + x ) = x − + − + ........ ∞ ds in ,dkUrj Øe esa
e x − e −x x3 x5 ∞
x 2 n +1 2 3 4
(8) =x+ + + ....... ∞ = ∑ /kukRed rFkk _.kkRed gksrs gSaA
2 3! 5 ! n = 0 (2n + 1)!
(2) pj?kkrkadh Js.kh esa lHkh inksa ds gj (denominator) çkd`r
(ax ) (ax )2 (ax )3 (ax )n
(9) e ax = 1 + + + + ...... + + ...... ∞ la[;kvksa ds Øexqf.kr (factorial) gksrs gSa] tcfd y?kqx.kdh; Js.kh esa
1! 2! 3! n!
Øexqf.kr (factorial) in ugha gksrs gSaA
(ax )n (3) pj?kkrkadh Js.kh x ds lHkh ekuksa ds fy, oS/k gS] tcfd
∴ Tn +1 = e ax ds çlkj esa O;kid in = rFkk e ax esa
n! y?kqx.kdh; Js.kh] |x|< 1 ds fy, gh oS/k gSA
an
x n dk xq.kkad = .
n!

y?kqx.kdh; Js.kh
ifjHkk"kk (Definition) ∞

∑ (2n)! = 1 + 2! + 4! + 6! + ......... ∞
1 1 1 1
"
log e (1 + x )
dk çlkj x dh ?kkrksa esa og Js.kh gS] tks fd rHkh laHko n =0
gS tc | x | < 1 gksA e + e −1
∞

∑ (2n − 2)! .
1
= =
y?kqx.kdh; Js.kh dk çlkj (Expansion of logarithmic series) 2 n =1
∞
e − e −1
∑ (2n − 1)! = 1! + 3! + 5! + ......... ∞ =
x2 x3 x4 1 1 1 1
;fn | x | < 1 gks] rc log e (1 + x ) = x − + − + ........ ∞ "
2 3 4 n =1
2
∞
y?kqx.kdh; Js.kh esa x ds LFkku ij − x j[kus ij]
∑ (2n + 1)! .
1
=
x2 x3 x4 n =0
log e (1 − x ) = − x − − − − ........ ∞ ∞ ∞

∑ n! = e = ∑ n! .
2 3 4 n n
"
2 3 4
x x x n =0 n =1
;k − log e (1 − x ) = x + + + + ........ ∞ ∞ ∞
2 3 4 n2 n2
" ∑ n!
= 2e = ∑ n! .
y?kqx.kdh; Js.kh ds egRoiw.kZ ifj.kke n =0
∞ 3
n =1
∞
n3
∑ ∑ n! .
(Some important results from logarithmic series) n
" = 5e =
n =0
n! n =1
(1) (i) log e (1 + x ) + log e (1 − x ) = log e (1 − x 2 ) ∞ ∞
n4 n4
⎧⎪ x x 2 4 ⎫⎪ " ∑ n!
= 15 e = ∑ n! .
= −2 ⎨ + + ........ ∞ ⎬, (−1 < x < 1) n =0 n =1
⎪⎩ 2 4 ⎪⎭
 316 lkjf.kd rFkk vkO;wg

Chapter

9
lkjf.kd rFkk vkO;wg
P-3 : ;fn fdlh lkjf.kd dh nks ikafä;k¡ ¼;k LrEHk½ loZle gksa] rks
lkjf.kd bldk eku 'kwU; gksxkA
ifjHkk"kk (Definition) P-4 : ;fn fdlh lkjf.kd dh fdlh iafDr ¼;k LrEHk½ ds lHkh
ekuk rhu le?kkrh; jSf[kd lehdj.k vo;oksa dks fdlh la[;k ls xq.kk fd;k tk;s] rks lkjf.kd ds eku esa Hkh
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = 0 , a2 x + b 2 y + c 2 z = 0 ml la[;k ls xq.kk gks tkrk gSA
rFkk a 3 x + b 3 y + c 3 z = 0 gSaA P-5 : ;fn fdlh iafDr ¼;k LrEHk½ ds çR;sd vo;o dks nks inksa ds
mi;qZDr rhuksa lehdj.kksa ls x, y, z dk foyksiu djus ij] ;ksx ds :i esa O;Dr fd;k tk;s] rks lkjf.kd dks nks lkjf.kd ds ;ksx
a1 (b 2 c 3 − b 3 c 2 ) − b 1 (a 2 c 3 − a 3 c 2 ) + c 1 (a 2 b 3 − a 3 b 2 ) = 0 ds :i esa O;Dr fd;k tk ldrk gSA
…..(i) a1 + x b1 + y c1 + z a1 b1 c1 x y z
a1 b1 c1 mnkgj.kkFkZ: a2 b2 c 2 = a2 b2 c 2 + a2 b2 c2
lehdj.k (i) ds ck¡;sa i{k dks a 2 b 2 c 2 a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3
a3 b3 c3 P-6 : ;fn lkjf.kd dh fdlh iafDr ¼LrEHk½ ds çR;sd vo;o esa
b2 c2 a c2 a b2 fdlh nwljh iafDr ¼LrEHk½ ds laxr vo;oksa dks fdlh ,d gh jkf'k ls
= a1 − b1 2 + c1 2 ls çnf'kZr fd;k tk xq.kk djds tksM+sa ;k ?kVk;sa] rks lkjf.kd dk eku ugha cnyrk gSA
b3 c3 a3 c3 a3 b3
ldrk gSA bl lkjf.kd esa rhu iafDr;k¡ o rhu LrEHk gSa] vr% bls r`rh; a1 b1 c1
dksfV dk lkjf.kd dgrs gSaA mnkgj.kkFkZ: D = a 2 b2 c2
f}rh; dksfV ds lkjf.kd esa vo;oksa dh la[;k = 2 2 = 4 o r`rh; a3 b3 c3
dksfV ds lkjf.kd esa vo;oksa dh la[;k = 3 2 = 9 gksrh gSA a1 + ma 2 b 1 + mb 2 c 1 + mc 2
lkjf.kd dh iafDr;k¡ o LrEHk (Rows and columns of a rFkk D' = a2 b2 c2 , rks D' = D .
determinant) : fdlh lkjf.kd esa çFke] f}rh; o r`rh; {kSfrt js[kkvksa a 3 − na 1 b 3 − nb 1 c 3 − nc 1
dks lkjf.kd dh iafDr;k¡ dgrs gSa] bUgsa Øe'k% R1 , R 2 o R 3 ls çnf'kZr
djrs gSa rFkk igyh] nwljh o rhljh Å/okZ/kj js[kkvksa dks lkjf.kd ds P-7 : ;fn fdlh lkjf.kd esa eq[; fod.kZ ds uhps ;k eq[; fod.kZ ds
LrEHk dgrs gSaA bUgsa Øe'k% C1 , C 2 o C 3 ls çnf'kZr djrs gSaA Åij ;k eq[; fod.kZ ds vo;oksa dks NksM+dj lHkh vo;o 'kwU; gksa] rks
lkjf.kd dk eku eq[; fod.kZ ds vo;oksa ds xq.kuQy ds cjkcj gksrk
lkjf.kd ds xq.k/keZ (Properties of determinants) gSA
P-8 : ;fn fdlh lkjf.kd esa x = α j[kus ij lkjf.kd dk eku
P-1 : ;fn fdlh lkjf.kd dh iafDr;ksa rFkk LrEHkksa dks ijLij ifjofrZr
fd;k tk;s rks lkjf.kd ds eku esa dksbZ ifjorZu ugha gksrk gSA 'kwU; gks tkrk gS] rks (x − α ) , lkjf.kd dk ,d xq.ku[k.M gksxkA
pw¡fd iafDr;ksa rFkk LrEHkksa dks ijLij ifjofrZr djus ij lkjf.kd P-9 : lkjf.kdksa dh lafØ;kvksa esa ;g /;ku fn;k tk;s fd de ls
vifjofrZr jgrk gS] blfy, dksbZ Hkh çes; (Theorem) ;fn iafDr;ksa ds de ,d iafDr ¼;k LrEHk½ vifjofrZr jgs] ;k vf/kdre lafØ;kvksa dh
fy, lR; gS] rks LrEHkksa ds fy, Hkh lR; gksxhA la[;k = lkjf.kd dh dksfV –1.
P-2 : ;fn fdlh lkjf.kd dh fdUgha nks iafDr;ksa ¼;k LrEHkksa½ dks P-10 : ;g /;ku nsus dh vko';drk gS] fd tc fdlh iafDr ¼;k
ijLij ifjofrZr fd;k tk;s] rks lkjf.kd dk vkafdd eku vifjofrZr LrEHk½ dks fdlh v'kwU; jkf'k ls xq.kk dj ifjofrZr fd;k tkrk gS] rks
jgrk gS] fdUrq fpUg ifjofrZr gks tkrk gSA
lkjf.kd ml la[;k ls foHkkftr gksrk gSA
 lkjf.kd rFkk vkO;wg 317

milkjf.kd rFkk lg[k.M (Minors and Cofactors) ge iafDr dks LrEHk ls ;k LrEHk dks iafDr ls ;k LrEHk dks LrEHk
ls Hkh xq.kk dj ldrs gSaA
(1) vo;o dk milkjf.kd (Minor of an element) : fdlh lkjf.kd
ds fdlh vo;o ij çfrPNsfnr gksus okys LrEHk rFkk iafDr dk foyksiu lkjf.kdksa dk vodyu o lekdyu
djus ij çkIr lkjf.kd] fn, x, vo;o dk milkjf.kd dgykrk gSA (Differentiation and Integration of determinants)
bls M ij ls fu:fir djrs gSaA
(1) lkjf.kd dk vodyu (Differentiation of a determinant) : (i)
a11 a12 a13
ekuk Δ(x ) , dksfV 2 dk ,d lkjf.kd gSA ;fn Δ(x ) =| C1 C 2 | , tgk¡
;fn lkjf.kd Δ = a 21 a 22 a 23 , rks milkjf.kdksa dk lkjf.kd
C 1 o C 2 çFke o f}rh; LrEHk dks O;Dr djrs gSa] rks
a 31 a 32 a 33
M 11 M 12 M 13 Δ' ( x ) = C '1 C 2 + C1 C 2′
M = M 21 M 22 M 23 gksxkA tgk¡ C' i , i osa LrEHk esa fLFkr lHkh Qyuksa dk vodyt çnf'kZr
M 31 M 32 M 33
R1 R '1 R
a a 23 djrk gSA blh çdkj] ;fn Δ(x ) = , rks Δ′ (x ) = + 1
tgk¡ M 11 = a11 dk milkjf.kd = 22 , M 12 = a12 dk R2 R2 R 2′
a 32 a 33
a 21 a 23 a 21 a 22 (ii)ekuk Δ(x ) ,d r`rh; dksfV dk lkjf.kd gS rFkk
milkjf.kd = ] M 13 = a13 dk milkjf.kd =
a 31 a 33 a 31 a 32 Δ(x ) = C1 C 2 C 3 , rks
blh izdkj nwljs vo;oksa ds milkjf.kd Kkr fd;s tk ldrs gSaA
Δ' (x ) = C ' 1 C2 C 3 + C1 C' 2 C 3 + C1 C2 C' 3
budk mi;ksx djus ij lkjf.kd dk eku
Δ = a11 M 11 − a12 M 12 + a13 M 13 R1 R'1 R1 R1
;k Δ = −a 21 M 21 + a 22 M 22 − a 23 M 23 blh çdkj] ;fn Δ(x ) = R 2 , rks Δ' (x ) = R2 + R '2 + R2
;k Δ = a 31 M 31 − a 32 M 32 + a 33 M 33 . R3 R3 R3 R '3

(2) vo;o dk lg[k.M (Cofactor of an element) : fdlh vo;o ;fn dsoy ,d iafDr ¼;k LrEHk½ ds vo;o x ds Qyu gSa rFkk
(iii)
aij (vFkkZr~ i oha iafDr o j osa LrEHk dk vo;o) dk lg[k.M ml vo;o vU; iafDr;ksa ¼;k LrEHkksa½ ds vo;o fu;rkad gksa] vFkkZr~ ;fn
ds milkjf.kd dk (−1)i+ j xquk gksrk gSA bls C ij ;k Aij ;k Fij }kjk
f1 (x ) f2 ( x ) f3 ( x )
O;Dr djrs gSa rFkk C ij = (−1)i+ j M ij . Δ(x ) = b1 b2 b3 ,
a11 a12 a13 c1 c2 c3
;fn Δ = a 21 a 22 a 23 , rks lg[k.Mksa dk lkjf.kd
f '1 ( x ) f ' 2 ( x ) f ' 3 ( x )
a 31 a 32 a 33
rc Δ' (x ) = b1 b2 b3 ,oa O;kid :i esa]
C 11 C 12 C 13
c1 c2 c3
C = C 21 C 22 C 23 gksxk
C 31 C 32 C 33 f1 n (x ) f2 n (x ) f3 n (x )
1 +1 1+ 2
tgk¡] C11 = (−1) M 11 = + M 11 , C12 = (−1) M 12 = − M 12 Δ ( x ) = b1
n
b2 b3 ,
rFkk C13 = (−1)1+ 3 M 13 = + M 13 c1 c2 c3
blh izdkj ge nwljs vo;oksa ds lg[k.M çkIr dj ldrs gSaA
tgk¡ n dksbZ /kukRed iw.kkZad gS vkSj f n (x ) dk vFkZ gS] f (x ) dk
nks lkjf.kdksa dk xq.kuQy (Product of two determinants )
n oka vodytA
a1 b1 c1
ekuk r`rh; dksfV ds nks lkjf.kd D1 = a 2 b 2 c 2 rFkk (2) lkjf.kd dk lekdyu (Integration of a determinant) ekuk
a3 b3 c3 f ( x ) g(x ) h(x )
α1 β1 γ 1 Δ(x ) = a b c , tgk¡ a, b, c, l, m rFkk n fu;rkad gSa
D2 = α 2 β 2 γ 2 gSaA ekuk budk xq.kuQy D gSA l m n
α3 β3 γ 3 b b b

a1 b1 c1 α1 β1 γ1 b ∫ f (x )dx ∫ g(x )dx ∫ h(x )dx

a a a

rc D = a 2 b 2 c 2 × α 2 β 2 γ 2
⇒ ∫
a
Δ(x )dx = a b c
l m n
a3 b3 c3 α3 β3 γ3
a1α1 + b1 β1 + c1γ 1 a1α 2 + b1 β 2 + c1γ 2 a1α 3 + b1 β 3 + c1γ 3
= a2α1 + b2 β1 + c2γ 1 a2α 2 + b2 β 2 + c2γ 2 a2α 3 + b2 β 3 + c2γ 3 • ;fn ,d ls vf/kd iafDr;ksa ;k LrEHkksa ds vo;o x ds Qyu gksa] rks
a3α1 + b3 β1 + c3γ 1 a3α 2 + b3 β 2 + c3γ 2 a3α 3 + b3 β 3 + c3γ 3 lekdyu ds fy, lkjf.kd dk eku Kkr djuk@foLrkj vko';d gSA
 318 lkjf.kd rFkk vkO;wg

jSf[kd lehdj.kksa ds fudk; ds gy ds fy, lkjf.kdksa (3) pØh; Øe (Cyclic order) : ;fn iafDr;ksa ¼;k LrEHkksa½ ds vo;o
dk vuqç;ksx (Application of determinants in solving a pØh; Øe esa gksaA vFkkZr~]
system of linear equations) 1 a a2
(1) rhu pjksa esa jSf[kd lehdj.kksa ds fudk; dk ØSej fu;e (i) 1 b b 2 = (a − b )(b − c)(c − a)
ls gy % ;qxir~ jSf[kd lehdj.kksa ds fudk; 1 c c2
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d 1 .....(i) a b c 1 1 1
a2 x + b 2 y + c 2 z = d 2 .....(ii) (ii) a2 b 2 c 2 = a2 b2 c2
a3 x + b 3 y + c 3 z = d 3 .....(iii) bc ca ab a3 b3 c3
= (a − b )(b − c)(c − a)(ab + bc + ca) .
D1 D2 D3
dk gy x = , y= rFkk z = gksxk,
D D D a bc abc a a2 a3
a1 b1 c1 d1 b1 c1 (iii) b ca abc = b b 2 b 3 = abc (a − b )(b − c)(c − a)
2
tgk¡ D = a 2 b 2 c 2 , D1 = d 2 b 2 c 2 , c ab abc c c c3
a3 b3 c3 d3 b3 c3 1 1 1
a1 d1 c1 a1 b1 d1 (iv) a b c = (a − b )(b − c)(c − a)(a + b + c)
D2 = a2 d2 c2 rFkk D3 = a 2 b 2 d 2 , tcfd a3 b3 c3
a3 d3 c3 a3 b3 d3 a b c
D≠0 (v) b c a = −(a 3 + b 3 + c 3 − 3 abc )
(2) lehdj.kksa ds laxr gksus ds fy, çfrcU/k (Conditions for c a b
consistency) : rhu vKkr jkf'k;ksa esa 3 ;qxir~ jSf[kd lehdj.kksa ds fudk;
ds fy,] (i) ;fn D ≠ 0 , rks fn, x, lehdj.kksa dk fudk; laxr gksxk vkO;wg
D D D
rFkk bldk ,d vf}rh; gy] x = 1 , y = 2 rFkk z = 3 gksxkA ifjHkk"kk (Definition)
D D D
(ii) ;fn D = 0 rFkk D1 = D 2 = D 3 = 0 , rks fn, x, lehdj.kksa ;fn la[;kvksa ¼tks fd okLrfod ;k vf/kdfYir gks ldrh gSa½ ds
dk fudk; laxr gksxk] ftlds vuUr gy gksaxsA ,d fudk; dks iafDr;ksa (rows) vkSj LraHkksa (columns) dh vk;rkdkj
(iii) ;fn D = 0 rFkk D1 , D 2 , D 3 esa ls de ls de ,d v'kwU; lkj.kh esa O;ofLFkr fd;k tk;s] rks bl vk;rkdkj lkj.kh dks vkO;wg
(Matrix) dgrs gSaA vkO;wg dks y?kqdks"Bd ( ) vFkok nh?kZdks"Bd [ ] }kjk
gS] rks fn, x, lehdj.kksa dk fudk; vlaxr gksxkA
fu:fir djrs gSaA vkO;wg esa mifLFkr la[;kvksa dks vkO;wg ds vo;o
• le?kkrh; lehdj.kksa dk fudk; a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = 0 ,
(element) dgrs gSaA
a 2 x + b 2 y + c 2 z = 0 , a 3 x + b 3 y + c 3 z = 0 lnSo laxr gksrk gSA ;fn
a1 b1 c1 vkO;wg dh dksfV (Order of a matrix)
Δ = a2 b2 c2 ≠ 0 , rks bl fudk; dk vf}rh; gy ,d vkO;wg] ftlesa m iafDr;k¡ (rows) rFkk n LraHk (columns) gksa]
a3 b3 c3 dks m×n dksfV dk vkO;wg dgrs gSa] ftls lk/kkj.kr% m×n vkO;wg ls
x = y = z = 0 gksxk] ftls rqPN (trivial) gy dgrs gSaA fdUrq ;fn fu:fir djrs gSa(
Δ = 0 , rks bu fudk; ds vuUr gy gksaxsA vr% vrqPN (non-trivial) gy ⎡ a11 a12 a13 ... a1 j ... a1n ⎤
⎢ ⎥
ds fy,] Δ = 0 . ⎢ a 21 a 22 a 23 ... a 2 j ... a 2 n ⎥
⎢ ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ⎥
dqN fo'ks"k lkjf.kd (Some special determinants) A=⎢ ⎥
⎢ a i1 a i2 a i3 ... a ij ... a in ⎥
(1) lefer lkjf.kd (Symmetric determinant) : ,d lkjf.kd ⎢ ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ⎥
lefer lkjf.kd gksxk] ;fn blds lHkh vo;oksa ds fy,] aij = a ji , ∀ i, j . ⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢a m 1 am 2 am 3 ... a mj ... a mn ⎦⎥
a h g i = 1, 2,..... m
mnkgj.kkFkZ : h b f ;k A = [aij ]m ×n , tgk¡
j = 1, 2,..... n
g f c ;gk¡ aij , i oha iafDr rFkk j osa LraHk ds vo;o dks iznf'kZr djrk gSA
(2) fo"ke&lefer lkjf.kd ,d(Skew-symmetric determinant) : ⎡3 −1 5 ⎤
lkjf.kd fo"ke-lefer lkjf.kd gksxk] ;fn blds lHkh vo;oksa ds fy,] mnkgj.kkFkZ : vkO;wg ⎢ ⎥ dh dksfV 2×3 gSA
⎣6 2 − 7 ⎦
0 3 −1
,d m×n dksfV ds vkO;wg esa mn vo;o gksrs gSaA ,sls vkO;wg dh
aij = − a ji , ∀ i, j mnkgj.kkFkZ : −3 0 5
izR;sd iafDr esa n vo;o rFkk izR;sd LraHk esa m vo;o gksrs gSaA
1 −5 0
• fdlh fo"ke-lefer lkjf.kd dk çR;sd fod.kZ-vo;o 'kwU; gksrk gSA vkO;wgksa dh lekurk (Equality of matrices)
• le dksfV ds çR;sd fo"ke-lefer lkjf.kd dk eku lnSo ,d
iw.kZ oxZ gksrk gS rFkk fo"ke dksfV ds çR;sd fo"ke-lefer lkjf.kd dk nks vkO;wg A o B leku dgykrs gSa] ;fn os leku dksfV ds gSa rFkk
eku lnSo 'kwU; gksrk gSA muds laxr vo;o leku gSaA
 lkjf.kd rFkk vkO;wg 319

vkO;wg ds izdkj (Types of matrices) n dksfV ds rRled vkO;wg (Identity matrix) dks In ls fu:fir djrs gSaA

(1) iafDr vkO;wg (Row matrix) : og vkO;wg (matrix) ftlesa dsoy ⎡ 1 0 0⎤

⎡1 0 ⎤ ⎢ ⎥
,d gh iafDr gks] mls iafDr vkO;wg (Row matrix) ;k iafDr lfn'k dgrs mnkgj.kkFkZ : [1], ⎢ ⎥ , ⎢ 0 1 0⎥ vkfn] Øe'k% 1, 2 rFkk 3
⎣0 1 ⎦ ⎢ 0 0 1 ⎥
gSaA blesa LraHkksa dh la[;k ,d ls vf/kd gks ldrh gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ : ⎣ ⎦
[5 0 3] ,d 1× 3 dksfV dk iafDr vkO;wg gS rFkk [2] ,d 1 × 1 dksfV dk dksfV ds rRled vkO;wg gSaA
iafDr vkO;wg gSA (8) vfn'k vkO;wg (Scalar matrix) : og oxZ vkO;wg] ftlds eq[;
(2) LraHk vkO;wg (Column matrix) : og vkO;wg (matrix) ftlesa fod.kZ ds lHkh vo;o leku gks] rFkk eq[; fod.kZ ds vfrfjDr lHkh
dsoy ,d gh LraHk gks] mls LraHk vkO;wg (Column matrix) ;k LraHk lfn'k vo;o 'kwU; gksa] vfn'k vkO;wg dgykrk gSA vr% A = [aij ] ,d oxZ
dgrs gSaA blesa iafDr;ksa dh la[;k ,d ls vf/kd gks ldrh gSA
⎧α , ;fn i = j
⎡ 2⎤ vkO;wg gS rFkk aij = ⎪⎨ gks] rks A ,d vfn'k vkO;wg gksxkA
mnkgj.kkFkZ: ⎢⎢ 3 ⎥⎥ ,d 3 × 1 dksfV dk LraHk vkO;wg gS rFkk [2] ,d 1 ⎪⎩0, ;fn i ≠ j
⎢⎣− 6 ⎥⎦ bdkbZ vkO;wg rFkk 'kwU; oxZ vkO;wg Hkh vfn'k vkO;wg gksrs gSaA
×1 dksfV dk LraHk vkO;wg gSA Li"Vr% [2] iafDr rFkk LrEHk vkO;wg nksuksa (9) f=Hkqth; vkO;wg (Triangular Matrix) : ,d oxZ vkO;wg [aij ] ,d
gh gSA f=Hkqtkdkj vkO;wg dgykrk gS] ;fn eq[; fod.kZ (Principal diagonal) ds Åij
(3) ,dy vkO;wg (Singleton matrix) : ;fn fdlh vkO;wg esa dsoy ;k uhps ds lHkh vo;o 'kwU; gksaA ;g nks izdkj ds gksrs gSa
,d vo;o gks] rks mls ,dy vkO;wg (Singleton matrix) dgrs gSaA (i) mifjf=Hkqth; vkO;wg (Upper Triangular matrix) : ,d oxZ vkO;wg
vr% A = [a ij ]m ×n ,d ,dy vkO;wg gS] ;fn m = n = 1 mifjf=Hkqth; vkO;wg dgykrk gS] ;fn aij = 0 , tcfd i > j .
mnkgj.kkFkZ: [2], [3], [a], [–3] ,dy vkO;wg gSaA
⎡3 1 2⎤
(4) 'kwU; vkO;wg (Null or zero matrix) : ;fn fdlh vkO;wg (matrix)
mnkgj.kkFkZ : ⎢0 4 3⎥ ,,d 3× 3 dksfV dk mifjf=Hkqth; vkO;wg gSA
ds lHkh vo;o 'kwU; gksa] rks vkO;wg 'kwU; vkO;wg (Zero matrix) dgykrk ⎢ ⎥
gS rFkk bls lkekU;r% O ls iznf'kZr djrs gSaA vr% A = [aij ]m ×n ,d ⎢⎣0 0 6⎥⎦

'kwU; vkO;wg gS] ;fn aij = 0 , ¼lHkh i rFkk j ds fy,½A (ii) fuEuf=Hkqth; vkO;wg (Lower Triangular matrix) : ,d oxZ vkO;wg
fuEuf=Hkqth; vkO;wg dgykrk gS] ;fn aij = 0 ,tcfd i< j.
⎡0 0 ⎤ ⎡0 0 0 ⎤
mnkgj.kkFkZ : [0 ], ⎢ ⎥, ⎢ ⎥, [0 0 ] lHkh fofHkUu dksfV;ksa ds ⎡1 0 0 ⎤
⎣0 0 ⎦ ⎣0 0 0 ⎦ ⎢ ⎥
mnkgj.kkFkZ : ⎢2 3 0⎥ ,d 3× 3 dksfV dk fuEuf=Hkqth; vkO;wg gSA
'kwU; vkO;wg gSaA
⎢⎣4 5 2 ⎥⎦
(5) oxZ vkO;wg (Square matrix) : ;fn fdlh vkO;wg esa iafDr;ksa rFkk
LrEHkksa dh la[;k leku gks] rks og vkO;wg oxZ vkO;wg (Square matrix) vkO;wg dk Vªsl (Trace of a matrix)
dgykrk gSA vr% A = [aij ]m ×n ,d oxZ vkO;wg gS] ;fn m = n .
,d oxZ vkO;wg A ds eq[; fod.kZ ds vo;oksa dk ;ksx vkO;wg A dk
⎡ a11 a12 a13 ⎤ Vªsl (Trace) dgykrk gS ftls tr A ls iznf'kZr djrs gSaA
mnkgj.kkFkZ : ⎢⎢a 21 a 22 a 23 ⎥⎥ , 3 × 3 dksfV dk oxZ vkO;wg gSA n
⎢⎣a 31 a 32 a 33 ⎥⎦ tr A = ∑ aii = a11 + a22 + ... ann
i =1
(i) ;fn m ≠ n gks] rks vkO;wg] vk;rkdkj vkO;wg (Rectangular vkO;wg ds Vªsl ds xq.k/keZ
matrix) dgykrk gSA ekuk A = [aii ]n ×n rFkk B = [bij ]n×n rFkk λ ,d vfn'k gS] rc
(ii) oxZ vkO;wg A ds vo;o] ftlesa i = j gks] vFkkZr~ (i) tr(λA) = λ tr( A) (ii) tr( A − B) = tr( A) − tr (B)
a11 , a 22 , a 33 ,.... a nn vkfn fod.kZ vo;o dgykrs gSa rFkk og js[kk ftl
(iii) tr( AB ) = tr(BA ) (iv) tr ( A) = tr ( A' ) ;k tr ( A T )
ij ,sls lHkh vo;o faLFkr gksrs gSa] vkO;wg A dk eq[; fod.kZ (Principal
diagonal) dgykrk gSA (v) tr (In ) = n (vi) tr (0)= 0
(6) fod.kZ vkO;wg (Diagonal matrix) : og vkO;wg] ftlds eq[; (vii) tr ( AB ) ≠ tr A . tr B
fod.kZ ds vo;oksa ds vfrfjDr lHkh vo;o 'kwU; gkas] fod.kZ vkO;wg vkO;wgksa dk ;ksx rFkk O;odyu
(Diagonal matrix) dgykrk gSA vr% ,d oxZ vkO;wg A = [a ij ] ,d fod.kZ (Addition and Subtraction of Matrices)
vkO;wg gksxk] ;fn aij = 0, tcfd i ≠ j ;fn A = [aij]m ×n rFkk B = [bij]m ×n nks leku dksfV ds vkO;wg gksa] rks
⎡2 0 0 ⎤ budk ;ksx A+B ,d ,slk vkO;wg gksxk ftldh dksfV vkO;wg A rFkk B dh
mnkgj.kkFkZ : ⎢⎢0 3 0 ⎥⎥ , 3×3 dksfV dk fod.kZ vkO;wg gS] ftls diag dksfV ds cjkcj gksxh rFkk ftlds vo;o A rFkk B ds laxr vo;oksa
⎢⎣0 0 4 ⎥⎦ (corresponding elements) ds ;ksx ds cjkcj gksaxs]
[2, 3, 4] ls fu:fir djrs gSaA vFkkZr~ A + B = [a ij + b ij ]m ×n
(7) bdkbZ ;k rRled vkO;wg (Identity matrix) : og oxZ vkO;wg]
blh izdkj] budk O;odyu (Subtraction) A − B = [a ij − b ij ]m ×n
ftlds eq[; fod.kZ ds lHkh vo;o '1' gkas rFkk vU; lHkh vo;o 'kwU;
gksa] rRled ;k bdkbZ vkO;wg (Identity matrix or unit matrix) dgykrk gSA }kjk ifjHkkf"kr gksrk gSA
vr% oxZ vkO;wg A = [aij ] ,d rRled vkO;wg gksxk ;fn vkO;wgksa dk ;ksx rFkk vUrj ¼O;odyu½ rHkh laHko gS] tc vkO;wgksa
⎧⎪1, ;fn i = j
dh dksfV leku gksA
aij = ⎨ . vkO;wg ds ;ksx ds xq.k/keZ (Properties of matrix addition) : ;fn A,
⎪⎩0, ;fn i ≠ j
B rFkk C rhu leku dksfV ds vkO;wg gSa] rks
 320 lkjf.kd rFkk vkO;wg
(i) A + B = B + A , (Øefofues;
fu;e½ (iv) A(B + C ) = AB + AC , (forj.k fu;e½
(ii) ( A + B) + C = A + (B + C ) , (lkgp;Z
fu;e½ (v) ;fn AB = AC ⇒ / B = C , (fujlu fu;e lR; ugha gS½
(iii) A + O = O + A = A, tgk¡ O ,d 'kwU; vkO;wg gS tks fd (vi) ;fn AB = 0, bldk vFkZ ;g ugha gS fd A = 0
;k B = 0] vFkkZr
vkO;wg dk ;ksT; rRled gSA nks v'kwU; vkO;wgksa dk xq.kuQy ,d 'kwU; vkO;wg gks ldrk gSA
(iv) A + (− A) = 0 = (− A) + A , tgk¡ (− A) , A ds izR;sd vo;o ds ,d vkO;wg dh /kukRed iw.kkZa±d ?kkr
fpUg dks ifjofrZr djus ij izkIr gksrk gS] tks fd vkO;wg dk ;ksT; (Positive integral powers of a matrix)
izfrykse gSA
vkO;wg A dh /kukRed iw.kkZad ?kkr rHkh ifjHkkf"kr gS tc A ,d oxZ
A + B = A + C⎫
(v) ⎬⇒ B =C, (fujlu fu;e½ vkO;wg gks] rc A 2 = A. A , A 3 = A. A. A = A 2 A ,
B + A = C + A⎭
/kukRed iw.kkZad m ,n ds fy,]
vkO;wg dk vfn'k xq.ku (Scalar multiplication of matrices) (i) A m A n = A m +n (ii) ( A m )n = A mn = ( A n )m

ekuk A = [aij ]m ×n ,d vkO;wg gS rFkk k ,d la[;k gS] rc A ds (iii) I n = I, I m = I

izR;sd vo;o dks k ls xq.kk djus ij izkIr vkO;wg dks A dk k ls vfn'k (iv) A 0 = In ; tgk¡ A,n dksfV dk oxZ vkO;wg gSA
xq.ku dgrs gSa] ftls kA ls fu:fir djrs gSaA vr% ;fn A = [aij ]m ×n ,
rc kA = Ak = [ka ij ]m×n . vkO;wg dk ifjorZ (Transpose of a matrix)
vfn'k xq.ku ds xq.k/keZ (Properties of scalar multiplication) : vkO;wg A dh lHkh iafDr;ksa dks LrEHkksa esa ,oa LrEHkksa dks iafDr;ksa esa
;fn A, B leku dksfV ds vkO;wg gksa rFkk λ, μ nks vfn'k gksa] rks ifjofrZr djus ij izkIr vkO;wg] A dk ifjorZ vkO;wg (Transpose of a
matrix) dgykrk gS] ftls A T ;k A ′ ls fu:fir djrs gSaA
(i) λ ( A + B) = λA + λB (ii) (λ + μ ) A = λA + μA
(iii) λ (μA) = (λμA) = μ (λA) (iv) (−λA) = −(λA) = λ (− A)
ifjHkk"kk ls Li"V gS fd ;fn A dh dksfV m×n gks] rks A T dh dksfV
n×m gksxhA
y lk/kkj.k chtxf.kr ds lHkh fu;e vkO;wg ds ;ksx] O;odyu rFkk
⎡a1 a2 a3 ⎤
vfn'k xq.ku dks larq"V djrs gSaA mnkgj.kkFkZ % vkO;wg ⎢ ⎥ dk ifjorZ vkO;wg
⎣b1 b2 b 3 ⎦ 2× 3
vkO;wgksa dk xq.ku (Multiplication of matrices) ⎡ a1 b1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
nks vkO;wg A rFkk B xq.kuQy AB ds fy, rHkh vuqdwyuh; gS] ;fn ⎢a 2 b 2 ⎥ gksxkA
A esa LrEHkksa dh la[;k] B esa iafDr;ksa dh la[;k ds cjkcj gksA ;fn ⎢⎣a 3 b 3 ⎥⎦ 3×2
A = [aij ]m ×n rFkk B = [b ij ]n× p Øe'k% m×n rFkk n × p dksfV ds nks
ifjorZ ds xq.k/keZ (Properties of transpose) : ekuk A rFkk B nks
vkO;wg gksa] rks muds xq.kuQy AB dh dksfV m × p gksxh rFkk ;g vkO;wg gksa] rc
n
( AB )ij = ∑a b
r =1
ir rj }kjk ifjHkkf"kr gksrk gSA (i) ( A T )T = A
(ii) ( A + B)T = A T + B T , tgk¡ A rFkk B leku dksfV ds gSaA
⎡ b1 j ⎤
⎢b ⎥ (iii) (kA ) = kA ,
T T
tgk¡ k dksbZ vfn'k gS]¼okLrfod ;k vf/kdfYir½
= [ai1 ai2 ... ain ]⎢ 2M j ⎥ = (A dh i oha iafDr) (B dk j ok¡ LrEHk) .....(i),
⎢ ⎥ (iv) ( AB ) = B A , A rFkk B
T T T
xq.ku AB ds fy, vuqdwyuh; gSaA
⎣⎢b nj ⎦⎥
(v) ( A1 A 2 A 3 ..... A n −1 A n )T = A n A n −1 ....... A 3 A 2 A1
T T T T T

tgk¡ i = 1, 2, ..., m rFkk j = 1, 2, ...p

(vi) I T = I
vc ,d iafDr vkO;wg rFkk ,d LrEHk vkO;wg ds xq.kuQy dks
ifjHkkf"kr djrs gSaA fo'ks"k izdkj ds vkO;wg (Special types of matrices)
⎡b ⎤
⎢ 1⎥ (1) lefer vkO;wg ,d oxZ vkO;wg A = [aij ]
(Symmetric matrix) :
ekuk A = [a1 a 2 .... a n ] ,d iafDr vkO;wg gS rFkk B = ⎢b 2 ⎥ ,d
⎢ M ⎥ lefer vkO;wg (Symmetric matrix) dgykrk gS] ;fn aij = a ji ∀ i, j
⎢⎣b n ⎥⎦
⎡a h g ⎤
LrEHk vkO;wg gS rc] AB = [a1 b1 + a 2 b 2 + .... + an b n ] ….(ii)
vFkok A T = A . mnkgj.kkFkZ : ⎢⎢ h b f ⎥⎥ .
vr% (i) ls] ( AB )ij = A dh i oha iafDr ds vo;oksa dk B ds j osa LrEHk ds ⎢⎣ g f c ⎥⎦
vo;oksa ls xq.kuQyksa dk ;ksxA (2) fo"ke&lefer vkO;wg (Skew-symmetric matrix) : ,d oxZ
vkO;wg xq.ku ds xq.k/keZ (Properties of matrix multiplication) vkO;wg A = [aij ] fo"ke-lefer vkO;wg (Skew- symmetric matrix) dgykrk
;fn A,B rFkk C rhu vkO;wg bl izdkj gSa] fd mudk xq.kuQy
ifjHkkf"kr gks] rks gS] ;fn aij = −a ji ∀ i, j vFkok A T = − A .
(i) AB ≠ BA , (lkekU;r% Øefofues; ugha gS½ ⎡ 0 h g⎤
⎢ ⎥
(ii) ( AB )C = A(BC ) , (lkgp;Z fu;e½ mnkgj.kkFkZ : ⎢ − h 0 f⎥
(iii) IA = A = AI , ¼tgk¡ I, vkO;wg xq.ku ds fy, ,d rRled ⎢⎣− g − f 0 ⎥⎦
vkO;wg gS½
 lkjf.kd rFkk vkO;wg 321

lefer rFkk fo"ke lefer vkO;wgksa ds xq.k/keZ (Properties of (5) oxZle vkO;wg (Idempotent matrix) : ,d oxZ vkO;wg A dks
symmetric and skew-symmetric matrices)
oxZle vkO;wg dgk tkrk gS] ;fn A 2 = A gksA
(i);fn A ,d oxZ vkO;wg gks] rks A + A T , AA T , A T A lefer ⎡1 / 2 1 / 2 ⎤
vkO;wg gksaxs] tcfd A − A T fo"ke-lefer vkO;wg gksxkA mnkgj.kkFkZ% ⎢ ⎥ ,d oxZle vkO;wg gS] D;ksafd
⎣1 / 2 1 / 2 ⎦
(ii);fn A ,d lefer vkO;wg gks] rks − A, KA, A T , A n , A −1 , ⎡1 / 4 + 1 / 4 1 / 4 + 1 / 4 ⎤ ⎡1 / 2 1 / 2 ⎤
A2 = ⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥=A
B T AB Hkh lefer vkO;wg gksaxs] tgk¡ n ∈ N , K ∈ R rFkk B ,d oxZ ⎣1 / 4 + 1 / 4 1 / 4 + 1 / 4 ⎦ ⎣1 / 2 1 / 2 ⎦
vkO;wg gS] ftldh dksfV A ds leku gSA ⎡1 0 ⎤ ⎡0 0 ⎤
(iii) ;fn A ,d fo"ke-lefer vkO;wg gks] rks A=⎢ ⎥ rFkk B = ⎢ ⎥ Hkh oxZle vkO;wg gSa] D;ksafd
⎣0 0 ⎦ ⎣0 1 ⎦
(a) A 2 n ,d lefer vkO;wg gksxk] tgk¡ n ∈ N
A 2 = A rFkk B 2 = B . izR;sd bdkbZ vkO;wg oxZle vkO;wg gksrs gSaA
(b) A 2 n +1 ,d fo"ke-lefer vkO;wg gksxk] tgk¡ n ∈ N (6) vUroZyuh; vkO;wg (Involutory matrix) : ,d oxZ vkO;wg A
(c) kA Hkh fo"ke-lefer vkO;wg gksxk] tgk¡ k ∈ R vUroZyuh; vkO;wg dgykrk gS] ;fn A 2 = I ;k A −1 = A .
(d) B T AB Hkh fo"ke-lefer vkO;wg gksxk] tgk¡ B ,d oxZ
⎡1 0 ⎤
vkO;wg gS] ftldh dksfV A dh dksfV ds cjkcj gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ : A=⎢ ⎥ ,d vUroZyuh; (Involutory) vkO;wg gS
(iv) ;fn A, B nks lefer vkO;wg gksa] rks ⎣0 1 ⎦
(a) A ± B, AB + BA Hkh lefer vkO;wg gksaxsA ⎡1 0 ⎤
D;ksafd A2 = ⎢ ⎥ = I . izR;sd bdkbZ vkO;wg vUroZyuh; (Involutory)
(b) AB − BA ,d fo"ke-lefer vkO;wg gksxkA ⎣0 1 ⎦
vkO;wg gksrk gSA
(c) AB ,d lefer vkO;wg gksxk] tcfd AB = BA .
(7) 'kwU;Hkkoh vkO;wg ,d oxZ vkO;wg A 'kwU;Hkkoh
(Nilpotent matrix) :
(v) ;fn A,B nks fo"ke-lefer vkO;wg gksa] rks
vkO;wg dgykrk gS] ;fn p ∈ N dk vfLrRo bl izdkj gS fd A p = 0 .
(a) A ± B, AB − BA fo"ke-lefer vkO;wg gksaxs
⎡0 0 ⎤
(b) AB + BA lefer vkO;wg gksxkA mnkgj.kkFkZ : A=⎢ ⎥ ,d 'kwU;Hkkoh vkO;wg gS] D;ksafd
(vi) ;fn A ,d fo"ke-lefer vkO;wg gks rFkk C ,d LrEHk vkO;wg ⎣1 0 ⎦
gks] rks C T AC , dksfV 1 dk 'kwU; vkO;wg gksxkA ⎡0 0 ⎤
A2 = ⎢ ⎥ = 0 , (;gk¡ p = 2).
(vii) izR;sd oxZ vkO;wg dks Loa; ds lefer rFkk fo"ke-lefer ⎣0 0 ⎦
vkO;wg ds ;ksx ds :i esa fy[k ldrs gSa] vFkkZr~ çR;sd 'kwU;Hkkoh vkO;wg ds lkjf.kd dk eku 'kwU; gksrk gSA
⎡1 ⎤ ⎡1 ⎤ (8) ,sfdd vkO;wg (Unitary matrix) : ,d oxZ vkO;wg A ,sfdd
A = ⎢ ( A + A T )⎥ + ⎢ ( A − A T )⎥ . vkO;wg dgykrk gS] ;fn A' A = I. pw¡fd | A ′ | =| A | rFkk
⎣2 ⎦ ⎣2 ⎦
(3) vO;qRØe.kh; rFkk O;qRØe.kh; vkO;wg (Singular and Non- | A ' A | =| A '|| A | , blfy, ;fn A ′ A = I, rks | A '|| A | = 1
singular matrix) : dksbzZ oxZ vkO;wg A O;qRØe.kh; vkO;wg gksxk] ;fn vr% ,sfdd vkO;wg ds lkjf.kd dk eku bdkbZ gksrk gSA ,d ,sfdd
| A | ≠ 0 rFkk vO;qRØe.kh; vkO;wg gksxk] ;fn | A | = 0 - ;gk¡ | A | ;k vkO;wg (Unitary matrix) O;qRØe.kh; vkO;wg gksrk gSA
det(A) vkSj det |A| dk vFkZ vkO;wg A dh lkjf.kd ls gSA vr% A ′ A = I ⇒ A A ′ = I .
⎡2 3⎤ 2 3 (9) vkorhZ vkO;wg (Periodic matrix) : ,d vkO;wg A vkorhZ vkO;wg
mnkgj.kkFkZ: A = ⎢ ⎥ ,rc| A | = = 10 − 12 = −2 ⇒ A
⎣ 4 5 ⎦ 4 5 dgykrk gS] ;fn A k +1 = A , tgk¡ k ,d /kukRed iw.kkZad gSA ;fn
,d O;qRØe.kh; vkO;wg gSA A k +1 = A ds fy, k ,d U;wure /kukRed iw.kkZad gks] rks k , A dk
(4) gjehf'k;u vkO;wg rFkk fo"ke gjehf'k;u vkO;wg vkorZukad gksrk gSA
oxZ vkO;wg A = [aij ]
(Hermitian and skew-Hermitian matrix) : ,d (10) vkO;wg dk vodyu (Differentiation of a matrix) : ;fn
gjehf'k;u vkO;wg (Hermitian matrix) dgykrk gS] ;fn aij = a ji , ⎡ f (x) g(x)⎤ dA ⎡ f ′(x ) g′(x )⎤
A=⎢ ⎥ gks] rks =⎢ ⎥ , A dk vodyt gksrk gSA
θ ⎣h(x) l(x) ⎦ dx ⎣h′(x ) l′(x ) ⎦
∀i, j vFkkZr~ A = A .
⎡ x 2 sin x ⎤ dA ⎡ 2 x cos x ⎤
⎡ 3 3 − 4 i 5 + 2i ⎤ mnkgj.kkFkZ: ;fn A=⎢ ⎥ , rc =⎢ ⎥ gksxkA
⎡ a b + ic⎤ ⎢ ⎥ ⎣⎢ 2 x 2 ⎦⎥ dx ⎣ 2 0 ⎦
mnkgj.kkFkZ % ⎢ ⎥ , 3 + 4 i 5 − 2 + i⎥
⎣b − ic d ⎦ ⎢ (12) vkO;wg dk la;qXeh (Conjugate of a matrix) : ,d vkO;wg A,
⎢⎣ 5 − 2i − 2 − i 2 ⎥⎦
ftlds vo;oksa esa lfEeJ la[;k;sa gkas] rks bu vo;oksa ds LFkku ij
gjehf'k;u vkO;wg gSaA mudh la;qXeh lfEeJ la[;kvksa dks fy[kus ij izkIr vkO;wg dks vkO;wg
(5) ykfEcd vkO;wg ,d oxZ vkO;wg A
(Orthogonal matrix) :
dk la;qXeh dgrs gSa rFkk bls A ls iznf'kZr djrs gSaA
ykfEcd vkO;wg dgykrk gS] ;fn AA = I = A A vFkkZr~ A −1 = A T .
T T
⎡ 1 + 2i 2 − 3 i 3 + 4 i⎤
⎡ cos α − sin α ⎤
mnkgj.kkFkZ : A = ⎢ ⎥ ykfEcd gS] mnkgj.kkFkZ: A = ⎢⎢4 − 5 i 5 + 6i 6 − 7i⎥
⎥
⎣− sin α cos α ⎦ ⎢⎣ 8 7 + 8i 7 ⎥⎦
⎡ cos α − sin α ⎤
D;ksafd A −1 = ⎢ ⎥=A .
T
⎡ 1 − 2i 2 + 3 i 3 − 4 i⎤
⎣− sin α cos α ⎦
rc A = ⎢⎢4 + 5 i 5 − 6 i 6 + 7 i⎥⎥
izR;sd bdkbZ vkO;wg ykfEcd gksrk gSA fdlh ykfEcd vkO;wg ds ⎢⎣ 8 ⎥⎦
7 − 8i 7
lkjf.kd dk eku –1 ;k 1 gksrk gSA
la;qXeh vkO;wg ds xq.k/keZ (Properties of conjugates) :
 322 lkjf.kd rFkk vkO;wg

( )
(i) A = A (ii) ( A + B ) = A + B (viii) adj(kA ) = k n −1 (adj A), k ∈ R
(ix) adj (In ) = In
(iii) (αA) = α A , α dksbZ la[;k gS
(x) adj (O ) = O
(iv) ( AB ) = A B , A rFkk B xq.ku ds fy, vuqdwyuh; gaSA (xi) A lefer gS ⇒ adj A Hkh lefer gksxkA
(13) la;qXeh ifjorZ vkO;wg fdlh
(Transpose conjugate of a matrix): (xii) A fod.kZ vkO;wg gS ⇒ adj A Hkh fod.kZ vkO;wg gksxkA
vkO;wg A dss laxr la;qXeh vkO;wg A dk ifjorZ vkO;wg ( A) ]A dkT (xiii) A f=Hkqtkdkj vkO;wg gS ⇒ adj A Hkh f=Hkqtkdkj vkO;wg gksxkA
(xiv) A vO;qRØe.kh; vkO;wg gS ⇒ |adj A|= 0
la;qXeh ifjorZ vkO;wg dgykrk gSA bls izrhd :i esa A θ ls O;Dr
djrs gSaA A ds ifjorZ dk la;qXeh vkO;wg A ds la;qXeh ds ifjorZ vkO;wg vkO;wg dk O;qRØe ¼izfrykse vkO;wg½ (Inverse of a Matrix)
ds leku gksrk gS] vFkkZr~ ( A ′) = ( A )′ = A θ .
,d n dksfV dk O;qRØe.kh; vkO;wg] O;qRØe.kh; gksrk gS] ;fn ,d
;fn A = [aij ]m ×n rks A θ = [b ji ]n×m tgk¡ b ji = aij vFkkZr~ A θ ds leku dksfV ds vkO;wg B dk vfLrRo bl izdkj gks] fd
( j, i) osa vo;o = A ds (i, j) osa vo;o dk la;qXeh AB = In = BA A bl fLFkfr esa] ge dg ldrs gSa fd B, A dk izfrykse
1
⎡ 1 + 2i 2 − 3 i 3 + 4 i⎤ gS vFkkZr~ A −1 = B rFkk A −1 = .adj A
⎢ ⎥ | A|
mnkgj.kkFkZ: ;fn A = ⎢4 − 5 i 5 + 6 i 6 − 7 i ⎥ ,
A ds izfrykse dk vfLrRo gksus ds fy, vko';d ,oa i;kZIr izfrca/k
⎢⎣ 8 7 + 8i 7 ⎥⎦
| A| ≠ 0 gSA
⎡ 1 − 2i 4 + 5i 8 ⎤ izfrykse vkO;wg ds xq.k/keZ (Properties of inverse matrix):
rks A θ = ⎢⎢ 2 + 3i 5 − 6 i 7 − 8 i⎥⎥ ;fn A rFkk B nks leku dksfV ds izfrykse ;k O;qR+Øe.kh; vkO;wg gksa]
⎢⎣ 3 − 4 i 6 + 7 i 7 ⎥⎦ rks (i) ( A −1 )−1 = A (ii) ( A T )−1 = ( A −1 )T
la;qXeh ifjorZ vkO;wg dss xq.k/keZ (Properties of transpose conjugate) (iii) ( AB )−1 = B −1 A −1
(i) ( A θ )θ = A (ii) ( A + B)θ = A θ + B θ (iv) ( A k )−1 = ( A −1 )k , k ∈ N [fo'ks"kr% ( A 2 )−1 = ( A −1 )2 ]
1
(iii) (kA )θ = k A θ , k dksbZ la[;k gS (iv) ( AB )θ = B θ A θ (v) adj( A −1 ) = (adj A)−1 (vi) | A −1 | = =| A | −1
| A|
vkO;wg dk lg[k.Mt (Adjoint of a square matrix) (vii) A = diag (a1 a 2 ... an ) ⇒ A −1 = diag (a1−1 a 2−1 ... an−1 ) .
(viii) A lefer gS ⇒ A −1 Hkh lefer gksxkA
ekuk A = [aij ] ,d n dksfV dk oxZ vkO;wg gS rFkk C ij , A esa aij
(ix) A fod.kZ vkO;wg gS, | A | ≠ 0 ⇒ A −1 Hkh fod.kZ vkO;wg gksxkA
dk lg[k.M gS] rks vkO;wg] tks fd A ds izR;sd vo;o dks mlds
lg[k.M ls izfrLFkkfir djds izkIr fd;k x;k gks] ds ifjorZ dks A dk (x) A vfn'k vkO;wg gS ⇒ A −1 Hkh vfn'k vkO;wg gksxkA
lg[k.Mt dgrs gSa] ftls adj A ls iznf'kZr djrs gSaA (xi) A f=Hkqtkdkj vkO;wg gS, | A | ≠ 0 ⇒ A −1 Hkh f=Hkqtkdkj vkO;wg gksxkA
vr% adj A = [C ij ]T ⇒ (adj A)ij = C ji = A esa a ji dk lg[k.M (xii) izR;sd O;qRØe.kh; vkO;wg dk ,d vf}rh; O;qRØe vkO;wg gksrk
gSA
⎡ a11 a12 a13 ⎤ (xiii) xq.ku ds lkis{k fujlu dk fu;e
⎢ ⎥
;fn A = ⎢a 21 a 22 a 23 ⎥, ;fn A ,d O;qRØe.kh; vkO;wg gks] vFkkZr~ ;fn | A | ≠ 0 , rks A −1 dk
⎢⎣a 31 a 32 a 33 ⎥⎦
vfLrRo gksxk rFkk AB = AC ⇒ A −1 ( AB ) = A −1 ( AC )
T
⎡ C 11 C 12 C 13 ⎤ ⎡C 11 C 21 C 31 ⎤ ⇒ ( A −1 A)B = ( A −1 A)C
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
rc adj A = ⎢C 21 C 22 C 23 ⎥ = ⎢C 12 C 22 C 32 ⎥; ⇒ IB = IC ⇒ B = C , ∴ AB = AC ⇒ B = C ⇔| A | ≠ 0 .
⎢⎣C 31 C 32 C 33 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣C 13 C 23 C 33 ⎥⎦
tgk¡ C ij , A esa aij ds lg[k.M dks iznf'kZr djrk gSA
vkO;wg dh tkfr (Rank of a matrix)
ekuk A ,d m×n dksfV dk vkO;wg gS] ;fn A ds r iafDr;ksa (rows)
⎡p q⎤ rFkk r LraHkksa (columns) dks ysrs gSa] rc r dksfV dk mi-oxZ vkO;wg izkIr
mnkgj.kkFkZ : A=⎢ ⎥, C 11 = s, C 12 = −r, C 21 = −q, C 22 = p
⎣r s⎦ gksrk gSA r dksfV ds mi-oxZ vkO;wg ds lkjf.kd dks A dk r dksfV dk
⎡ s − r⎤
T
⎡ s − q⎤
milkjf.kd (minor)dgrs gSaA
∴ adj A = ⎢ ⎥ =⎢ ⎥ 1 3 4 5
⎣ − q p ⎦ ⎣− r p ⎦
lg[k.Mt vkO;wg ds xq.k/keZ (Properties of adjoint matrix) : ;fn A ekuk 3 × 4 dksfV dk vkO;wg A = 1 2 6 7 gSA ;g 3×4 dksfV
vkSj B, n dksfV ds oxZ vkO;wg gksa rFkk In laxr bdkbZ vkO;wg gks] rks (i) 1 5 0 1
A(adj A) =| A | In = (adj A) A (vr% A (adj A) lnSo ,d vfn'k vkO;wg dk vkO;wg gS vr% ge 3, 2 ;k 1 dksfV dk lkjf.kd ys ldrs gSaA fdUgh
gS) rhu iafDr rFkk rhu LraHk ysus ij dksfV 3 dk milkjf.kd (minor) curk
1 3 4
(ii) | adj A | =| A | n −1 (iii) adj (adj A) =| A | n − 2 A
gSA vr% dksfV 3 dk milkjf.kd (minor) = 1 2 6 = 0 .
2
(iv) | adj (adj A)| =| A | (n −1) (v) adj ( A T ) = (adj A)T 1 5 0
(vi) adj ( AB ) = (adj B)(adj A) nks 'kwU; cukus ij mijksDr milkjf.kd dk eku 'kwU; gks tkrk gSA
(vii) adj( A m ) = (adj A)m , m ∈ N blh izdkj dksfV 3 ds vU; milkjf.kdksa (Minor) dks Hkh 'kwU; iznf'kZr
 lkjf.kd rFkk vkO;wg 323

dj ldrs gSaA dksfV 2 dk milkjf.kd (Minor) nks iafDr;ksa vkSj nks LraHkksa (f) ;fn ρ ( A) = ρ ( A : B) = vKkr jkf'k;ksa dh la[;k] rc fudk;
dks ysus ij izkIr gksrk gSA dk vf}rh; gy gSA
1 3 (g) ;fn ρ ( A) = ρ ( A : B) < vKkr jkf'k;ksa dh la[;k] rc fudk;
dksfV 2 dk milkjf.kd (Minor) = = 2 − 3 = −1 ≠ 0 vkO;wg dss vuUr gy gSaA
1 2
dk izR;sd vo;o dksfV 1 dk milkjf.kd gksrk gSA (2) le?kkrh; jSf[kd lehdj.kksa ds fudk; dk gy (Solutions
vkO;wg dh jSad (Rank of a matrix) : fdlh fn;s x;s vkO;wg A dh of a homogeneous system of linear equations) : ekuk rhu vKkr jkf’k;ksa esa
jSad r gksxh] ;fn rhu le?kkrh; jSf[kd lehdj.kksa dk fudk; AX = O gSA
(1) A dk] dksfV (r+1) dk izR;sd milkjf.kd 'kwU; gksA (a) nh x;h lehdj.kkas dks AX = O ds :i esa fyf[k;s vkSj A dks
fy[krs gSaA
(2) A dk] r dksfV dk de ls de ,d milkjf.kd gksxk] tks fd
'kwU; ugha gSA (b) | A | dk eku Kkr djrs gSaA

;gk¡ ge dg ldrs gSa] fd vkO;wg A dh jSad r gksxh] ;fn (c) ;fn | A | ≠ 0 rks fudk; laxr gS rFkk x = y = z = 0 blds
(i) (r+1) dksfV dk izR;sd oxZ mivkO;wg vO;qRØe.kh; gksrk gSA vf}rh; gy gSaA
(ii) ;gk¡ r dksfV dk de ls de ,d oxZ mivkO;wg] O;qRØe.kh; (d) ;fn | A | = 0 rks fudk; ds vuUr gy gSaA budks Kkr djus
gksxkA vkO;wg A dh jSad r dks ρ ( A) = r fy[krs gSaA ds fy;s z = K (dksbZ okLrfod la[;k) j[k dj] fdUgha Hkh nks lehdj.kksa
dks x vkSj y ds fy;s gy djrs gSaA bl izdkj izkIr lehdj.kksa ds fudk;]
vkO;wg dk vkbDyku :i (Echelon form of a matrix) z = K ds lkFk] budk gy nsrs gSaA

,d vkO;wg A vkbDyku (Echelon) :i eas gksrk gS] ;fn A 'kwU; jSf[kd lehdj.k ds fudk; dh laxrrk] tgk¡ A oxZ
vkO;wg gks vFkok A fuEu izfrca/kksa dks larq"V djrk gks % vkO;wg gS (Consistency of a system of linear equation AX
(1) A esa izR;sd 'kwU; iafDr ds iwoZ v'kwU; iafDr gksA = B, where A is a square matrix)
(2) ,d iafDr esa izFke v'kwU; vo;o ls igys 'kwU; dh la[;k
jSf[kd lehdj.kksa dk fudk;] AX = B, A = [aij ]n ×n
vxyh iafDr esa 'kwU; dh la[;k ls de gksA
;g vklkuh ls fl) fd;k tk ldrk gS] fd vkbDyku :i esa (i) laxr (vf}rh; gy ds lkFk) dgykrk gS] ;fn | A | ≠ 0 vFkkZr~
vkO;wg dh jSad] vkO;wg esa v'kwU; iafDr;ksa dh la[;k ds cjkcj gksrh gSA A O;qRØe.kh; vkO;wg gksA
vkbDyku :i esa vkO;wg dh jSad (Rank of a matrix in Echelon form) (ii) vlaxr (bldk dksbZ gy ugha gS) ;fn | A | = 0 vkSj (adjA) B
: vkbDyku :i esa vkO;wg dh jSad] ml voLFkk esa mifLFkr v'kwU; v'kwU; vkO;wg gksA
iafDr;ksa dh la[;k gksrh gSA
(iii) laxr (vuUr m gyksa ds lkFk) ;fn | A | = 0 o (adj A) B 'kwU;
le?kkrh; o vle?kkrh; jSf[kd lehdj.kksa ds fudk; vkO;wg gksA
(Homogeneous, Non-homogeneous systems of linear equations)
dSys–gsfeYVu izes; (Cayley-Hamilton theorem)
lehdj.kksa dk fudk; AX = B le?kkrh; fudk; dgykrk gS] ;fn
B = O . ;fn B ≠ O rc bl fudk; dks vle?kkrh; lehdj.kksa dk izR;sd vkO;wg vius vfHkyk{kf.kd (Characteristic) lehdj.k dks
fudk; dgrs gSaA larq"V djrk gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ% ekuk A ,d oxZ vkO;wg gks] rks
mnkgj.kkFkZ % 2 x + 5 y = 0 | A − xI | = 0 , A dk vfHkyk{kf.kd lehdj.k gSA ;fn
3 x − 2y = 0 x − 4 x − 5 x − 7 = 0 , A ds fy, vfHkyk{kf.kd lehdj.k gS] rc
3 2

le?kkrh; jSf[kd lehdj.kksa dk fudk; gS tcfd lehdj.k A 3 − 4 A 2 + 5 A − 7 I = 0 A A ds fy, vfHkyk{kf.kd lehdj.k ds ewy
2 x + 3y = 5 o x + y = 2 A ds vkbxu eku ;k A ds vfHkyk{kf.kd ewy ;k A ds xqIr ewy (latent
vle?kkrh; jSf[kd lehdj.kksa dk fudk; gSA roots) dgykrs gSaA ;fn A dk vfHkyk{kf.kd ewy λ gS] rc A −1 dk

(1) vle?kkrh; jSf[kd lehdj.kksa ds fudk; dk gy vfHkyk{kf.kd ewy λ−1 gksxkA

(i) vkO;wg fof/k (Matrix method) : ;fn AX = B , rc X = A −1 B T;kferh; :ikUrj.k (Geometrical transformations)
vf}rh; gy nsrk gS] tcfd A O;qRØe.kh; vkO;wg gks] fdUrq ;fn A
vO;qRØe.kh; vkO;wg gks vFkkZr~ | A | = 0 , rc lehdj.kksa AX = B dk (1) x-v{k esa ijkorZu (Reflexion in the x-axis) : ;fn P ' (x ' , y ' ) ;
fudk; vuUr gyksa dk laxr fudk; gks ldrk gS ;k vlaxr Hkh gks ⎡1 0 ⎤
ldrk gSA fcUnq P(x , y ) dk x-v{k ij ijkorZu gks] rks vkO;wg ⎢ ⎥ ,d fcUnq
⎣0 − 1 ⎦
(ii) vle?kkrh; fudk; AX = B ds gy ds fy, jSad fof/k P(x , y ) dk x-v{k esa ijkorZu n'kkZrk gSA
(a) A, B dks fy[krs gSaA
(2) y-v{k esa ijkorZu (Reflexion in the y-axis) : ;gk¡ vkO;wg
(b) vkWxesaVsM vkO;wg [A : B] dks fy[krs gSaA
⎡−1 0 ⎤
(c) izkjfEHkd iafDr lafØ;k }kjk vkWxesaVsM vkO;wg dks vkbDyku ⎢ ⎥ gSA
#i esa ifjofrZr djrs gSaA ⎣ 0 1⎦
(d) A rFkk [A : B] dh jSad dks fudkyus ds fy;s Øe'k% A vkSj [A (3) ewyfcUnq }kjk ijkorZu (Reflexion through the origin) :
: B] eaas v'kwU; iafDr;ksa dh la[;k Kkr djrs gSaA ⎡−1 0 ⎤
(e) ;fn ρ ( A) ≠ ρ ( A : B), rc fudk; vlaxr gSA ;gk¡ vkO;wg ⎢ ⎥ gSA
⎣0 − 1⎦
 324 lkjf.kd rFkk vkO;wg
(4) js[kk y = x esa ijkorZu (Reflexion in the line y = x): fod.kZ ds vo;o gksa] mls diag [d1 , d 2 ,..., dn ] ls iznf'kZr djrs gSaA
⎡0 1 ⎤ " fod.kZ vkO;wg] mifjf=Hkqth; rFkk fuEuf=Hkqth; nksuksa izdkj dk
;gk¡ vkO;wg ⎢ ⎥ gSA
⎣1 0 ⎦ f=Hkqth; vkO;wg gSA
(5) js[kk y = –x esa ijkorZu (Reflexion in the line y = – x): " nks fod.kZ vkO;wgksa dk xq.ku Hkh fod.kZ vkO;wg gksrk gS] rFkk diag
(a1 , a2 ,.... an ) × diag (b1 , b 2 ,.... bn ) = diag (a1b1 , a2 b 2 ,.... an bn ) .
⎡ 0 −1⎤
;gk¡ vkO;wg ⎢ ⎥ gSA
⎣− 1 0⎦ " nks vfn'k vkO;wgksa dk xq.kuQy Hkh vfn'k vkO;wg gksrk gSA
(6) y = x tan θ esa ijkorZu (Reflexion in y = x tan θ) : " ;fn A rFkk B nks vkO;wg bl izdkj gksa] fd AB dk vfLrRo gks]
rc BA dk vfLrRo gks Hkh ldrk gS vFkok ugha Hkh gks ldrk gSA
⎡cos 2θ sin 2θ ⎤
;gk¡ vkO;wg ⎢ ⎥ gSA n(n − 1)
⎣ sin 2θ − cos 2θ ⎦ " f=Hkqtkdkj vkO;wg esa 'kwU;ksa dh U;wure la[;k gksrh gS]
2
(7) θ dks.k ls ?kw.kZu (Rotation through an angle θ ):
tgk¡ n vkO;wg dh dksfV gSA
⎡cos θ − sin θ ⎤
;gk¡ vkO;wg ⎢ ⎥ gSA " ,d f=Hkqtkdkj vkO;wg a = [aij ]n ×n iw.kZr% f=Hkqtkdkj vkO;wg
⎣ sin θ cos θ ⎦
dgykrk gS] ;fn aij = 0 , tcfd 1 ≤ i ≤ n .
v{kksa ds ?kw.kZu dk vkO;wg (Matrices of rotation of axes) " nks f=Hkqtkdkj vkO;wgksa dk xq.kuQy f=Hkqtkdkj vkO;wg gksrk gSA
ge tkurs gSa fd] ;fn x rFkk y-v{kksa dks ewyfcUnq ds ifjr% dks.k θ " ;fn A vUroZyuh; vkO;wg gS] rc
1
( I + A) o
1
(I − A)
ls ?kqekus ij u, funsZ'kkad x = X cos θ − Y sin θ 2 2
1
rFkk y = X sin θ + Y cos θ gksrs gSaA oxZle gSa] rFkk ( I + A ) . (I − A) = 0 .
2
⎡x ⎤ ⎡cos θ − sin θ ⎤ ⎡ X ⎤ ⎡cos θ − sin θ ⎤
vr% ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⇒ ⎢ ⎥, θ dks.k ls " fo"ke-lefer vkO;wg dk Vªsl lnSo 'kwU; gksrk gSA
⎣ y ⎦ ⎣ sin θ cos θ ⎦ ⎣ Y ⎦ ⎣ sin θ cos θ ⎦
" vkO;wg ds lkjf.kd ds xq.k/keZ
?kw.kZu dk vkO;wg gSA
(i) | A | dk vfLrRo gS ⇔ A oxZ vkO;wg gSA
(ii) | AB | =| A || B |

(iii) | A T | =| A |

(iv) | kA | = k n | A |, ;fn A, n dksfV dk oxZ vkO;wg gSA

" fdlh iafDr ds vo;oksa rFkk muds laxr lg[k.Mksa ds xq.kuQy (v) ;fn A o B leku dksfV ds oxZ vkO;wg gSa] rks
dk ;ksx lkjf.kd ds eku ds cjkcj gksrk gS] vFkkZr |AB|=|BA|
Δ = a11 C 11 + a12 C 12 + a13 C 13 = a11 C 11 + a 21 C 21 + a 31 C 31 (vi) ;fn A, fo"ke dksfV dk fo"ke lefer vkO;wg gS] rks
tgk¡ cM+s v{kj C11 , C12 , C13 bR;kfn] a11 , a12 , a13 ds lg[k.Mksa dks | A|= 0
O;Dr djrs gSaA (vii) ;fn A = diag (a1 , a2 ,..... an ) , rc | A | = a1 a2 ... an
O;kid rkSj ij] /;ku nsa fd ai1 C j1 + ai2 C j 2 + ai3 C j3 = 0 , ;fn i ≠ j
(viii) | A | n =| A n |, n ∈ N .
;k a1iC1 j + a2iC 2 j + a3 iC 3 j = 0 , ;fn i ≠ j -
" ;fn A dk ,d milkjf.kd 'kwU; gks] rks mlds laxr mi-vkO;wg
" ;fn Δ' lkjf.kd Δ ds vo;oksa dks muds laxr lg[k.Mksa }kjk
(Submatrix) vO;qRØe.kh; gksxk rFkk ;fn A dk milkjf.kd (Minor)
LFkkukUrfjr djus ij çkIr lkjf.kd gS] rc ;fn Δ = 0 , rks ΔC = 0 , 'kwU; ugha gS] rks laxr mi-vkO;wg O;qRØe.kh; gksxkA
Δ' = Δn −1 , tgk¡ n lkjf.kd dh dksfV gSA
" dksfV 2 ds oxZ vkO;wg dk lg[k.Mt] vkO;wg ds fod.kZ vo;oksa
" fuEu le?kkrh; lehdj.kksa dk fudk; a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = 0 ,
dks ijLij ifjofrZr djds rFkk vfod.khZ; vo;oksa ds fpUg ifjofrZr
a2 x + b 2 y + c 2 z = 0 , a3 x + b 3 y + c 3 z = 0 lnSo laxr gksxk] ;fn
djds izkIr fd;k tkrk gSA
a1 b1 c1
" 'kwU; vkO;wg (Null matrix) dh jSad ifjHkkf"kr ugha gksrh gS rFkk
Δ = a2 b2 c2 ≠ 0 , rc bl fudk; dk vf}rh; gy] tks fd izR;sd v'kwU; vkO;wg dh jSad 1 ;k 1 ls vf/kd gksrh gSA
a3 b3 c3
" n dksfV ds vO;qRØe.kh; oxZ vkO;wg dh dksfV n ugha gks ldrh gSA
rqPN (Trivial) gy dgykrk gS] x = y = z = 0 gksxkA fdUrqq ;fn
" le?kkrh; lehdj.kksa dk fudk; dHkh Hkh vlaxr ugha gksrk gSA
Δ = 0 , rc bl fudk; ds vuUr gy gksaxsA vr% vrqPN
(Non-trivial) gy ds fy;s Δ = 0 A
" fod.kZ vkO;wg esa eq[; fod.kZ dk dksbZ Hkh vo;o 'kwU; ughas gksrk gSA
" fod.kZ vkO;wg esa 'kwU;ksa dh la[;k n 2 − n gksrh gS] tgk¡ n
vkO;wg dh dksfV gSA
" ,d n × n dksfV dk fod.kZ vkO;wg] ftlesa d1 , d 2 ,....., d n
 f=dks.kferh; Qyu ,oa f=dks.kferh; vuqikr 387

 
 
 
 
Chapter‐10 
Trigonometry 

çLrkouk (Introduction) dks.k ekiu dh rhuksa i)fr;ksa ds e/; lEcU/k

(Relation between three systems of measurement of an angle)
f=Hkqt vkSj blds dks.kksa dk ekiu f=dks.kfefr dgykrk gS vFkkZr~
f=dks.kfefr eas ge f=Hkqt ds xq.k/keksZa dk B ekuk fdlh dks.k θ esa va'kksa dh la[;k D, jsfM;uksa dh la[;k R rFkk
v/;;u djrs gSa] ftlesa Hkqtkvksa dh D G 2R
vafre Hkqtk xszMksa dh la[;k G gS] rc = =
yEckbZ;k¡ rFkk dks.k bR;kfn lfEefyr gSaA 90 100 π
fdlh ry esa ?kwf.kZr js[kk dh izkjafHkd tks fd rhuksa i}fr;ksa ds e/; vHkh"V lEcU/k gSA
O A
fLFkfr ¼çkajfHkd Hkqtk½ ls vfUre fLFkfr izkjafHkd Hkqtk
¼vfUre Hkqtk½ rd dh xfr dks dks.k dgrs 180 o
,d jsfM;u = ⇒π jsfM;u = 180 o ⇒ 1 jsfM;u = 57 o

gSaA vfUre fcUnq O ftlds ifjr% js[kk ?kw.kZu djrh gS] dks.k dk 'kh"kZ π
dgykrk gSA 1 7 ′44 . 8 ′′ ≈ 57 o 1 7 ′4 5 ′ ′ .

dks.k ekiu dh i)fr;k¡ (System of measurement of angles) s

(Relation between an arc and an angle)
dks.k ekiu dh eq[;r% rhu i)fr;k¡ gSa %
(1) "kf"Vd ;k fczfV'k i)fr (Sexagesimal or English system) : ;fn fdlh r f=T;k ds o`Ùk dh s yEckbZ ds pki }kjk dsUæ ij
1 ledks.k = 90 va'k o
(= 90 ) vUrfjr dks.k θ gS] rc pki dh yEckbZ s = rθ B
vFkkZr~] pki = f=T;k × dks.k (jsfM;u es)a s
o
1 = 60 feuV (= 6 0 ′) θC
A
o`Ùk [k.M dk {ks=Qy : ekuk OAB ,d [k.M O
1' = 60 lSd.M (= 6 0 ′′) r
gS] ftldk dsUæh; dks.k θ C gS rFkk f=T;k r gS]
(2) 'kfrd i)fr ;k ÝkUlhlh i)fr (Centesimal or French system)
1 2
1 ledks.k = 100 xzsM (= 100 g ) rc o`Ùk [k.M OAB dk {ks=Qy r θ
2
1 xzsM = 100 feuV (= 10 0 ′)
f=kdks.kferh; Qyuksa ds izkUr ,oa ifjlj
1 feuV = 100 lSds.M (= 10 0 ′′)
(Domain and range of a trigonometrical function)
(3) o`Ùkh; i)fr (Circular system) : bl i)fr esa dks.k ekiu dh
bdkbZ jsfM;u gSA ,d jsfM;u (vFkkZr~ 1c) dks.k ;fn f : X → Y ,d Qyu gS] tks leqPp; X ij ifjHkkf"kr gS] rc
P Qyu f dk çkUr (Domain), leLr Lora= pjksa x dk leqPp; gksrk gS]
dh og eki gksrk gS] tks fd o`Ùk dh f=T;k ds
cjkcj yEckbZ ds pki }kjk o`Ùk dss dsUæ ij blds fy, izfrfcEc f (x ) , Y dk lqifjHkkf"kr vo;o gS] rks ;g f dk lg
O A
vUrfjr gksrk gSA izkUr (Co-domain) dgykrk gSA
ekuk r f=T;k dk o`Ùk ftldk dsUæ O gS] f : X → Y dk ifjlj (Range) lHkh izfrfcEcksa f (x ) dk leqPp; gksrk
ij dksbZ fcUnq A gSA vc o`Ùk dh f=T;k ds cjkcj yEckbZ dk ,d pki gS] tksfd Y ls lEcfU/kr gS vFkkZr~ ifjlj f = { f (x ) ∈ Y : x ∈ X } ⊆ Y
AP dkVk] rc ifjHkk"kk ls, ∠AOP = 1 c
f=dks.kferh; Qyuksa ds izkUr (Domain) rFkk ifjlj (Range)
fuEufyf[kr gSa %
 388 f=dks.kferh; Qyu ,oa f=dks.kferh; vuqikr
lkj.kh : 10.1 ;fn θ dks X ′OX v{k, (vFkkZr~ π ± θ, 2π – θ) ls ekirs gSa] rc
f=dks.kferh; Qyu ifjofrZr ugha gksrk gSA
f=dks.kferh; Qyu izkUr (Domain) ifjlj (Range)
π 3π
R −1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 ;fn θ dks Y ′OY v{k] ⎧⎨vFkkZr ~ ±θ,
⎫
± θ ⎬ ls ekirs gSa] rc
sin x ⎩ 2 2 ⎭
cos x R −1 ≤ cos x ≤ 1 sine; cosine es]a cosine; sine es,a tangent; cotangent es]a cotangent; tangent es,a
⎧ π ⎫ R sec; cosec esa rFkk cosec; sec esa ifjofrZr gks tkrk gSaA
tan x R − ⎨(2n + 1) , n ∈ I ⎬
⎩ 2 ⎭ (4) fofHkUu prqFkkZa'kksa esa f=dks.kferh; Qyuksa ds ekuksa esa
cosec x R − {n π , n ∈ I} R − { x : −1 < x < 1} ifjorZu % ekuk XOX ' rFkk YOY ' Y
funsZ'kkad v{k gSA ewy fcUnq dks dsUæ
sec x ⎧ π ⎫ ekurs gq, bdkbZ f=T;k ds o`Ùk dh B (0,1)
R − ⎨(2 n + 1) , n ∈ I ⎬ R − {x : − 1 < x < 1} M (x, y)
⎩ 2 ⎭ jpuk dhA
cot x R − {n π , n ∈ I} R ekuk dksbZ fcUnq M (x , y) o`Ùk Xy
θ
X′ X
ij bl çdkj gS] fd ∠AOM = θ ; (–1, 0) A′ O x N A(1, 0)
f=dks.kferh; vuqikr ;k Qyu rc x = cos θ rFkk y = sin θ ; rFkk
(Trigonometrical ratios or functions)
θ ds lHkh ekuksa ds fy, B′(0, –1)
ledks.k f=Hkqt OMP esa] vk/kkj = OM = x, yEc = PM = y rFkk d.kZ =
OP = r. −1 ≤ cos θ ≤ 1 rFkk −1 ≤ sin θ ≤ 1 .
Y′
sin θ =
yEc = y ,
Y lkj.kh : 10.2
d.kZ r A
II-prqFkkZa'k (S) I-prqFkkZa'k (A)
cos θ =
vk/kkj = x ;
P(x, y) sin θ → 1 ls 0 rd ?kVrk gS sin θ → 0 ls 1 rd c<+rk gS
d.kZ r cos θ → 0 ls – 1 rd ?kVrk gS cos θ → 1 ls 0 rd ?kVrk gS
tan θ =
yEc y
= , tan θ → – ∞ ls 0 rd c<+rk gS tan θ → 0 ls ∞ rd c<+rk gS
r
vk/kkj x y cot θ → 0 ls – ∞ rd ?kVrk gS cot θ → ∞ ls 0 rd ?kVrk gS
cot θ =
vk/kkj = x sec θ → – 1 ls 0 rd c<+rk gS sec θ → 1 ls ∞ rd c<+rk gS
yEc y θ cosec θ → 1 ls ∞ rd c<+rk gS cosec θ → ∞ ls 1 rd ?kVrk gS
X′ X
d.kZ = r , O x M
sec θ = III-prqFkkZa'k (T) IV-prqFkkZa'k (C)
vk/kkj x Y′ sin θ → 0 ls – 1 rd ?kVrk gS sin θ → – 1 ls 0 rd c<+rk gS

cosec θ =
d.kZ =
r cos θ → – 1 ls 0 rd c<+rk gS cos θ → 0 ls 1 rd c<+rk gS
yEc y tan θ → 0 ls ∞ rd c<+rk gS tan θ → – ∞ ls 0 rd c<+rk gS
cot θ → ∞ ls 0 rd ?kVrk gS cot θ → 0 ls – ∞ rd ?kVrk gS
(1) f=dks.kferh; vuqikrksa ¼Qyu½ ds e/; lEcU/k
sec θ → – 1 ls – ∞ rd ?kVrk gS sec θ → ∞ ls 1 rd ?kVrk gS
(i) sin θ .co sec θ = 1 (ii) tan θ . cot θ = 1
cosec θ → – ∞ ls – 1 rd c<+rk gS cosec θ → – 1 ls – ∞ rd ?kVrk gS
sin θ
(iii) cos θ . sec θ = 1 (iv) tan θ =
cos θ lEcfU/kr dks.kksa (Allied Angles) ds f=dks.kferh; vuqikr
cos θ
(v) cot θ = nks dks.k lEcfU/kr (Allied) dgykrs gSa] tc mudk ;ksx vFkok vUrj
sin θ
(2) vk/kkjHkwr f=dks.kferh; loZlfedk;sa ;k rks 'kwU; gks ;k 90 o dk xq.kt gksA
(i) sin θ + cos θ = 1
2 2
(ii) 1 + tan 2 θ = sec 2 θ lkj.kh % 10.3
(iii) 1 + cot θ = cosec θ
2 2 f=dks.kferh; vuqikr sinθ cosθ tan θ
lEcfU/kr dks.k
(3) f=dks.kferh; vuqikrksa ¼Qyuksa½ ds fpUg % buds fpUg bl
(−θ ) – sinθ cosθ – tanθ
ij fuHkZj djrs gSa fd og vuqikr fdl prqFkkZa'k esa fLFkr gSaA
laf{kIr esa % fofHkUu prqFkkZa'kkas esa f=dks.kferh; vuqikrksa ds fpUg ds ⎛π ⎞
(90 – θ) ;k ⎜ −θ⎟ cosθ sinθ cotθ
fy, Lej.kh; rF; "Add Sugar To Coffee". ⎝ 2 ⎠
Y
⎛π ⎞
(90 + θ ) ;k ⎜ + θ ⎟ cos θ – sinθ – cotθ
II prqFkkZa'k I prqFkkZa'k ⎝2 ⎠
S A (180 − θ ) ;k (π − θ) sinθ – cosθ – tanθ
x < 0, y > 0 x > 0, y > 0
sin o cosec /kukRed gksrs lHkh /kukRed gksrs gSa (180 + θ ) ;k (π + θ) – sinθ – cosθ tanθ
gSa
X’ X (270 − θ ) ;k ⎛⎜ 3 π − θ ⎞⎟ – cosθ – sinθ cotθ
III prqFkkZa'k O IV prqFkkZa'k ⎝ 2 ⎠
T C (270 + θ ) ;k ⎛⎜ 3 π + θ ⎞⎟ – cos θ sinθ – cotθ
x > 0, y < 0 ⎝ 2 ⎠
x < 0, y < 0; tan o cot cos o sec
/kukRed gksrs gsa (360 − θ ) ;k (2 π − θ ) – sinθ cosθ – tanθ
/kukRed gksrs gSa
loZçFke f=dks.kferh; Qyu dk fpUg~ fu/kkZfjr djrs gSaA
Y’
 f=dks.kferh; Qyu ,oa f=dks.kferh; vuqikr 389

f=kdks.kferh; vuqikrksa ds dks.kksa ds eku (8) cot( A − B) =

cot A cot B + 1
cot B − cot A
θ 0 π/6 π/4 π/3 π/2 π 3π/2 2π
(9) sin( A + B) sin( A − B) = sin 2 A − sin 2 B = cos 2 B − cos 2 A
sinθ 0 1/2
1/ 2 3 /2
1 0 –1 0
cosθ 1 1/2 0 –1 0 1 (10) cos( A + B) cos( A − B) = cos 2 A − sin 2 B = cos 2 B − sin 2 A
3 /2 1/ 2
tanθ 0 1 ∞ 0 ∞ 0 sin A sin B sin A cos B ± cos A sin B
1/ 3 3 (11) tan A ± tan B = ± =
cos A cos B cos A cos B
(Trigonometrical ratios for various angles)
sin( A ± B) ⎛ π ⎞
= , ⎜ A ≠ nπ + , B ≠ m π ⎟
cos A. cos B ⎝ 2 ⎠
dqN egRoiw.kZ dks.kksa ds f=kdks.kferh; vuqikr sin( B ± A) ⎛ π⎞
(Trigonometrical ratios for some special angles) (12) cot A ± cot B = , ⎜ A ≠ nπ , B ≠ m π + ⎟
sin A sin B ⎝ 2⎠
θ 1o 15 o 1o 18 o 36 o
7
2
22
2
rhu dks.kksa ds fy, f=dks.kferh; vuqikrksa ds ;ksx rFkk
4− 2− 6 3 −1 1
5 −1 1
varj ds lw= (Formulae for the trigonometric ratios of sum
2− 2 10 − 2 5
sin θ 2 4 and differences of three angles)
2 2 2 2 4
(1) sin( A + B + C ) = sin A cos B cos C + cos A sin B cos C
4+ 2+ 6 3 +1 1
2+ 2
1
10 + 2 5 5 +1 + cos A cos B sin C − sin A sin B sin C
cos θ 2 4 4
2 2 2 2
;k sin ( A + B + C) = cos A cos B cos C(tan A + tan B
+ tan C − tan A. tan B. tan C )
tan θ ( 3 − 2) 25 − 10 15 5−2 5
2− 3 2 −1 5 (2) cos( A + B + C ) = cos A cos B cos C − sin A sin B cos C
( 2 − 1)
− sin A cos B sin C − cos A sin B sin C
;k cos( A + B + C ) =
,d nwljs ds inksa esa f=kdks.kferh; vuqikr
(Trigonometrical ratios in terms of each other) cos A cos B cos C(1 − tan A tan B − tan B tan C − tan C tan A)
tan A + tan B + tan C − tan A tan B tan C
sinθ cosθ tanθ cotθ secθ cosecθ (3) tan( A + B + C ) =
1 − tan A tan B − tan B tan C − tan C tan A
sinθ sinθ 1 − cos 2 θ
tan θ 1
sec 2 θ − 1 1
1 + tan 2 θ cosec θ cot A cot B cot C − cot A − cot B − cot C
1 + cot 2 θ sec θ (4) cot( A + B + C ) =
cot A cot B + cot B cot C + cot C . cot A − 1
cosθ 1 − sin 2 θ
cosθ 1 cot θ 1 cosec 2θ − 1 O;kid :i esa]
1 + tan 2 θ 1 + cot 2 θ sec θ cosec θ
(5) sin( A1 + A 2 + ...... + A n )
tanθ sin θ
1 − cos 2 θ tanθ 1
sec 2 θ − 1
1
= cos A1 cos A 2 ..... cos A n (S 1 − S 3 + S 5 − S 7 + ...)
1 − sin 2 θ cos θ cot θ cosec 2θ − 1
(6) cos( A1 + A2 + .. + An ) = cos A1 cos A2 .. cos An (1 − S 2 + S 4 − S 6 ..)
cot θ 1 − sin θ 2 cos θ 1 cotθ 1
cosec θ − 1
2
S 1 − S 3 + S 5 − S 7 + ....
sin θ 1 − cos 2 θ tan θ sec 2 θ − 1 (7) tan( A1 + A 2 + ..... + A n ) =
1 − S 2 + S 4 − S 6 + ....
secθ 1 1
1 + tan 2 θ 1 + cot 2 θ secθ cosec θ
tgk¡] S 1 = tan A1 + tan A 2 + .... + tan A n =dks.kksa dh Li'kZT;kvksa
1 − sin 2 θ cos θ cot θ cosec 2θ − 1
(tangents) dk ;ksx
cosecθ 1 1
1 + tan 2 θ 1 + cot 2 θ
sec θ cosecθ S 2 = tan A1 tan A 2 + tan A 1 tan A 3 + .... = nks dks.kksa ds ,d
sin θ 1 − cos 2 θ tan θ sec 2 θ − 1
lkFk ysus ij Li'kZT;kvksa dk ;ksx
S 3 = tan A1 tan A2 tan A3 + tan A2 tan A3 tan A4 + ... =
nks dks.kksa ds fy, f=kdks.kferh; vuqikrksa ds ;ksx rFkk rhu dks.kksa dks ,d lkFk ysus ij Li'kZT;kvksa dk ;ksx
vUrj ds lw=k (Formulae to the trigonometric ratios of ;fn A1 = A2 = .... = An = A gks] rc
sum and difference of two angles) S 1 = n tan A , S 2 =n C 2 tan 2 A , S 3 = n C 3 tan 3 A,....
(1) sin( A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B (8) sin nA = cos n A(n C1 tan A −n C3 tan 3 A +n C5 tan 5 A − ....)
(2) sin( A − B) = sin A cos B − cos A sin B
(9) cos nA = cos n A(1 − n C 2 tan 2 A + n C 4 tan 4 A − ...)
(3) cos( A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B
n
(4) cos( A − B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B C1 tan A −n C3 tan 3 A + n C5 tan 5 A − ....
(10) tan nA =
tan A + tan B 1 −n C 2 tan 2 A + n C4 tan 4 A −n C6 tan 6 A + ...
(5) tan( A + B) =
1 − tan A tan B (11) sin nA + cos nA = cos n A(1 + n C1 tan A −n C 2 tan 2 A
tan A − tan B
(6) tan( A − B) = −n C3 tan 3 A +n C4 tan 4 A +n C5 tan 5 A −n C6 tan 6 A − .....)
1 + tan A tan B
cot A cot B − 1 (12) sin nA − cos nA = cos n A(−1 +n C1 tan A)
(7) cot( A + B) =
cot A + cot B + n C2 tan 2 A − n C3 tan 3 A − n C4 tan 4 A + n C5 tan 5 A + n C6 tan 6 A + .....)
 390 f=dks.kferh; Qyu ,oa f=dks.kferh; vuqikr
(13) sin(α ) + sin(α + β ) + sin(α + 2 β ) + ..... + sin(α + (n − 1)β ) mi vioR;Z dks.kksa ds f=dks.kferh; vuqikr
sin{α + (n − 1) (β / 2)}. sin(n β / 2) (Trigonometric ratio of sub-multiple of an angle)
=
sin(β / 2) A A
(1) sin + cos = 1 + sin A
(14) cos(α ) + cos(α + β ) + cos(α + 2 β ) + .... + cos(α + (n − 1)β ) 2 2
⎧ ⎛ β ⎞⎫ ⎧ ⎛ β ⎞⎫ A A
cos ⎨α + (n − 1)⎜ ⎟⎬. sin ⎨n⎜ ⎟⎬ ;k sin + cos = ± 1 + sin A
⎝ ⎠⎭ 2 2
= ⎩ 2 ⎩ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎭
β
⎛ ⎞ ⎧ π A 3π
sin ⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠
vFkkZr~ ⎪⎨+, ;fn 2n π − 4 ≤ 2 ≤ 2n π + 4
⎪⎩ −, vU;Fkk
xq.ku dk ;ksx o vUrj ds :i esa ifjorZu lw=k A A A A
(2) sin − cos = 1 − sin A ;k (sin − cos ) = ± 1 − sin A
(Formulae to transform the product into sum or difference) 2 2 2 2
(1) 2 sin A cos B = sin( A + B) + sin( A − B) ⎧ 5π
vFkkZr~ ⎪⎨ +, ;fn 2n π + π / 4 ≤ A / 2 ≤ 2n π + 4
(2) 2 cos A sin B = sin( A + B) − sin( A − B) ⎪⎩−, vU;Fkk
(3) 2 cos A cos B = cos( A + B) + cos( A − B)
A ± tan 2 A + 1 − 1 1 − cos A 1 − cos A
(4) 2 sin A sin B = cos( A − B) − cos( A + B) (3) (i) tan = =± = ,
2 tan A 1 + cos A sin A
C+D C−D tgk¡ A ≠ (2n + 1)π
ekuk A + B = C vkSj A − B = D , rc] A = vkSj B =
2 2
A 1 + cos A 1 + cos A
vr% ;ksx o vUrj dk xq.ku :i esa ifjorZu lw=] (ii) cot =± = , tgk¡ A ≠ 2n π
2 1 − cos A sin A
C+D C−D
(1) sin C + sin D = 2 sin cos sinθ >cosθ
2 2
C+D C−D π
(2) sin C − sin D = 2 cos sin 2
2 2 cosθ > sinθ
3π sin A + cos A is +ve π
C+D C−D 2 2
(3) cos C + cos D = 2 cos cos 4 4
2 2 A A is+ve
sin – cos
C+D D−C C+D C−D 2 2
(4) cos C − cos D = 2 sin sin = −2 sin sin .
2 2 2 2
A A
A A sin is +ve
vioR;Z dks.kksa ds f=kdks.kferh; vuqikr sin + cos is –ve 2 + cos 2
2 2
(Trigonometric ratio of multiple of an angle) π
A A is +ve A A is –ve
sin – cos sin – cos
2 tan A 2 2 2 2
(1) sin 2 A = 2 sin A cos A =
1 + tan 2 A
(2) cos 2 A = 2 cos 2 A − 1 = 1 − 2 sin 2 A A A
sin + cos is –ve
2 2
1 − tan 2 A π 5π
= cos 2 A − sin 2 A = ; tgk¡ A ≠ (2n + 1) . A A 7π
1 + tan 2 A 4 4
sin – cos is –ve
4
2 2
2 tan A A 1 − cos A 3π
(3) tan 2 A = (4) tan 2 = ; tgk¡ A ≠ (2n + 1)π
1 − tan 2 A 2 1 + cos A 2
o o
(4) sin 3 A = 3 sin A − 4 sin A = 4 sin(60 − A). sin A. sin(60 + A)
3
A 1 + cos A
(5) cot 2 = ; tgk¡ A ≠ 2n π
(5) cos 3 A = 4 cos A − 3 cos A
3 2 1 − cos A
= 4 cos(60 o − A). cos A. cos(60 o + A) acosθ +b sinθ dk egRre rFkk U;wure eku
(Maximum and minimum value of a cosθ + b sinθ )
(6) tan 3 A = 3 tan A − tan
3
A
= tan( 60 o − A). tan A. tan( 60 o + A) ,
1 − 3 tan A
2
ekuk a = r cos α …..(i) rFkk b = r sin α ……(ii)
tgk¡ A ≠ n π + π / 6 (i) rFkk (ii) dk oxZ djds tksMus ij] a + b = r
2 2 2

(7) sin 4θ = 4 sin θ . cos 3 θ − 4 cos θ sin 3 θ

⇒ r = a2 + b 2
(8) cos 4θ = 8 cos 4 θ − 8 cos 2 θ + 1
∴ a sin θ + b cos θ = r(sin θ cos α + cos θ sin α )
4 tan θ − 4 tan 3 θ
(9) tan 4θ = = r sin(θ + α )
1 − 6 tan 2 θ + tan 4 θ
(10) sin 5 A = 16 sin A − 20 sin A + 5 sin A
5 3 fdUrq −1 ≤ sin θ ≤ 1 vr%, −1 ≤ sin(θ + α ) ≤ 1 ;
(11) cos 5 A = 16 cos A − 20 cos A + 5 cos A
5 3
rc −r ≤ r sin(θ + α ) ≤ r
 f=dks.kferh; Qyu ,oa f=dks.kferh; vuqikr 391

∴ vr% − a 2 + b 2 ≤ a sin θ + b cos θ ≤ a 2 + b 2 (ii) cos 2 x + cos 2 y + cos 2 z = 2 + 2 sin x sin y sin z
(iii) sin 2 x + sin 2 y + sin 2 z = 4 cos x cos y cos z
bl çdkj a sin θ + b cos θ ds egRre rFkk U;wure eku Øe'k%
(6) ;fn A + B + C = π , rc
a2 + b 2 rFkk − a 2 + b 2 gksaxsA (i) tan A + tan B + tan C = tan A tan B tan C
uksV % sin x + cosec x ≥ 2, x ds çR;sd okLrfod eku ds fy,A
2 2 (ii) cot B cot C + cot C cot A + cot A cot B = 1
B C C A A B
cos 2 x + sec 2 x ≥ 2, x ds çR;sd okLrfod eku ds fy,A (iii) tan tan + tan tan + tan tan = 1
2 2 2 2 2 2
tan 2 x + cot 2 x ≥ 2 , x ds çR;sd okLrfod eku ds fy,A A B C A B C
(iv) cot + cot + cot = cot cot cot
2 2 2 2 2 2
çfrcfU/kr f=dks.kferh; loZlfedk;sa
(Conditional trigonometrical identities)
ge dqN fuf'pr loZlfedkvksa ds ckjs esa tkurs gSa] tSls
sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ = 1rFkk 1 + tan 2 θ = sec 2 θ bR;kfnA bl çdkj dh
loZlfedk;sa dks.k ds lHkh ekuksa ds fy, lR; gksrh gS] fdUrq tks
loZlfedk;sa ,d fuf'pr çfrcU/k ds fy, lR; gksrh gS] çfrcfU/kr " ?kM+h esa nks Øfed vadkas ds e/; 30 (= π/6 jsfM;u)dk dks.k gksrk
o

f=dks.kferh; loZlfedk;sa dgykrh gSaA gSA ?kaVs dh lqbZ (hour hand) ,d ?kaVs esa 30 ?kwe tkrh gSA o

;fn A, B, C fdlh Δ ABC ds dks.k gSa] rc lEcU/k A + B + C = π }kjk

vusd egRoiw.kZ loZlfedk;sa çkIr gksrh gSaA " feuV dh lqbZ (minute hand) ,d feuV esa 6 ?kwe tkrh gSA o

(1) ;fn A + B + C = 180 o , rc " sin n π = 0, cos n π = (−1)n

(i) sin 2 A + sin 2 B + sin 2 C = 4 sin A sin B sin C
(ii) sin 2 A + sin 2 B − sin 2 C = 4 cos A cos B sin C " sin(n π + θ ) = (−1)n sin θ , cos( n π + θ ) = (−1)n cos θ
(iii) sin(B + C − A) + sin(C + A − B) + sin( A + B − C ) n −1
⎛ nπ ⎞
= 4 sin A sin B sin C sin⎜ + θ ⎟ = (−1) 2 cos θ , ;fn n fo"ke gSA
(iv) cos 2 A + cos 2 B + cos 2 C = −1 − 4 cos A cos B cos C ⎝ 2 ⎠
(v) cos 2 A + cos 2 B − cos 2 C = 1 − 4 sin A sin B cos C = (−1)n / 2 sin θ , ;fn n le gSA
(2) ;fn A + B + C = 180 o , rc
n +1
A B C ⎛ nπ ⎞
(i) sin A + sin B + sin C = 4 cos cos cos cos ⎜ + θ ⎟ = (−1) 2 sin θ , ;fn n fo"ke gSA
2 2 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
A B C
(ii) sin A + sin B − sin C = 4 sin sin cos = (–1) n/2 cos θ , ;fn n le gSA
2 2 2
A B C 1
(iii) cos A + cos B + cos C = 1 + 4 sin sin sin ;fn x = sec θ + tan θ , rc = sec θ − tan θ .
2 2 2 x
A B C
(iv) cos A + cos B − cos C = −1 + 4 cos cos sin 1
2 2 2 ;fn x = cosec θ + cot θ , rc = cosec θ − cot θ .
x
cos A cos B cos C
(v) + + =2
sin B sin C sin C sin A sin A sin B " sin(60 o − θ ). sin θ sin(60 o + θ ) =
1
sin 3θ .
(3) ;fn A + B + C = π , rc 4
(i) sin 2 A + sin 2 B − sin 2 C = 2 sin A sin B cos C 1
" cos(60 − θ ) . cos θ . cos(60 o + θ ) = cos 3θ .
(ii) cos 2 A + cos 2 B + cos 2 C = 1 − 2 cos A cos B cos C 4
(iii) sin 2 A + sin 2 B + sin 2 C = 1 − 2 sin A sin B cos C
" tan( 60 ° − θ ). tan θ . tan( 60 ° + θ ) = tan 3θ
(4) ;fn A + B + C = π , rc
A B C A B C " cos A. cos 2 A. cos 2 2. A cos 2 3 A....... cos 2 n −1 A
(i) sin 2 + sin 2 + sin 2 = 1 − 2 sin sin sin
2 2 2 2 2 2
sin 2 n A
A B
(ii) cos 2 + cos 2 + cos 2
C A B
= 2 + 2 sin sin sin
C = , ;fn A ≠ n π
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 n sin A
A B C A B C = 1, ;fn A = 2n π
(iii) sin 2 + sin 2 − sin 2 = 1 − 2 cos cos sin
2 2 2 2 2 2
= – 1, ;fn A = (2n + 1)π
2 A 2 B 2 C A B C
(iv) cos + cos − cos = 2 cos cos sin
2 2 2 2 2 2 A
" ;fn dksbZ lw= sin dk eku sin A ds inksa esa nsrk gS ] rc og
π 2
(5) ;fn x + y + z = , rc
2 ⎛ n π + (−1)n A ⎞
sin ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟ dk eku Hkh nsrk gSA
(i) sin 2 x + sin 2 y + sin 2 z = 1 − 2 sin x sin y sin z ⎝ 2 ⎠
 392 f=dks.kferh; Qyu ,oa f=dks.kferh; vuqikr

A
" ;fn dksbZ lw= cos dk eku cos A ds inksa esa nsrk gS ] rc
2
2n π ± A ⎞
f=dks.kferh; vuqikr o Qyu] lEcfU/kr dks.kksa ds
og cos ⎛⎜ ⎟ dk eku Hkh nsrk gSA f=dks.kferh; vuqikr
⎝ 2 ⎠
A 1. ;fn o`Ùk dh f=T;k 13 ehVj rFkk pki dh yEckbZ 1 ehVj gS] rks
" ;fn dksbZ lw= tan dk eku tan A ds inksa esa nsrk gS ] rc o`Ùk ds dsUæ ij cuk dks.k gksxk [MNR 1973]
2
nπ ± A ⎞ (a) 20° (b) 60°
og tan ⎛⎜ ⎟ dk eku Hkh nsrk gSA 1
⎝ 2 ⎠ (c) jsfM;u (d) 3 jsfM;u
3
" Σ (Sigma) vkSj ∏ (Pie) dk mi;ksx
2. 7 lseh f=T;k ds ,d o`Ùkh; rkj dks dkVdj] 12 lseh f=T;k okys
sin( A + B + C ) = Σ sin A cos B cos C − Π sin A ,
o`Ùk dh ifjf/k ij j[kk x;k gS] rks bl rkj }kjk o`Ùk ds dsUæ ij
cos( A + B + C ) = Π cos A − Σ cos A sin B sin C , varfjr dks.k gksxk [Kerala (Engg.) 2002]
( Q ∏ xq.kuQy çnf'kZr djrk (a) 50° (b) 210°
gS)a (c) 100° (d) 60°
Σ tan A − Π tan A 3. ml o`Ùk dh f=T;k ftldk 15 lseh dk pki dsUæ ij 3/4 jsfM;u
tan( A + B + C ) =
1 − Σ tan A tan B dk dks.k cukrk gS] gS
( Q Σ ;ksxQy çnf'kZr djrk gS) [Karnataka CET 2002]
" sin α + sin(α + β ) + sin(α + 2 β ) + ......... n inksa rd (a) 10 lseh (b) 20 lseh
sin[α + (n − 1)β / 2] sin[n β / 2] 1 1
= (c) 11 lseh (d) 22 lseh
sin(β / 2) 4 2
⎛ n −1 ⎞ nB ;fn x ds okLrfod eku ds fy;s cos θ = x +
1
gS] rc
sin⎜ A + B ⎟ sin 4.
n ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2 x
;k ∑ sin( A + r − 1B) = .
r =1 B [MP PET 1996]
sin
2 (a) θ ,d U;wudks.k gS
" cos α + cos(α + β ) + cos(α + 2 β ) + ......... n inksa rd (b) θ ,d ledks.k gS
⎡ β ⎤ ⎡ nβ ⎤ (c) θ ,d vf/kddks.k gS
cos ⎢α + (n − 1) ⎥ sin ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 2⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎦ (d) θ dk dksbZ eku lEHko ugha gS
=
⎡β ⎤ 5. fuEu esa vlR; dFku gS [MNR 1993]
sin ⎢ ⎥
⎣2⎦ 1
(a) sin θ = − (b) cos θ = 1
⎛ n −1 ⎞ nB 5
cos ⎜ A + B ⎟ sin
n ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2
;k ∑ cos( A + r − 1B) = . (c) sec θ =
1
(d) tan θ = 20
r =1 B 2
sin
2 6. fuEu esa ls dkSu lk lEcU/k lEHko gS
A A ⎡π ⎤ ⎡ π⎤
" sin ± cos = 2 sin ⎢ ± A ⎥ = 2 cos ⎢ A m ⎥ 5
2 2 ⎣4 ⎦ ⎣ 4⎦ (a) sin θ = (b) tan θ = 1002
3
" cos α + cos β + cos γ + cos(α + β + γ )
1 + p2 1
α+β β +γ γ +α (c) cos θ = , ( p ≠ ±1) (d) sec θ =
= 4 cos cos cos 1 − p2 2
2 2 2
" sin α + sin β + sin γ − sin(α + β + γ ) 7. lehdj.k (a + b)2 = 4 ab sin 2 θ rHkh lEHko gS tc
α+β β +γ γ +α (a) 2a = b (b) a = b
= 4 sin sin sin
2 2 2 (c) a = 2b (d) buesa ls dksbZ ugha
" tan α + 2 tan 2α + 4 tan 4α + 8 cot 8α = cot α 4 xy
8. lehdj.k sec 2 θ = rHkh lEHko gS tc
p a (x + y )2
" ;fn = , rc ;ksxkUrjkuqikr fu;e ls]
q b [MP PET 1986; IIT 1996]
p+q a+b q+ p b+a (a) x=y (b) x < y
= ;k =
p −q a−b q − p b −a (c) x > y (d) buesa ls dksbZ ugha
p −q a−b q − p b −a
;k = ;k = .
p+q a+b q+ p b+a
 440 f=dks.kferh; lehdj.k ,oa vlfedk,¡] f=Hkqqtksa ds xq.k] Å¡pkbZ ,oa nwjh
0

Chapter

11
f=dks.kferh; lehdj.k ,oa vlfedk,¡] f=Hkqtksa ds xq.k] Å¡pkbZ ,oa nwjh
f=dks.kferh; lehdj.k ,oa vlfedk,¡ ekud f=dks.kferh; lehdj.kksa ds O;kid gy
(General solution of standard and trigonometrical equation)
çLrkouk (Introduction)
f=dks.kferh; lehdj.k O;kid gy
,sls lehdj.k dks ftuesa ,d ;k ,d ls vf/kd vKkr dks.kksa ds sin θ = 0 θ = nπ
f=dks.kferh; vuqikrksa dk lekos'k gks] f=dks.kferh; lehdj.k dgrs gSa cos θ = 0 θ = n π + (π / 2)
vFkkZr~ sin x + cos 2 x = 1 ; (1 − tan θ )(1 + sin 2θ ) = 1 + tan θ ; tan θ = 0 θ = nπ
⎛ π⎞ sin θ = 1 θ = 2n π + (π / 2)
| sec ⎜θ + ⎟ | = 2 bR;kfnA
⎝ 4⎠ cos θ = 1 θ = 2n π
sin θ = sin α θ = n π + (−1)n α
f=dks.kferh; lehdj.k] f=dks.kferh; loZlfedkvksa ls fHkUu gksrk
cos θ = cos α θ = 2n π ± α
gSA ,d loZlfedk vKkr dks.k ds çR;sd eku ds fy, lUrq"V gksrh gS
tan θ = tan α θ = nπ ± α
tSls cos 2 x = 1 − sin 2 x , x ds lHkh okLrfod ekuksa ds fy, lR; gS] θ = nπ ± α
sin 2 θ = sin 2 α
tcfd f=dks.kferh; lehdj.k vKkr dks.k ds dqN fo'ks"k ekuksa }kjk
tan 2 θ = tan 2 α θ = nπ ± α
lUrq"V gksrk gSA
cos θ = cos α
2 2 θ = nπ ± α
(1) f=dks.kferh; lehdj.k ds ewy % vKkr dks.k (,d pj jkf'k) dk
sin θ = sin α θ = 2n π + α
og eku tks fn, x;s f=dks.kferh; lehdj.k dks lUrq"V djs] lehdj.k *
cos θ = cos α
1
dk ewy dgykrk gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ] cos θ = dk ewy θ = 60 o ;k sin θ = sin α
2 * θ = 2n π + α
tan θ = tan α
θ = 300 o
gS] D;ksafd ;s nksuksa eku lehdj.k dks lUrq"V djrs gSaA
tan θ = tan α
(2) f=dks.kferh; lehdj.kksa ds gy % vKkr dks.kksa ds og eku tks * θ = 2n π + α
cos θ = cos α
f=dks.kferh; lehdj.k dks lUrq"V djrs gSa] f=dks.kferh; lehdj.k ds
gy dgykrs gSaA pw¡fd lHkh f=dks.kferh; Qyu ;k vuqikr vkorhZ gksrs lehdj.k a cosθ + bsinθ = c (tgk¡ a, b, c ∈ R rFkk |c| ≤
gaS] vr% lkekU;r% fdlh f=dks.kferh; lehdj.k ds ,d ls vf/kd ;k √a2 + b2)dk O;kid gy (General solution of the form a cos
vuUr gy gksrs gSaA ;g gy eq[;r% rhu çdkj ds gksrs gSa] θ + b sin θ = c where a,b,c ∈ R and |c| ≤√a2 + b2)
(i) fof'k"V gy (Particular solution) : vKkr dks.k dk fo'ks"k eku] a cos θ + b sin θ = c esa a = r cos α rFkk b = r sin α j[kus ij]
tks lehdj.k dks lUrq"V djrk gSA
(ii) eq[; gy (Principal solution) : vKkr dks.k dk U;wure vkafdd tgk¡ r = a 2 + b 2 rFkk| c | ≤ a 2 + b 2 rc r (cosα cosθ + sinα sinθ ) = c
eku] tks lehdj.k dks larq"V djrk gSA (vkafdd :i ls U;wure fo'ks"k c
⇒ cos(θ − α ) = = cos β , (ekuk) …..(i)
gy) a + b2
2

(iii) O;kid gy (General solution) : vKkr dks.k ds lHkh ekuksa dk ⎛ b⎞

⇒ θ − α = 2n π ± β ⇒ θ = 2n π ± β + α , ⎜ tgk¡ tan α = ⎟
leqPp; tks lehdj.k dks larq"V djrk gSA O;kid gy esa lHkh fof'k"V ⎝ a⎠
gy rFkk eq[; gy lfEefyr gksrs gSaA
O;kid gy gSA
 f=dks.kferh; lehdj.k ,oa vlfedk,¡] f=Hkqqtksa ds xq.k] Å¡pkbZ ,oa nwjh 441

oSdfYid : a = r sin α rFkk b = r cos α j[kus ij ] f=kdks.kferh; lehdj.k dks gy djrs le; /;ku j[kus
tgk¡ r = a2 + b 2 ⇒ sin(θ + α) =
c
= sin γ (ekuk)
;ksX; fcUnq (Important points to be taken in case of while
a + b2
2 solving trigonometrical equations)
(1) fn, x, lehdj.k dh lR;rk dh tk¡p djrs gSaA mnkgj.kr%]
⇒ θ + α = nπ + (−1)n γ ⇒ θ = nπ + (−1)n γ − α,
2 sin θ − cos θ = 4 , θ ds fdlh Hkh eku ds fy, lR; ugha gS] D;ksafd
b (2 sin θ − cos θ )
dk eku dHkh Hkh 2 2 + (−1)2 = 5 ls vf/kd ugha gks
tgk¡ tan α = , O;kid gy gSA
a
ldrk gSA vr% bl lehdj.k dk dksbZ gy ugha gSA
bl çdkj (− a 2 + b 2 ) ≤ a cos θ + b sin θ ≤ ( a 2 + b 2 ) (2) lehdj.k] ftlesa sec θ ;k tan θ gks] dk gy dHkh Hkh
π
a cos x + b sin x = c dk O;kid gy θ = (2n + 1) ugha gks ldrk gSA
2
⎛b⎞ ⎛ c ⎞ blh çdkj] lehdj.k ftlesa cosec θ ;k cot θ gks] dk gy
x = 2n π + tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ ± cos −1 ⎜ ⎟ gSA
⎝a⎠ ⎜ a2 + b 2 ⎟ θ = n π ugha gks ldrk gS D;ksafd laxr Qyu] θ ds bu ekuksa ij
⎝ ⎠
vifjHkkf"kr gSA
f=dks.kferh; lehdj.k dk eq[; eku Kkr djus dh fof/k (3) tc fdlh lehdj.k dks oxZ djds gy djrs gSa] rc oxZ djus
(Method for finding principal value) ds i'pkr~ çkIr ewyksa dh tk¡p dj ysuk pkfg, fd ;g ewy lehdj.k
1 dks larq"V djrs gSa ;k ughaA
ekuk lehdj.k sin θ = − dks lUrq"V djus okyk θ dk eq[;
2 mnkgj.kkFkZ : ekuk x = 3 , oxZ djus ij x 2 = 9 ; ∴ x = 3 rFkk
eku Kkr djuk gSA x = −3 fdUrq x = −3 , ewy lehdj.k dks larq"V ugha djrk gSA
pw¡fd sin θ _.kkRed gSA vr% θ , r`rh; ;k prqFkZ prqFkkZa'k (4) ck¡;s i{k rFkk nk¡;s i{k ds mu mHk;fu"B xq.ku[k.Mksa dks
(quadrant) esa gksxkA r`rh; ;k prqFkZ prqFkkZa'k (quadrant) esa nks fn'kkvksa ls lekIr ugha djuk pkfg,] ftlesa vKkr dks.k 'kkfey gksa D;ksafd ,slk
tk ldrs gSaA ;fn ge okekorZ fn'kk ysrs gSa] rks dks.k dk vkafdd eku djus ls dqN gy çkIr ugha gksrs gSa mnkgj.kkFkZ] ;fn lehdj.k
π ls vf/kd gksxk rFkk ;fn ge nf{k.kkorZ fn'kk ysrs gSa] rks dks.k dk sin θ (2 cos θ − 1) = sin θ cos 2 θ esa nksuksa i{kks ls sin θ lekIr djrs gSa]
vakfdd eku π ls de gksxkA eq[; eku
Y rc cos 2 θ − 2 cos θ + 1 = 0 ⇒ (cosθ − 1)2 = 0 ⇒ cos θ = 1 ⇒ θ = 2nπ
ds fy,] vkafdd :i ls U;wure dks.k
ysrs gSaA vr% eq[; eku ds fy,] fdUrq θ = n π Hkh fn, x, lehdj.k dk ,d gy gS] tks sin θ = 0 ds
(1) ;fn dks.k çFke ;k f}rh; fy, çkIr gksrk gSA vr% vHkh"V rFkk lEiw.kZ gy θ = n π , n ∈ Z gSA
O
prqFkkZa'k (Quadrant) esa gks] rc ge X′ X (5) x dk dksbZ Hkh eku ftlds fy, R.H.S. rFkk L.H.S. leku gks]
π/6 π/6
okekorZ fn'kk ysrs gSa rFkk ;fn dks.k lehdj.k dk ewy gksxk] fdUrq x ds fdlh eku ds fy, ∞ = ∞ gksus ij
rhljk ;k prqFkZ prqFkkZa'k esa gks] rc ge A
og lehdj.k dk gy ugh gksxk] D;ksafd ;g vifjHkkf"kr :i gSA
nf{k.kkorZ fn'kk pqurs gSaA Y ′ vr% tan x rFkk sec x esa lehdj.k gksus ij cos x ≠ 0 rFkk
(2) eq[; eku dk vkafdd eku cot x rFkk cosec x esa lehdj.k gksus ij sin x ≠ 0 .
dHkh Hkh π ls vf/kd ughaa gksuk pkfg,A
pj?kkarkdh Qyu lnSo /kukRed gksrs gS rFkk log a x ifjHkkf"kr
(3) eq[; eku lnSo çFke o`Ùk esa fLFkr gksuk pkfg, (vFkkZr~ çFke
−1 π 5π gksxk] ;fn x > 0 rFkk a > 0, a ≠ 1 . f (x ) = lnSo /kukRed u fd
?kw.kZu esa) A lehdj.k sin θ = − ds fy, θ dk eku − ;k −
2 6 6
/kukRed o _.kkRed nksuksa] vFkkZr~ (tan 2 x ) = tan x u fd ± tan x .
π
gksxkA pw¡fd − vakfdd :i ls U;wure eku gS] vr% lehdj.k (6) θ ds fdlh Hkh eku ds fy, gy djrs le; lehdj.k ds gj esa
6
1 π mifLFkr in 'kwU; ugha gksuk pkfg,A
sin θ = − dk eq[; eku − gksxkA
2 6 (7) fn, x, lehdj.k dks dHkh-dHkh dqN çfrcU/kksa ds vUrZxr gy
mijksDr foospuk ds vuqlkj] eq[; eku Kkr djus dh fof/k dk djrs gSaA mnkgj.kkFkZ% cot 2 θ + cosec 2θ = 1 lR; gksxk] ;fn
lkjka'k fuEukuqlkj gS: cot 2 θ = 0 rFkk cosec 2θ = 1 vr% gy θ = (2n + 1)π / 2 gSA
(i) loZçFke f=dks.kferh; o`Ùk dh jpuk djrs gS rFkk ml prqFkkZa'k (8) ;fn xy = xz rc x (y − z ) = 0 ⇒ ;k rks x = 0 ;k y = z
dks fpfUgr djrs gSa] ftlesa dks.k fLFkr gSA y z
vFkok nksuksaA fdUrq = ⇒ dsoy y = z u fd x = 0 , D;ksafd
(ii) çFke ;k f}rh; prqFkkZa'k (quadrant) ds fy, okekorZ fn'kk pqurs x x
gSa rFkk r`rh; ;k prqFkZ prqFkkZa'k ds fy, nf{k.kkorZ fn'kk pqurs gSaA x =0 ysus ij ∞ = ∞ gks tkrk gSA blh çdkj ;fn ay = az , rc
(iii) çFke ?kw.kZu esa dks.k dk eku Kkr djrs gSaA y = z rHkh gksxk] tcfd a, (a ≠ 0 ) ,d vpj gSA
(iv) dks.k dk U;wure vkafdd eku pqurs gSa] tks fd dks.k dk eq[; blh çdkj] x + y = x + z ⇒ y = z rFkk x − y = x − z ⇒ y = z
eku gksrk gSA ;gk¡ x = 0 ughaa ysrs gSa] D;ksafd x ,d ;ksxkRed xq.ku[akM (additive
(v) ;fn nks dks.kksa ds /kukRed rFkk _.kkRed ekuksa ds vkafdd factor) gS] u fd xq.kkRed xq.ku[akM (multiplicative factor) gSA
eku leku gksa] rc ifjikVh ds vuqlkj dks.k dk /kukRed eku eq[; eku (9) fo|kfFkZ;ksa dks ;g tk¡p dj ysuk pkfg,] fd lHkh ewy
gksrk gSA lehdj.k dks lUrq"V djsa rFkk fn, x, lehdj.k ds pjksa ds çkUr
(domain) esa fLFkr gksaA
 442 f=dks.kferh; lehdj.k ,oa vlfedk,¡] f=Hkqqtksa ds xq.k] Å¡pkbZ ,oa nwjh

vkorhZ Qyu (Periodic functions) ;fn fdlh f=Hkqt ABC dh Hkqtkvksa BC, CA rFkk AB dh yEckbZ;k¡
Qyu f(x) dks vkorhZ Qyu dgrs gSa ;fn Qyu dk çR;sd eku ,d Øe’k% a,b rFkk c gksa] rc dksT;k fu;e ls]
fuf’pr vUrjky ds i’pkr~ Lo;a dks nksgjkrk gS] vFkkZr~ ,d U;wure b 2 + c2 − a2
(1) a 2 = b 2 + c 2 − 2bc cos A ⇒ cos A =
/kukRed okLrfod la[;k T ,slh fo|eku gS ftlds fy;s f (x + T ) = f (x ), 2bc
∀x ∈ çkUr (domain)A Li"V gS fd ;fn T, Qyu f (x ) dk vkorZukad gS c 2 + a2 − b 2
(2) b 2 = c 2 + a 2 − 2 ca cos B ⇒ cos B =
rks f (x ) = f (x + T ) = f (x + 2T ) = f (x + 3 T ) = ...... 2 ca
mnkgj.kkFkZ: sin x , cos x , tan x vkorhZ Qyu gSa] ftuds vkorZukad Øe’k% a2 + b 2 − c 2
(3) c 2 = a 2 + b 2 − 2 ab cos C ⇒ cos C =
2π , 2π rFkk π gSaA 2 ab
vkorhZ Qyu rFkk muds vkorZukad a b c abc
sin A = , sin B = , sin C = , tan A = ,
2R 2R 2R R(b + c 2 − a 2 )
2
Qyu vkorZukad
π ; ;fn n le gS abc abc
n n n
sin x , cos x , sec x , cosec x n tan B = , tan C =
2π ; ;fn n fo"ke ;k fHké gS R(c 2 + a 2 − b 2 ) R(a + b 2 − c 2 )
2

tan n x , cot n x π , ;fn n le ;k fo"ke gS tgk¡ R, f=Hkqt ABC ds ifjo`Ùk dh f=T;k gSA
sin(ax + b ), cos(ax + b ) ç{ksi lw= (Projection formulae)
2π / a
sec(ax + b ), cosec (ax + b ) A
fdlh ΔABC esa] b cos C + c cos B
tan( ax + b), cot(ax + b ) π /a
= k sin B cos C + k sin C cos B , (T;k fu;e ls)
| sin x |, | cos x |, | tan x |, c b
π = k [sin(B + C )] = k sin(π − A)
| cot x |, | sec x |, | cosec x |
= k sin A = a
| sin(ax + b ) |, | cos(ax + b ) | , B C
a
| sec( ax + b ) |, | cosec (ax + b ) | π /a blh çdkj] sine fu;e ls vU; ç{ksi lw= Hkh Kkr dj ldrs gSaA
| tan( ax + b ) |, | cot(ax + b ) | (i) a = b cos C + c cos B (ii) b = c cos A + a cos C
x − [x ] 1 (iii) c = a cos B + b cos A
chtxf.krh; Qyu] vFkkZr~ vFkkZr~ f=Hkqt dh dksbZ ,d Hkqtk] 'ks"k nks Hkqtkvksa ds ç{ksiksa ds ;ksx
vkorZukad dk vfLrRo ugha gS ds cjkcj gksrh gSA
x , x 2 , x 3 + 5,... bR;kfn
ekf/;dk dh çes; ¼viksyksfu;l çes;½
(Theorem of the medians (Apollonius theorem)
f=Hkqtksa ds xq.k ,oa f=Hkqtksa ds gy
fdlh f=Hkqt esa nks Hkqtkvksa ds oxksZa dk ;ksx] rhljh Hkqtk ds vk/ks
f=Hkqt dh Hkqtkvksa rFkk dks.kksa ds e/; lEcU/k ds oxZ rFkk rhljh Hkqtk dks lef}Hkkftr djus okyh ekf/;dk ds oxZ ds
(Relation between sides and angles)
;ksx ds cjkcj gksrk gSA
,d f=Hkqt esa rhu dks.k rFkk rhu Hkqtk;sa vFkkZr~ Ng vo;o gksrs ⎧⎪ ⎛ a ⎞ ⎪⎫
2

gSaA fdlh ΔABC ds rhu dks.kksa dks A, B, C rFkk buds lkeus okyh fdlh f=Hkqt ABC ds fy,] b 2 + c 2 = 2(h 2 + m 2 ) = 2 ⎨m 2 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ ,
⎪⎩ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎪⎭
Hkqtkvksa dks Øe'k% a, b, c ls çnf'kZr fd;k tkrk gSA fdlh ΔABC ds A
fy, dqN lEcU/k fuEufyf[kr gSa a A (dksT;k fu;e ds mi;ksx ls½
• A + B + C = 180 (;k π)
o
c b
•a+b > c ,b +c > a ,c + a > b m
•| a − b | < c,| b − c | < a,| c − a | < b c b C B α β
B D C
lkekU;r% f=Hkqt dh Hkqtkvksa rFkk dks.kksa ds e/; lEcU/k pØh; gksrs h h
gaSA tSls a + b > c dk nwljk lEcU/k a dks b ls, b dks c ls rFkk c dks a ledks.k f=Hkqt esa d.kZ dk e/; fcUnq rhuksa 'kh"kksZa ls leku nwjh ij
ls iquZLFkkfir dj çkIr fd;k tk ldrk gSA gksrk gS] vr% DA = DB = DC .
Sine dk fu;e (T;k fu;e) : f=Hkqt dh Hkqtk;sa mlds lEeq[k dks.kksa ∴ b 2 + c 2 = a 2 , tks fd ik;Fkkxksjl çes; gSA
dh T;k (sine) ds lekuqikrh gksrh gSaA ;g çes; Å¡pkbZ ,oa nwjh ds ç'uksa dks gy djus esa vR;Ur mi;ksxh gSA
a b c
vFkkZr~ = = = k, ¼ekuk½ usfi;j dh vuq:irk çes; (Li'kZT;k dk fu;e :
sinA sinB sinC (Napier's analogy (Law of tangents))
A
s
A − B⎞ ⎛a−b ⎞
fdlh f=Hkqt ABC ds fy,](1) tan ⎛⎜
A C
b ⎟=⎜ ⎟ cot
c ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ a + b ⎠ 2
F E
⎛B−C⎞ ⎛b −c⎞ A
B O (2) tan ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ cot
C B D a C ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ b + c ⎠ 2
O;kid :i esa] ;fn R, ΔABC ds ifjo`Ùk dh f=T;k gS] rc ⎛C − A⎞ ⎛c−a⎞ B
a b c (3) tan ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ cot
= = = 2R . ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ c + a ⎠ 2
sinA sinB sinC
Mollweide's lw= % fdlh ΔABC ds fy,]
dksT;k fu;e (The law of cosines or cosine rule)
 f=dks.kferh; lehdj.k ,oa vlfedk,¡] f=Hkqqtksa ds xq.k] Å¡pkbZ ,oa nwjh 443

cos
1
( A − B) sin
1
( A − B) f=Hkqt ls lEc) o`Ùk (Circle connected with triangle)
a+b 2 a−b 2
= rFkk = . (1) f=Hkqt dk ifjo`Ùk ,oa ifjf=T;k
c sin C
1 c cos C
1
2 2 (i) ifjo`Ùk : fdlh f=Hkqt ds dks.kh; fcUnqvksa ls gksdj tkus okyk
o`Ùk] f=Hkqt dk ifjo`Ùk dgykrk gSA ifjo`Ùk dk dsUæ f=Hkqt dk ifjdsUæ
f=Hkqt dk {ks=kQy (Area of triangle) dgykrk gS] tks fd f=Hkqt dh Hkqtkvksa ds yEck}Zdksa dk çfrPNsn fcanq
gksrk gSA bl o`Ùk dh f=T;k f=Hkqt dh ifjf=T;k dgykrh gS vkSj bls R
ekuk fdlh f=Hkqt ABC ds rhu dks.k A, B, C gSa rFkk bu dks.kksa dh ls çnf'kZr djrs gSaA ifjdsUæ f=Hkqt dh Hkqtk ij] vanj ;k ckgj fLFkr
lEeq[k Hkqtk;sa Øe'k% a, b, c gSaA gks ldrk gSA ledks.k f=Hkqt esa ifjdsUæ] ledks.k ds lkeus dh Hkqtk ds
(1) tc nks Hkqtk;sa rFkk muds e/; dks.k fn;k x;k gks : fdlh f=Hkqt e/; fcUnq ij fLFkr gksrk gSA
ABC dk {ks=Qy fuEu lw=ksa }kjk fn;k tkrk gS] (ii) ifjf=T;k : ΔABC dh ifjf=T;k ds fy, fuEu lw= gS
a b c A
1 1 1 (a) = = =R
Δ= bc sin A = ca sin B = ab sin C , vFkkZr~ 2 sin A 2 sin B 2 sin C
2 2 2 F E
abc
1 (b) R = , [Δ = ΔABC dk {ks=Qy] O
Δ = (nks Hkqtkvksa dk xq.kuQy)×(nksuksa Hkqtkvksa ds e/; dks.k dk sine) 4Δ B D C
2 (2) vUr%o`Ùk rFkk vUr%f=T;k
(2) tc rhuksa Hkqtk;sa nh xbZ gksa: f=Hkqt dk {ks=Qy (i) f=Hkqt dk vUr%o`Ùk : f=Hkqt dh rhuksa Hkqtkvksa dks Li'kZ djds
Δ= s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c) , A tkus okyk rFkk f=Hkqt ds vanj fLFkr o`Ùk vUr% o`Ùk dgykrk gS A o`Ùk
dk dsUæ f=Hkqt ds vUr%dks.kksa ds lef}Hkktdksa dk çfrPNsn fcUnq gksrk
gSA
c b var%o`Ùk dh f=T;k dks r ls çnf'kZr djrs gSa vkSj bldk eku o`Ùk ds
dsUæ ls f=Hkqt dh fdlh Hkh Hkqtk ij Mkys x;s yEc dh yEckbZ ds
B a C cjkcj gksrk gSA
tgk¡ f=Hkqt dk v)Zifjeki a+b+c (ii) vUr%f=T;k: f=Hkqt ABC ds vUr%o`Ùk dh f=T;k ds fy, fuEu
s=
2 lw= gSa A
(3) tc rhuksa Hkqtk;sa rFkk ifjf=T;k nh xbZ gks : f=Hkqt dk Δ
(a) r= A/2
abc s
{ks=Qy] Δ = , tgk¡ R f=Hkqt ds ifjo`Ùk dh f=T;k gSA E
4R A B C
(b) r = 4 R sin sin sin F r r
2 2 2
(4) tc nks dks.k rFkk ,d Hkqtk nh xbZ gks : I
A
1 2 sin B sin C 1 2 sin A sin C 1 2 sin A sin B (c) r = (s − a) tan , r C/2
Δ= a = b = c . 2 B C
2 sin(B + C ) 2 sin( A + C ) 2 sin( A + B) D
B C B
r = (s − b) tan , r = (s − c) tan
v)Z dks.k lw= (Half angle formulae) 2 2 2
B C A C B A
a sin sin b sin sin c sin sin
;fn ΔABC dk ifjeki 2s vFkkZr~ 2 s = a + b + c gS] rc (d) r = 2 2 ,r = 2 2 ,r = 2 2
(1) A B C
ds fy, lw= : A B C
sin , sin , sin cos cos cos
2 2 2 2 2 2
A (s − b )(s − c) B (s − a)(s − c) r
(i) sin = (ii) sin = (e) cos A + cos B + cos C = 1 +
2 bc 2 ca R
(3) f=Hkqt dk cfgZo`Ùk ,oa cfgZf=T;k;sa
C (s − a)(s − b )
(iii) sin = (i) cfgZo`Ùk: og o`Ùk tks fdlh f=Hkqt ABC dh ,d Hkqtk BC dks
2 ab
ckgj ls Li'kZ djs rFkk 'ks"k nks Hkqtkvksa AB vkSj AC ds c<+s gq, Hkkxksa dks
(2) cos
A
, cos
B
, cos
C ds fy, lw= : Li'kZ djs] dks.k A ds lkeus dk cfgZo`Ùk dgykrk gSA bldh f=T;k dks
2 2 2
r1 ls fu:fir djrs gSaA blh çdkj ls dks.k B rFkk C ds lkeus ds
A s(s − a) B s(s − b ) cfgZo`Ùkksa dh f=T;kvksa dks Øe'k% r2 rFkk r3 ls fu:fir djrs gSaA
(i) cos = (ii) cos =
2 bc 2 ca
cfgZo`Ùkksa ds dsUæ dks cfgZdsUæ dgrs gSaA dks.k A ds lkeus ds cfgZo`Ùk dk
C s(s − c) dsUæ] dks.k B rFkk dks.k C ds cká lef}Hkktd dk çfrPNsn fcUnq gksrk
(iii) cos =
2 ab gSA dks.k A dk vkUrfjd lef}Hkktd Hkh blh fcUnq ls xqtjrk gSA dsUæ
A
(3) A B C ds fy, lw= dks lkekU;r% I ls fu:fir djrs gSaA
1

tan , tan , tan A

2 2 2 (ii) cfgZo`Ùk dh f=T;k;sa : ΔABC esa] A
: Δ Δ Δ 2 2
(a) r1 = , r2 = , r3 =
s−a s −b s−c
A (s − b)(s − c) B (s − c)(s − a) A B D
(i) tan = (ii) tan = (b) r1 = s tan , r2 = s tan , B C
2 s(s − a) 2 s(s − b ) 2 2
F E
C (s − a)(s − b ) C
(iii) tan = r3 = s tan r1
I1
r1
2 s(s − c) 2
 444 f=dks.kferh; lehdj.k ,oa vlfedk,¡] f=Hkqqtksa ds xq.k] Å¡pkbZ ,oa nwjh

a cos
B
cos
C C
b cos cos
A A
c cos cos
B (2) ikn f=Hkqt dk {ks=Qy] ifjf=T;k rFkk vUr%f=T;k % ikn f=Hkqt
(c) r1 = 2 2 , r2 = 2 2 , r3 = 2 2 1
A B C dk {ks=Qy = (Hkqtkvksa dk xq.kuQy)× (nksuksa Hkqtkvksa ds e/; dks.k dk
cos cos cos 2
2 2 2 1 2
1 1 1 1 sine) = R . sin 2 A. sin 2 B. sin 2 C
(d) r1 + r2 + r3 − r = 4 R (e) + + = 2
r1 r2 r3 r EF R sin 2 A R
ikn f=Hkqt dh ifjf=T;k = = = .
1 1 1 1 a2 + b 2 + c 2 2 sin ∠FDE 2 sin(180 − 2 A) 2
o
(f) + 2 + 2 + 2 =
r 2
r1 r2 r3 Δ2 ΔDEF dk
{ks«kQy
ikn f=Hkqt dh vUr% f=T;k =
(g)
1
+
1
+
1
=
1
(h) r1r2 + r2 r3 + r3 r1 = s 2 ΔDEF dk v)Z ifjeki
bc ca ab 2 Rr 1 2
R sin 2 A. sin 2 B. sin 2C
A B C
(i) Δ = 2 R 2 sin A. sin B. sin C = 4 Rr cos . cos . cos = 2 = 2 R cos A. cos B. cos C .
2 2 2 2 R sin A. sin B. sin C
A B C A B
(j) r1 = 4 R sin cos cos ; r2 = 4 R cos . sin . cos
C cfgZdsUæh; f=Hkqt (Ex-central triangle)
2 2 2 2 2 2 ekuk ABC ,d f=Hkqt gS rFkk I var%o`Ùk dk dsUæ gSA I1 , I2 rFkk
A B C
(k) r3 = 4 R cos cos sin I3 cfgZo`Ùkksa ds dsUæ gSa] tks Øe'k% A, B rFkk C ds lkeus ds dsUæ gSaA
2 2 2
rc I1 I2 I3 dks ΔABC dk cfgZdsUæh; f=Hkqt dgrs gSaA bl çdkj
(4) dsUæd (G) : f=Hkqt dh ekf/;dkvksa dk çfrPNsn fcUnq dsUæd
cfgZdsUæh; f=Hkqt I1 I 2 I 3 dk ikn f=Hkqt (pedal triangle), Δ ABC gSA
dgykrk gSA dsUæd] çR;sd ekf/;dk dks 2 : 1 ds vuqikr esa foHkkftr
I A I
djrk gS rFkk lnSo f=Hkqt ds vUnj fLFkr gksrk gSA 3
2

A
90 – C/2
o

I 90 – B/2
o

B
C
G

B C I 90 – A/2
o

D
(5) f=Hkqt dk yEc-dsUæ : f=Hkqt ds 'kh"kksZa ls lEeq[k Hkqtkvksa ij
1

A B
cfgZdsUæh; f=Hkqt I1 I2 I3 ds dks.k gSa] 90 o − , 90 o − ,
Mkys x, yEcksa dk çfrPNsn fcUnq f=Hkqt dk yEcdsUæ dgykrk gSA. 2 2
ikn f=Hkqt (Pedal triangle) C B C
90 o − rFkk Hkqtk;sa gSa] I1 I3 = 4 R cos ; I1 I2 = 4 R cos ;
2 2 2
ekuk f=Hkqt ABC ds 'kh"kkasZ A, B rFkk C A A
I2 I3 = 4 R cos .
ls lEeq[k Hkqtkvksa BC, CA rFkk AB ij Mkys 2
x, yEc Øe'k% AD, BE, rFkk CF gS]a tks fcanq cfgZdsUæh; f=Hkqt dk {ks=Qy rFkk ifjf=T;k
O ij feyrs gSa] rc fcUnq O Δ ABC dk F E 1
yEcdsUæ dgykrk gS rFkk Δ DEF, ΔABC dk cfgZdsUæh; f=Hkqt dk {ks=Qy = (nksuksa Hkqtkvksa dk xq.kuQy) ×
O 2
ikn f=Hkqt dgykrk gSA (nksuksa Hkqtkvksa ds e/; dks.k dk sine)
f=Hkqt dk yEcdsUæ mlds ikn f=Hkqt dk B C 1⎛ B⎞ ⎛ C⎞ ⎛ A⎞
D
var%dsUæ dgykrk gSA Δ= ⎜ 4 R cos ⎟ . ⎜ 4 R cos ⎟ × sin⎜ 90 o − ⎟
2⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
;fn O yEcdsUæ rFkk Δ DEF, ΔABC dk ikn f=Hkqt gS] tgk¡ 'kh"kksaZ A, B,
A B C
C ls lEeq[k Hkqtkvksa ij Mkys x;s yEc Øe'k% AD, BE rFkk CF gSaA rc] Δ = 8 R 2 cos . cos . cos
2 2 2
(i) OA = 2 R cos A, OB = 2 R cos B rFkk OC = 2 R cos C
A
(ii) OD = 2 R cos B cos C, OE = 2 R cos C cos A 4 R cos
I2 I3 2
ifjf=T;k = = = 2R .
rFkk OF = 2 R cos A cos B 2 sin ∠I 2 I1 I 3 ⎛ o A⎞
2 sin⎜ 90 − ⎟
(1) ikn f=Hkqt dh Hkqtk;sa rFkk dks.k : ikn f=Hkqt DEF ds dks.k gSa( ⎝ 2⎠
180 o − 2 A, 180 o − 2 B, 180 o − 2 C rFkk A pØh; prqZHkqt (Cyclic quadrilateral)
ikn f=Hkqt dh Hkqtk;sa gSa % ,d prqZHkqt PQRS pØh; prqZHkqt dgykrk gS] ;fn blds pkjksa 'kh"kksZa
EF = a cos A ;k R sin 2 A ; c cos C P, Q, R rFkk S ls gksdj ,d o`Ùk xqtjrk gks vFkkZr~ pØh; prqHkqZt ds
b cos B a cos A E S
FD = b cos B ;k R sin 2 B ; 'kh"kZ o`Ùk ij fLFkr gksrs gSaA
DE = c cos C ;k R sin 2 C O d c
;fn ΔABC vf/kddks.k f=Hkqt gS] P R
B C
rc dks.k 2 A, 2 B, 2C − 180 o rFkk 180 – 2A D a
b
Hkqtk;sa a cos A, b cos B, − c cos C gksaxhA
Q
 f=dks.kferh; lehdj.k ,oa vlfedk,¡] f=Hkqqtksa ds xq.k] Å¡pkbZ ,oa nwjh 445

ekuk ,d pØh; prqZHkqt bl çdkj gS] fd PQ = a, QR = b,

RS = c rFkk SP = d , rc ∠Q + ∠S = 180 o rFkk ∠A + ∠C = 180 o .
f=Hkqtksa dk gy (Solutions of triangles)
ekuk 2 s = a + b + c + d f=Hkqtksa dk gy Kkr djrs le; fofHkUu fLFkfr;ksa esa fofHkUu lw=ksa
rc] pØh; prqHkqZt dk
1
{ks=Qy = (ab + cd ) sin Q dk ç;ksx djrs gSaA lw= dk mi;ksx djrs le; bl ckr dk /;ku
2 j[kuk pkfg,] fd ç'u dks vklkuh ls gy dj ldsaA
pØh; prqHkqZt dk {ks=Qy = (s − a)(s − b )(s − c)(s − d ) , tgk¡ (1) ledks.k f=Hkqt dk gy (2) lkekU; f=Hkqt dk gy

a +b −c −d
2 2 2 2 (1) ledks.k f=Hkqt dk gy
2s = a + b + c + d rFkk cos Q = .
2(ab + cd ) tc nks Hkqtk;sa nh xbZ gksa : ekuk f=Hkqt dk ∠C ledks.k gS rc
(i)
(1) pØh; prqHkZqt dh ifjf=T;k % ekuk PQRS ,d pØh; prqHkqZt gS]
ge nh xbZ rkfydk ds vuqlkj 'ks"k inksa dks Kkr dj ldrs gSaA
rc prqHkqZt PQRS dk ifjo`Ùk rFkk ΔPQR dk ifjo`Ùk ,d gh gksxkA
vr% pØh; prqHkqZt PQRS dh ifjf=T;k = R rFkk fn;k gS Kkr djuk gS
1 1 (ac + bd )(ad + bc )(ab + cd ) a, b a a
R= (ac + bd )(ad + bc )(ab + cd ) = . tan A = , B = 90 o − A , c =
4Δ 4 (s − a)(s − b)(s − c)(s − d ) b sin A
a, c a
(2) VkWyeht çes;% pØh; prqHkZqt PQRS esa fod.kksZa dk xq.kuQy sin A = , b = c cos A, B = 90 o − A
c
foijhr Hkqtkvksa dh yEckbZ;ksa ds xq.kuQy ds ;ksxQy ds cjkcj gksrk gS
vFkkZr~ VkWyeht çes; ds vuqlkj pØh; prqHkqZt PQRS es]a (ii) tc ,d Hkqtk rFkk ,d U;wudks.k fn;k x;k gks : bl fLFkfr esa ge
PR.QS = PQ.RS + RQ .PS . P nh xbZ rkfydk ds vuqlkj 'ks"k inksa dks Kkr dj ldrs gSaA
Q
fn;k gS Kkr djuk gS
a, A a
B = 90 o − A, b = a cot A, c =
sin A
R
c, A B = 90 o − A, a = c sin A, b = c cos A
S
lecgqHkqt (Regular polygon)
lecgqHkqt dh lHkh Hkqtk;sa ,oa lHkh dks.k leku gksrs gSaA (2) lkekU; f=Hkqt dk gy
(1) n Hkqtkvksa ds lecgqHkqt dk çR;sd vkUrfjd dks.k (i) tc rhu Hkqtk;sa a, b rFkk c nh xbZ gksa% bl fLFkfr esa] fuEu
lw=ksa ds mi;ksx ls 'ks"k inksa dks Kkr dj ldrs gSa,
⎛ 2n − 4 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ × 90 = ⎡⎢ 2 n − 4 ⎤⎥ × π
o
jsfM;u gksrk gSA Δ= s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c) ,
⎝ n ⎠ ⎣ n ⎦ 2
fdlh lecgqHkqt ds leLr 'kh"kksZa ls xqtjus okyk o`Ùk ifjo`Ùk
(2) tgk¡ 2 s = a + b + c = f=Hkqt dk ifjeki
dgykrk gSA 2Δ 2Δ 2Δ
sin A = , sin B = , sin C =
;fn n Hkqtkvksa ds lecgqHkqt dh izR;sd Hkqtk dh yEckbZ a gS] rc bc ac ab
π
ifjo`Ùk dh f=T;k lw= R = cosec ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ ls izkIr gksrh gSA
a
A Δ B Δ C Δ
2 ⎝n⎠ tan = , tan = , tan = .
2 s(s − a) 2 s(s − b) 2 s(s − c)
(3) ;fn dksbZ o`Ùk fdlh lecgqHkqt ds Hkhrj bl izdkj cuk gS] fd
bldh lHkh Hkqtkvksa dks Li'kZ djrk gS] vUr%o`Ùk dgykrk gSA ;fn n (ii) tc nks Hkqtk;sa a, b ,oa muds e/; dks.k C fn;k x;k gks% bl
Hkqtkvksa ds lecgqHkqt dh izR;sd Hkqtk dh yEckbZ a gS] rc vUr%o`Ùk dh 1
fLFkfr esa fuEu lw=ksa dk mi;ksx djrs gSa] Δ = ab sin C ;
π 2
f=T;k lw= r = cot ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ ls Kkr gksrh gSA
a
A − B a−b C A+B C a sin C
2 ⎝n⎠ tan = cot ; = 90 o − ,oa c= .
O C 2 a+b 2 2 2 sin A
F π/n
R (iii) tc ,d Hkqtk a rFkk nks dks.k A rFkk B fn, x;s gksa : bl
r R
A fLFkfr esa fuEu lw=ksa dk mi;ksx djrs gSa
B
(4) lecgqHkqt dk {ks=Qy Δ = n × ΔOAB dk {ks=Qy A + B + C = 180 o ⇒ C = 180 o − A − B
1 2 ⎛π ⎞ a sin B a sin C 1
= na cot ⎜ ⎟ , ¼Hkqtkvksa ds inksa b= rFkk c = ⇒ Δ = ca sin B .
4 ⎝n⎠ sin A sin A 2
esa½ (iv) tc nks Hkqtk;sa a, b rFkk ,d Hkqtk ds lEeq[k dks.k A fn;k x;k
⎛π ⎞ gks : bl fLFkfr esa fuEu lw=ksa dk mi;ksx djrs gSa
= nr 2 . tan ⎜ ⎟ , (var%f=T;k ds inksa
⎝n⎠ b
sin B = sin A …..(i)
esa) a
n 2 ⎛ 2π ⎞ a sin C
= . R sin ⎜ ⎟ ,(ifjf=T;k ds inksa esa) C = 180 o − ( A + B), c =
2 ⎝ n ⎠ sin A
 446 f=dks.kferh; lehdj.k ,oa vlfedk,¡] f=Hkqqtksa ds xq.k] Å¡pkbZ ,oa nwjh
fo'ks"k fLFkfr;k¡ fp= esa] ekuk AC = b, ∠CAX = A . vc ;fn C dks dsaæ ekudj a
Case I : tc dks.k A U;wudks.k gks f=T;k dk pki [khaprs gSa] rc ;g AX dks nks fcUnqvksa B1 rFkk B2 ij
(i) ;fn a < b sin A, rc dksbZ f=Hkqt laHko ugha gSA tc dkVrk gS vr% ;fn b > a sin A ] rc nks f=Hkqt laHko gSaA
a < b sin A, rc (i) ls sin B > 1, tks fd laHko ugha gSA C2 C
C1
C b
a a

A b sinA
a X
b A B2 N B1
B b sin A
Case II : tc A ,d vf/kd dks.k gS : bl fLFkfr esa f=Hkqt laHko gS]
C
A ;fn a > b .
A X
N
b sinA b a
(ii);fn a = b sin A , rc dsoy ,d f=Hkqt laHko gS] tks fd B ij A
ledks.k gSA tc a = b sin A, rc T;k (sine) fu;e ls sin B = 1, X
N A B
∴ ∠B = 90 o . fp= ls] ;g Li"V gS fd CB = a = b sin A . Case III: b > c rFkk B = 90 o . iqu% A dks dsUæ ysdj b f=T;k dk
C o`Ùk [khaprs gSa tks fd js[kk dks dsoy ,d fcanq ij dkVrk gS] vr% dsoy
C
,d f=Hkqt laHko gSA

b a = b sinA A
B c
b
A 90 o

A X Case IV: b ≤ crFkk B = 90 o

bl çdkj] bl fLFkfr esa dsoy ,d B f=Hkqt laHko gS] tks fd B ij
A dks dsUæ ysdj [khapk x;k b f=T;k dk o`Ùk] js[kk dks fdlh fcanq
ledks.k gSA
(iii) a > b sin A, rc rhu laHkkouk;sa fufeZr gksrh gSaA ij ugha dkVrk gS] vr% dksbZ f=Hkqt laHko ugha gSA
(a) a = b bl fLFkfr esa T;k (sine) fu;e ls] a2 + c 2 − b 2
oSdfYid fof/k : dksT;k (cosine) lw= ls] cos B =
2 ac
sin B = sin A ; ∴ B = A ;k B = 180 o − A
⇒ a 2 − (2 c cos B)a + (c 2 − b 2 ) = 0
fdarq B = 180 o − A ⇒ A + B = 180 o , tks fd f=Hkqt esa laHko ugha gSA
∴ bl fLFkfr esa] ∠A = ∠B C ⇒ a = c cos B ± (c cos B)2 − (c 2 − b 2 )
c A
B
b a ⇒ a = c cos B ± b − (c sin B)
2 2
b
b sinA
A bl lehdj.k ls fuEu fLFkfr;k¡ çkIr gksrh gSa]
A X
N B (i) ;fn b < c sin B , rc dksbZ f=Hkqt laHko ugha gSA
vr% ;fn b = a > b sin A , rc dsoy ,d lef}ckgq f=Hkqt ABC
(ii) ekuk b = c sin B, rc iqu% nks laHkkouk;sa curh gSa]
laHko gS] tgk¡ ∠A = ∠B gSA
(a) B ,d vf/kd dks.k gS ⇒ cos B _.kkRed gS] vr% fdlh f=Hkqt
(b) ;fn a > b rc fp= ls] ekuk AC = b, ∠CAX = A, a > b
C dk vfLrRo ugha gSA
rFkk a > b sin A
(b) B ,d U;wudks.k gS ⇒ cos B /kukRed gS] vr% ;gk¡ dsoy ,d
a a
b f=Hkqt laHko gSA
A b sinA (iii) ekuk b > c sin B rc fuEu fLFkfr;k¡ fufeZr gksrh gSa]
B′ A X
N B (a) B ,d U;wudks.k gS ⇒ cosB /kukRed gSA bl fLFkfr esa a ds nks
vc ;fn C dks dsaæ ysdj a f=T;k dk pki [khprsa gS] tks js[kk AX eku çkIr gksaxs ;fn vkSj dsoy ;fn c cos B > b 2 − (c sin B)2 ;k c > b
dks ,d fcUnq B ij dkVrk gS] rc dsoy ΔABC dh jpuk dj ldrs
vFkkZr~ nks f=Hkqt laHko gSaA ;fn c < b, rc dsoy ,d f=Hkqt laHko gSA
gSaA ;g pki XA dks fcUnq B ' ij Hkh dkVrk gS vr% ΔA B ′C Hkh çkIr
gksrk gS fdUrq ;g f=Hkqt vxzkâ; gS (D;ksafd bl f=Hkqt esa ∠CA B ′ (b) B ,d vf/kddks.k gS ⇒ cosB _.kkRed gSA bl fLFkfr esa f=Hkqt
vf/kd dks.k gSA) laHko gS] ;fn b 2 − (c sin B)2 >| c cos B | ⇒ b > c . vr% bl fLFkfr
vr% ;fn a > b rFkk a > b sin A, rc dsoy ,d f=Hkqt laHko gSA esa dsoy ,d f=Hkqt laHko gSA ;fn b < c , rc dksbZ f=Hkqt laHko ugha
gSA
(c) b > a , ¼vFkkZr~ b > a > b sin A ½
Å¡pkbZ ,oa nwjh
 f=dks.kferh; lehdj.k ,oa vlfedk,¡] f=Hkqqtksa ds xq.k] Å¡pkbZ ,oa nwjh 447

Å¡pkbZ ,oa nwjh ls lacfU/kr dqN egRoiw.kZ rF; (5) fc;fjax (Bearing) : fp= esa] ;fn n'kZd ,oa oLrq vFkkZr~ O rFkk
(Some terminology related to heights and distances) P leku ry ij gks rc fc;fjax ifjHkkf"kr gSA pkj ekud fn'kkvksa ls

(1) mUu;u dks.k ,oa voueu dks.k : ekuk

O vkSj P nks ,sls fcUnq gSa
fc;fjax ekirs gSaA
fd fcUnq P, fcUnq O ls Å¡pkbZ ij gSA OX vkSj PQ Øe'k% O vkSj P ls nks js[kk OP ,oa dksbZ ,d ekud
{kSfrt js[kk;sa gSaA ;fn ,d n'kZd fn'kk (iwoZ] if'pe] mRrj] nf{k.k) ds
(;k vk¡[k) O ij gS vkSj P ij dksbZ {kSfrt js[kk
Q
voueu dks.k
P chp dks.k ekirs gSaA
oLrq gS] rks ∠XOP dks O ls P dk bl izdkj ∠POE = θ , O ds lkis{k fcUnq P dk fc;fjax dgykrk gS] tks
mUu;u dks.k dgrs gSaA bl dks.k
dks O ls P dh dks.kh; Å¡pkbZ Hkh fd iwoZ ls mRrj dh vksj ekik tkrk gSA
mUu;u dks.k
dgrs gSaA O
{kSfrt js[kk
X (6)m-n cot izes;: C
;fn ,d n'kZd (;k vk¡[k) P (m + n) cot θ = m cot α − n cot β α β
ij gS vkSj O ij dksbZ oLrq gS] rks ∠QPO dks P ls O dk voueu dks.k = n cot A − m cot B ,(θ nk¡;h vksj gS)- I II
dgrs gSaA ;fn θ ck¡;h vksj gks] rc nk¡;h A θ B
(2) Å¡pkbZ o nwjh ds iz'uksa dks gy djus dh fof/k vksj dk dks.k π − θ rFkk A m D n B

(i) loZizFke iz'u ds vuq:i ,d LoPN fp= cukb;sa] tks lHkh cot(π − θ ) = − cot θ gksxkA bl fLFkfr
I II
dks.kksa rFkk nwfj;ksa dks vf/kd ls vf/kd n'kkZ ldsA esa m-n izes; gS(
(ii) lnSo /;ku j[ksa fd ;fn ,d js[kk] ry ds yEcor~ gS] rc ;g −(m + n) cot θ = m cot α − n cot β = n cot A − m cot B ,(θ ck¡;h vksj
bl ry esa mifLFkr izR;sd js[kk ds yEcor~ gksxhA gS)A
(iii) Å¡pkbZ ,oa nwjh ds iz'uksa dks gy djrs le; ledks.k f=Hkqt esa
,d U;wudks.k rFkk ,d Hkqtk Kkr gksus ij 'ks"k Hkqtk;sa Kkr djus ds fy,
o`Ùk ls lEcfU/kr egRoiw.kZ xq.k
(Some properties related to circle)
f=dks.kferh; vuqikrksa ds lw=ksa dk mi;ksx djrs gSaA
(iv) ledks.k f=Hkqt ds vfrfjDr fdlh Hkh f=Hkqt ds fy, T;k (1) o`Ùk ds ,d gh [k.M esa cus dks.k leku gksrs gSa] vFkkZr~
(sine) fu;e dk mi;ksx dj ldrs gSaA
∠APB = ∠AQB = ∠ARB . P
a b c Q
vFkkZr~ lw=, = = , ;k cosine lw= vFkkZr~
sin A sin B sin C R
b +c −a
2 2 2
cos A = bR;kfnA
2bc
(v) le:i f=Hkqtksa ds xq.kksa dk mi;ksx dj fdlh fo'ks"k Hkqtk dh B
A
eki Kkr dj ldrs gSaA (2) o`Ùk ds ,dkUrj [k.Mksa esa cus dks.k leku gksrs gSaA
(3) f=Hkqtksa ds T;kferh; xq.k % (i) fdlh f=Hkqt esa dks.k dk A A
vkUrfjd lef}Hkktd ml dks.k dh lEeq[k Hkqtk dks] dks.k dh layXu α
Hkqtkvksa ds vuqikr vFkkZr~ 'ks"k nks Hkqtkvksa ds vuqikr esa foHkkftr djrk B α
BD c A
gS] vFkkZr~ = .
DC b A α B
α
C C O T
b ;fn nks fcUnqvksa A OrFkk B dks feykus okyh js[kk fdlh fcUnq P
(3)
c A/2 A/2 ij egÙke dks.k α cukrh gS] rc o`Ùk] ljy js[kk XX’ dks fcUnq P ij Li'kZ
B C 90o djrk gSA
A
B c C C
D b B D
(ii) lef}ckgq f=Hkqt esa ekf/;dk vk/kkj ds yEcor~ gksrh gS] vFkkZr~ B
AD ⊥ BC . N NE
(iii)le:i f=Hkqt esa laxr P1 α
P2 ENE
Hkqtk;sa lekuqikrh gksrh gSaA 45o o
45
X′
P
X
(iv) f=Hkqt ds cfg"dks.k 22.5o (4)o`Ùk dh fdlh thok }kjk dsUæ ij varfjr dks.k] blh thok
W E }kjk o`Ùk dh ifjf/k ds fdlh fcUnq ij varfjr dks.k dk nqxquk gksrk gSA
dk eku lEeq[k var%dks.kksa ds O 45o
;ksx ds cjkcj gksrk gSaA P
(4) mÙkj-iwoZ: mÙkj-iwoZ P3
α
vFkkZr~ mRrj rFkk iwoZ ls leku S
:i ls >qdko] nf{k.k-iwoZ vFkkZr~
nf{k.k rFkk iwoZ ls leku :i ls >qdko gksrk gSA ENE vFkkZr~ iwoZ rFkk 2α
mRrj-iwoZ ls leku :i ls >qdko gksrk gSA A B
dqN egRoiw.kZ ifj.kke
N
P

W θ
O E

S
 448 f=dks.kferh; lehdj.k ,oa vlfedk,¡] f=Hkqqtksa ds xq.k] Å¡pkbZ ,oa nwjh

(1) (2) (3)

P
h
h
H
α β
α β
Q a d B
h sin(β −d α ) x A
a β
a = h (cot α − cot β ) =
sin α . sin β α a = h(cot α + cot β ) , tgk¡
∴h = a sin α sin β co sec (β − α ) rFkk h = a sin α . sin β .cosec (α + β ) rFkk
d = h cot β = a sin α . cos β .cosec (β − α ) H = x cot α tan(α + β )
d = h cot β = a sin α . cos β .cosec (α + β )
(4) (5) (6)

H
H α H α
h a β
α β
h

h cot β
β H
H= H sin(β − α ) h cot α a sin(α + β )
cot α h= ;k H= H=
cos α sin β cot α − cot β sin(β − α )
(7) (8) (9)
A OP – ehukj P P
A – nf{k.k
B – iwoZ h
y

β B
D O
O
α
d N
β α
α β W E
A
C x B α+β⎞ AB
AB = CD , rc x = y tan ⎛⎜ ⎟
h=
d h=
⎝ 2 ⎠ S B cot β − cot 2 α
2
cot 2 β + cot 2 α A

(10) (11)
P P
Q

h θ
α
β δγ
β A a B
h = AP sin α α AP = a sin γ .co sec (α − γ ) ,
A
= a sin α . sin γ .cosec (β − γ ) rFkk Q AQ = a sin δ .cosec (β − δ )
γ
;fn AQ = d , rc d = AP cosα = a cosaα. sinγ . cosec (β − γ ) rFkk PQ 2 = AP 2 + AQ 2 − 2 AP . AQ cos θ
B

A B s−c A B s
" tan tan = ⇒ cot cot =
2 2 s 2 2 s−c
 f=dks.kferh; lehdj.k ,oa vlfedk,¡] f=Hkqqtksa ds xq.k] Å¡pkbZ ,oa nwjh 449

A B c C
" tan + tan = cot " ;fn sin A + sin B + sin C =
3 3
, rc f=Hkqt leckgq gksxkA
2 2 s 2 2
A B a−b
" tan − tan = (s − c ) " ;fn tan A + tan B + tan C = 3 3 , rc f=Hkqt leckgq gksxkA
2 2 s

" cot
A B
+ cot =
c
cot
C " ;fn cot A + cot B + cot C = 3 , rc f=Hkqt leckgq gksxkA
2 2 s−c 2
" ;fn cos 2 A + cos 2 B + cos 2 C = 1 , rc f=Hkqt leckgq gksxkA
" fdlh f=Hkqt ds ifjdsUæ] dsUæd rFkk yEcdsUæ lejs[kh; gksrs gSaA
" fdlh ledks.k f=Hkqt esa yEcdsUæ f=Hkqt ds ml 'kh"kZ ij gksrk
" fdlh fn;s x;s f=Hkqt ds ikn-f=Hkqt dk ifjo`Ùk] fn, x;s
gS] tgk¡ ledks.k curk gSA f=Hkqt dh Hkqtkvksa dks rFkk fn, x;s f=Hkqt ds 'kh"kksZa ls yEcdsUæ dks
" fdlh ledks.k f=Hkqt esa d.kZ dk e/;fcUnq] f=Hkqt ds rhuksa feykus okyh js[kkvksa dks lef}Hkkftr djrk gSA ;g o`Ùk ukS fcUnq o`Ùk
'kh"kksaZ ls leku nwjh ij gksrk gSA (Nine point circle)dgykrk gSA
" fdlh ledks.k f=Hkqt esa d.kZ dk e/; fcUnq] f=Hkqt dk ifjdsUæ " fdlh fn;s x;s f=Hkqt ds ikn f=Hkqt dk ifjdsUæ] f=Hkqt ds
gksrk gSA yEcdsUæ ls ifjdsUæ dks feykus okyh js[kk dks lef}Hkkftr djrk gSA
" fdlh ΔABC dh ekf/;dk;sa AD, BE rFkk CF fuEu lw= }kjk
A " Σ( p − q) = ( p − q ) + (q − r) + (r − p ) = 0 ,
1
Kkr dj ldrs gSa( AD = 2b 2 + 2 c 2 − a 2 , Σp(q − r) = p(q − r) + q(r − p ) + r( p − q ) = 0 .
2
1 F E Σ( p + a)(q − r) = Σp(q − r) + aΣ(q − r) = 0 .
= b 2 + c 2 + 2bc cos A G
2 " sine lw= dk mi;ksx djrs le; fuEu fcUnqvksa dk /;ku j[kuk
B C pkfg;sA gesa ,d Hkqtk a nh x;h gS rFkk vU; Hkqtk x Kkr djuh gSA
D
1 1 2
BE = 2c 2 + 2a 2 − b 2 = c + a 2 + 2 ca. cos B ;s nksuksa fofHkUu f=Hkqtksa esa fLFkr gSaA ge bu f=Hkqtksa dh ,d
2 2
mHk;fu"B Hkqtk pqurs gSa vkSj ,d f=Hkqt esa a vkSj y ds fy;s rFkk
1 1
CF = 2 a 2 + 2b 2 − c 2 = a 2 + b 2 + 2 ab. cos C nwljs esa x vkSj y ds fy, lw= yxkrs gSa bl izdkj y dks foyqIr djrs
2 2
gSaA bl izdkj] gesa vKkr Hkqtk x dk eku a ds inksa esa Kkr gks tkrk gSA
" fdlh ΔABC ds ifjdsUæ O rFkk dsUæd G ds e/; nwjh Kkr
djus ds fy, layXu fp= esa a f=Hkqt ABC dh Kkr Hkqtk gS rFkk x f=Hkqt ACD dh
1 1 vKkr Hkqtk gSA mHk;fu"B Hkqtk AC = y (ekuk) gSA
OG = OH = R 1 − 8 cos A. cos B. cos C , tgk¡ H, ΔABC dk A
3 3
yEc dsUæ gSA a θ
" fdlh ΔABC ds yEcdsUæ H rFkk dsUæd G ds e/; nwjh] B β y γ D
2
HG = R 1 − 8 cos A. cos B. cos C . α
3 x
" fdlh ΔABC ds ifjdsUæ O rFkk vUr%dsUæ I ds e/; nwjh] C
sine fu;e ls]
A B C
OI = R 1 − 8 sin . sin . sin a y
2 2 2 ∴ = ….(i)
sin α sin β
" ;fn I1 , dks.k B ds lkeus ds cfgZo`Ùk dk dsUæ gS] rc
x y
A B C rFkk = ….(ii)
OI1 = R 1 + 8 sin . cos . cos sin θ sin γ
2 2 2
x sin α sin β
A B C (ii) dks (i) ls Hkkx nsus ij] = ;
blh çdkj OI 2 = R 1 + 8 cos . sin . cos , a sin θ sin γ
2 2 2
a sin β sin θ
A B C ∴ x= .
OI 3 = R 1 + 8 cos . cos . sin sin α sin γ
2 2 2
" sin A + sin B + sin C vf/kdre gksxk] tcfd A = B = C .
" cos A + cos B + cos C vf/kdre gksxk] tcfd A = B = C .
" tan A + tan B + tan C vf/kdre gksxk] tcfd A = B = C .
" cot A + cot B + cot C vf/kdre gksxk] tcfd A = B = C
3
" ;fn cos A + cos B + cos C = , rc f=Hkqt leckgq gksxkA
2
 çfrykse f=dks.kferh; Qyu 507

Chapter

12
çfrykse f=dks.kferh; Qyu
Qyu f : A → B O;qRØe.kh; gksxk ;fn f ,dSdh vkPNknd (Domain and range of inverse trigonometric functions)
gks rFkk ;g bl izdkj ifjHkkf"kr gS] fd f (x ) = y ⇒ f −1 (y) = x
çzfrykse f=dks.kferh; Qyuksa ds xzkQ Qyu Mksesu (D) jsat (R)
(Graphs of inverse trigonometric functions) π π ⎡ π π⎤
sin −1 x −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 ;k [−1, 1] − ≤θ ≤ ;k ⎢− 2 , 2 ⎥
(i) y = sin x dk
–1
xzkQ (ii) y = cos x dk
–1
xzkQ 2 2 ⎣ ⎦
Y Y cos −1 x −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 ;k [−1, 1] 0 ≤θ ≤π ;k [0, π ]
(1, π/2) (–1, π/2)
−∞ < x < ∞ vFkkZr~ π π ⎛ π π⎞
tan −1 x − <θ < ;k ⎜− , ⎟
x ∈ R ;k (−∞, ∞) 2 2 ⎝ 2 2⎠
−∞ < x < ∞ vFkkZr~
X X cot −1 x 0 <θ <π ;k (0, π )
x ∈ R ;k (−∞, ∞)
O O (1, 0)
π
θ ≠ ,0 ≤ θ ≤ π
x ≤ −1, x ≥ 1 2
−1
sec x ;k (−∞, − 1] ∪ [1, ∞)
(–1, –π/2) (iv) y = cot x dk xzkQ ⎡ π ⎞ ⎛π ⎤
;k ⎢0 , 2 ⎟ ∪ ⎜ 2 , π ⎥
–1

(iii) y = tan x dk
Y –1
xzkQ Y ⎣ ⎠ ⎝ ⎦
π π
y = π/2 θ ≠ 0, − ≤θ ≤
y=π x ≤ −1, x ≥ 1 2 2
cosec −1 x
;k (−∞, − 1] ∪ [1, ∞) ⎡ π ⎞ ⎛ π⎤
;k ⎢ − 2 , 0 ⎟ ∪ ⎜ 0, 2 ⎥
X ⎣ ⎠ ⎝ ⎦
O (0, π/2)

X çfrykse f=dks.kferh; Qyuksa ds xq.k/keZ

y = –π/2 O
(Graphs of inverse trigonometric functions)
(v) y = sec x dk
–1
xzkQ (vi) y = cosec x dk –1
xzkQ π π
Y
(1) sin −1 (sin θ ) = θ , tcfd − ≤θ ≤ ,
Y 2 2

(1, π/2)
cos −1 (cos θ ) = θ , tcfd 0 ≤ θ ≤ π
(–1,π)
π π
tan −1 (tan θ ) = θ , tcfd − <θ < ,
y = π/2 X 2 2
O
cot −1 (cot θ ) = θ , tcfd 0 < θ < π
π π
X sec −1 (sec θ ) = θ , tcfd 0 ≤ θ < ;k <θ ≤π
O (1,0) (–1, –π) 2 2
π π
cosec −1 (cosec θ ) = θ , tcfd − ≤ θ < 0 ;k 0 < θ ≤
çfrykse Qyuksa ds çkUr ,oa ifjlj 2 2
 508 çfrykse f=dks.kferh; Qyu

(2) sin(sin −1 x ) = x , tcfd −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 ⎛1⎞

sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ = cosec −1 x , lHkh x ∈ (−∞,1] ∪ [1, ∞) ds fy,
−1
cos(cos x ) = x , tcfd −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 ⎝x⎠

tan (tan −1 x ) = x , tcfd −∞ < x < ∞ ⎛1⎞

cos −1 ⎜ ⎟ = sec −1 x , lHkh x ∈ (−∞, 1] ∪ [1, ∞) ds fy,
⎝x⎠
cot(cot −1 x ) = x , tcfd −∞ < x < ∞ 1
x
sec(sec −1 x ) = x , tcfd −∞ < x ≤ −1 ;k 1 ≤ x < ∞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎧⎪ cot −1 x , x > 0 ds fy,
tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ = ⎨ −1
⎝ x ⎠ ⎪⎩ − π + cot x , x < 0 ds fy,
cosec (cosec –1 x ) = x , tcfd −∞ < x ≤ −1 ;k 1 ≤ x < ∞
√1– x2
(3) sin −1 (− x ) = − sin −1 x , cos −1 (− x ) = π − cos −1 x (7) o`Ùkh; izfrykse Qyuksa dk O;kid gy % ge tkurs gSa fd
tan −1 (− x ) = − tan −1 x , cot −1 (− x ) = π − cot −1 x ;fn α U;wure dks.k gks ftldk sine, x gS] rc x dks nx + (−1)n α , tgk¡
sec −1 (− x ) = π − sec −1 x , cosec −1 (− x ) = −cosec –1 x n = 0, 1, 2,..... fy[krs gSaA vr% sin −1 x dk O;kid eku n π + (−1)n α
π gSA
(4) sin −1 x + cos −1 x = , x ∈ [−1, 1]
2 π π
sin −1 x = n π + (−1)n α , − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1, ;fn sin α = x rFkk − ≤α ≤
π 2 2
tan −1 x + cot −1 x = , x∈R
2 bl izdkj 'ks"k o`Ùkh; Qyuksa dk O;kid eku fuEu izdkj ls gS %
π
sec −1 x + cosec -1 x = , x ∈ (−∞, − 1] ∪ [1, ∞) cos −1 x = 2n π ± α , − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1 ;fn cos α = x , 0 ≤ α ≤ π
2
π π
(5) o`Ùkh; izfrykse Qyuksa ds eq[; eku tan −1 x = n π + α , x ∈ R ; ;fn tan α = x , − <α <
2 2
lkj.kh : 12.1 cot −1 x = n π + α , x ∈ R ; ;fn cot α = x , 0 ≤ α ≤ π
x ≥ 0 ds fy, eq[; eku x < 0 ds fy, eq[; eku π
sec −1 x = 2n π ≠ α , x ≥ 1 ;k ;fn sec α = x , 0 ≤ α ≤ π rFkk ≠
−1 π π −1 x ≤ −1 2
0 ≤ sin x≤ − ≤ sin x <0
2 2 −1
x = n π + (−1) α , x ≥ 1
n π π
π π
cosec ;fn cosec α = x , − ≤α ≤
0 ≤ cos −1 x ≤ < cos −1 x ≤ π ;k x ≤ −1 2 2
2 2
rFkk x ≠ 0
π π
0 ≤ tan −1 x < − < tan −1 x < 0
2 2
−1 π π
çfrykse f=kdks.kferh; Qyuksa ds ;ksx o vUrj ij
0 < cot x≤ < cot −1 x < π
2 2 vk/kkfjr lw= (Formulae for sum and difference of inverse
π π trigonometric function)
−1
0 ≤ sec x< < sec −1 x ≤ π
2 2 ⎛ x +y ⎞
π π (1) tan −1 x + tan −1 y = tan −1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ;
0 < cosec −1
x≤ − ≤ cosec −1 x < 0 ⎝ 1 − xy ⎠
2 2
;fn x > 0, y > 0 ,oa xy < 1
(6) :ikUrj.kh; xq.k/keZ (Conversion property)
⎛ x+y ⎞
ekuk sin −1 x = y ⇒ x = sin y (2) tan −1 x + tan −1 y = π + tan −1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ;
⎝ 1 − xy ⎠
⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞
⇒ cosec y = ⎜ ⎟ ⇒ y = cosec – 1 ⎜ ⎟ ;fn x > 0, y > 0 ,oa xy > 1
⎝x⎠ ⎝x⎠
x ⎛ x +y ⎞
sin −1 x = cos −1 1 − x 2 = tan −1 (3) tan −1 x + tan −1 y = −π + tan −1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ;
1− x 2 ⎝ 1 − xy ⎠

1−x ⎛ ⎞ ;fn x < 0, y < 0 ,oa xy > 1

⎟ = cosec –1 ⎛⎜ 1 ⎞⎟
2
= sec −1 ⎜
1
= cot −1
x ⎜ ⎟ ⎝x⎠ ⎛ x −y ⎞
⎝ 1−x
2
⎠ (4) tan −1 x − tan −1 y = tan −1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ;
⎛ 1 − x2 ⎞ ⎝ 1 + xy ⎠
cos −1 x = sin −1 1 − x 2 = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟
;fn xy > −1
⎜ x ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛ x −y ⎞
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ (5) tan −1 x − tan −1 y = π + tan −1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ;
= sec −1
1
= cosec –1 ⎜
1 ⎟ = cot −1 ⎜ x ⎟ ⎝ 1 + xy ⎠
x ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1−x
2
⎠ ⎝ 1−x
2
⎠ ;fn x > 0, y < 0 ,oa xy < −1
⎛ x ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ x −y ⎞
tan −1 x = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ = cos −1 ⎜ ⎟ (6) tan −1 x − tan −1 y = −π + tan −1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ;
⎜ 1 + x2 ⎟ ⎜ 1 + x2 ⎟ ⎝ 1 + xy ⎠
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
⎛ 1+ x2 ⎞ ;fn x < 0, y > 0 ,oa xy < −1
⎛1⎞
= cot −1 ⎜ ⎟ = sec −1 1 + x 2 = cosec −1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝x⎠ ⎜ x ⎟
⎝ ⎠
 çfrykse f=dks.kferh; Qyu 509

⎡ x + y + z − xyz ⎤ −1 1
(7) tan −1 x + tan −1 y + tan −1 z = tan −1 ⎢ ⎥ (4) 3 sin −1 x = sin −1 (3 x − 4 x 3 ), ;fn ≤x≤
⎣ 1 − xy − yz − zx ⎦ 2 2
1
(8) tan −1 x 1 + tan −1 x 2 + .......... + tan −1 x n (5) 3 sin −1 x = π − sin −1 (3 x − 4 x 3 ) , ;fn < x ≤1
2
⎡ S − S 3 + S 5 − .......... . ⎤
= tan −1 ⎢ 1 ⎥ (6) 3 sin −1 x = −π − sin −1 (3 x − 4 x 3 ), ;fn − 1 ≤ x < − 1
⎣ 1 − S 2 + S 4 − S 6 + ........ ⎦ 2
tgk¡ S k ; x1 , x 2 ,........, x n ds xq.kuQyksa dk ;ksx çnf'kZr djrk gSA (7) 2 cos −1 x = cos −1 (2 x 2 − 1) , ;fn 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
xy − 1 (8) 2 cos −1 −1
x = 2π − cos (2 x − 1) ,
2
;fn −1 ≤ x ≤ 0
(9) cot −1 x + cot −1 y = cot −1
y+x
1
(9) 3 cos −1 x = cos −1 (4 x 3 − 3 x ) , ;fn ≤ x ≤1
−1 −1 −1 xy + 1 2
(10) cot x − cot y = cot
y−x
1 1
(10) 3 cos −1 x = 2π − cos −1 (4 x 3 − 3 x ), ;fn − ≤x≤
−1 −1 −1 2 2
(11) sin x + sin y = sin { x 1 − y + y 1 − x } ;
2 2

1
;fn −1 ≤ x , y ≤ 1 ,oa x 2 + y 2 ≤ 1 ;k ;fn xy < 0 ,oa x 2 + y 2 > 1 (11) 3 cos −1 x = 2π + cos −1 (4 x 3 − 3 x ), ;fn − 1 ≤ x ≤ −
2
(12) sin −1 x + sin −1 y = π − sin −1 { x 1 − y 2 + y 1 − x 2 }, ⎛ 2x ⎞
(12) 2 tan −1 x = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟, ;fn −1 < x ≤ 1
⎝1− x ⎠
2
;fn 0 < x , y ≤ 1 ,oa x 2 + y 2 > 1
⎛ 2x ⎞
(13) sin −1 x + sin −1 y = −π − sin −1 { x 1 − y 2 + y 1 − x 2 }, (13) 2 tan −1 x = π + tan −1 ⎜ 2 ⎟
, ;fn x > 1
⎝1− x ⎠
;fn −1 ≤ x ; y < 0 ,oa x 2 + y 2 > 1 ⎛ 2x ⎞
(14) 2 tan −1 x = −π + tan −1 ⎜ ⎟, ;fn x < −1
⎝1 − x ⎠
2
−1 −1 −1
(14) sin x − sin y = sin { x 1 − y − y 1 − x },
2 2

⎛ 2x ⎞
;fn −1 ≤ x ; y ≤ 1 ,oa x 2 + y 2 ≤ 1 ;fn ;k xy > 0 ,oa x 2 + y 2 > 1 . (15) 2 tan −1 x = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ , ;fn −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
⎝1 + x ⎠
2

(15) sin −1 x − sin −1 y = π − sin −1 { x 1 − y 2 − y 1 − x 2 }, ⎛ 2x ⎞

(16) 2 tan −1 x = π − sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ , ;fn x > 1
⎝1+ x ⎠
2
;fn 0 < x ≤ 1, − 1 ≤ y < 0 ,oa x 2 + y 2 > 1 .
⎛ 2x ⎞
(16) sin −1 x − sin −1 y = −π − sin −1 { x 1 − y 2 − y 1 − x 2 }, (17) 2 tan −1 x = −π − sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ , ;fn x < −1
⎝1 + x ⎠
2

;fn −1 ≤ x < 0, 0 < y ≤ 1 ,oa x 2 + y 2 > 1 . ⎛1 − x2 ⎞

(18) 2 tan −1 x = cos −1 ⎜⎜ ⎟,
⎟ ;fn 0 ≤ x < ∞
⎝1 + x
2
(17) cos −1 x + cos −1 y = cos −1 { xy − 1 − x 2 . 1 − y 2 } , ⎠
;fn −1 ≤ x , y ≤ 1 ,oa x + y ≥ 0 . ⎛1 − x2 ⎞
(19) 2 tan −1 x = − cos −1 ⎜⎜ ⎟ ,
⎟ ;fn −∞ < x ≤ 0
⎝1 + x
2
−1 −1 −1 ⎠
(18) cos x + cos y = 2π − cos { xy − 1 − x 2
1−y },
2

⎛ 3x − x3 ⎞ −1 1
;fn −1 ≤ x , y ≤ 1 ,oa x + y ≤ 0 (20) 3 tan −1 x = tan −1 ⎜⎜ ⎟,
⎟ ;fn <x<
⎝ 1 − 3x
2
⎠ 3 3
(19) cos −1 x − cos −1 y = cos −1 { xy + 1 − x 2 1 − y 2 },
⎛ 3x − x3 ⎞ 1
;fn −1 ≤ x , y ≤ 1, ,oa x ≤ y . (21) 3 tan −1 x = π + tan −1 ⎜⎜ ⎟ ,
⎟ ;fn x >
⎝ 1 − 3x
2
⎠ 3
(20) cos −1 x − cos −1 y = − cos −1 { xy + 1 − x 2 1 − y 2 }, ⎛ 3x − x3 ⎞ 1
(22) 3 tan −1 x = −π + tan −1 ⎜⎜ ⎟ ,
⎟ ;fn x < −
;fn −1 ≤ y ≤ 0, 0 < x ≤ 1 ,oa x ≥ y . ⎝ 1 − 3x
2
⎠ 3

vioR;Z dks.kksa ds çfrykse f=dks.kferh; vuqikr (Inverse ⎡ x ⎤ x

(23) tan −1 ⎢ ⎥ = sin −1
trigonometric ratios of multiple angles) ⎣⎢ a − x ⎥⎦ a
2 2

1 1 ⎡ 3a2 x − x 3 ⎤
(1) 2 sin −1 x = sin −1 (2 x 1 − x 2 ) , ;fn − ≤x≤ x
2 2 (24) tan −1 ⎢ 2 2 ⎥
= 3 tan −1
⎣⎢ a(a − 3 x ) ⎦⎥ a
1
(2) 2 sin −1 x = π − sin −1 2 x 1 − x 2 , ;fn ≤ x ≤1 ⎡ 1 + x2 + 1 − x2 ⎤ π 1
2 (25) tan −1 ⎢ ⎥ = + cos −1 x 2
−1 ⎢ 1 + x2 − 1 − x2 ⎥ 4 2
(3) 2 sin −1 x = −π − sin −1 (2 x 1 − x 2 ) , ;fn − 1 ≤ x ≤ ⎣ ⎦
2
 510 çfrykse f=dks.kferh; Qyu

1−x 1 x2 2 xy y2
(26) tan −1 = cos −1 x − cos θ + 2 = sin 2 θ .
1+ x 2 a2 ab b

çfrykse f=dks.kferh; Qyu

;fn cos −1 ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ = θ , rks tan θ =
" I prqFkkZ'a k lHkh izfrykse Qyu esa mHk;fu"B gksrk gSA 1
1.
⎝x⎠
" III prqFkkZ'a k dk izfrykse Qyu esa mi;ksx ugha fd;k tkrk gSA [MNR 1978; MP PET 1989]
1
" IV prqFkkZa'k dk mi;ksx nf{k.kkorZ fn'kk esa gksrk gS] vFkkZr (a) (b) x +12

π x2 −1
− ≤y ≤0.
2 (c) 1 − x2 (d) x2 −1
−1
2. sin(cot x) = [MNR 1987; MP PET 2001; DCE 2002]
" sin −1 x , cos −1 x , tan −1 x dks Øe'k% arc sin x , arc cos x ,oa
(a) 1 + x2 (b) x
arc tan x Hkh fy[krs gSaA 2 −3 / 2
(c) (1 + x ) (d) (1 + x 2 )−1 / 2
" ;g /;ku nsuk pkfg, ;fn dqN ugha dgk x;k gS rc o`Ùkh; ⎛ 5 ⎞
izfrykse Qyuksa dk eq[; eku gh ysrs gSaA 3. cos ⎜ sin −1 ⎟=
⎝ 13 ⎠
π 12
−
12
" ;fn tan −1 x + tan −1 y + tan −1 z = gks] rks (a)
13
(b)
13
2
xy + yz + zx = 1 . 5
(c) (d) buesa ls dksbZ ugha
12
" ;fn tan −1 x + tan −1 y + tan −1 z = π gks] rks x + y + z = xyz . 4. cot −1 (− 3 ) =
π 5π
π (a) − (b)
" ;fn sin −1 x + sin −1 y + sin −1 z = gks] rks 6 6
2
π 2π
(c) (d)
x + y + z + 2 xyz = 1 .
2 2 2
3 3
5. 1 + cot 2 (sin −1 x ) =
" ;fn sin −1 x + sin −1 y + sin −1 z = π gks] rks
1
(a) (b) x2
x 1 − x 2 + y 1 − y 2 + z 1 − z 2 = 2 xyz . 2x
1 2
(c) (d)
" ;fn cos −1 x + cos −1 y + cos −1 z = 3π gks] rks x2 x
xy + yz + zx = 3 . 6.
1
;fn sin −1 = tan −1 x , rks x =
2
" ;fn cos −1 x + cos −1 y + cos −1 z = π gks] rks 1
(a) 3 (b)
x + y + z + 2 xyz = 1 .
2 2 2 3
1
3π (c) (d) buesa ls dksbZ ugha
" ;fn sin −1 x + sin −1 y + sin −1 z = gks] rks xy + yz + zx = 3 . 2
2
⎛ 1 + x2 −1⎞
7. tan −1 ⎜ ⎟=
" −1 −1
;fn sin x + sin y = θ gks] rks cos −1
x + cos −1
y =π −θ . ⎜ x ⎟
⎝ ⎠
;fn cos −1 x + cos −1 y = θ gks] rks sin −1 x + sin −1 y = π − θ . 1
" (a) tan −1 x (b) tan −1 x
2
π (c) 2 tan −1 x (d) buesa ls dksbZ ugha
" ;fn tan −1 x + tan −1 y = gks] rks xy = 1 .
2 −1 x
8. tan =
π a2 − x 2
−1 −1
" ;fn cot x + cot y = gks] rks xy = 1 . 1 ⎛x⎞ ⎛x⎞
2 (a) sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ (b) a sin −1 ⎜ ⎟
a ⎝a⎠ ⎝a⎠
x y
" ;fn cos −1 + cos −1 = θ gks] rks ⎛x⎞ ⎛a⎞
a b (c) sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ (d) sin −1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝a⎠ ⎝x⎠
 vfrijoyf;d Qyu 535

Chapter

13
vfrijoyf;d Qyu
ifjHkk"kk (Definition) lkj.kh % 13.1
Qyu Mksesu jsat
ge tkurs gSa fd bdkbZ o`Ùk x 2 + y 2 = 1 ij fdlh fcUnq ds R R
sinh x
izkpfyd funsZ'kkad (parametric co-ordinates) (cos θ , sin θ ) gksrs gS;a cosh x R [1, ∞)
blfy, ;s Qyu o`Ùkh; Qyu dgykrs gSa vkSj bdkbZ vfrijoy; tanh x R (−1, 1)
coth x R – {0} R − [−1, 1]
⎛ e θ + e −θ e θ − e −θ ⎞
x2 − y2 = 1 ij fdlh fcUnq ds funsZ'kkad ⎜⎜ , ⎟
⎟ sech x R (0, 1]
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
cosech x R – {0} R – {0}
vFkkZr~ (cosh θ , sinh θ ) gksrs gSa vFkkZr~ tks lEcU/k cos θ , sin θ vkSj
bdkbZ o`Ùk esa gS ogh lEcU/k cosh θ , sinh θ dk bdkbZ vfrijoy; ls gS
okLrfod vfrijoyf;d Qyuksa ds vkys[k
(Graph of real hyperbolic functions)
blh dkj.k bu Qyuksa dks vfrijoyf;d Qyu (hyperbolic function)
(1) sinh x Y (2) cosh x Y
dgrs gSaA
fdlh pj jkf'k x (okLrfod ;k lfEeJ) ds fy,] (0, 1)

e x − e −x O
X X
(1) sinh x = , [vfrijoyf;d sine x dgrs gSa] O
2
e x + e −x
(2) cosh x = , [vfrijoyf;d cosine x dgrs gSa] (3) tanh x Y (4) coth x Y
2 y=1

sinh x e x − e −x
(3) tanh x = = x y =1
cosh x e + e − x X
O X
O
cosh x e x + e − x
(4) coth x = = x
sinh x e − e −x y = –1 y = –1
1 2 (5) cosech x Y (6) sech x Y
(5) cosech x = =
sinh x e x − e − x
(0, 1)
1 2
(6) sec h x = =
cosh x e x + e − x X X
O O
• sinh 0 = 0, cosh 0 = 1, tanh 0 = 0

vfrijoyf;d Qyuksa ds çkUr

(Domain and range of hyperbolic functions) vfrijoyf;d Qyuksa ds lw=k
ekuk x dksbZ okLrfod la[;k gS (Formulae for hyperbolic functions)
 536 vfrijoyf;d Qyu
vfrijoyf;d Qyuksa dh ifjHkk"kk ls muesa ijLij fuEu lw= 1 − sech 2 x
vklkuh ls LFkkfir fd, tk ldrs gSaA ⇒ sinh x = cosh 2 x − 1 ⇒ sinh x =
sec h x
(1) O;qRØe lw= (Reciprocal formulae)
tanh x 1
1 1 ⇒ sinh x = ⇒ sinh x =
(i) cosech x = (ii) sech x =
sinh x cosh x 1 − tanh x 2
coth 2 x − 1
1 sinh x 1
(iii) coth x = (iv) tanh x = sinh x =
tanh x cosh x cosech x

(v) coth x =
cosh x blh izdkj cosh x , tanh x , coth x ,........dks vU; vfrijoyf;d
sinh x Qyuksa ds inksa esa O;Dr dj ldrs gSaA
(2) oxZ lw= (Square formulae)
vfrijoyf;d Qyuksa dk izlkj
(i) cosh x − sinh 2 x = 1
2
(ii) sec h 2 x + tanh 2 x = 1
(Expansion of hyperbolic functions)
(iii) coth 2 x − cosec h 2 x = 1 (iv) cosh 2 x + sinh 2 x = cosh 2 x
e x − e −x x3 x5 x7
(3) ;ksx o vUrj ds fy, lw= (Sum and Difference formulae) (1) sinh x = =x+ + + + ....
2 3! 5! 7!
(i) sinh( x ± y ) = sinh x cosh y ± cosh x sinh y
(ii) cosh (x ± y ) = cosh x cosh y ± sinh x sinh y e x + e −x x2 x4 x6
(2) cosh x = =1 + + + + ....
2 2! 4 ! 6!
tanh x ± tanh y
(iii) tanh (x ± y ) =
1 ± tanh x tanh y e x − e−x x3 17 7
(3) tanh x = −x
=x− + 2x5 − x + .....
(4) xq.kuQy dks ;ksx ;k vUrj esa ifjofrZr djus okys lw= e +e
x
3 315
x +y x −y coth x , cosech x ds izlkj dk vfLrRo ughaa gS] D;ksafd
(i) sinh x + sinh y = 2 sinh cosh
2 2 coth (0) = ∞, cosech (0 ) = ∞ .
x +y x −y vfrijoyf;d ,oa o`Ùkh; Qyuksa esa lEcU/k
(ii) sinh x − sinh y = 2 cos h sin h
2 2
(Relation between hyperbolic and circular functions)
x+y x −y
(iii) cosh x + cosh y = 2 cosh cosh
2 2 vk;yj (Euler) lw= ls, e ix = cos x + i sin x ........(i)
x +y x −y rFkk e −ix = cos x − i sin x ........(ii)
(iv) cosh x − cosh y = 2 sinh sinh
2 2 lehdj.k (i) rFkk (ii) dks tksM+us ,oa ?kVkus ij]
(v) 2 sinh x cosh y = sinh (x + y ) + sinh (x − y ) e ix + e −ix e ix − e −ix
cos x = rFkk sin x =
(vi) 2 cosh x sinh y = sinh( x + y ) − sinh( x − y ) 2 2i
(vii) 2 cosh x cosh y = cosh (x + y ) + cosh (x − y ) bu lw=ksa esa x ds LFkku ij ix izfrLFkkfir djus ij]
(viii) 2 sinh x sinh y = cosh (x + y ) − cosh (x − y ) e −x + e x
cos(ix ) = = cosh x
2
(5) vioR;Z dks.k ds f=dks.kferh; vuqikr (Trigonometric ratio of
multiple of an angle) ∴ cos(ix ) = cosh x

(i) sinh 2 x = 2 sinh x cosh x =

2 tanh x e −x − e x ⎛ e x − e −x ⎞
sin(ix) = = i ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟
1 − tanh 2 x 2i 2
⎝ ⎠
(ii) cosh 2 x = cosh 2 x + sinh 2 x = 2 cosh 2 x − 1 ∴ sin(ix ) = i sinh x
1 + tanh x2
sin(ix) i sinh x
= 1 + 2 sinh 2 x = iqu% tan( ix) = =
1 − tanh 2 x cos(ix) cosh x
(iii) 2 cosh 2 x = cosh 2 x + 1 (iv) 2 sinh 2 x = cosh 2 x − 1 ∴ tan( ix) = i tanh x

(v) tanh 2 x =
2 tanh x
(vi) sinh 3 x = 3 sinh x + 4 sinh 3 x e x − e −x e x + e −x
1 + tanh 2 x blh izdkj] sinh x = rFkk cosh x = esa x ds
2 2
(vii) cosh 3 x = 4 cosh 3 x − 3 cosh x LFkku ij ix izfrLFkkfir djus ij]
3 tanh x + tanh x 3 e ix + e −ix
(viii) tanh 3 x = cosh( ix) = = cos x
1 + 3 tanh 2 x 2
(6) (i) cosh x + sinh x = e x (ii) cosh x − sinh x = e − x iqu% tanh (ix) =
sinh (ix) i sin x
= = i tan x
cosh (ix) cos x
(iii) (cosh x + sinh x )n = cosh nx + sinh nx
vfrijoy;fud Qyuksa dk :ikUrj.k bl izdkj vfrijoyf;d ,oa f=dks.kferh; Qyuksa esa fuEu lEcU/k
LFkkfir gks tkrs gSaA
(Transformation of a hyperbolic functions)

pw¡fd, cosh 2 x − sinh 2 x = 1

 vfrijoyf;d Qyu 537

(1) sin(ix ) = i sinh x (2) cos(ix ) = cosh x (iii) tanh −1 x = −i tan −1 (ix) (iv) sec h −1 x = −i sec −1 x
sinh (ix) = i sin x cosh( ix) = cos x (v) cosec h –1 x = i cosec −1 (ix)
sinh x = −i sin(ix ) cosh x = cos (ix )
(3) fdlh ,d izfrykse vfrijoyf;d Qyu dks vU; izfrykse
sin x = −i sin h (ix ) cos x = cosh( ix)
vfrijoyf;d Qyuksa ds inksa esa O;Dr djuk % sinh −1 x dks vU; inksa esa
(3) tan( ix) = i tanh x (4) cot(ix) = −i coth x O;Dr djukA
tanh( ix) = i tan x coth( ix) = −i cot x
(i) ekuk sinh −1 x = y ⇒ x = sinh y
tanh x = −i tan( ix) coth x = i cot(ix)
tan x = −i tanh (ix) cot x = i coth( ix) 1 ⎛1⎞
⇒ cosech y = ⇒ y = cosec −1 ⎜ ⎟
(5) sec(ix) = sech x (6) cosec (ix) = −i cosech x
x ⎝x⎠

sec h(ix) = sec x cosech (ix ) = −i cosec x (ii) Q cosh y = 1 + sinh 2 y = 1 + x 2

sec h x = sec(ix) cosech x = i cosec (ix)
Q y = cosh −1 1 + x 2 ⇒ sinh −1 x = cosh −1 1 + x 2
sec x = sech(ix ) cosec x = i cosech (ix )
sinh y sinh y x
(iii) Q tanh y = = =
vfrijoyf;d Qyuksa ds vkorZukad cosh y 1 + sinh 2 y 1 + x2
(Period of hyperbolic functions)
x x
;fn fdlh Qyu f (x ) ds fy, f (x + T ) = f (x )
gks] rks f (x ) ∴ y = tanh −1 ⇒ sinh −1 x = tanh −1
vkorhZ Qyu dgykrk gS ,oa T dk U;wure /kukRed eku Qyu dk 1+x 2
1 + x2
vkorZukad dgykrk gSA 1 + sinh 2 y 1 + x2
Q sinh x = sinh( 2πi + x ) , cosh x = cosh( 2πi + x ) rFkk (iv) Q coth y = =
sinh y x
tanh x = tanh( πi + x )
vr% bu Qyuksa ds vkorZukad Øe'k% 2πi, 2πi rFkk πi gSaA cosech x, 1 + x2 1 + x2
∴ y = coth −1 ⇒ sinh −1 x = coth −1
sech x vkSj coth x ds vkorZukad Øe'k% 2πi , 2πi ,oa πi gSaA x x
1 1 1
;fn f (x ) dk vkorZukad T gS, rks f (nx ) dk vkorZukad ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ gksxkA
T (v) Q sec h y = = =
•
⎝n⎠ cosh y 1 + sinh y
2
1 + x2
• vfrijoyf;d Qyu vkorhZ Qyu ugha gksrs vkSj u gh buds 1 1
oØ vkorhZ oØ gksrs gSaA ysfdu ;g vkorhZ Qyuksa ds chth; xq.k dks y = sec h −1 ⇒ sinh −1 x = sec h −1
1 + x2 1 + x2
iznf'kZr djrs gSa vkSj dkYifud vkorZ j[krs gSaA
⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞
çfrykse vfrijoyf;d Qyu (vi) sinh −1 x = cosech −1 ⎜ ⎟ ; coth −1 x = tanh −1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝x⎠ ⎝x⎠
(Inverse hyperbolic functions)
⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞
;fn sinh y = x gks] rks y = sinh −1 x ftls vfrijoyf;d T;k sec h −1 x = cosh −1 ⎜ ⎟ ; cosech −1 = sinh −1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝x⎠ ⎝x⎠
(hyperbolic sine) dk izfrykse Qyu dgrs gSaA blh izdkj vU;
vfrijoyf;d Qyuksa cosech −1 x , cosh −1 x , tanh −1 x bR;kfn ds izfrykse • ;fn x okLrfod gksa] rks mijksDr lHkh 6 izfrykse Qyuksa dk ,dy
(single) eku gksxkA
Qyu ifjHkkf"kr gSaA
(1) çfrykse vfrijoyf;d Qyuksa ds çkUr (Domain) o ifjlj (Range) (4) çfrykse vfrijoyf;d Qyu ,oa y?kqx.kdh; Qyuksa ds chp
lkj.kh % 13.2 lEcU/k % dk;Zfof/k : ekuk sinh −1 x = y
e y − e −y
Qyu çkUr ifjlj ⇒ x = sinh y = ⇒ e 2 y − 2 xe y − 1 = 0
2
sinh −1 x R R
−1 2x ± 4 x 2 + 4
cosh x [1, ∞) R ⇒ ey = =x± x2 + 1
2
tanh −1 x (−1, 1) R
−1
R – [–1, 1] R – {0}
ijUrq e y > 0, ∀y ,oa x < x 2 + 1
coth x
sech −1 x (0, 1] R ∴ ey = x + x 2 + 1 ⇒ y = log(x + x 2 + 1)
cosech −1 x R – {0} R – {0} ∴ sinh −1 x = log(x + x 2 + 1 )
(2) çfrykse o`Ùkh; ,oa çfrykse vfrijoyf;d Qyuksa esa lEcU/k % mi;qZDr fof/k ls izfrykse vfrifjoyf;d Qyuksa ds eq[; ekuksa dks
dk;Zfof/k : ekuk sinh −1
x =y
fuEu y?kqx.kdh; :i esa O;Dr dj ldrs gSaA
⇒ x = sinh y = −i sin(iy) ⇒ ix = sin(iy) ⇒ iy = sin −1 (ix) (i) sinh −1 x = log(x + x 2 + 1 ) , (−∞ < x < ∞)
−1 −1 −1
⇒ y = −i sin (ix) ⇒ sinh x = −i sin (ix)
(ii) cosh −1 x = log(x + x 2 − 1 ) , (x ≥ 1)
vr% fuEu lEcU/k izkIr gksrs gSaA
1 ⎛1 + x ⎞
(i) sinh −1 x = −i sin −1 (ix) (ii) cosh −1 x = −i cos −1 x (iii) tanh −1 x = log ⎜ ⎟, | x|< 1
2 ⎝1 − x ⎠
 538 vfrijoyf;d Qyu

1 ⎛ x +1⎞
(iv) coth −1 x = log ⎜ ⎟, | x|> 1
2 ⎝ x −1⎠
⎛1 + 1 − x2 ⎞
(v) sec h −1 x = log ⎜ ⎟, 0 < x ≤1 " vfrijoyf;d Qyuksa dk dksbZ Hkh lw= izkIr djus ds fy,
⎜ x ⎟
⎝ ⎠ f=dks.kferh; Qyuksa ds laxr lw= esa fuEu izfrLFkkiu djrs gSaA
⎛1 + 1 + x2 ⎞ sin x ⎯⎯→ i sinh x
(vi) cosech −1 x = log ⎜ ⎟, (x ≠ 0)
⎜ x ⎟ cos x ⎯⎯→ cosh x
⎝ ⎠
• cosech −1 x , sec h −1 x rFkk coth −1 x ds lw= Øe'k% tan x ⎯⎯→ i tanh x
1 sin 2 x ⎯⎯→ − sinh 2 x
sinh −1 x , cosh −1 x ,oa tanh −1 ds lw=ksa esa x ds LFkku ij fy[kus
x cos 2 x ⎯⎯→ cosh 2 x
ls izkIr gks tkrs gSaA
tan 2 x ⎯⎯→ − tanh 2 x
izfrykse f=dks.kferh; ,oa çfrykse vfrijoyf;d Qyuksa dk mnkgj.k ds fy,]
i`FkDdj.k (Separation of inverse trigonometric and inverse cosh 2 x dk tanh x ds inksa esa lw= Kkr djus ds fy,,
hyperbolic functions)
1 − tan 2 x
;fn sin(α + iβ ) = x + iy gks] rks (α + iβ ) , (x + iy) ds sine dk f=dks.kfefr ds laxr lw= cos 2 x = esa tan 2 x dks
1 + tan 2 x
izfrykse dgykrk gSA 1 + tanh 2 x
− tanh 2 x ls izfrLFkkfir djus ij] cosh 2 x = .
sin −1 (x + iy) = α + iβ 1 − tanh 2 x
fufEufyf[kr izfrykse Qyuksa dks vklkuh ls LFkkfir fd;k tk
ldrk gSA
cos −1 ⎡( x 2 + y 2 ) − (1 − x 2 + y 2 )2 + 4 x 2 y 2 ⎤
1
(1) cos −1 (x + iy) =
2 ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦

cosh −1 ⎡( x 2 + y 2 ) + (1 − x 2 + y 2 )2 + 4 x 2 y 2 ⎤
i
+
2 ⎣⎢ ⎥⎦
π
(2) sin −1 (x + iy) = − cos −1 (x + iy) vfrijoyf;d Qyu
2
π
cos −1 ⎡(x 2 + y 2 ) − (1 − x 2 + y 2 )2 + 4 x 2 y 2 ⎤
1
= −
2 2 ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
sinh x − sinh y
1. =
− cosh −1 ⎡(x 2 + y 2 ) + (1 − x 2 + y 2 )2 + 4 x 2 y 2 ⎤
i
cosh x − cosh y
2 ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
⎛x +y⎞
1 ⎛ 2x ⎞ i ⎛ 2y ⎞ (a) 2 coth (x + y ) (b) tanh ⎜ ⎟
(3) tan −1 (x + iy) = tan −1 ⎜⎜ ⎟ + tanh −1 ⎜
2 ⎟
⎟
⎜ 1 + x 2 + y2 ⎟ ⎝ 2 ⎠
2 ⎝ 1 − x 2
− y ⎠ 2 ⎝ ⎠
⎛x +y⎞ ⎛ x −y ⎞
1 ⎛ 2x ⎞ i ⎡ x 2 + (1 + y )2 ⎤ (c) coth ⎜ ⎟ (d) cot h ⎜ ⎟
= tan −1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + log ⎢ 2 2⎥ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
2 ⎝ 1 − x 2
− y2 ⎠ 4 ⎢⎣ x + (1 − y ) ⎥⎦
2. ;fn tanh 2 x = tan 2 θ , rc cosh 2 x = [EAMCET 1998]
−1 −1 −1
(4) sin (cos θ + i sin θ ) = cos ( sin θ ) + i sinh ( sin θ ) (a) − sin 2θ (b) sec 2θ
;k cos −1 ( sin θ ) + i log( sin θ + 1 + sin θ ) (c) cos 3θ (d) cos 2θ
3. cosh 2 + sinh 2 = [EAMCET 2000]
(5) cos −1 (cos θ + i sin θ ) = sin −1 ( sin θ ) − i sinh −1 ( sin θ )
(a) 1 / e (b) e
;k sin −1 ( sin θ ) − i log( sin θ + 1 + sin θ )
(c) 1 / e2 (d) e 2
i π
⎛ 1 + sin θ ⎞
(6) tan −1 (cos θ + i sin θ ) = + log ⎜ ⎟ , (cos θ ) > 0 4. ;fn cos( x + iy) = A + i B , rc A = [RPET 1994]
4 4 ⎝ 1 − sin θ ⎠
(a) cos x cosh y (b) sin x sinh y
⎛ π⎞ 1 ⎛ 1 + sin θ ⎞
rFkk −1
tan (cos θ + i sin θ ) = ⎜ − ⎟ + log⎜ ⎟ , (cos θ ) < 0 (c) − sin x sinh y (d) cos x sinh y
⎝ 4 ⎠ 4 ⎝ 1 − sin θ ⎠
5. sec h(iπ ) dk eku gS [RPET 1999]
pw¡fd izR;sd izfrykse vfrijoyf;d Qyu dks y?kqx.kdh; Qyu (a) – 1 (b) i
ds inksa esa O;Dr dj ldrs gSaA blfy, lfEeJ la[;kvksa ds izfrykse (c) 0 (d) 1
vfrijoyf;d Qyu ds okLrfod ,oa dkYifud Hkkxksa esa i`FkDdj.k 6. cos ix + i sin ix =
djds vHkh"V fof/k dk mi;ksx djrs gSaA (a) e ix (b) e −ix
• izfrykse o`Ùkh; ,oa izfrykse vfrijoyf;d Qyuksa ds vusd eku
(c) e x
(d) e − x
gksrs gSaA
 ledks.kh; dkrhZ; funsZ’kkad 549

Chapter

14
ledks.kh; dkrhZ; funsZ'kkad
çLrkouk (Introduction) /kzqoh; funsZ'kkad (Polar co-ordinates)
funsZ'kkad fcUnq og okLrfod pj gksrs gSa] tks fdlh ry esa fdlh fcUnq ekuk fd OX dksbZ fLFkj js[kk gS] ftls lkekU;r% izkjfEHkd js[kk (initial
dh O;k[;k djrs gSaA fdlh f}foeh; ry esa fdlh fcUnq dh fLFkfr dks line) dgrs gS]a rFkk bl ij fLFkj fcUnq O gSA ;fn fdlh fcUnq P dh ewyfcUnq
okLrfod la[;kvksa ds Øfer ;qXe }kjk Y ls nwjh r rFkk ∠XOP = θ gks] rks (r, Y
fofHkUu izdkj ls O;Dr dj ldrs gSaA θ ) fcUnq P ds /kzqoh; funsZ'kkad dgykrs P(r,θ)
nks js[kk;sa XOX' vkSj YOY' lery dks prqFkkZa'k II prqFkkZa'k I gSaA r
pkj prqFkkZa'kksa (quadrants) esa foHkkftr (–,+) (+,+)
;fn fcUnq P dk dkrhZ; funsZ'kkad θ
djrh gSaA XOY dks izFke prqFkkZa'k, YOX' dks X' O X (x, y) gks] rks x = r cos θ ; y = r sin θ
X′ O X
f}rh;] X' OY' dks r`rh; vkSj Y'OX dks prqFkZ prqFkkZa'k III prqFkkZa'k IV
,oa r = x 2 + y 2 ; θ = tan −1 ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ .
y
prqFkkZa'k dgrs gSaA ewyfcUnq O ls OX fn'kk (–,–) (+,–)
esa ekih x;h yEckb;ksa dks /kukRed vkSj ⎝x⎠
Y' Y'
blds foijhr OX' fn'kk esa ekih x;h
yEckb;ksa dks _.kkRed ekuk tkrk gSA blh izdkj OY fn'kk esa ekih x;h nks fcUnqvksa ds chp dh nwjh (Distance formula)
yEckbZ;k¡ /kukRed vkSj blds foijhr OY' fn'kk esa ekih x;h yEckbZ;k¡
_.kkRed gksrh gSaA fcUnqvksa P(x1 , y1 ) vkSj Q(x 2 , y 2 ) ds e/; nwjh =
fdlh fcUnq ds dkrhZ; funsZ'kkad PQ = (PR)2 + (QR )2 = (x 2 − x 1 ) 2 + (y 2 − y 1 ) 2
(Cartesian co-ordinates of a point)
(1) /kzqoh; funsZ'kkadksa esa nks fcUnqvksa ds e/; nwjh : ekuk O /kzqo ,oa OX
;g lokZf/kd izpfyr funsZ'kkad i)fr gSA izkjfEHkd js[kk gSA ekuk P ,oa Q nks fcUnq gSa] ftuds /kzqoh; funsZ'kkad
x v{k : js[kk XOX' dks x-v{k dgrs gSaA Øe'k% (r1 , θ1 ) ,oa (r2 , θ 2 ) gSaA
y v{k : js[kk YOY' dks y-v{k dgrs gSaA
Y P(r1,θ1)
funsZ'kkad v{k: x-v{k ,oa y-v{k nksuksa Y
Q
funsZ'kkad v{k dgykrs gSaA M x P(x, y)
Q(r2,θ2)
ewyfcUnq: fcUnq ‘O’ dks funsZ'kk{kksa dk y P R r1 (θ1–θ2)
X X′ X
ewyfcUnq ;k ewyfcUnq dgrs gSaA X′ O L O θ1 r2
θ2
fr;Zd v{k: tc funsZ'kk{kksa ds e/; O M
X
dks.k ledks.k u gks] rks v{k fr;Zd v{k
Y′
dgykrs gSaA Y'′
rc, (PQ)2 = r12 + r22 − 2r1r2 cos(θ1 − θ 2 )
ekuk OL = x ,oa OM = y tks fd Øe'k% Hkqt ¼;k x funsZ'kkad½ ,oa
dksfV ¼;k y funsZ'kkad½ gSA fcUnq P ds funsZ'kkad (x, y) gSaA ∴ PQ = r12 + r22 − 2r1r2 cos(θ 1 − θ 2 ) ,
ewyfcUnq ds funsZ'kkad (0, 0) gksrs gSaA θ 1 ,oa θ 2 dks lnSo jsfM;u esa ysrs gSaA
y-v{k ij fLFkr izR;sd fcUnq dk x-funsZ'kkad 'kwU; gksrk gSA
x-v{k ij fLFkr izR;sd fcUnq dk y-funsZ'kkad 'kwU; gksrk gSA
 550 ledks.kh; dkrhZ; funsZ'kkad

dqN T;kferh; vkd`fr;ksa ds xq.k/keZ ekuk f=Hkqt ds 'kh"kksaZ A, B, C ds funsZ'kkad Øe'k% (x 1 , y1 ), (x 2 , y 2 ) ,oa
(Properties of some geometrical figures) (x 3 , y 3 ) gSa ,oaa ifjdsUnz O(x, y) gSA rc (OA )2 = (OB )2 = (OC )2 dks
(1) fdlh ΔABC esa] ;fn AD 'kh"kZ A ls vk/kkj BC ij [khaph xbZ gy djds ifjdsUæ ds funsZ'kkad (x, y) Kkr fd;s tk ldrs gSaA vFkkZr~
ekf/;dk gks] rks AB 2 + AC 2 = 2( AD 2 + BD 2 ) . (x − x 1 )2 + (y − y1 )2 = (x − x 2 )2 + (y − y 2 )2 = (x − x 3 )2 + (y − y 3 )2
(2) ,d f=Hkqt lef}ckgq dgykrk gS ;fn bldh dksbZ nks
ekf/;dk;sa ;k nks Hkqtk;sa cjkcj gksA ;fn f=Hkqt ledks.k gS] rks blds d.kZ dk e/; fcUnq ifjdsUnz gksrk gSA
(3) fdlh ledks.k f=Hkqt esa] d.kZ dk e/; fcUnq 'kh"kksZa ls lenwjLFk gksrk gSA ;fn f=Hkqt ds dks.k A, B, C ,oa f=Hkqt ds 'kh"kZ A(x1 , y1 ), B(x 2 , y 2 )
(4) leckgq f=Hkqt% lHkh Hkqtkvksa dh yEckbZ;k¡ cjkcj gksrh gSA ,oa C (x 3 , y 3 ) gks] rks f=Hkqt ABC dk ifjdsUnz
(5) leprqHkqZt% lHkh Hkqtk;sa cjkcj gksrh gSa rFkk dksbZ dks.k ledks.k
ugha gksrk gS ysfdu fod.kZ ,d nwljs dks ledks.k ij izfrPNsfnr djrs ⎛ x1 sin 2 A + x 2 sin 2B + x3 sin 2C y1 sin 2 A + y2 sin 2B + y3 sin 2C ⎞
⎜ , ⎟ gksrk gSA
gSa rFkk vleku gksrs gSaA ⎝ sin 2 A + sin 2B + sin 2C sin 2 A + sin 2B + sin 2C ⎠
(6) oxZ% lHkh Hkqtk;sa cjkcj gksrh gS rFkk izR;sd dks.k ledks.k gksrk (3) vUr%dsUæ % vUr% dsUnz f=Hkqt ds vUr% dks.kksa ds v/kZdksa dk
gSA fod.kZ ,d nwljs dks lef}Hkkftr djrs gSaA izfrPNsn fcUnq gksrk gSA ;g f=Hkqt A(x1, y1)
(7) lekUrj prqHkqZt% lEeq[k Hkqtk;sa vkil esa cjkcj o lekUrj gksrh dh rhuksa Hkqtkvksa dks Li'kZ djus
gS rFkk fod.kZ ,d nwljs dks lef}Hkkftr djrs gSaA okys o`Ùk vFkkZr~ vUr%o`Ùk dk dsUnz
c
(8) vk;r% lEeq[k Hkqtk;sa vkil esa cjkcj o lekUrj gksrh gSa rFkk Hkh gksrk gSA F E b
izR;sd dks.k ledks.k gksrk gSA fod.kZ Hkh vkil esa cjkcj gksrs gSaA vUr%dsUæ ds funsZ'kkad I
(9) fdlh prqHkqZt ds e/; fcUnqvksa dks Øe ls feykus ij fufeZr
⎛ ax + bx2 + cx3 ay1 + by2 + cy3 ⎞ (x2, y2)B
vkd`fr ,d lekUrj prqHkqZt gksrh gSA = ⎜ 1 , ⎟ D C(x3, y3)
⎝ a+b +c a+b +c ⎠ a
foHkktu lw= (Section formulae) tgk¡ a, b, c f=Hkqt ABC dh Hkqtk;sa gSaA
;fn P(x , y) , fcUnq A(x 1 , y 1 ) ,oa B(x 2 , y 2 ) dks feykus okyh js[kk (4) cfgZo`Ùk rFkk cfgZdsUæ % fdlh f=Hkqt dh ,d Hkqtk rFkk nks c<+h
dks m 1 : m 2 ds vuqikr esa foHkkftr djrk gS (m 1 , m 2 > 0) gqbZ Hkqtkvksa dks Li'kZ djus okys o`Ùk dks cfgZo`Ùk
(1) vUr% foHkktu : ;fn P(x , y ) , A(x 1 , y 1 ) vkSj B(x 2 , y 2 ) dks dgrs gSaA ekuk ABC ,d f=Hkqt gS] rks ;gk¡ rhu I3 A I2
feykus okys js[kk[k.M dks m 1 : m 2 ds vuqikr cfgZo`Ùkksa ds rhu cfgZdsUæ gksaxsA
B(x2,y2)
PA m 1 ekuk 'kh"kksZa A( x 1 , y 1 ), B(x 2 , y 2 ) , B C
esa vUr% foHkkftr djrk gS] vFkkZr~ = P (x, y) C (x 3 , y 3 ) ds lEeq[k cfg%dsUæ I1 , I 2 , I 3 gSa] rc I1
PB m 2
rc fcUnq P(x , y) ds funsZ'kkad A(x1,y1) ⎛ −ax 1 + bx 2 + cx 3 −ay1 + by 2 + cy 3 ⎞
I1 ≡ ⎜ , ⎟
m1 x 2 + m 2 x 1 m y + m 2 y1 ⎝ −a+b+c −a+b+c ⎠
x= , y= 1 2 gksaxsA
m1 + m 2 m1 + m 2 ⎛ ax − bx 2 + cx 3 ay1 − by 2 + cy 3 ⎞
I2 ≡ ⎜ 1 , ⎟,
(2) ckár% foHkktu : ;fn P(x , y ) , A(x 1 , y1 ) vkSj B(x 2 , y 2 ) dks ⎝ a−b +c a−b +c ⎠
feykus okys js[kk[k.M dks m1 : m 2 ds ⎛ ax + bx 2 − cx 3 ay1 + by 2 − cy 3 ⎞
P(x, y) I3 ≡ ⎜ 1 , ⎟
vuqikr esa ckár% foHkkftr djrk gS vFkkZr~ ⎝ a+b −c a+b −c ⎠
PA m 1
= rc fcUnq P ds funsZ'kkad dks.kk/kZd lEeq[k Hkqtkvksa dks] 'ks"k Hkqtkvksa ds vuqikr esa foHkkftr
PB m 2 BD AB c
B(x2,y2) djrk gS] vFkkZr~ = = , vUr%dsUnz dks.kk/kZd dks vuqikr
m x − m 2 x1 m y − m 2 y1 DC AC b
x = 1 2 , y= 1 2 gksaxsA A(x1y1)
m1 − m 2 m1 − m 2 (b + c) : a, (c + a) : b ,oa (a + b ) : c esa
foHkkftr djrk gSA
f=Hkqt ls lacaf/kr fcUnq (Some points of a triangle) cfgZdsUnz : fdlh f=Hkqt dh ,d Hkqtk rFkk nks c<+h gqbZ Hkqtkvksa dks
(1) f=Hkqt dk dsUnzd % fdlh f=Hkqt A(x1,y1) Li'kZ djus okys o`Ùk dk dsUnz f=Hkqt dk cfgZdsUnz dgykrk gS fdlh
dh ekf/;dkvksa (medians) dk izfrPNsn f=Hkqt ds rhu cfgZdsUnz gksrs gSaA vUr%dsUæ ds lw= esa a, b, c ds fpUgksa
2 dks Øe'k% ifjofrZr dj cfgZdsUnz ds funsZ'kkad izkIr fd;s tk ldrs gSaA
fcUnq f=Hkqt dk dsUnzd dgykrk gSA F 1 1 E
dsUnzd izR;sd ekf/;dk dks 2 : 1 ds 2 2 (5) yEcdsUnz : f=Hkqt ds 'kh"kksZa ls A (x1, y1)
G 1 lEeq[k Hkqtkvksa ij Mkys x;s yEcksa
vuqikr esa vUr% foHkkftr djrk gSA B C
D (x3,y3)
;fn f=Hkqt ds 'kh"kZ A(x 1 , y1 ) , (x ,
2 2y ) dk izfrPNsn fcUnq bldk yEc dsUæ F
dgykrk gSA fdUgha Hkh nks yEcksa ds D
B(x 2 , y 2 ) vkSj C( x 3 , y 3 ) gSaA ;fn ekf/;dk AD ij dsUnzd G gS] rc
lehdj.k dks gy djds yEcdsUæ O
AG : GD = 2 : 1 rFkk G ds funsZ'kkad (O) izkIr dj ldrs gSaA
A(x ,y ) 1 1 (x2, y2)B
⎛ x 1 + x 2 + x 3 y1 + y 2 + y 3 ⎞ C(x3, y3)
;gk¡ O yEcdsUæ gS] ;fn AE ⊥ BC , E
⎜ , ⎟ gksaxsA
⎝ 3 3 ⎠ F E BF ⊥ AC ,oa CD ⊥ AB gks rks OE ⊥ BC , OF ⊥ AC , OD ⊥ AB
(2) ifjdsUæ % f=Hkqt ds 'kh"kksaZ ls tkus O f=Hkqt ABC dk yEc dsUæ
okys o`Ùk vFkkZr~ ifjo`Ùk dk dsUnz bldk B D C
ifjdsUnz dgykrk gSA ;g Hkqtkvksa ds yEc (x2,y2) (x3,y3) ⎛ x1 tan A + x 2 tan B + x 3 tan C y1 tan A + y 2 tan B + y3 tan C ⎞
⎜ , ⎟ gksrk gSA
v/kZdksa dk izfrPNsn fcUnq gksrk gSA Li"V gS fd ifjdsUnz f=Hkqt ds 'kh"kksZa ⎝ tan A + tan B + tan C tan A + tan B + tan C ⎠
ls cjkcj nwjh ij gksrk gS ,oa ;g nwjh ifjf=T;k dgykrh gSA ;fn f=Hkqt ledks.k gks] rks bldk yEcdsUnz ledks.k okys fcUnq ij gksxkA
 ledks.kh; dkrhZ; funsZ’kkad 551

dqN T;kferh; vkd`fr;ksa ds {ks=Qy lkis{k fcUnq P ≡ (x ' , y ' ) gS] tgk¡ OX ,oa O'X' lekUrj gSa rFkk OY ,oa
(Area of some geometrical figures) O′Y ′ lekUrj gSaA
(1) f=Hkqt dk {ks=Qy % f=Hkqt ABC ds 'kh"kZ A(x 1 , y1 ); B(x 2 , y 2 ) o rc x = x '+α , y = y ' + β
C( x 3 , y 3 ) gSa ,oa f=Hkqt ABC ds {ks=Qy dks ‘Δ’ }kjk iznf'kZr djrs gSaA ;k x ' = x − α , y ' = y − β
blfy, ;fn funsZ'kk{kksa dh fn'kkvksa dks ifjofrZr fd;s fcuk ewyfcUnq
x1 y1 1
1 1 dks u;s fcUnq (α , β ) ij LFkkukarfjr dj fn;k tk;s rks oØ dk
Δ= x2 y 2 1 = ( x 1 (y 2 − y 3 ) + x 2 (y 3 − y1 ) + x 3 (y1 − y 2 )
2 2 lehdj.k Kkr djus ds fy, mlds lehdj.k esa x ds LFkku ij x ′ + α
x3 y3 1
vkSj y ds LFkku ij y ′ + β j[kdj gy djrs gSaA
leckgq f=Hkqt esa] (i) ;fn leckgq f=Hkqt dh Hkqtk a gks] rks bldk
(2) ewyfcUnq ds ifjorZu ds fcuk v{kksa dk ?kw.kZu : ekuk O ewyfcUnq gS
3 2 A (x , y )
OX ,oa OY ds lkis{k fcUnq P ≡ (x , y )
1 1

{ks=Qy a gksxkA Y' Y

4 rFkk v{kksa OX′ ,oa OY′ ds lkis{k fcUnq
P ≡ (x ' , y ' ) gSa] tgk¡ (x,y) P
(x , y ) B C (x , y ) ∠X ' OX = ∠YOY ' = θ (x′,y′)
2 2
3 3

rks x = x ' cos θ − y ' sin θ

y′
(ii) ;fn leckgq f=Hkqt dh Å¡pkbZ (altitude) 'p' gks] rks bldk θ yθ X'
(p 2 ) y = x ' sin θ + y ' cos θ x′
{ks=Qy gksxkA
3 ,oa x ' = x cos θ + y sin θ θ X
O x
(2) lejs[kh; fcUnq % rhu fcUnq A(x1 , y1 ); B(x 2 , y 2 ); C(x 3 , y 3 ) y ' = − x sin θ + y cos θ
lejs[kh; gksaxs] ;fn f=Hkqt dk {ks=Qy 'kwU; gksA vFkkZr~] (x , y ) ,oa (x ' , y ' ) esa laca/kksa dks fuEu lkj.kh dh lgk;rk ls
x1 y1 1
1 ljyrkiwoZd ;kn j[k ldrs gSa
(i) Δ = 0 ⇒ x2 y2 1 = 0
2 x↓ y↓
x3 y3 1
x1 y1 1 x'→ cos θ sin θ
y' → − sin θ cos θ
⇒ x2 y2 1 = 0
x3 y3 1 (3) ewyfcUnq dk ifjorZu ,oa v{kksa dk ?kw.kZu : ;fn ewy fcUnq O(0, 0)
(ii) AB + BC = AC ;k AC + BC = AB ;k AC + AB = BC . dks fcUnq O ' (α , β ) ij LFkkukUrfjr Y
(3) prqHkZqt dk {ks=Qy : ;fn prqHkZqt ds 'kh"kZ (x 1 , y1 );(x 2 , y 2 ); dj fn;k tk;s ,oa v{kksa dks u;s ewy Y'
(x 3 , y 3 ) vkSj (x 4 , y 4 ) gksa] rks bldk {ks=Qy fcUnq O ' ds lkis{k okekorZ fn'kk esa P(x, y)
1 θ dks.k ls bl izdkj ?kqek;k tkrk (x', y')
= [(x1y 2 − x 2 y1 ) + (x 2 y 3 − x 3 y 2 ) + (x 3 y 4 − x 4 y 3 ) + (x 4 y1 − x1 y 4 )] . gS] fd fcUnq P(x , y ) ds funsZ'kkad θ
2 X'
(4) cgqHkqt dk {ks=Qy % ;fn cgqHkqt ds 'kh"kZ (x 1 , y1 ); ( x 2 , y 2 ); (x ' , y ' ) gks tkrs gSa] rc :ikUrfjr
θ
gkas] rc cgqHkqt dk {ks=Qy lehdj.k
(x 3 , y 3 );....( x n, y n ) O′
x = α + x ' cos θ − y ' sin θ ,oa
1 X
= | {( x 1 y 2 − x 2 y1 ) + ( x 2 y 3 − x 3 y 2 ) + .... + (x n y1 − x 1 y n )} | y = β + x ' sin θ + y ' cos θ gksaxsA O
2
iafDr fof/k (Stair method) : izFke funsZ'kkad dks vfUre iafDr
esa iqu% (4) ijkorZu ¼fcUnq dk çfrfcEc½ % ekuk fd P (x , y ) dksbZ fcUnq gS] rks
,d ckj fy[kdj uhps dh vksj rhj ds fy, /kukRed fpUg o Åij dh
vksj rhj ds fy, _.kkRed fpUg dk iz;ksx djrs gSaA bl fcUnq dk
(i) x-v{k ds lkis{k izfrfcEc ⇒ (x ,−y )
x1 y1
(ii) y-v{k ds lkis{k izfrfcEc ⇒ (− x , y )
x2 y2
(iii) ewy fcUnq ds lkis{k çfrfcEc ⇒ (− x ,− y )
x3 y3
(iv) js[kk y = x ds lkis{k çfrfcEc ⇒ (y, x )
∴ cgqHkqt dk {ks=Qy = 1| : : |
2
: :
fcUnqiFk (Locus)
xn yn ;fn dksbZ fcUnq fdlh fn;s x;s izfrcU/k ds vuqlkj xfr djrk gS]
x1 y1 rks ml fcUnq }kjk vuqjsf[kr iFk ml fcUnq dk fcUnqiFk dgykrk gSA
fcUnq ds fcUnqiFk dk lehdj.k % og lehdj.k tks dsoy fcUnqiFk
1 ij fLFkr fcUnqvksa }kjk gh lUrq"V gksrk gS] fcUnqiFk dk lehdj.k
= | {( x 1 y 2 + x 2 y 3 + .... + x n y1 ) − (y1 x 2 + y 2 x 3 + .... + y n x1 )} |
2 dgykrk gSA
v{kksa dk :ikUrj.k (Transformation of axes) fcUnqiFk dks Kkr djus dh fof/k
(i) ekuk ml fcUnq ds funsZ'kkad (h, k) gS] ftldk fcUnqiFk Kkr djuk gSA
(1) v{kksa ds ?kw.kZu ds fcuk ewyfcUnq dk ifjorZu % ekuk v{kksa OX ,oa
OY ds lkis{k fcUnq P ≡ (x , y ) gSA (ii) fn;s x;s izfrca/k ds vuqlkj (h , k) esa xf.krh; laca/k LFkkfir djrs gSaA
Y
vc ekuk OX ,oa OY ds lkis{k u;s (iii) izkIr laca/k ls pjksa dks foyqIr djrs gSa] ;fn dksbZ pj gksA
ewyfcUnq O ' ≡ (α , β ) gS ,oa O'X' ,oa O'Y' ds Y′ (iv) in (iii) ls izkIr laca/k esa h ds LFkku ij x rFkk k ds LFkku ij y
P(x, y) j[krs gSaA bl izdkj vHkh"V fcUnqiFk izkIr gksrk gSA
(x', y')
y′
(α,β)
O′ x ′ X′
O X
 552 ledks.kh; dkrhZ; funsZ'kkad

funsZ'kkad i)fr] nks fcUnqvksa ds chp dh nwjh rFkk foHkktu lw=

1. fdlh fcUnq ds funsZ’kkad (0, 1) gSa rFkk nwljs fcUnq dh dksfV – 3
gSaA ;fn nksuksa fcUnqvksa ds chp dh nwjh 5 gks] rks nwljs fcUnq dk
Hkqt gS
" ;fn P(x , y ) , fcUnq A(x 1 , y1 ) ,oa B(x 2 , y 2 ) dks feykus okyh js[kk dks (a) 3 (b) – 3
λx ± x λy ± y (c) ± 3 (d) 1
vuqikr λ : 1(λ > 0) esa foHkkftr djs] rks x = 2 1 ; y = 2 1 ,
λ ±1 λ ±1 2. oxZ dk ,d 'kh"kZ ewy fcUnq ij gS ,oa vklé Hkqtk;sa /kukRed
tgk¡ /kukRed fpUg~ vUr% foHkktu ,oa _.kkRed fpUg cká foHkktu n'kkZrk gSA v{kksa ij laikrh gSaA ;fn Hkqtk 5 gks rks buesa ls dkSu lk bldk
" AB dk e/; fcUnq ⎛⎜ x 1 + x 2 , y1 + y 2 ⎞⎟ gS([tgk¡ m1 : m 2 = 1 : 1 ]. ,d 'kh"kZ ugha gksxk
⎝ 2 2 ⎠ (a) (0, 5) (b) (5, 0)
" vuqikr Kkr djus ds fy, vuqikr λ : 1 dk mi;ksx djrs gSaA (c) (– 5, – 5) (d) (0, 0)
;fn λ /kukRed gS] rks vUr% foHkktu ,oa ;fn λ _.kkRed gS] rks 3. x-v{k ij fLFkr lHkh fcUnqvksa dk lkoZy{k.k gS [MP PET 1988]
cká foHkktu gksrk gSA (a) x =0 (b) y=0
" js[kk ax + by + c = 0 , fcUnqvksa A(x 1 , y1 ) ,oa B(x 2 , y 2 ) dks
(c) a = 0, y = 0 (d) y = 0, b = 0
⎛ ax + by 1 + c ⎞
feykus okyh js[kk dks vuqikr ⎜⎜ − 1 ⎟ esa foHkkftr djrk
⎟ 4. ;fn fcUnqvksa (a,2) rFkk (3,4 ) ds chp dh nwjh 8 gks] rks a =
⎝ ax 2 + by 2 + c ⎠ [MNR 1978]
gSA ;fn vuqikr _.kkRed gS] rks cká foHkktu ,oa /kukRed gS] rks
vUr% foHkktu O;Dr djrk gSA (a) 2 + 3 15 (b) 2 − 3 15
" ;fn f=Hkqt leckgq gks] rks dsUnzd] vUr% dsUnz] yEcdsUnz rFkk (c) 2 ± 3 15 (d) 3 ± 2 15
ifjdsUnz ,d gh fcUnq ij gksaxs vFkkZr~ ;s laikrh gksaxsA 5. og fcUnq ftldk Hkqt mldh dksfV ds cjkcj gS vkSj fcUnqvksa
" yEcdsUnz] dsUnzd ,oa ifjdsUnz lnSo lejs[kh; gksrs gSa rFkk (1,0) rFkk (0,3) ls leku nwjh ij fLFkr gSa] gS
dsUnzd] yEcdsUnz vkSj ifjdsUnz dks feykus okyh js[kk dks 2 : 1 ds (a) (1, 1) (b) (2, 2)
vuqikr esa foHkkftr djrk gSA (c) (3, 3) (d) (4, 4)
" lef}ckgq f=Hkqt esa dsUnzd] yEcdsUnz] var%dsUnz rFkk ifjdsUnz
,d gh js[kk ij fLFkr gksrs gSaA 6. ;fn A(6,−1), B (1, 3) rFkk C(x , 8 ) ,sls gksa fd AB = BC , rks
x=
" ledks.k f=Hkqt esa ifjdsUæ] d.kZ dk e/; fcUnq gksrk gSA
(a) – 3, 5 (b) 3, – 5
" ;fn f=Hkqt ds /kzqoh; funsZ'kkad (r1 , θ1 ), (r2 , θ 2 ) ,oa (r3 , θ 3 ) gkas]
(c) – 3, – 5 (d) 3, 5
rks bldk {ks=Qy
1 7. fcUnqvksa (am 12 , 2am 1 ) rFkk (am 22 , 2am 2 ) ds chp dh nwjh gS
Δ= [r1r2 sin(θ 2 − θ1 ) + r2 r3 sin(θ 3 − θ 2 ) + r3 r1 sin(θ 1 − θ 3 )] .
2 (a) a(m 1 − m 2 ) (m 1 + m 2 )2 + 4
" ;fn f=Hkqt dk {ks=Qy ,d ifjes; la[;k gS] rks f=Hkqt dHkh Hkh
leckgq ugha gks ldrk gSA (b) (m 1 − m 2 ) (m 1 + m 2 )2 + 4
" ;fn vk;r ds nks foijhr 'kh"kZ (x 1 , y1 ) ,oa (x 2 , y 2 ) gksa] rks
bldk {ks=Qy (y 2 − y 1 )(x 2 − x 1 ) gksxkA (c) a(m 1 − m 2 ) (m 1 + m 2 )2 − 4
" ;fn oxZ ds nks foijhr 'kh"kZ A(x 1 , y1 ) ,oa C( x 2 , y 2 ) gksa] rks
(d) (m 1 − m 2 ) (m 1 + m 2 )2 − 4
1 1
bldk {ks=Qy = AC 2 = [(x 2 − x 1 )2 + (y 2 − y1 )2 ] gksxkA 8. ;fn fcUnq (x, y) fcUnqvksa (a + b, b − a) rFkk (a − b, a + b) ls leku
2 2
" fcUnq P dk fcUnqiFk tks nks fcUnqvksa A rFkk B ls lenwjLFk gS] nwjh ij fLFkr gksa] rks [MP PET 1983, 94]
,d ljy js[kk gS rFkk js[kk AB dk yEc lef}Hkktd gSA (a) ax + by = 0 (b) ax − by = 0
" mijksDr fLFkfr esa ;fn PA = kPB tgk¡ k ≠ 1 , rks P dk fcUnqiFk (c) bx + ay = 0 (d) bx − ay = 0
,d o`Ùk gksxkA
" P dk fcUnqiFk] ;fn A vkSj B fLFkj gksa 9. ;fn fcUnq (0, 0), (2, 2 3 ) rFkk (a, b) ,d leckgq f=Hkqt ds 'kh"kZ
(a) o`Ùk] ;fn ∠APB = fu;rkad] (0 ;k π dks NksM+dj) gksa rks (a, b) =
π (a) (0, – 4) (b) (0, 4)
(b) AB O;kl dk o`Ùk] ;fn ∠APB =
2 (c) (4, 0) (d) (– 4, 0)
(c) nh?kZo`Ùk] ;fn PA +PB = fu;rkad](AB < fu;rkad)
(d) vfrijoy;] ;fn PA – PB = fu;rkad] (AB > fu;rkad)
 576 ljy js[kk

Chapter

15
ljy js[kk
ifjHkk"kk (Definition) fofHkUu :iksa esa ljy js[kk dk lehdj.k
(Equations of straight line in different forms)
ljy js[kk og oØ gS] ftlesa nks fcUnqvksa dks feykus okys js[kk[k.M
dk çR;sd fcUnq oØ ij fLFkr gksrk gSA fdlh ry esa ,d fcUnq dk (1) ço.krk #i (Slope form) : ewy fcUnq ls tkus okyh js[kk] ftldh
ljyre fcUnqiFk ,d ljy js[kk gksrh gSA ,d js[kk fuEu esa ls fdlh ço.krk m gS] dk lehdj.k y = mx gksxkA
,d ds }kjk vf}rh; :i ls Kkr dh tk ldrh gS % (2) ,d fcUnq :i ;k fcUnq&ço.krk :i (One point form or Point
(1) nks fofHkUu fcUnq ¼D;ksafd ge tkurs gSa fd fn;s x;s nks fcUnqvksa slope form) : ml js[kk dk lehdj.k] tks fcUnq (x 1 , y1 ) ls gksdj tkrh
ls ,d vkSj dsoy ,d js[kk xqtjrh gSA½
gS rFkk ftldh ço.krk m gS] y − y1 = m (x − x 1 ) gksxkA
(2) ,d fcUnq rFkk ,d nh xbZ fn'kkA
js[kk dh izo.krk ¼<ky½ (Slope (gradient) of a line) (3) ço.krk&vUr%[k.M :i (Slope intercept form) : js[kk (Å/okZ/kj
ugha) dk lehdj.k] ftldh ço.krk m gS rFkk y-v{k ij c vUr%[k.M
fdlh ljy js[kk dh ço.krk ml dks.k dh f=dks.kferh; Li'kZT;k dkVrh gS] y = mx + c gksxkA
gksrh gS] tks ljy js[kk x-v{k dh /kukRed fn'kk ls cukrh gSA Y
js[kk dh ço.krk dks lk/kkj.kr% m ls O;Dr djrs gSa] vFkkZr~ m = tan θ B
Y Y

B c
B X' θ
X
A O
θ θ
X′ X X′ X
A O O A Y'
(1) x-v{k ds lekUrj Y′ js[kk dh ço.krk m = tanY0′ = 0
o
ml js[kk dk lehdj.k] ftldh ço.krk m gS rFkk x-v{k ij vUr%[k.M
(2) y-v{k ds lekUrj js[kk dh ço.krk m = tan 90 o = ∞ d gS] y = m ( x − d ) gksxkA
(3) nksuksa v{kksa ds lkFk leku dks.k ls >qdh js[kk dh ço.krk 1 ;k –1 (4) vUr%[k.M :i (Intercept form) : ;fn ljy js[kk x-v{k dks fcUnq
gksxhA A rFkk y-v{k dks fcUnq B ij dkVrh gS] rks OA rFkk OB Øe'k% x-v{k
(4) fcUnqvksa A(x 1 , y1 ) rFkk B(x 2 , y 2 ) ls tkus okyh js[kk dh
rFkk y-v{k ij dkVs x;s vUr%[k.M gSaA
y −y dksfV;ksa esa vUrj ljy js[kk] tks x-v{k rFkk y-v{k ls Øe'k% a rFkk b vUr%[k.M
ço.krk 2 1 , vFkkZr~ gksxhA
x 2 − x1 Hkqtksa esa vUrj x y Y
dkVrh gS] dk lehdj.k + =1
a a b
(5) js[kk ax + by + c = 0, b ≠ 0 dh ço.krk − gksxhA
b gksrk gSA B
(6) nks lekUrj js[kkvksa dh ço.krk;sa cjkcj gksrh gSaA ;fn nh x;h ljy js[kk X-v{k ds b
(7) ;fn nks yEcor~ js[kkvksa dh ço.krk;sa m1 o m 2 gksa] rks lekUrj gks] rks X-vUr%[k.M vifjHkkf"kr X'
A
X
m1m 2 = −1 . gksrk gSA O a

(8) m dks tan θ ls O;Dr dj ldrs gSa] tcfd 0 ≤ θ ≤ π rFkk ;fn nh x;h ljy js[kk Y-v{k
Y'
π ds lekUrj gks] rks Y-vUr%[k.M
θ ≠ . vifjHkkf"kr gksrk gSA
2
 ljy js[kk 577
(5) js[kk dk nks fcUnq :i (Two point form) : fcUnqvksa A (x 1 , y1 ) rFkk (3) vfHkyEc :i (Normal form) : ljy js[kk ds O;kid :i dks
B( x 2 , y 2 ) ls gksdj tkus okyh js[kk Y vfHkyEc :i esa ifjofrZr djus ds fy, loZçFke c dks nk;ha vksj ysrs gSa ,oa
L
dk lehdj.k B /kukRed cukrs gSaA blds ckn a 2 + b 2 ls lehdj.k esa Hkkx nsrs gSa
y − y1 (x2, y2) ax by c
(y − y1 ) = 2 (x − x 1 ) gSA bl çdkj] − − = ,
x 2 − x1 a +b
2 2
a +b
2 2
a + b2
2

lkjf.kd :i esa] js[kk dk a b

x y 1 A O X tgk¡ cos α = − , sin α = −
(x ,y ) a +b
2 2
a + b2
2
lehdj.k gS % x 1 y1 1 = 0. 1 1

c
x2 y2 1 ,oa p= .
a + b2
2
(6) vfHkyEc :i (Normal or perpendicular form) : js[kk] ftl ij
ewy fcUnq ls Mkys x;s yEc dh yEckbZ Y nks js[kkvksa dk izfrPNsn fcUnq
p gS rFkk ;g yEc x-v{k ds lkFk α (Point of intersection of two lines)
dks.k cukrk gS] dk lehdj.k gS] ekuk a1 x + b 1 y + c1 =0 ,oa a 2 x + b 2 y + c 2 = 0 nks vlekUrj
x cos α + y sin α = p . B
p P js[kk,¡ gSaA ;fn buds çfrPNsn fcUnq ds funsZ'kkad (x ′, y ′) gksa] rc
X' α a1 x ′ + b 1 y ′ + c 1 = 0 ,oa a 2 x ′ + b 2 y ′ + c 2 = 0
X
O A
lehdj.kksa dks gy djus ij]
Y' ⎛ b1 b2 c1 c2 ⎞
js[kk dk çkpfyd ;k lefer ⎜ ⎟
(7) ⎛ b c − b 2 c 1 c 1 a 2 − c 2 a1 ⎞ ⎜ c a2 ⎟ .
;k nwjh :i : fcUnq ls gksdj tkus okyh rFkk x-v{k dh /kukRed (x ′, y ′) = ⎜⎜ 1 2 , ⎟ =
⎟ ⎜
1 c2
,
a1
⎟
⎝ a1 b 2 − a 2 b1 a1 b 2 − a 2 b1
( x 1 , y1 )
⎠ ⎜ a1 a2 a1 a2 ⎟
fn'kk ls θ dks.k cukus okyh js[kk dk Y ⎜ b b2 b1 b 2 ⎟⎠
⎝ 1
lehdj.k gS] (x ,y ) r
x − x1 y − y1
1 1

A θ
P(x, y) nks js[kkvksa ds izfrPNsn fcUnq ls gksdj tkus okyh js[kkvksa dk
= = ±r
cos θ sin θ O;kid lehdj.k (General equation of lines through the
tgk¡ r, fcUnq P (x, y) ,oa A(x 1 , y1 ) ds X ' θ
X
intersection of two given lines)
chp dh nwjh gSA O
;fn nks js[kk;sa P = a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0
bl js[kk ij fLFkr fdlh fcUnq
ds funsZ'kkad (x 1 ± r cos θ , y1 ± r sin θ ) Y' ,oa Q = a2 x + b 2 y + c 2 = 0 gksa] rks
dks çkpfyd funsZ'kkad dgrs gSa] tgk¡ ‘r’ çkpy gSA bu js[kkvksa ds çfrPNsn fcUnq ls tkus okyh js[kkvksa dk lehdj.k gS]
P + λ Q = 0 ;k a1 x + b1 y + c1 + λ (a2 x + b 2 y + c 2 ) = 0 ; λ dk eku
nh xbZ js[kk ds lekUrj ,oa yEcor~ js[kkvksa dk lehdj.k ç'u esa fn;s x;s vfrfjä funsZ'kksa dh lgk;rk ls çkIr djrs gSaA
(Equation of parallel and perpendicular lines to a given line)
(1) js[kk] tks js[kk ax + by + c = 0 ds lekUrj gS] dk lehdj.k nks vlekUrj izfrPNsnh js[kkvksa ds chp dk dks.k
ax + by + λ = 0 gksxkA (Angle between two non-parallel lines)
(2) js[kk] tks js[kk ax + by + c = 0 ds yEcor~ gS] dk lehdj.k
ekuk js[kkvksa y = m1 x + c1 ,oa y = m 2 x + c 2 ds chp dks.k θ gS
bx − ay + λ = 0 gksxkA
mijksDr nksuksa fLFkfr;ksa esa λ dk eku ç’ukuqlkj Kkr djrs gSaA m1 − m 2
,oa nksuksa js[kk;sas çfrPNsn djrh gS,a rc θ = tan −1 . ;fn nks
(3) ;fn js[kk dk lehdj.k a sin θ + b cos θ = c gks] rc 1 + m 1m 2
(i) blds lekUrj js[kk dk lehdj.k a sin θ + b cos θ = d gksxkA js[kkvksa ds e/; dks.k θ gS] rc bu nksuksa js[kkvksa ds e/; dks.k (π − θ )
(ii) blds yEcor~ js[kk dk lehdj.k Hkh gksxkA
⎛π ⎞ ⎛π ⎞ (1) nks ljy js[kkvksa ds chp dks.k] tcfd muds lehdj.k fn;s gksa %
a sin ⎜ + θ ⎟ + b cos ⎜ + θ ⎟ = d gksxkA
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ljy js[kk;sa a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0 ,o a2 x + b 2 y + c 2 = 0 ds e/;
ljy js[kk ds O;kid lehdj.k dk ekud :iksa esa :ikUrj.k dks.k θ gks] rc tan θ =
a 2 b1 − a1 b 2
.
(General equation of a straight line and its transformation a1 a 2 + b1 b 2
in standard forms)
(2) nks js[kkvksa ds laikrh] lekUrj] yEcor~ vFkok çfrPNsnh gksus dk
js[kk dk O;kid lehdj.k ax + by + c = 0 gSA çfrcU/k% nks js[kk;sa a1 x + b1y + c1 = 0 rFkk a2 x + b 2 y + c 2 = 0 gSaA
(1) ço.krk&vUr%[k.M :i (Slope intercept form) :
a1 b c
a c a c (a) laikrh] ;fn = 1 = 1
y = − x − , ço.krk m = − ,oa y-v{k ij vUr%[k.M C = − . a2 b 2 c 2
b b b b
a1 b c
x y (b) lekUrj] ;fn = 1 ≠ 1
(2) vUr%[k.M :i (Intercept form) : + =1, a2 b 2 c2
− c /a − c /b
a1 b
⎛ c⎞ ⎛ c⎞ (c) çfrPNsnh] ;fn ≠ 1
x vUr%[k.M = ⎜ − ⎟ ,oa y-vUr%[k.M = ⎜ − ⎟ . a2 b 2
⎝ a⎠ ⎝ b⎠
(d) yEcor~] ;fn a1a2 + b1b 2 = 0
 578 ljy js[kk

nh gqbZ js[kk ls fn;k gqvk dks.k cukus okyh ,oa fn;s gq, fcUnq ls (1) fdlh js[kk ls ,d fcUnq dh nwjh (Distance of a point from a line) :
gksdj tkus okyh js[kk dk lehdj.k fcUnq (x 1 , y1 ) ls js[kk ax + by + c = 0 ij Mkys x;s yEc dh yEckbZ p
(Equation of straight line through a given point making a | ax 1 + by 1 + c |
gks] rks p =
given angle with a given line) a2 + b 2
fcUnq (x 1 , y1 ) ls gksdj tkus okyh mu nks ljy js[kkvksa ds • ewy fcUnq ls js[kk ax + by + c = 0 ij Mkys x;s yEc dh
lehdj.k] tks ,d nh gqbZ ljy js[kk y = mx + c ds lkFk α dks.k c
m ± tan α yEckbZ = .
cukrh gSa, y − y1 = (x − x 1 ) gksaxsA a + b2
2
1 m m tan α
• fcUnq (x 1 , y1 ) ls js[kk x cos α + y sin α = p ij Mkys x;s
nks js[kkvksa ds chp ds dks.kksa ds v)Zdksa ds lehdj.k
(Equations yEc dh yEckbZ = | x 1 cos α + y1 sin α − p | .
of the bisectors of the angles between two straight lines)
(2) nks lekUrj js[kkvksa ds e/; nwjh (Distance between two parallel
js[kkvksa a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0 ,oa a2 x + b2 y + c 2 = 0 ds chp ds lines) : ekuk nks lekUrj js[kk,¡ ax + by + c1 = 0 ,oa ax + by + c 2 = 0
dks.kksa ds v)Zdksa ds lehdj.k gSa, gSaA
a1 x + b1 y + c1 a2 x + b 2 y + c 2 | c1 − c 2 |
=± .....(i) çFke fof/k : js[kkvksa ds e/; nwjh d gS] rks d = .
a12 + b12 a22 + b 22 ax + by + c1 = 0 (a 2 + b 2 )
dks.kk/kZd] ftlesa ewy fcUnq fLFkr gks] ds Kkr djus dh fof/k : ekuk nks
js[kkvksa ds lehdj.k a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0 rFkk a2 x + b 2 y + c 2 = 0 gSaA d
dks.kk/kZd] ftlesa ewyfcUnq 'kkfey gS] dks Kkr djus dh fof/k fuEu gS:
Step I : ;fn lehdj.kksa esa c1 rFkk c 2 _.kkRed gksa] rks lcls igys
c1 rFkk c 2 dks /kukRed cukrs gSaA
ax + by + c = 0 λ
f}rh; fof/k : js[kkvksa ds e/; 2nwjh d = , tgk¡
Step II : vc /kukRed fpUg~ ds laxr v)Zd dk lehdj.k] vFkkZr~ ax + by + c1 = 0 (a + b 2 )
2

a1 x + b1 y + c1 a2 x + b 2 y + c 2
= Kkr djrs gSaA
a12 + b12 a22 + b 22
ax + by + c2 = 0
;g vHkh"V dks.kk/kZd gS] ftlesa ewy fcUnq fLFkr gSA
• kk;s
(i) λ =| c1 − c 2 | , ;fn js[ O (0, 0)
a ewy
fcUnq ds ,d vksj gksaA
dks.k dk v)Zd ftlesa ewy fcUnq fLFkr gks] ls rkRi;Z gS js[kkvksa ds
e/; ml dks.k dk v/kZd ftlesa fd ewy fcUnq fLFkr gksA (ii) λ =| c1 | + | c 2 | , ;fn ewy fcUnq js[kkvksa ds e/; fLFkr gksA

(1) U;wu dks.k rFkk vf/kd dks.k ds v)Zdksa ds lehdj.k Kkr djus dh r`rh; fof/k : nh x;h js[kk ij fdlh fcUnq ds funsZ'kkad Kkr djus
fof/k % ekuk nh x;h js[kkvksa esa ls (leh- (i) ls) ,d dks.kk/kZd ds chp
ds fy, x = 0 ;k y = 0 j[krs gSaA rc bl fcUnq ls nwljh js[kk dh
dks.k θ gSA ;fn | tan θ | < 1 gks] rks ;g dks.kk/kZd U;wu dks.k dk v)Zd yEcor~ nwjh nksuksa js[kkvksa ds e/; vHkh"V nwjh gksrh gSA
ax + by + c1 = 0
gksxk ,oa nwljk dks.kk/kZd vf/kd dks.k dk v)Zd gksxkA
.O (0, 0)
;fn| tan θ | > 1 gks] rks ;g dks.kk/kZd vf/kd dks.k dk v)Zd gksxk
,oa nwljk dks.kk/kZd U;wu dks.k dk v)Zd gksxkA ax + by + c2 = 0

(2) U;wu dks.kk/kZd ,oa vf/kd dks.kk/kZd Kkr djus dh fof/k • nks lekUrj js[kkvksa ax + by + c1 = 0 ,oa
(i) ;fn vpj in _.kkRed gS] rks bls /kukRed cukrs gSaA c2
c1 −
(ii) O;atd a1a2 + b1b 2 dk fpUg~ Kkr djrs gSaA k
kax + kby + c 2 = 0 ds e/; nwjh = .
(iii) ;fn a1a2 + b1b 2 > 0 gks] rks /kukRed fpUg~ ds laxr dks.kk/kZd a2 + b 2
vf/kd dks.k dk v)zZd rFkk _.kkRed fpUg~ ds laxr dks.kk/kZd U;wu • nks vlekUrj (çfrPNsnh) js[kkvksa ds e/; nwjh lnSo 'kwU; gksrh gSA
dks.k dk v)Zd gksxkA fdlh js[kk ds lkis{k ,d fcUnq dh fLFkfr
(iv) ;fn a1a2 + b1b 2 < 0 gks] rks /kukRed fpUg~ ds laxr (Position of a point with respect to a line)
dks.kk/kZd U;wu dks.k dk v)Zd rFkk L1
_.kkRed fpUg~ ds laxr dks.kk/kZd ekuk nh x;h js[kk ax + by + c = 0 gS rFkk çsf{kr fcUnq (x 1 , y 1 ) gks] rc
vf/kd dks.k dk v)Zd gksxkA (i) ;fn js[kk ds lehdj.k esa x = x 1 , y = y 1 ,oa x = 0 , y = 0
U;wu dks.kk/kZd
• nksuksa dks.kk/kZd ,d-nwljs ds j[kus ij leku fpUg~ çkIr gksrs gSa] rks fcUnq (x 1 , y 1 ) ewy fcUnq ds ,d
P(x, y)
yEcor~ gksrs gSaA vksj fLFkr gksrk gSA
• ;fn a1a2 + b1b 2 > 0 , rks ewy
(ii) ;fn js[kk ds lehdj.k esa x = x 1 , y = y 1 ,oa x = 0 , y = 0
fcUnq vf/kd dks.k esa fLFkr gksrk gS ,oa L2
j[kus ij foijhr fpUg~ çkIr gksrs gSa] rks fcUnq (x 1 , y 1 ) ewy fcUnq ds
;fn a1a2 + b1b 2 < 0 rks ewy fcUnq U;wu vf/kd dks.kk/kZd
foijhr vksj fLFkr gksrk gSA
dks.k esa fLFkr gksrk gSA
yEc dh yackbZ (Length of perpendicular) js[kk ds lkis{k nks fcUnqvksa dh fLFkfr
(Position of two points with respect to a line)
 ljy js[kk 579
nks fcUnq (x 1 , y1 ) vkSj (x 2 , y 2 ) ljy js[kk ax + by + c = 0 ds ,d Y
gh vksj ;k foijhr vksj fLFkr gksaxs] ;fn ax 1 + by 1 + c ,oaa
ax 2 + by 2 + c ds eku Øe'k% leku fpUg~ ;k foijhr fpUg~ ds gkasA
P(x, y)
laxkeh js[kk;sa (Concurrent lines) P′ (x′,y′)
O′
rhu ;k rhu ls vf/kd js[kk;sa laxkeh js[kk;sa gksaxh] ;fn os ,d fcUnq
ij feyrh gSaA X′ X
çFke fof/k : fdUgh nks js[kkvksa dk çfrPNsn fcUnq Kkr djrs gSaA ;fn O
;g rhljh js[kk ij Hkh gks] rks js[kk;sa laxkeh gksaxhA
f}rh; fof/k :
(4) ewy fcUnq ds lkis{k fdlhY′ fcUnq dk çfrfcEc % ekuk P(x , y ) dksbZ
rhu js[kk,¡ a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0 , a2 x + b 2 y + c 2 = 0 ,oa fcUnq gS ,oa fcUnq P ′(x ′, y ′) , ewy fcUnq ls ijkorZu ds i'pkr~ çfrfcEc
gks] rks x ′ = − x
a1 b1 c1
y ′ = − y , (Q O , P vkSj P ′ dk e/; fcUnq gS)
a3 x + b 3 y + c 3 = 0 laxkeh gksaxh] ;fn a2 b 2 c 2 = 0 .
a3 b3 c3 Y

r`rh; fof/k : js[kkvksa P = 0 , Q = 0 ,oa R = 0 ds laxkeh gksus ds P(x, y)

fy, çfrcU/k gS fd rhu vpj a, b, c (lHkh 'kwU; ughaa) bl çdkj fo|eku
gksa] fd aP + bQ + cR = 0 . X′ N
X
O M
lrg ij ijkorZu (Reflection on the surface)
;gk¡] IP = vkifrr fdj.k N R P′(x′, y′)
I
PN = lrg ij vfHkyEc Y′
PR = ijkofrZr fdj.k
(5) js[kk y=x ds lkis{k fdlh fcUnq dk çfrfcEc% ekuk dksbZ P(x , y )
vfHkyEc

rc] ∠IPN = ∠NPR fcUnq gS ,oa fcUnq P ′(x ′, y ′) , js[kk y = x esa ijkorZu ds i'pkr~ çfrfcEc
vkifrr fdj.k ijkofrZr fdj.k
vkifrr dks.k = ijkofrZr dks.k gS] rks x ′ = y
θ θ y′ = x , (Q O ′ , P vkSj P ′ dk e/; fcUnq gS)
α α
Li'kZ js[kk Y
P(x, y)
P
lrg
y=x O′
fofHkUu fLFkfr;ksa esa fcUnq dk izfrfcEc 45º P′(x′, y′)
X′ X
(Image of a point in different cases) O
(1) fdlh js[kk ds lkis{k ,d fcUnq dk çfrfcEc % js[kk
ax + by + c = 0 ds lkis{k fcUnq A(x 1 , y1 ) dk çfrfcEc B (h, k) gks] rks
Y′
h − x 1 k − y1 −2(ax 1 + by 1 + c)
= = A (x1, y1) (6) js[kk y = x tan θ ds lkis{k fdlh fcUnq dk çfrfcEc % ekuk P( x , y )
a b a2 + b 2 ax+by+c = 0
dksbZ fcUnq gS] ,oa fcUnq P ′(x ′, y ′) , js[kk y = x tan θ esa ijkorZu ds i'pkr~
çfrfcEc gS] rks
x ′ = x cos 2θ + y sin 2θ
y ′ = x sin 2θ − y cos 2θ , (Q O ′ , P vkSj P ′ dk e/; fcUnq gS)
B(h,k) Y
(2) x-v{k ds lkis{k fdlh fcUnq dk çfrfcEc % ekuk P(x , y ) dksbZ fcUnq P(x, y)
gS ,oa P ′ (x ′, y ′) , x-v{k esa ijkorZu ds i'pkr~ çfrfcEc gS] rks
O′
x′ = x y=x tan θ P′(x′, y′)
θ
y ′ = – y , (Q O ′ , P vkSj P ′ dk e/; fcUnq gS) X′ X
Y O

P(x, y) Y′

X
O O′
(3) y-v{k ds lkis{k fdlh fcUnq dk çfrfcEc% ekuk P(x , y ) dksbZ fcUnq
gS ,oa P ′(x ′, y ′) , y-v{k esa ijkorZu ds i'pkr~
P′(x′, çfrfcEc
y′) gS] " ;fn rhu fcUnq A, B, C lejs[kh; gksa] rks AB dh ço.krk = BC dh
rks x ′ = −x ço.krk = AC dh ço.krk.
y ′ = y , ( Q O ′ , P vkSj P ′ dk e/; fcUnq gS)
 580 ljy js[kk

" x-v{k dk lehdj.k ⇒ y = 0; x-v{k ds lekUrj (;k y-v{k ds

yEcor~) js[kk dk lehdj.k] ftldh x-v{k ls nwjh ‘b’ gS ⇒ y = b . js[kk dh ço.krk] js[kk ds lehdj.k ds fofHkUu :i
" y-v{k dk lehdj.k ⇒ x = 0; y-v{k ds lekUrj (;k x-v{k ds 1. funsZ'kkad v{kksa ls cjkcj yEckbZ ds vUr%[k.M dkVus okyh ,d
yEcor~) js[kk dk lehdj.k] ftldh y-v{k ls nwjh ‘a’ gS ⇒ x = a . js[kk dh izo.krk gS [MP PET 1986]
(a) – 1 (b) 0
" js[kkvksa y = m 1 x + c1 , y = m 2 x + c 2 , y = m 3 x + c 3 ls fufeZr
(c) 2 (d) 3
1 (c − c 2 )2 ;fn fcUnqvksa A rFkk B ds funsZ'kkad Øe'k% (3, 3) rFkk (7, 6) gksa] rks
f=Hkqt dk {ks=Qy = ∑ 1 . 2.
2 m1 − m 2 js[kk AB ds v{kksa ds chp dVs Hkkx dh yEckbZ gksxh
" js[kk ax + by + c = 0 rFkk funsZ'kkad-v{kksa ls fufeZr f=Hkqt dk (a)
5
(b)
10
4 4
c2
{ks=Qy = .
13
2 | ab | (c) (d) buesa ls dksbZ ugha
3
" js[kkvksa ax ± by ± c = 0 ls fufeZr leprqHkZqt dk {ks=Qy 3. ;fn js[kk,¡ 2 x + 3 y = 5 rFkk y = mx + c lekUrj gksa] rks
2c 2 (a) m = 2/3, c = 5
= . (b) m = – 2/3, c = 5
ab
(c) m = – 2/3, c = dksbZ okLrfod la[;k
" js[kkvksa a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0 ; a2 x + b2 y + c 2 = 0 , (d) buesa ls dksbZ ugha
a1 x + b1 y + d1 = 0 ,oa a2 x + b 2 y + d 2 = 0 ls fufeZr lekUrj 4. js[kk (3 x − y + 5) + λ(2 x − 3 y − 4 ) = 0 , y-v{k ds lekUrj gksxh]
;fn λ =
(d1 − c1 ) (d 2 − c 2 )
prqHkqZt dk {ks=Qy = . 1 −1
a1b 2 − a2 b1 (a) (b)
3 3
" js[kk ax + by + c = 0 ij fcUnq (x 1 , y1 ) ls [khaps x;s yEc ds 3 −3
(c) (d)
h − x 1 k − y1 2 2
yEc-ikn ds funsZ'kkad (h, k ) gksa] rks =
a b 5. ;fn js[kk y = m x; r = 1, 2, 3 ,d vU; js[kk x + y = 1 ij cjkcj
r

−(ax 1 + by 1 + c) vUr%[k.M dkVrh gS] rks 1 + m 1 , 1 + m 2 ,oa 1 + m 3 gksaxs

= . vr% yEcikn ds funsZ'kkad
a2 + b 2 (a) l-Js- esa (b) xq-Js- esa
(c) g-Js- esa (d) buesa ls dksbZ ugha
⎛ b 2 x 1 − aby 1 − ac a 2 y1 − abx 1 − bc ⎞
= ⎜⎜ , ⎟ gksaxsA
⎟ 6. oØ y = x + 2 x ij fLFkr fcUnq] ftuds Hkqt 1 ,oa 3 gSa] dks
2

⎝ a2 + b 2 a2 + b 2 ⎠ feykus okyh js[kk dh izo.krk gS [MP PET 1997]

p1 p 2 (a) 6 (b) 5
" lekUrj prqHkqZt dk {ks=Qy] A = , tgk¡ p1 ,oa p 2 lekUrj (c) 4 (d) 3
sin θ
7. nks ljy js[kkvksa ds lekUrj gksus dk izfrcU/k] tcfd ,d ljy
Hkqtkvksa ds e/; nwfj;k¡ ,oa θ nks vklUu Hkqtkvksa ds e/; dks.k gSA
js[kk ax + by + c = 0 gS rFkk nwljh ljy js[kk dk izkpy :i
" ;fn v{kksa ds e/; fdlh js[kk dk dVk Hkkx (x 1 , y 1 ) ij x = α t + β , y = γ t + δ }kjk iznf'kZr gS] gS [AMU 2000]

x y (a) αγ − b α = 0 , β = δ = c = 0
lef}Hkkftr gksrk gks] rc js[kk dk lehdj.k + =2 gksxkA
x 1 y1 (b) aα − b γ = 0 , β = δ = 0
(c) aα + b γ = 0
" ;fn ,d ljy js[kk] funsZ'kak{kksa ds lkFk ,d f=Hkqt cukrh gS]
ftldk dsUnzd (x 1 , y1 ) gS] rc ljy js[kk dk lehdj.k (d) aγ = b α = 0

x y
8. fcUnq (1, – 2) ls tkus okyh rFkk nksuksa v{kksa ls cjkcj vUr%[k.M
+ =1 gksxkA dkVus okyh js[kk dk lehdj.k gS
3 x 1 3 y1 [MNR 1978]
(a) x +y =1 (b) x −y =1
(c) x + y +1 = 0 (d) x −y−2 =0
 622 js[kk;qXe

Chapter - 16
Pair of straight lines

js[kk;qXe dk lehdj.k (Equation of pair of straight lines) ∂φ

,oa = 2 hx + 2by + 2 f = 0 , (x dks fLFkj j[krs gq,)
∂y
(1) ewy fcUnq ls xqtjus okys js[kk;qXe dk lehdj.k (Equation of a pair ∂φ ∂φ
of straight lines passing through lehdj.k
origin): izfrPNsn fcUnq ds fy, =0 ,oa =0,
∂x ∂y
ax 2 + 2 hxy + by 2 = 0 ewy fcUnq ls xqtjus okys ,d js[kk;qXe dks
lehdj.k ax + hy + g = 0 ,oa hx + by + f = 0 izkIr gksrs gSaA
fu:fir djrk gS] tgk¡ a, h, b fu;rkad gSaA
ekuk lehdj.k ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 , }kjk fu:fir js[kk,¡ x y 1
lehdj.k dks gy djus ij] = = ,
fh − bg gh − af ab − h 2
2h
y − m1 x = 0 rFkk y − m2x = 0 gSa] rc m1 + m 2 = − ,oa bg − fh af − gh ⎞
b vFkkZr~ (x , y ) = ⎛⎜ , 2 ⎟.
⎝ h − ab h − ab ⎠
2
a
m 1m 2 = .
b la;qDr lehdj.k ls i`Fkd lehdj.k Kkr djuk (Separate equations
vr% ax 2 + 2 hxy + by 2 = 0 }kjk fu:fir nks js[kk,¡ from joint equation): O;kid f}?kkr lehdj.k
ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 }kjk fu:fir js[kkvksa dks Kkr
ax + hy + y h 2 − ab = 0 rFkk ax + hy − y h 2 − ab = 0 gSaA
djus ds fy, dk;Z-fof/k %
(a) js[kk;sa okLrfod rFkk fHkUu gksaxh] ;fn h − ab > 0 . 2

(b) js[kk;sa okLrfod ,oa lEikrh gksaxh] ;fn h 2 − ab = 0 .

in I : le?kkrh; Hkkx ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 dks nks js[kh; xq.ku[k.Mksa
esa foHkkftr djrs gSaA ekuk fd js[kh; xq.ku[k.M a' x + b ' y rFkk
(c) js[kk;sa dkYifud gksaxh] ;fn h 2 − ab < 0 .
a" x + b " y gSaA
(2) js[kk;qXe dk O;kid lehdj.k (General equation of a pair of
straight lines) : ax + 2hxy + by + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 :i dk ,d
2 2 in II: Step I esa izkIr xq.ku[k.Mksa esa fu;rkad c′ ,oa c′′ tksM+rs gSa]
ftlls a' x + b ' y + c' rFkk a" x + b " y + c" izkIr gksrk gSA ekuk fd
lehdj.k ¼tgk¡ a, b, c, f, g, h fu;rkad gSa½ x ,oa y esa O;kid f}?kkr
lehdj.k dgykrk gSA js[kk;sa a' x + b ' y + c' = 0 rFkk a′′x + b′′y + c′′ = 0 gSaA
ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 ds ,d js[kk;qXe dks in III : Step II ls izkIr js[kkvksa dk la;qDr lehdj.k Kkr djrs gSa
fu:fir djus ds fy, vko';d ,oa i;kZIr çfrcU/k gS rFkk x, y ds xq.kkadksa ,oa fu;rkad in dh rqyuk dj c' ,oa c" esa lehdj.k
izkIr djrs gSaA
a h g
in IV : c' ,oa c" esa lehdj.k dks gy dj c' ,oa c" dk eku Kkr
abc + 2 fgh − af 2 − bg 2 − ch 2 = 0 ;k h b f = 0 . djrs gSaA
g f c in V : Step II ls izkIr js[kkvksa ds lehdj.k esa c' ,oa c" ds eku
lehdj.k ax + 2hxy + by + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0}kjk fu:fir js[kkvksa ds
2 2
çfrLFkkfir dj vHkh"V js[kk;sa Kkr djrs gSaA
izfrPNsn fcUnq (Point of intersection of lines represented by ax + 2
js[kk;qXe ds chp dk dks.k (Angle between the pair of lines)
2hxy + by + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0)
2

lehdj.k ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 ;k
ekuk φ ≡ ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 ax 2 + 2 hxy + by 2 = 0 }kjk fu:fir js[kkvksa ds chp dk dks.k
∂φ
= 2 ax + 2 hy + 2 g = 0 , (y dks fLFkj j[krs gq,)
∂x
 2 h 2 − ab 2 h 2 − ab çFke ?kkr ds inksa dk foyksiu
tan θ = ⇒ θ = tan −1
a+b a+b (Removal of first degree terms)

mijksDr lw= ls Li"V gS fd ekuk lehdj.k ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 ......(i)

(1) ax + 2 hxy + by + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0
2 2
}kjk fu:fir js[kk;sa
}kjk iznf'kZr js[kkvksa dk izfrPNsn fcUnq (α , β ) gks] rks
a h g
lekUrj gksxh ;fn h 2 = ab rFkk af 2 = bg 2 ;k = = - ⎛ bg − fh af − gh ⎞
h b f (α , β ) = ⎜ 2 , 2 ⎟.
⎝ h − ab h − ab ⎠
(2) ax 2 + 2 hxy + by 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0
}kjk fu:fir js[kk;sa
izFke ?kkr ds inksa ds foyksiu ds fy, ewyfcUnq dks (α , β ) ij
yEcor~ gksxh ;fn a + b = 0 vFkkZr~ x dk xq.kkad + y 2 dk xq.kkad=0
2

izfrLFkkfir djrs gSa] vFkkZr~ lehdj.k (i) esa x ds LFkku ij ( X + α ) ,oa y

(3) js[kk;sa lEikrh gksxh ;fn g 2 = ac ;k f 2 = bc . ds LFkku ij (Y + β ) j[krs gSaA

js[kkvksa ds chp dks.kk/kZd oSdfYid fof/k : çFke ?kkr ds inksa dks foyksfir djus ds i'pkr~
(Bisectors of the angles between the lines) lehdj.k aX 2 + 2hXY + bY 2 + (gα + fβ + c) = 0 gS]
bg − fh af − gh
(1) lehdj.k ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 }kjk fu:fir js[kkvksa ds chp tgk¡ α = ,oa β = .
h 2 − ab h 2 − ab
dks.kk/kZd dk la;qDr lehdj.k gS
x2 − y2 xy ewyfcUnq dks ifjofrZr fd;s fcUkk f(x,y) = ax2 + 2hxy +by2 ls xy in
= .....(i)
a−b h
dk foyksiu (Removal of the term xy from f(x,y) = ax2 + 2hxy
⇒ hx 2 − (a − b)xy − hy 2 = 0 , +by2 without changing the origin)

;gk¡ x 2 dk xq.kkad + y 2 dk xq.kkad = 0 -

Li"Vr% h ≠ 0 . dks.k θ ls v{kksa dk ?kw.kZu djus ij]
vr% js[kkvksa ds dks.kk/kZd ,d-nwljs ij yEc gksrs gSaA dks.kk/kZd x = X cos θ − Y sin θ rFkk y = X sin θ + Y cos θ
js[kk;sa ewy fcUnq ls xqtjrh gSaA
∴ f (x , y ) = ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 .
;fn a = b , rks dks.kk/kZd x 2 − y2 = 0 , vFkkZr~ x − y = 0,
x + y = 0 gksxsaA ?kw.kZu ds i'pkr~
;fn h = 0 , dks.kk/kZd xy = 0 , vFkkZr~ x = 0, y = 0 gksaxsA F( X , Y ) = (a cos 2 θ + 2 h cos θ sin θ + b sin 2 θ )X 2

(2) ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 }kjk iznf'kZr js[kkvksa ds + 2{(b − a) cos θ sin θ + h(cos 2 θ − sin 2 θ )XY
(x − α )2 − (y − β )2 (x − α )(y − β )
dks.kksa ds v)Zdksa dk lehdj.k] = + (a sin 2 θ − 2h cos θ sin θ + b cos 2 θ )Y 2
a−b h
gksxk, tgk¡ α, β lehdj.k }kjk iznf'kZr js[kkvksa dk izfrPNsnu fcUnq gSA a−b
vc XY dk xq.kkad = 0, Rkks cot 2θ = .
2h
oØ vkSj js[kk ds izfrPNsn fcUnqvksa dks ewyfcUnq ls feykus okyh
ljy js[kk;qXe dk lehdj.k • lkekU;r% lw= tan 2θ =
2h
dk mi;ksx] ?kw.kZu dks.k θ Kkr
a−b
(Equation of the lines joining the origin to the points of
a−b
intersection of a given line and a given curve) djus ds fy, djrs gSaA ;fn a = b gks] rks cot 2θ = dk mi;ksx
2h
js[kk lx + my + n = 0 , oØ ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 djrs gSa] D;ksafd bl fLFkfr esa tan 2θ vifjHkkf"kr gksxkA
ds izfrPNsn fcUnq dks ewyfcUnq ls feykus okyh ljy js[kkvksa ds
lehdj.k] oØ ds lehdj.k dks js[kk lx + my + n = 0 }kjk le?kkrh; lekUrj ljy js[kk;qXe ds chp dh nwjh
cukus ij izkIr gksrk gS] vFkkZr~ (Distance between the pair of parallel straight lines)
2
lx + my ⎞ ⎛ lx + my ⎞
ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2(gx + fy) ⎛⎜ ⎟ + c⎜ ⎟ =0 ;fn ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 lekUrj ljy js[kkvksa
⎝ −n ⎠ ⎝ −n ⎠
g 2 − ac
ds ;qXe dks fu:fir djs] rks buds chp dh nwjh 2 ;k
Y a(a + b )
A
lx+my+n=0 f 2 − bc
2 gksrh gSA
b(a + b )

X' B X
O

Y′
 624 js[kk;qXe

" lehdj.k ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 }kjk iznf'kZr

js[kk;sa ewyfcUnq ls lenwjLFk gksaxh ;fn f 4 − g 4 = c(bf 2 − ag 2 )
" fcUnq (x , y ) ls js[kkvksa ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 ij Mkys x;s
1 1

ax 12 + 2 hx 1 y1 + by 12
" ;fn js[kk;qXe ax 2 + 2 hxy + by 2 = 0 rFkk yEcksa dk xq.kuQy gksrk gSA
(a − b )2 + 4 h 2
a' x 2 + 2h' xy + b ' y 2 = 0 esa ,d js[kk mHk;fu"B gks] rks
" ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 }kjk iznf'kZr js[kkvksa ij
(ab '−a' b ) = 4 (ah'−a' h)(hb '−h' b ) .
2
c
ewy fcUnq ls Mkys x;s yEcksa dk xq.kuQy gksrk gSA
" ewy fcUnq ls xqtjus okyh rFkk ax + 2hxy + by = 0 }kjk 2 2
(a − b)2 + 4 h 2
fu:fir js[kk;qXe ds yEcor~ js[kk;qXe dk lehdj.k
" ;fn ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 }kjk iznf'kZr
bx − 2 hxy + ay = 0
2 2
gksrk gSa js[kk;sa yEcor~ gSa] rks buds izfrPNsn fcUnq dh ewy fcUnq ls nwjh dk
" lehdj.k ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 }kjk fu:fir js[kkvksa esa ls f 2 + g2 f 2 + g2
oxZ vFkok gksrk gSA
,d dh izo.krk nwljs dh oxZ gks] rks a 2b + ab 2 − 6 abh + 8 h 3 = 0 . h2 + b 2 h2 + a2

" ;fn lehdj.k ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 }kjk fu:fir js[kkvksa esa " ax 2 + 2 hxy + by 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 }kjk iznf'kZr js[kkvksa ds
ls ,d dh izo.krk nwljs dh λ xquh gks] rks 4 λh 2 = ab(1 + λ )2 . c(a + b) − f 2 − g 2
izfrPNsn fcUnq dh ewy fcUnq ls nwjh dk oxZ gksrk gSA
" lehdj.k ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 }kjk fu:fir js[kkvksa dk ab − h 2
izfrPNsn fcUnq (0, 0) gksrk gSA " ;fn js[kk;qXe ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 }kjk izkIr ,d js[kk]
" ;fn ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 rFkk a' x 2 + 2h' xy + b ' y 2 = 0 js[kk;qXe a′x 2 + 2h′xy + b′y 2 = 0 ds }kjk izkIr ,d js[kk ds lkFk
h ' a ' −b '
}kjk iznf'kZr js[kkvksa ds dks.kksa ds v}Zd leku gSa] rks = . lEikrh gks rFkk js[kk;qXeksa }kjk iznf'kZr nwljh js[kk ls yEcor~ gksa]
h a−b
h a′b ′ h′ab 1
rc = = (−aa′b b ′) .
" ;fn lehdj.k ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 }kjk iznf'kZr ,d js[kk b ′ − a′ b − a 2
funsZ'kk{kksa ds chp ds dks.k dk v}Zd gks] rks 4 h 2 = (a + b)2 .
" oØ (x − h)2 + (y − k )2 = c 2 rFkk ljy js[kk kx + hy = 2hk ds
" oØksa ax + 2hxy + by + 2 gx = 0 rFkk
2 2
izfrPNsn fcUnqvksa dks ewyfcUnq ls feykus okyh js[kk;sa ijLij yEcor~
a' x + 2h' xy + b' y 2 + 2g' x = 0 ds izfrPNsn fcUnqvksa dks ewy fcUnq ls
2
gksaxh ;fn h 2 + k 2 = c 2 .
feykus okyh js[kk;sa ijLij yEcor~ gksaxh] ;fn g(a'+b ' ) = g' (a + b) .
" js[kkvksa ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 rFkk lx + my = 1 }kjk fufeZr
" ;fn lehdj.k hxy + gx + fy + c = 0 ,d js[kk;qXe iznf'kZr
l(a + b ) m (a + b )
djrk gS] rks fg = ch . f=Hkqt dk yEc dsUæ ⎛⎜ ,
⎞
⎟
⎝ am 2
− 2 hlm + bl 2
am 2
− 2 hlm + bl 2
⎠
" js[kk;qXe (a 2 − 3 b 2 )x 2 + 8 abxy + (b 2 − 3 a 2 ) y 2 = 0 , js[kk
gksrk gSA
ax + by + c = 0 ds lkFk ,d leckgq f=Hkqt cukrk gS rFkk ftldk
c2 " js[kkvksa ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 rFkk lx + my = 1 }kjk fufeZr
{ks=Qy = gksxkA
3 (a 2 + b 2 ) ⎛ 2(bl − hm ) 2(am − hl) ⎞
f=Hkqt dk dsUnzd ⎜⎜ , ⎟⎟ gksrk gSA
⎝ 3(bl − 2 hlm + am 3(bl − 2hlm + am
2 2 2 2
" js[kk;sa ax + 2hxy + by = 0 rFkk lx + my + n = 0 ,d
2 2 ⎠
l2 − m 2 a−b " lehdj.k ax 2 + by 2 + 2 hxy + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 rFkk
lef}ckgq f=Hkqt cukrh gS ;fn = .
lm h
ax 2 + 2 hxy + by 2 = 0 }kjk fu:fir js[kk;sa fufeZr djrh gSa
" js[kkvksa ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 rFkk lx + my + n = 0 }kjk cus
(i) ,d oxZ ;fn (a − b) fg + h( f 2 − g 2 ) = 0, a + b = 0
n 2 h 2 − ab
f=Hkqt dk {ks=Qy gksrk gSA
am 2 − 2hlm + bl 2 (ii) ,d vk;r ;fn (a − b) fg + h( f 2 − g 2 ) ≠ 0, a + b = 0
" js[kk y = mx + c rFkk o`r x + y = a ds izfrPNsn fcUnqvksa
2 2 2
(iii) ,d leprqHkqZt ;fn
dks ewy fcUnq ls feykus okyh js[kk;sa ijLij yEcor~ gksaxh] ;fn
a 2 (m 2 + 1) = 2 c 2 . (a − b ) fg + h( f 2 − g 2 ) = 0, a + b ≠ 0

" ;fn ewy fcUnq ls tkus okyh js[kkvksa dh fcUnq (x 1 , y1 ) ls nwjh d (iv) ,d lekUrj prqHkqZt ;fn
gks] rks js[kkvksa ds lehdj.k (xy 1 − yx 1 )2 = d 2 (x 2 + y 2 ) gksrs gSAa (a − b) fg + h( f 2 − g 2 ) ≠ 0, a + b ≠ 0 .
 o`Ùk rFkk o`Ùkksa dk fudk; 649

CHAPTER - 17
o`Ùk

ifjHkk"kk (Definition) (2) o`Ùk ds lehdj.k dk dsUæh; :i : o`Ùk] ftldk dsUæ (h, k) rFkk
f=T;k r gS] dk lehdj.k (x − h)2 + (y − k )2 = r 2 gksxkA
o`Ùk ml fcUnq dk fcUnqiFk gS] tks fdlh lery esa bl çdkj xfr
(x − h) 2 + (y − k ) 2 = r 2 P(x,y)
djrk gS fd mldh fdlh fLFkj r
xfr'khy fcUnq ;fn o`Ùk dk dsUæ ewyfcUnq gks] rks o`Ùk dk
fcUnq ls nwjh lnSo fu;r jgrh P (h,k)
lehdj.k x 2 + y 2 = r 2 gksxkA C
gSA fLFkj fcUnq o`Ùk dk dsUæ Q O R
rFkk fu;r nwjh o`Ùk dh f=T;k fLFkj fcUnq
dgykrh gSA lery (3) o`Ùk] ftldk O;kl fn;k gks % ml o`Ùk] ftlds O;kl ds fljksa ds
funsZ'kkad (x 1 , y 1 ) rFkk (x 2 , y 2 ) gSa] dk lehdj.k
o`Ùk ds ekud :i esa lehdj.k
(x − x 1 )(x − x 2 ) + (y − y 1 )(y − y 2 ) = 0 gksxkA
(Standard forms of equation of a circle)
P(x,y)
(1) o`Ùk dk O;kid lehdj.k % o`Ùk dk O;kid lehdj.k
r
x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 gksrk gS] tgk¡ g, f, c vpj gSaA (x1,y1)A B(x2,y2)
C
(i) o`Ùk dk dsUæ (–g, –f) vFkkZr~
1 1 (4) çkpfyd funsZ'kkad
(− x dk xq.kkad] − y dk xq.kkad) gSA
2 2 (i) o`Ÿk (x − h)2 + (y − k )2 = r 2 ij fLFkr fdlh fcUnq ds çkpfyd
funsZ'kkad (h + r cos θ , k + r sin θ ) gksrs gSa] tgk¡ 0 ≤ θ < 2π.
(ii) o`Ùk dh f=T;k g 2 + f 2 − c gSA
o`Ùk dh çd`fr fo'ks"k fLFkfr esa] o`Ùk x 2 + y 2 = r 2 ij fLFkr fdlh fcUnq ds
çkpfyd funsZ'kkad (r cos θ , r sin θ ) gksrs gSaA
(i) ;fn g 2 + f 2 − c > 0 , rc o`Ùk dh f=T;k okLrfod gksxhA vr%
bl fLFkfr esa lery esa ,d o`Ùk cuk;k tk ldrk gSA (ii) o`Ÿk x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 ij fLFkr fdlh fcUnq ds
(ii) ;fn g 2 + f 2 − c = 0 , rc o`Ùk dh f=T;k 'kwU; gksxhA bl çdkj çkpfyd funsZ'kkad gSa] x = − g + (g 2 + f 2 − c ) cos θ
ds o`Ùk dks fcUnq o`Ÿk dgrs gSaA
rFkk y = − f + (g 2 + f 2 − c) sin θ , (0 ≤ θ < 2π )
(iii);fn g 2 + f 2 − c < 0 , rc o`Ùk dh f=T;k dkYifud gksxhA
vr% bl fZLFkfr esa lery esa o`Ÿk ugha cuk;k tk ldrk gSA (5) fn, x, izfrcU/kksa ds fy, o`Ùk dk lehdj.k
f}?kkrh; O;kid lehdj.k ds fy, çfrcU/k tks fd ,d o`Ùk dks (i) rhu vlejSf[kd fcUnqvksa A (x1 , y1 ), B (x 2 , y 2 ), C (x 3 , y 3 ) ls
fu:fir djrk gksA
x2 + y2 x y 1
ax 2 + by 2 + 2hxy + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 ,d o`Ùk dks çnf'kZr x12 + y12 x1 y1 1
xqtjus okys o`Ùk dk lehdj.k gS] =0
djrk gS] (i) a = b ≠ 0 (ii) h = 0 x 22 + y 22 x2 y2 1
(iii) Δ = abc + 2 hgf − af 2 − bg 2 − ch 2 ≠ 0 x 32 + y 32 x3 y3 1
 650 o`Ùk rFkk o`Ùkksa dk fudk;
(2) ;fn fn, gq, rhu fcUnqvksa esa ls fdUgha nks fcUnqvksa dks o`Ùk
S = 0 ds O;kl ds fljksa ds :i esa ysrs gSa rFkk nksuksa fcUnqvksa ls xqtjus
okyh ljy js[kk dk lehdj.k L = 0 gks] rc o``Ùk dk vHkh"V lehdj.k
S + λL = 0 gksrk gS] tgk¡ λ ,d izkpy gS] ftls lehdj.k esa rhljs
fcUnq dks j[kdj Kkr djrs gSaA (7) ;fn o`Ùk ewyfcUnq ls xqtjs rFkk v{kksa ls Øe'k% a rFkk b
var%[k.M dkVs] rc o`Ùk dk lehdj.k gS] Y
o`Ùk ds lehdj.k ds fof'k"V :i x + y − ax − by = 0 rFkk dsUæ (a / 2, b / 2)
2 2

(Equation of a circle in some special cases) a/2 C

gSA (pkj fLFkfr;k¡ gksaxh) b
b/2
(1) tc o`Ùk dk dsUæ (h, k ) gks rFkk ;g ewyfcUnq ls xqtjrk gS] rc O X
a
o`Ùk dk lehdj.k gksxk] (x − h) + (y − k ) = h + k
2 2 2 2

⇒ x 2 + y 2 −2 hx − 2ky = 0 . v{kksa ij var%[k.M (Intercepts on the axes)

(2) ;fn o`Ùk x-v{k dks Li'kZ djs] rc lehdj.k gksxk] o`Ùk x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 }kjk x rFkk y-v{kksa ds lkFk dkVs
(x ± h) 2 + (y ± k ) 2 = k 2 vFkkZr~ pkj fLFkfr;k¡ gksaxhA
x, var% [k.M Øe'k% 2 g 2 − c rFkk 2 f 2 − c gSaA blfy,]
Y
(–h,k) (h,k)
(i);fn g 2 > c, rc lehdj.k x 2 + 2 gx + c = 0 ds ewy
k k okLrfod rFkk fHkUu gksaxs] blfy, o`Ùk x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 ,
X′ X x-v{k dks nks okLrfod rFkk fHkUu fcanqvksa ij feysxk rFkk x-v{k ij
k k
(–h,–k) (h,–k) vUr%[k.M dh yEckbZ 2 g 2 − c gksxhA
Y′ (ii) blh çdkj] o`Ùk x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 , y-v{k dks
(3) ;fn o`Ùk y-v{k dks Li'kZ djs] rc lehdj.k gksxk] f 2 > , = ;k < c ds vuqlkj Øe’k% okLrfod rFkk fÒUu fcUnqvksa ij
(x ± h) 2 + (y ± k ) 2 = h 2 vFkkZr~ pkj fLFkfr;k¡ gksaxhA çfrPNsfnr djrk gS] ;k Li'kZ djrk gS] ;k okLrfod fcUnqvksa ij ugha feyrk gSA
Y
fdlh fcUnq dh o`Ùk ds lkis{k fLFkfr
h h (Position of a point with respect to a circle)
(–h,k) (h,k)
X′ X ,d fcUnq (x 1 , y 1 ) , o`Ùk S ≡ x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 ds ckgj]
h h o`Ùk ij vFkok o`Ùk ds vanj fLFkr gSa] ;g
(–h,–k) (h,–k)
S 1 ≡ x 1 + y1 + 2 gx 1 + 2 fy1 + c ds /kukRed] 'kwU; vFkok _.kkRed gksus
2 2

Y′
(4) ;fn o`Ùk nksuksa v{kksa dks Li'kZ djs] rc lehdj.k gksxk] ij] fuHkZj djrk gS
,d o`Ùk ls fdlh fcUnq dh U;wure rFkk egÙke nwjh % ekuk S = 0
(x ± r)2 + (y ± r)2 = r 2 vFkkZr~ pkj fLFkfr;k¡ gksaxhA ,d o`Ùk gS rFkk A (x1 , y1 ) ,d fcUnq gSA ;fn o`Ùk Q
Y dk O;kl fcUnq P rFkk Q ls xqtjrk gS] rc C
r
AP = AC − r = U;wure nwjh; AQ = AC + r =
(–r,r) (r,r) egÙke nwjh] tgk¡ 'r' f=T;k rFkk C o`Ùk dk dsUnz gSA P
A
X′ X o`Ùk rFkk js[kk dk izfrPNsnu
(Intersection of a line and a circle)
(–r,–r) (r,–r)
(1) fdlh js[kk }kjk ,d o`Ùk ij dkVs x;s var%[k.M dh yackbZ % js[kk
Y′
(5) ;fn o`Ùk x-v{k dks ewyfcUnq ij Li'kZ djrk gS] rks lehdj.k y = mx + c }kjk x 2 + y 2 = a 2 ij dkVs x;s var%[k.M dh yackbZ
gksxk x + (y ± k )2 = k 2 ⇒ x 2 + y 2 ± 2ky = 0 vFkkZr~ nks fLFkfr;k¡ gksaxhA
2
a 2 (1 + m 2 ) − c 2
2 gksrh gSA
1+m2
Y
,d js[kk y = mx + c ,oa ,d o`Ùk x 2 + y 2 = a 2 rc] (i) ;fn
a 2 (1 + m 2 ) − c 2 > 0 js[kk] o`Ùk dks okLrfod rFkk fHkUu fcUnqvksa ij feyrh gSA
(0,k)

X′ X (ii) ;fn c 2 = a 2 (1 + m 2 ) js[kk] o`Ùk dks Li'kZ djrh gSA

(iii) ;fn a 2 (1 + m 2 ) − c 2 < 0 js[kk] o`Ùk dks nks dkYifud fcUnqvksa
(0,–k)

ij feyrh gSA
Y′ fn;s gq, fcUnq ls o`Ùk ij Li'kZ js[kk
(6) ;fn o`Ùk y-v{k dks ewyfcUnq ij Li'kZ djrk gS] rks lehdj.k gksxk (Tangent to a circle at a given point)
( x ± h) 2 + y 2 = h 2 ⇒ x 2 + y 2 ± 2 xh = 0 vFkkZr~ nks fLFkfr;k¡ gksaxhA (1) fcUnq :i
Y

(–h,0) (h,0)
X′ X

Y′
 o`Ùk rFkk o`Ùkksa dk fudk; 651

(i) o`Ùk x 2 + y 2 = a 2 dh (x , y ) ij Li'kZ js[kk dk lehdj.k fcUnq dk fcUnqiFk] ml o`Ùk dk fu;ked o`Ùk dgykrk gSA
1 1

xx 1 + yy 1 = a 2 gSA ;fn ;g ijLij yacor~ js[kkvksa dks iznf'kZr djs] rks fu;ked o`Ùk dk
lehdj.k x 2 + y 2 = 2a 2 gksxkA
(ii) o`Ùk x + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 dh (x 1 , y 1 ) ij Li'kZ
2
Li"Vr% fu;ked o`Ùk ladsUnzh; o`Ùk gksrk gS] ftldh f=T;k fn,
js[kk dk lehdj.k xx 1 + yy 1 + g(x + x 1 ) + f (y + y 1 ) + c = 0 gSA
x;s o`Ùk dh f=T;k dk 2 xquk gksrh gSA
o`Ùk x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 dk fu;ked o`Ùk
P Q
x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + 2 c − g 2 − f 2 = 0 gksxkA
Q Q
Li'kZ js[kk Q
o`Ùk ds lkis{k fcUnq dh 'kfDr
(2) izkpfyd lehdj.k % pw¡fd o`Ùk x 2 + y 2 = a2
ds izkpfyd
(Power of point with respect to a circle)
funsZ'kkad (a cos θ , a sin θ ) gksrs gSa] rc (a cos θ , a sin θ ) ij Li'kZ js[kk
ekuk P(x 1 , y 1 ) , o`Ùk ds ckgj ,d fcUnq gS rFkk PAB vkSj PCD nks
dk lehdj.k x . a cos θ + y . a sin θ = a 2 ;k x cos θ + y sin θ = a gSA
izfrPNsnh js[kk[k.M gSaA
(3) izo.krk :i : ljy js[kk y = mx + c , o`Ùk x 2 + y 2 = a 2 dks
o`Ùk S ≡ x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0
T B

Li'kZ djsxh ;fn c 2 = a 2 (1 + m 2 ) rFkk Li'kZ js[kk y = mx ± a 1 + m 2 ds lkis{k fcUnq P dh 'kfDr PA . PB ds A

⎛ m ma ⎞ cjkcj gksrh gS] tks fd
±a
ds Li'kZ fcUnq ds funsZ'kkad ⎜⎜ , ⎟
⎟
gksaxsA P(x1,y1) C D
x 12 + y 12 + 2 gx 1 + 2 fy 1 + c = S 1 ds
⎝ 1+m 1+m ⎠
2 2

cjkcj gSA
Li’kZ js[kk dh yEckbZ Kkr djus ds fy, x 2 o y 2 ds xq.kkad dks
bdkbZ esa ifjofrZr dj ysrs gSaA ∴ 'kfDr] o`Ùk ds fy, lnSo fu;r jgrh gS] vFkkZr~ A rFkk B ls
Lora= gksrh gSA
Li'kZ js[kk dh yEckbZ (Length of tangent)
∴ PA . PB = PC . CD = (PT )2 = S 1 = ( S 1 )2
ekuk PQ rFkk PR, P(x 1 , y 1 ) ls
∴ PA . PB = ( S 1 ) 2 = Li'kZjs[kk dh yackbZ dk oxZ
o`Ùk x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 ij [khaph x;h Li'kZ js[kk;sa gSa]
rc PQ =PR dks Li'kZ js[kk dh yackbZ dgrs gSaA ;fn P o`Ùk ds ckgj gS] vanj gS ;k o`Ùk ij gS] rc PA . PB Øe'k%
Q
/kukRed] _.kkRed vFkok 'kwU; gksxkA
S1 [

P
fn;s x, fdlh fcUnq ij o`Ùk dk vfHkyac
(Normal to a circle at a given point)
(x1,y1)
o`Ùk ds fdlh fcUnq ij vfHkyac og ljy js[kk gS] tks fd Li'kZ js[kk
R ds yacor~ gksrh gS rFkk lnSo o`Ùk ds dsUnz ls gksdj xqtjrh gSA
PQ =PR = x12 + y12 + 2 gx1 + 2 fy1 + c = S 1 .
(1) vfHkyac dk lehdj.k% o`Ùk x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 ds
Li'kZ js[kk;qXe (Pair of tangents) y +f
fcUnq (x 1 , y 1 ) ij vfHkyac dk lehdj.k gS] y − y1 = 1 (x − x1 )
,d cká fcUnq P( x 1 , y 1 ) ls o`Ùk x1 + g

S = x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 ij [khaph x;h Li'kZ js[kk;sa PQ rFkk PR x − x1 y − y1

;k = .
x1 + g y1 + f
gSaA mudk la;qDr lehdj.k SS 1 = T 2 gSA
Q
S = x + y + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 .
2 2

P P
(x1,y1) vfHkyac Li'kZ js[kk
90°
R
o`Ùk x 2 + y 2 = a 2 dk fcUnq (x 1 , y1 ) ij vfHkyac xy 1 − x1y = 0
tgk¡ S = 0 o`Ùk dk lehdj.k gS] T = 0 , (x1 , y1 ) ij Li'kZ js[kk vFkok
x
=
y
gSA
dk lehdj.k rFkk S , x dks x ls rFkk y dks y ls izfrLFkkfir dj izkIr x1 y1
1 1 1

djrs gSaA (2) çkpfyd :i% pw¡fd o`Ùk x 2 + y 2 = a2 ds izkpfyd funsZ'kkad

fu;ked o`Ùk (Director circle) (a cos θ , a sin θ ) gSaA

fdlh o`Ùk ij [khaph x;h nks ijLij yEcor~ Li'kZ js[kkvksa ds izfrPNsn
P(x1,y1)
90°
 652 o`Ùk rFkk o`Ùkksa dk fudk;
∴fcUnq (a cos θ , a sin θ ) ij vfHkyEc dk lehdj.k gS] tgk¡ C1 P = o`Ùk (S = 0) dh f=T;k] rFkk C1 M = dsUnz C1 ls
x
=
y
;k
x
=
y
;k y = x tan θ ;k y = mx , mHk;fu"B thok PQ dh yEcor~ nwjh
a cos θ a sin θ cos θ sin θ
tgk¡ m = tan θ , tks fd vfHkyac dh izo.krk gSA
o`Ùk dk O;kl (Diameter of a circle)

fdlh o`Ùk dh lekUrj thokvksa ds fudk; ds e/; fcUnqvksa ds

o`Ùk dh Li'kZ thok (Chord of contact of tangents)
fcUnqiFk dks ml o`Ùk dk O;kl dgrs gSaA O;kl
x+my=0
(1) Li'kZ thok : o`Ùk ds ckgj fLFkr fdlh fcUnq ls o`Ùk ij [khaph xbZ nks lekUrj thok fudk; y = mx + c ds B
O
Li'kZ js[kkvksa dks feykus okyh thok dks PLi'kZ thok dgrs gSaA lkis{k o`Ùk x 2 + y 2 = a 2 ds O;kl dk P(h,k)
(x′,y′)
y=mx+c
lehdj.k x + my = 0 gksrk gSA
A
A
(x1,y1) Li'kZ thok /kzqo rFkk /kzqoh (Pole and Polar)
(x″,y″)Q ekuk P (x 1 , y 1 ) o`Ùk ds vanj ;k ckgj fLFkr dksbZ fcUnq gSA thok,¡
(2) Li'kZ thok dk lehdj.k % fdlh fcUnq (x 1 , y 1 ) ls o`Ùk AB rFkk A' B' [khaph] tks fd P ls xqtjrh gSaA ;fn o`Ùk dh A rFkk B ij
Li'kZ js[kk;sa fcUnq Q (h, k) ij feyrh gksa] rc Q dk fcUnqiFk o`r ds
x 2
+y =a 2 2
ij [khaph xbZ Li'kZ js[kkvksa dh Li'kZ thok dk lehdj.k
lkis{k P dh /kzqoh dgykrk gS rFkk P /kzqo dgykrk gSA ;fn o`Ùk dh A'
xx 1 + yy 1 = a 2 gksrk gSA rFkk B' ij Li'kZ js[kk,¡ Q' ij feyrh gksa] rks QQ' /kzqoh rFkk P /kzqo
dgykrk gSA Q′
o`Ùk x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 dh fcUnq (x1 , y1 ) ij Li'kZ B′ Q(h,k) A
thok dk lehdj.k xx 1 + yy 1 + g (x + x 1 ) + f (y + y 1 ) + c = 0 gSA A′
;fn fcUnq (x 1 , y 1 ) o`Ùk ij fLFkr gks] rks o`Ùk dh Li'kZ thok rFkk A′
/kzqoh P(x ,y )

/kzqoh
/kzqo
1 1

Li'kZ js[kk lEikrh gksaxhA /kzqo

P(x1,y1) A B
B
Li'kZ thok dh yackbZ = 2 r 2 − p 2 ; (tgk¡ p o`Ùk ds dsUnz ls thok Q′ B′
dh yEcor~ nwjh gS) Q(h,k)
o`Ùk x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 dh /kzqoh dk lehdj.k
a(x12 + y12 − a 2 )3 / 2
ΔAPQ dk {ks=Qy = . (x1 , y1 ) ds lkis{k xx 1 + yy 1 + g(x + x1 ) + f (y + y1 ) + c = 0 gksrk gSA
x12 + y12
;fn o`Ùk dk lehdj.k x 2 + y 2 = a 2 gks] rks (x1 , y1 ) ds lkis{k /kzqoh
(3) fn, gq, fcUnq ij lef}Hkkftr thok dk lehdj.k : o`Ùk
dk lehdj.k xx 1 + yy 1 − a 2 = 0 gksrk gSA
S ≡ x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0
dh fcUnq (x 1 , y 1 ) ij lef}Hkkftr
thok dk lehdj.k T = S ' gSA vFkkZr~ ekuk js[kk lx + my + n = 0 dk o`Ùk x 2 + y 2 = a 2 ds lkis{k /kzqo
xx 1 + yy 1 + g(x + x1 ) + f (y + y1 ) + c = x12 + y12 + 2 gx1 + 2 fy1 + c . (x1 , y1 ) gS rc o`Ùk x 2 + y 2 = a 2 ds lkis{k /kzqoh dk lehdj.k
xx 1 + yy 1 − a 2 = 0 gksxk] tks fd lx + my + n = 0 ds leku gSA
nks o`Ùkksa dh mHk;fu"B thok (Common chord of two circles)
x1 y1 a2 a 2l a 2m
(1) ifjHkk"kk % nks o`Ùkksa ds izfrPNsn fcUnqvksa dks feykus okyh thok] rc = =− , ∴ x1 = − rFkk y1 = − .
l m n n n
mHk;fu"B thok dgykrh gSA
⎛ 2 2 ⎞
(2) mHk;fu"B thok dk lehdj.k % nks o`Ùkksa dh mHk;fu"B thok dk a l a m⎟
vr% vHkh"V /kzqo ⎜⎜ − ,− gSA
lehdj.k ⎝ n n ⎟⎠
P M
/kzqo rFkk /kzqoh ds xq.k/keZ
C1 C2 (i);fn P (x 1 , y 1 ) dh o`Ùk ds lkis{k /kzqoh Q (x 2 , y 2 ) ls xqtjrh
S1=0 S2=0
Q
gS] rc Q dh /kzqoh P ls xqtjsxh A bl izdkj ds fcUnq la;qXeh fcUnq
S 1 ≡ x 2 + y 2 + 2 g1 x + 2 f1 y + c1 = 0 ….(i) dgykrs gSaA
(ii) ;fn js[kk ax + by + c = 0 dk o`Ùk ds lkis{k /kzqo vU; js[kk
rFkk S 2 ≡ x 2 + y 2 + 2 g 2 x + 2 f2 y + c 2 = 0 ….(ii)
a1 x + b1y + c1 = 0 ij fLFkr gks] rc nwljh js[kk dk /kzqo Hkh izFke js[kk
2 x (g1 − g 2 ) + 2 y ( f1 − f2 ) + c1 − c2 = 0 vFkkZr~ S 1 − S 2 = 0 . ij fLFkr gksxk rFkk bl izdkj dh js[kkvksa dks la;qXeh js[kk;sa dgrs gSaA
(3) mHk;fu"B thok dh yackbZ %
nks o`Ùkksa dh mHk;fu"B Li'kZ js[kk;sa
PQ = 2 (PM ) = 2 C1 P 2 − C1 M 2 (Common tangents to two circles)

ekuk nks o`Ùk (x − x 1 ) 2 + (y − y 1 ) 2 = r12 …..(i)

 o`Ùk rFkk o`Ùkksa dk fudk; 653

rFkk (x − x 2 )2 + (y − y 2 )2 = r22 …..(ii) gSa; fLFkfr V : tc | C1 C 2 | < | r1 − r2 | vFkkZr~ dsUnzkas ds chp dh nwjh
ftuds dsUnz C1 (x1 , y1 ) rFkk C 2 (x 2 , y 2 ) rFkk f=T;k;sa Øe'k% r f=T;kvksa ds vUrj ls de gks] rc bl fLFkfr esa lHkh pkjksa Li'kZ js[kk;sa
1

dkYifud gksaxhA
rFkk r gSa] rc fuEufyf[kr fLFkfr;k¡ gksaxh :
2

r2
fLFkfr I : tc | C 1 C 2 | > r1 + r2 vFkkZr~ dsUnzksa ds chp dh nwjh]
C1 C2
f=T;kvksa ds ;ksx ls vf/kd gksA r1
bl fLFkfr es pkj mHk;fu"B Li'kZ js[kk;sa [khaph tk ldrh gSa]
ftuesa nks mHk;fu"B vuqLi'khZ js[kk;sa rFkk nks mHk;fu"B fr;Zd Li'khZ nks o`Ùkksa dk çfrPNsnu dks.k
js[kk;sa gksrh gSaA mHk;fu"B vuqLi'khZ (Angle of intersection of two circles)
js[kk,¡ nks o`Ùkksa S = 0 rFkk S' = 0 dk çfrPNsnu dks.k] muds çfrPNsn fcUnq
r1 r2 ij Li'kZ js[kkvksa ds chp dks.k ds cjkcj gksrk gSA
C1 T C2 P ;fn S ≡ x 2 + y 2 + 2 g1 x + 2 f1y + c1 = 0
mHk;fu"B fr;Zd Li'khZ js[kk,¡ S ' ≡ x 2 + y 2 + 2 g 2 x + 2 f2 y + c 2 = 0
A′ B′
mHk;fu"B vuqLi'khZ js[kkvksa rFkk mHk;fu"B fr;Zd Li'kZ js[kkvksa ds S=0 S′=0
izfrPNsn fcUnq Øe'k% P o T nksuksa o`Ùkksa ds dsUnzksa dks feykus okyh js[kk π–θ P
r1 r2
ij lnSo fLFkr gksrs gSa rFkk ;s o`Ùkksa dh f=T;kvksa dks Øe'k% cká;r% ,oa θ
vUr% foHkkftr djrs gSaA C1 C2

C1 P r1 C1T r B A
= (ckár%) rFkk = 1 (vUr%) Q
nks o`Ùk] ftudh f=T;k,¡ r1 rFkk r2 gSa] muds dsUæksa ds chp dh nwjh
C 2 P r2 C 2 T r2
vr% fcUnqvksa P o T ds funsZ'kkad r12 + r22 − d 2
d gS] rFkk muds chp dk dks.k θ gS] rc cos θ =
2r1r2
⎛r x −r x r y −r y ⎞ ⎛r x +r x r y +r y ⎞
P ≡ ⎜⎜ 1 2 2 1 , 1 2 2 1 ⎟⎟ rFkk T ≡ ⎜⎜ 1 2 2 1 , 1 2 2 1 ⎟⎟
⎝ 1 2
r − r r − r ⎠ ⎝ r1 + r2 r1 + r2 ⎠ ⎧ ⎫
2 (g1 g 2 + f1 f2 ) − (c1 + c 2 )
;k ⎪⎨cos θ = ⎪
1 2
⎬.
fLFkfr II : tc | C1 C 2 | = r1 + r2 vFkkZr~ dsUnzksa ds chp nwjh] ⎪⎩ 2 g12 + f12 − c1 g 22 + f22 − c 2 ⎪⎭
f=T;kvksa ds ;ksx ds cjkcj gksA bl fLFkfr esa nksuksa mHk;fu"B vuqLi'khZ
o``Ùkksa ds ykafcd gksus dk çfrca/k : ;fn nks o`Ùkksa dk çfrPNsnu dks.k
js[kk;sa okLrfod rFkk fHkUu] tcfd fr;Zd Li'khZ js[kk;sa lEikrh gksrh gSaA
,d ledks.k (θ = 90 o ) gks, rks bl çdkj P
mHk;fu"B vuqLi'khZ js[kk,¡ ds o`Ùk ykafcd ;k ledksf.kd o`Ùk gksrs gSa
90°
rFkk ledksf.kd o`Ùkksa ds fy, çfrca/k C1 C2
2 g1 g 2 + 2 f1 f2 = c1 + c 2 gksrk gSA (–g1,–f1) (–g2,–f2)
C1 T C2 P
mHk;fu"B fr;dZ Li'khZ o`Ùk fudk; (Family of circles)
js[kk,¡
(1) o`Ùk fudk; dk lehdj.k] tks fd fn, gq, o`Ùk S = 0 rFkk
fLFkfr III : tc | r1 − r2 | < | C1C 2 | < r1 + r2 vFkkZr~ dsUnzksa ds chp dh
S' = 0 ds çfrPNsn fcUnq ls gksdj xqtjrk gS]
nwjh] f=T;kvksa ds ;ksx ls de gksrh gSA bl fLFkfr esa nksuksa mHk;fu"B
S + λS ' = 0 (tgk¡ λ ,d çkpy gS]
vuqLi'khZ js[kk;sa okLrfod rFkk fHkUu gksrh gSa tcfd fr;Zd Li'khZ js[kk;sa
λ ≠ −1)
dkYifud gksrh gSaA
mHk;fu"B vuqLi'khZ js[kk,¡

S=0 S′=0
P S+λS′=0
C1 C2 (2) o`Ùk fudk; dk lehdj.k] tks fd o`Ùk S = 0 rFkk js[kk L = 0 ds
çfrPNsn fcUnq ls xqtjrk gS] S + λL = 0 (tgk¡ λ çkpy gS)
fLFkfr IV : tc | C1C2 | = | r1 − r2 | , vFkkZr~ dsUnzksa ds chp dh nwjh]
f=T;kvksa ds varj ds cjkcj gksA bl fLFkfr esa nks Li'kZ js[kk;sa okLrfod
rFkk laikrh tcfd vU; nks dkYifud gksrh gaSA
Li'kZ fcUnq ij
Li'kZ js[kk S=0 L=0 S+λL=0
r2
C1 C2 P (3) o`Ùk fudk; dk lehdj.k] tks fd o`Ùk S = 0 rFkk L = 0 ds Li'kZ fcUnq
r1
ls gksdj xqtjrk gS] S + λL = 0 (tgk¡ λ ,d çkpy gS)
 654 o`Ùk rFkk o`Ùkksa dk fudk;
nks o`Ùkksa ds ewyk{k dk lehdj.k S 1 − S 2 = 0 vFkkZr~
2 x (g 1 − g 2 ) + 2 y( f1 − f2 ) + c 1 − c 2 = 0
] tks ,d ljy js[kk gSA
ewyk{k ds xq.k/keZ
(i) nks çfrPNsnh o`Ùkksa dk ewyk{k rFkk mHk;fu"B thok ,d leku
S=0 L=0 (Identical) gksrh gSA
S+λL=0
(4) o`Ùk fudk; dk lehdj.k] tks fcUnqvksa P (x 1 , y 1 ) rFkk (ii) ewyk{k] o`Ùkksa ds dsUæksa dks feykus okyh js[kk ds yacor~ gksrk gSA
Q ( x 2 , y 2 ) ls xqtjrk gS] (iii) ;fn nks o`Ùk] ,d rhljs o`Ùk dks ledksf.kd izfrPNsn djsa] rks
nks o`Ùkksa dk ewyk{k] rhljs o`Ùk ds dsUnz ls gksdj xqtjrk gSA
x y 1
(x − x1 ) (x − x 2 ) + (y − y1 ) (y − y 2 ) + λ x1 y1 1 = 0 , ewydsUæ (Radical centre)
x2 y2 1
rhu o`Ùkksa dks ;qXeksa esa ysus ij çkIr ewyk{k] ,d fcUnq ij feyrs gSa]
(tgk¡ λ ,d çkpy gS)
ftls ewydsUæ dgrs gSaA
P(x1,y1) ekuk rhu o`Ùk S 1 = 0 .....(i),
S 2 = 0 .....(ii)
Q(x ,y ) 2 2

rFkk S 3 = 0 ….(iii) gSaA

(5)ml o`Ùk fudk; dk lehdj.k] tks fd y − y1 = m (x − x1 ) dks
L
çR;sd fuf'pr m ds fy, Li'kZ djs] S1=0 S2=0

(x − x1 ) + (y − y1 ) + λ {(y − y1 ) − m (x − x1 )} = 0
2 2
rFkk ;fn m O
vfuf'pr gS, rc o`Ùk fudk; (x − x1 )2 + (y − y1 )2 + λ (x − x1 ) = 0
gksxkA (tgk¡ λ ,d çkpy gS)
M N
S3=0

ekuk ljy js[kk;sa OL rFkk OM, O ij feyrh gSaA O ls xqtjus okyh

(x1,y1)
fdlh ljy js[kk dk lehdj.k] (S 1 − S 2 ) + λ (S 3 − S 1 ) = 0 gS] tgk¡ λ
dksbZ vpj gSA
y–y1=m(x–x1)
λ = 1 ds fy,] ;g lehdj.k S 2 − S 3 = 0 gks tkrk gS] tks fd
(6) fp= esa fn, x;s o`Ùkksa dk lehdj.k ON dk lehdj.k gSA
(x − x1 ) (x − x 2 ) + (y − y1 ) (y − y 2 ) ± cot θ {( x − x1 ) (y − y 2 )
vr% rhljk ewyk{k Hkh mlh fcUnq ls xqtjrk gS] tgk¡ ljy js[kk OL
θ rFkk OM feyrs gSaA mijksDr fp= esa O ewydsUæ gS A
−(x − x 2 ) (y − y1 )} = 0
ewydsUæ ds xq.k/keZ
(x1,y1) (x2,y2)
ewydsUæ ds funsZ'kkad] lehdj.k S 1 = S 2 = S 3 = 0 dks gy
(i)
djus ij çkIr gksrs gSaA
θ (ii) rhu o`Ùkksa ds O;kl ls feydj cus f=Hkqt dk yacdsUæ] o`Ùkksa dk
ewydsUæ gksrk gSA
ewyk{k (Radical axis) lek{k o`Ùk fudk; (Co-axial system of circles)

nks o`Ùkksa dk ewyk{k] ml fcUnq dk fcUnqiFk gS] tks bl çdkj xeu ,d o`Ùk fudk;] ftlds çR;sd ;qXe ds ewyk{k leku gkas] lek{k o`Ùk
djrk gS fd blls nksuksa o`Ùkksa ij [khaph x;h Li'kZ js[kkvksa dh yackbZ fudk; dgykrk gSA
leku gksA P(x ,y ) 1 1 P(x1,y1)
S+λP=0
S+λP=0

A B B S+λP=0
A
S=0
P=0
C1 C2 C1 C2 lek{k o`Ùk fudk; dk lehdj.k] tc ,d ewyk{k rFkk o`Ùk
(1)
fudk; ds lehdj.k Øe'k% P ≡ lx + my + n = 0
S1=0 S2=0
rFkk S ≡ x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 gSa]
 o`Ùk rFkk o`Ùkksa dk fudk; 655

S + λP = 0 gksxk] (λ ,d LosPN vpj gS½ vkSj C1 (− g, − f ) rFkk C 2 (x 1 , y 1 ) dk e/; fcUnq lx + my + n = 0

⎛ x1 − g ⎞ ⎛y − f⎞
(2) ;fn fudk; ds nks o`Ùkksa ds lehdj.k ij fLFkr gS] vFkkZr~ l ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + m ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ + n = 0 …..(ii)
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
S 1 ≡ x 2 + y 2 + 2 g 1 x + 2 f1 y + c1 = 0
lehdj.k (i) rFkk (ii) dks gy djus ij] (x 1 , y 1 ) izkIr gksrk gSA
S2+λ( S1–S2)=0
S1+λ( S1+S2)=0 ∴ vHkh"V izfrfcEc o`Ùk dk lehdj.k
S1+λ(S1–S2)=0
(x − x 1 ) 2 + (y − y 1 ) 2 = r 2 gS, tgk¡ r = (g 2 + f 2 − c) .
S1+λS2=0 S2=0

S1=0 S2=0 S1=0 S1–S2=0

rFkk S 2 ≡ x 2 + y 2 + 2 g 2 x + 2 f2 y + c 2 = 0 gSa] rks lek{k o`Ùk

fudk; dk lehdj.k] S 1 + λ (S 1 − S 2 ) = 0 , (λ ≠ −1) vFkok
S 2 + λ1 (S 1 − S 2 ) = 0 , (λ1 ≠ −1) gksxkA
" ;fn ,d pj fcUnq bl izdkj xeu djrk gS fd bldh ,d
f=Hkqt ds 'kh"kksaZ ls nwfj;ksa ds oxksaZ dk ;ksx fu;r jgs] rc fcUnq dk
nwljk :i S 1 + λS 2 = 0, (λ ≠ −1) gSA fcUnqiFk ,d o`Ùk gksrk gS] ftldk dsUnz f=Hkqt dk dsUnzd gksrk gSA
(3) lek{k o`Ùk
fudk; dk ljyre :i esa lehdj.k " lehdj.k y = mx ± a 1 + m 2 }kjk o`Ùk dh nks Li'kZ js[kk;sa
x + y + 2 gx + c = 0 gS, tgk¡ g pj rFkk c vpj gSA
2 2
iznf'kZr gksrh gSa rFkk O;kl ds fljksa ls xqtjus okyh lekarj js[kk;sa gSaA
" js[kk ax + by + c = 0 , o`Ùk x 2 + y 2 = r 2 dh ,d Li'kZ js[kk
lhekUr fcUnq (Limiting points)
gS] ;fn vkSj dsoy ;fn c 2 = r 2 (a 2 + b 2 ).
lek{k o`Ùkksa ds fudk; dk lhekUr fcUnq] bl fudk; esa fLFkr fcUnq
o`Ùkksa dk dsUnz gksrk gSA ¼o`Ùk ftudh f=T;k 'kwU; gks] fcUnq o`Ùk dgykrs gSa½ " o`Ùk x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 dks js[kk lx + my + n = 0
Li'kZ djsxh] ;fn (lg + mf − n)2 = (l 2 + m 2 )(g 2 + f 2 − c).
ekuk o`Ùk dk lehdj.k gS] x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + c = 0 …..(i),

tgk¡ g pj rFkk c ,d vpj gSA " o`Ùk x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 dh Li'kZ js[kk dk izo.krk :i

esa lehdj.k y = mx + mg − f ± (g 2 + f 2 − c) (1 + m 2 ) gksrk gSA
∴o`Ùk (i) dk dsUæ (− g, 0) rFkk f=T;k (g − c) gSA 2

" o`Ùk x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c1 = 0 ij fLFkr fdlh fcUnq ls o`Ùk

ekuk g 2 − c = 0 ⇒ g = ± c
x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 ij [khaph x;h Li'kZ js[kk dh yackbZ
vr% ge fn, x;s lek{k o`Ùkksa ds fudk; ds nks lhekUr fcUnq c − c1 gksrh gSA
( c , 0 ) rFkk (− c , 0 ) izkIr djrs gSaA
" ;fn ewyfcUnq ls o`Ùk x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 ij [khaph
Li"Vr%] mijksä lhekUr fcUnq c >, =, < 0 ds vuqlkj Øe'k%
okLrfod rFkk fHké ;k okLrfod ,oa laikrh ;k dkYifud gSaA x;h nks Li'kZ js[kk;sa ijLij yacor~ gksa] rc g 2 + f 2 = 2c.

jSf[kd niZ.k ds }kjk o`Ùk dk izfrfcEo " ;fn fcUnq (a, b) ij o`Ùk x 2 + y 2 = r 2 dh Li'kZ js[kk funsZ'kk{kksa
(Image of the circle by the line mirror) ls fcUnq A rFkk B ij feyrh gS rFkk O ewyfcUnq gks] rc f=Hkqt OAB
r4
ekuk o`Ùk x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0
rFkk jSf[kd niZ.k dk {ks=Qy = .
2 ab
lx + my + n = 0 gSA bl fLFkfr esa o`Ùk dh f=T;k vifjofrZr jgrh gS]
ysfdu mldk dsUnz ifjofrZr gks tkrk gSA ekuk izfrfcEc o`Ùk dk dsUnz " (α , β ) ls o`Ùk x 2 + y 2 = a 2 ij [khaph x;h Li'kZ js[kkvksa ds
(x 1 , y 1 ) gSA
⎛ ⎞
chp dk dks.k 2 tan −1 ⎜⎜ ⎟
a
gksrk gSA
(–g,–f) r r ⎜ α 2 + β 2 − a 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠
C1 C2
" ;fn OA rFkk OB ewyfcUnq ls o`Ùk
fn;k x;k o`Ùk izfrfcEc o`Ùk
lx+my+n=0 x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 ij [khaph xbZ Li'kZ js[kk;sa gSa rFkk
( C1 C 2 dh izo.krk½ × ( lx + my + n = 0 dh izo.krk½ = –1 …..(i) C o`Ùk dk dsUæ gS] rc prqHkqZt OACB dk {ks=Qy c (g 2 + f 2 − c )
 656 o`Ùk rFkk o`Ùkksa dk fudk;
gksrk gSA 2 ab
thok dh yEckbZ gSA
a2 + b 2
" ;fn o`Ùk x + y + 2 gx + c = 0
2 2 2

" o`Ùk x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 dh Li'kZ js[kkvksa dh Li'kZ

rFkk x + y + 2 fy + c = 0
2 2 2

1 g2 + f 2 − c
thok dh ewyfcUnq rFkk fcUnq (g, f ) ls nwjh gSA
1 1 1 2 g2 + f 2
,d nwljs dks Li'kZ djsa] rks + = .
g2 f 2 c2
2 LR
" Li'kZ thok dh yEckbZ AB = rFkk Li'kZ js[kk ;qXe
" ;fn js[kk lx + my + n = 0 o`Ùk (x − h) + (y − k ) = a 2 2 2
dh ( R 2 + L2 )
Li'kZ js[kk gS] rc (hl + km + n)2 = a 2 (l 2 + m 2 ) . RL3
,oa Li'kZ thok ls fufeZr f=Hkqt dk {ks=Qy gksrk gS]
R + L2
2
" ;fn O ewyfcUnq gS ,oa OP , OQ o`Ùk x + y + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0
2 2
A S=0
R
⎛ −g − f ⎞ L O
dh Li'kZ js[kk;sa gS] rc f=Hkqt OPQ dk ifjdsUnz ⎜ , ⎟ gksxkA
⎝ 2 2 ⎠ R
L B
" ;fn fn;s x;s o`Ùk x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 dh f=T;k r gS tgk¡ R o`Ùk dh f=T;k rFkk L, P (x 1 , y 1 ) ls o`Ùk S=0 ij Li'kZ
,oa ;g nksuksa v{kksa dks Li'kZ djrk gS] rc | g | = | f | = c = r . js[kk dh yEckbZ gSA ;gk¡ L = S1 gSA

" nks o`Ùkksa dh mHk;fu"B vUr%Li'kZ js[kk rFkk mHk;fu"B cká Li'kZ " o`Ùk x 2 + y 2 = a 2 dh ,d thok] tks fd dsUæ ij α dks.k
vUrfjr djrh gS] ds e/; fcUnq dk fcUnqiFk x2 + y2 =
js[kk dh yEckbZ Lex = d 2 + (r1 − r2 )2
(a cos α / 2)2 gksxkA
A
Lex
(r1–r2)
d
B
B ′ r2 r
" o`Ùk x 2 + y 2 = a 2 dh ,d thok] tks fd dsUnz ij ledks.k
r1 2
C2 a2
r1 Lin varfjr djrh gS] ds e/;fcUnq dk fcUnqiFk x 2 + y 2 = gksrk gSA
r1+r2 Lin 2
r2
A
A″ " o`Ùk x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 ds dsUnz ij ledks.k cukus
rFkk mHk;fu"B vUr%Li'kZ js[kk dh yEckbZ c
okyh thokvksa ds e/;fcUnq dk fcUnqiFk x 2 + y 2 + gx + fy + =0
2
L in = d 2 − (r1 + r2 ) 2 , [dsoy d > (r1 + r2 ) ds fy,] gksrk gSA
tgk¡ d dsUnzksa ds chp dh nwjh vFkkZr~ | C1 C 2 | = d gS rFkk r " ;fn js[kkvksa a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0 rFkk a2 x + b 2 y + c2 = 0 dks
1

vkSj r nksuksa o`Ùkksa dh f=T;k;sa gSaA funsZ'kka{kksa ls feykus okys fcUnq pØh; gksa] rc a1 a 2 = b1 b 2 .
2

" ;fn ml o`Ùk dk lehdj.k ftldh f=T;k;sa r rFkk R gS Øe'k%

" ;fn js[kk y = mx + c o`Ùk ftldh f=T;k r rFkk dsUnz (a, b) gS]
S S'
dk vfHkyac gS] rc b = ma + c . S =0 vkSj S ' = 0 , rc ykfEcd o`Ùk dk lehdj.k ± =0 gksrk gSA
r R

" o`Ùk S = x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 }kjk fcUnq P (x1 , y1 ) ij

θ S1
varfjr dks.k θ gS] rc cot = .
2 g + f2 −c
2

" o`Ùk x 2 + y 2 + ax + by + c = 0 vkSj x 2 + y 2 + bx + ay + c = 0

1
dh mHk;fu"B thok dh yEckbZ (a + b )2 − 4 c gSA
2

x y
" js[kk + =1 }kjk o`Ùk x 2 + y 2 = r 2 ij dkVs var%[k.M ds
a b

⎛ r 2 (a 2 + b 2 ) − a 2b 2 ⎞
thok dh yackbZ 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟ gksrh gSA
⎝ a2 + b 2 ⎠

" o`Ùk (x − a)2 + y 2 = a 2 ,oa x 2 + (y − b)2 = b 2 dh mHk;fu"B

 716 'kkado ifjPNsn

CHAPTER - 18
'kkado ifjPNsn

'kkado dk O;kid lehdj.k] tcfd bldh ukfHk] fu;rk rFkk mRdsUærk

nh x;h gS (General equation of a conic section when its
'kkado ifjPNsn % lkekU; focus, directrix and eccentricity are given
ifjHkk"kk (Definition) ekuk 'kkado dh ukfHk S (α , β ) , fu;rk Ax + By + C = 0 rFkk
fdlh ry rFkk f}'kadq ds fofHké vfHkfoU;klksa ds çfrPNsnu ls çkIr mRdsUærk e gSA ekuk 'kkado ij dksbZ fcUnq P(h, k ) gS rFkk P ls fu;rk
oØ 'kkado ifjPNsn dgykrk gSA ij Mkyk x;k yEc PM gS] rc ifjHkk"kk ls]
fofHkUu inksa dh egRoiw.kZ ifjHkk"kk;sa SP = ePM ⇒ SP
2
= e 2 PM 2 Z
(Definitions of various important terms) 2 P(h, k)
⎛ Ah + Bk + C ⎞ M
2⎜ ⎟
(1) ukfHk % fLFkj fcUnq dks 'kkado dh ukfHk dgrs gSaA ⇒ (h − α ) + (k − β ) = e
2 2
⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ A +B ⎠
2

Ax+By+C=0
(2) fu;rk % fu;r ljy js[kk 'kkado dh fu;rk dgykrh gSA S (α , β )
lkekU;r% çR;sd dsaæh; 'kkado dh pkj ukfHk;k¡ gksrh gSa] ftlesa nks bl çdkj] fcUnq (h, k ) dk fcUnq iFk
okLrfod rFkk nks dkYifud gksrh gSaA nks okLrfod ukfHk;ksa ds laxr nks ( Ax + By + C ) 2
(x − α ) 2 + (y − β ) 2 = e 2 gksxkA Z′
fu;rk;sa gksrh gSaA (A 2 + Β 2 )
(3) mRdsUærk % vpj vuqikr dks 'kkado dh mRdsUærk dgrs gSa rFkk ;g 'kkado dk dkrhZ; lehdj.k gS] ftls gy djus ij
bls e ls çnf'kZr djrs gSaA
ax + 2 hxy + by 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 ds :i esa fy[k ldrs gSa] tks
2
;fn e = 1 , rc 'kkado ijoy; dgykrk gSA
;fn e < 1, rc 'kkado nh?kZo`Ùk dgykrk gSA fd f}?kkrh; O;kid lehdj.k gSA
;fn e > 1 , rc 'kkado vfrijoy; dgykrk gSA 'kkadoksa dk ijh{k.k (Recognisation of conics)
;fn e = 0 , rc 'kkado o`Ùk dgykrk gSA
;fn e = ∞ , rc 'kkado js[kk;qXe dgykrk gSA 'kkadoksa dk lehdj.k] f}?kkr ds O;kid lehdj.k
(4) v{k % ukfHk ls gksdj xqtjus okyh rFkk fu;rk ds yEcor~ ljy js[kk] ax 2 + 2 hxy + by 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0
......(i) }kjk
'kkado dk v{k dgykrh gSA 'kkado] v{k ds ifjr% lnSo lefer gksrk gSA çnf'kZr gksrk gS
(5) 'kh"kZ % og fcUnq tgk¡ 'kkado dk v{k 'kkado dks dkVrk gS] 'kh"kZ lehdj.k (i) dk fofoDrdj] Δ }kjk çnf'kZr djrs gSa] tgk¡
dgykrk gSA Δ = abc + 2 fgh − af 2 − bg 2 − ch 2
(6) dsUæ% og fcUnq tks 'kkado ls xqtjus okyh çR;sd thok dks
lef}Hkkftr djrk gS] 'kkado dk dsUæ dgykrk gSA fLFkfr I: tc Δ = 0 A bl fLFkfr esa lehdj.k (i) fMtujsV 'kkado
(Degenerate conic) çnf'kZr djrk gSA
(7) ukfHkyEc % og thok] tks ukfHk ls xqtjrh gS rFkk v{k ds
yEcor~ gS] 'kkado dh ukfHkyEc thok dgykrh gSA lkj.kh % 18.1
(8) f}xqf.kr dksfV : 'kkado dh f}xqf.kr dksfV og thok gS] tks v{k Øekad çfrcU/k 'kkado dh çÑfr
ds yEcor~ gSA
1. Δ=0 rFkk ab − h 2 = 0` lEikrh ljy js[kkvksa dk ;qXe
(9) ukHkh; thok : og thok tks 'kkado dh ukfHk ls xqtjrh gS]
ukHkh; thok dgykrh gSA 2. Δ=0 rFkk ab − h 2 < 0 çfrPNsnh ljy js[kkvksa dk ;qXe
(10) ukHkh; nwjh : 'kkado ij fLFkr fdlh fcanq dh ukfHk ls nwjh( ml 3. Δ=0 rFkk ab − h > 0
2
,d fcUnq
fcUnq dh ukHkh; nwjh dgykrh gSA
 'kkado ifjPNsn 717

fLFkfr II: tc Δ ≠ 0 bl fLFkfr esa lehdj.k (i) uku-fMtujsV ijoy; dk 'kh"kZ (h, k) rFkk v{k] x-v{k ds lekUrj gks] rc ijoy;
'kkado (non-degenerate conic) çnf'kZr djrk gSA dk lehdj.k gS] (y − k ) 2 = 4 a(x − h)
lkj.kh % 18.2 ;fn ijoy; dk 'kh"kZ ( p, q) rFkk bldk v{k y-v{k ds lekUrj gS]
Øekad çfrcU/k 'kkado dh çÑfr rc ijoy; dk lehdj.k] (x − p) 2 = 4 b(y − q) gksxkA
Y
Y′
1. Δ ≠ 0, h = 0, a = b ≠ 0, e = 0 ,d o`Ùk x=h–a
2. Δ ≠ 0, ab − h = 0 , e = 1
2 ,d ijoy; a
X′
3. Δ ≠ 0, ab − h > 0 , e < 1
2 ,d nh?kZo`Ùk V′ S
(h,k)
4. Δ ≠ 0, ab − h 2 < 0 , e >1 ,d vfrijoy; fu;rk
5. Δ ≠ 0, ab − h 2 < 0 , a + b = 0 , ,d ledksf.kd vfrijoy; X′ O
X

e = 2 ijoy; dk çkpfyd lehdj.k

Y′
(Parametric equations of a parabola)
ijoy; lkj.kh % 18.4
ifjHkk"kk (Definition) ijoy; y 2 = 4ax y 2 = −4 ax x 2 = 4 ay x 2 = −4 ay

ijoy; ml fcUnq dk fcUnqiFk gS] tks fdlh ry esa bl çdkj xeu izkpfyd funsZ'kkad (at 2 , 2 at) (−at 2 , 2at) (2 at, at 2 ) ( 2at, − at 2 )
djrk gS fd bldh ,d fLFkj fcUnq ¼vFkkZr~ ukfHk½ ls nwjh lnSo ,d izkpfyd x = at 2 x = −at 2 x = 2 at x = 2 at ,
fLFkj js[kk ¼vFkkZr~ fu;rk½ ls yEcor~ nwjh ds cjkcj jgrh gSA lehdj.k y = 2 at y = 2 at y = at 2 y = −at 2

ijoy; (y − k ) 2 = 4 a(x − h) dk izkpfyd lehdj.k x = h + at 2

ijoy; dk ekud lehdj.k rFkk y = k + 2at gksrk gSA
(Standard equation of the parabola)
ijoy; ds lkis{k fcUnq ;k js[kk dh fLFkfr
ekuk ijoy; dh ukfHk S, fu;rk ZZ ' rFkk ijoy; ij dksbZ fcUnq (Position of a point and a line with respect to a parabola)
(x , y ) gSA ekuk AS = AK = a(> 0 ) rc S ds funsZ'kkad = (a, 0) rFkk KZ
dk lehdj.k gS] x = −a ;k x + a = 0 vc] SP = PM (1) ijoy; ds lkis{k fdlh fcUnq dh fLFkfr % fcUnq ijoy;
(x 1 , y 1 )
y = 4 ax
2
ds ckgj] Åij ;k vanj Øe'k% y12 − 4 ax1 >, = ;k < 0 ds
⇒ (SP )2 = (PM )2 ⇒ (x − a) 2 + (y − 0 ) 2 = (a + x ) 2
vuqlkj fLFkr gSA y12 − 4 ax1 >, =, < 0 . Y (Åij)
∴ y 2 = 4 ax tks ijoy; dk ekud lehdj.k gSA P
P
Y (h,2 ah ) (ckgj) P(vUnj)
X
Z′ Q F
fu;rk
(a, 2a)L ukHkh; thok
M P x=a f}xqf.kr dksfV a
(2) js[kk y = mx + c , ijoy; y 2 = 4 ax dks c >, =, < ds vuqlkj
UkkHkh; nwjh m
'kh"kZ ukfHk
X Øe'k% çfrPNsn ugha djrh gS ;k Li'kZ djrh gS ;k çfrPNsn djrh gSA
Z A S(a,0) v{k
Lif'kZrk dk çfrcU/k % js[kk y = mx + c , ijoy; y = 4ax dks Li'kZ 2

ukfHkyEc a
F′ djrh gS] ;fn c = .
x+a=0

L′ m
(a,–2a) Q′ Li'kZ js[kk ds lehdj.k ds fofHké :i
ijoy; ls lEcfU/kr in Y% ′ (h,−2 ah ) (Equations of tangent in different forms)
lkj.kh % 18.3 (1) fcUnq :i %
lkj.kh % 18.5
egRoiw.kZ in y 2 = 4 ax y 2 = −4 ax x 2 = 4 ay x 2 = −4 ay
fcUnq (x , y ) ij ekud ijoy;ksa dh Li'kZ js[kk dk lehdj.k
1 1

ijoy;ksa ds lehdj.k (x1, y1) ij Li'kZ js[kk

'kh"kZ ds funsZ'kkad (0, 0) (0, 0) (0, 0) (0, 0)
y2 = 4ax yy1 = 2a (x + x1)
ukfHk ds funsZ'kkad (a, 0) (–a, 0) (0, a) (0, –a)
y 2 = −4 ax yy 1 = −2a(x + x 1 )
fu;rk dk lehdj.k x = −a x =a y = −a y=a
x 2 = 4 ay xx 1 = 2 a(y + y 1 )
v{k dk lehdj.k y=0 y=0 x =0 x =0
x 2 = −4 ay xx 1 = −2a(y + y 1 )
ukfHkyEc dh yEckbZ 4a 4a 4a 4a
(2) çkpfyd :i %
fcUnq P( x , y ) x +a a−x y+a a−y

ijoy; dk fof'k"V :i
(Special form of parabola (y – k)2 = 4a(x – h)) lkj.kh % 18.6
 718 'kkado ifjPNsn

't' ij ekud ijoy; dh Li'kZ js[kk dk lehdj.k fdlh fcUnq ls ,d ijoy; ij nks Li'kZ jss[kk;sa [khaph tk ldrh
ijoy; dk 't' ij Li'kZ js[kk gSaA nksuksa Li'kZ js[kk,¡ okLrfod] laikrh ;k dkYifud gksaxh] ;g fcUnq ds
izkpfyd funsZ'kkad 't' Øe'k% ijoy; ds ckgj] ijoy; ij ;k ijoy; ds vUnj fLFkr gksus
lehdj.k
ij fuHkZj djrk gSA
y 2 = 4 ax (at 2
,2 at ) ty = x + at 2 Y

y 2 = −4 ax (−at 2 ,2 at) ty = − x + at 2 Q
(x1,y1)P O
x 2 = 4 ay (2 at, at 2 ) tx = y + at 2 X′ X
x = −4 ay
2
(2 at, − at ) 2
tx = −y + at 2
R
(3) ço.krk :i % Y′
lkj.kh % 18.7 vfHkyEcksa ds lehdj.k ds fofHké çdkj
(Equations of normal in different forms)
ço.krk ds inksa esa fofHkUu ijoy;ksa dh Li’kZ js[kk ds lehdj.k
izo.krk (m) ds (1) fcUnq :i %
ijoy; ds izo.krk (m) ds inksa Lif'kZrk dk
inksa esa Li'kZ js[kk lkj.kh % 18.8
lehdj.k esa Li'kZ fcUnq izfrca/k
dk lehdj.k
fcUnq (x, y) ij vU; ekud ijoy;ksa ds vfHkyEcksa ds lehdj.k
⎛ a 2a ⎞
1 1

y 2 = 4 ax ⎜ 2, ⎟ y = mx +
a
c=
a ijoy; dk lehdj.k fcUnq (x1, y1) ij vfHkyEc
⎝m m ⎠ m m
−y
⎛ a 2a ⎞ a a y2 = 4ax y – y1 = 1
(x – x1)
y = −4 ax
2
⎜ − 2 ,− ⎟ y = mx − c=− 2a
⎝ m m ⎠ m m
y1
y 2 = −4 ax y − y1 = (x − x 1 )
x 2 = 4 ay (2 am , am 2 ) y = mx − am 2 c = −am 2 2a
2a
x 2 = 4 ay y − y1 = − (x − x 1 )
x1
x = −4 ay
2
(−2 am ,−am ) 2
y = mx + am 2
c = am 2

2a
x 2 = −4 ay y − y1 = (x − x 1 )
x1
ijoy; ij fLFkr nks fcUnqvksa ij Li'kZ js[kkvksa dk çfrPNsn fcUnq
(Point of intersection of tangents at any two points on the (2) çkpfyd :i %
parabola) lkj.kh % 18.9
(1) ijoy; y 2 = 4 ax ij fLFkr nks fcUnqvksa P(at12 ,2at1 ) rFkk fcUnq 't' ij vU; ekud ijoy;ksa ds vfHkyEcksa ds lehdj.k
ijoy; dk izkpfayd funsZ'kkad
Q(at 22 ,2 at 2 ) ij Li'kZ js[kkvksa dk çfrPNsn fcUnq (at1 t 2 , a(t1 + t 2 )) gSA 't ij vfHkyEc
lehdj.k
y2 = 4ax (at2, 2at) y + tx = 2at + at3
(2) ijoy; y 2 = 4 ax dh Li'kZ js[kkvks]a ds çfrPNsn fcUnq dk fcUnqiFk
tks α dks.k ij feyrh gSa] (x + a) 2 tan 2 α = y 2 − 4 ax gksxkA y 2 = −4 ax (−at 2 ,2 at) y − tx = 2at + at 3
x 2 = 4 ay (2 at, at 2 ) x + ty = 2 at + at 3
(3) fu;ked o`Ùk% 'kkado dh Y (at 2 , 2 at )
1 1
yEcor~ Li'kZ js[kkvksa ds çfrPNsn x = −4 ay
2
(2 at,−at )2
x − ty = 2 at + at 3
P
fcUnq dk fcUnqiFk fu;ked o`Ùk (at t ,a(t +t )) 1 2 1 2
(3) ço.krk :i %
dgykrk gSA ijoy; dk X′ R O
X lkj.kh % 18.10
fu;ked o`Ùk bldh fu;rk gksrh
gSA
2
Q(at 2 , 2 at 2 ) vfHkyEc dk lehdj.k] Li'kZ fcUnq rFkk izo.krk ds inksa esa vfHkyEcrk dk
izfrcU/k (m)
(4) ijoy; y 2 = 4 ax ij Y′
izo.krk (m) ds inksa
ijoy; dk izo.krk (m) ds vfHkyEcrk
fLFkr fcUnqvksa P(at12 ,2at1 ) rFkk Q (at22 ,2at2 ) ij [khaph x;h Li’kZ esa vfHkyEc dk
lehdj.k inksa es Li'kZ fcUnq dk izfrcU/k
lehdj.k
js[kk;sa fcUnq R ij izfrPNsfnr djrh gS rFkk f=Hkqt PQR dk {ks=Qy
1 2 y 2 = 4 ax (am 2 ,−2am ) y = mx − 2 am − am 3 c = −2 am − am 3
a (t1 − t 2 )3 gksrk gSA
2
y 2 = −4 ax y = mx + 2 am + am 3 c = 2 am + am 3
ijoy; ij fLFkr fdlh fcUnq ls Mkys x;s Li'kZ js[kk ;qXe dk (−am 2 ,2 am )

lehdj.k x = 4 ay
2 ⎛ 2a a ⎞
⎜− , 2⎟ y = mx + 2a +
a
c = 2a +
a
⎝ m m ⎠ m2 m2
(Equation of pair of tangents from a point to a parabola)
⎛ 2a a ⎞
y = mx − 2 a −
a
c = −2a −
a
x 2 = −4 ay ⎜ ,− 2 ⎟
;fn y 12 − 4 ax 1 > 0 , rc fcUnq (x 1 , y 1 ) ijoy; ds ckgj fLFkr ⎝m m ⎠ m2 m2
gksxk rFkk fcUnq P ls Li'khZ js[kk ;qXe PQ, PR [khaps tk ldrs gSaA
fcUnq (x , y ) ls ijoy; ij [khaps x;s Li'khZ js[kk ;qXe dk la;qä
1 1
ijoy; ds nks fcUnqvksa ij vfHkyEcksa dk çfrPNsn fcUnq (Point of
intersection of normals at any two points on the parabola)
lehdj.k SS ' = T 2 gksrk gS] tgk¡ S = y 2 − 4 ax ; S ' = y 12 − 4 ax 1 rFkk
T = yy 1 − 2 a(x + x 1 )
 'kkado ifjPNsn 719

ijoy; y 2 = 4 ax ds nks fcUnqvksa P(at12 ,2at1 ) rFkk Q(at22 ,2at2 ) ekuk fdlh cká fcUnq (x 1 , y1 ) ls ijoy; y 2 = 4 ax ij [khaph
ij vfHkyEcksa dk çfrPNsn fcUnq R [2 a + a(t12 + t 22 + t1 t 2 ) , x;h Li'kZ js[kk;sa PQ rFkk PR gSa] rc QR dks ijoy; y 2 = 4 ax dh Li'kZ
− at 1 t 2 (t 1 + t 2 )] gSA thok dgrs gSaA
Y (at12 , 2 at1 ) fcUnq (x 1 , y1 ) ls ijoy; y 2 = 4 ax ij [khaph x;h Li'kZ js[kkvksa dh
P
Li'kZ thok dk lehdj.k gS] yy 1 = 2a(x + x 1 )
R
X′ X
A ijoy; dh thok dk lehdj.k] ftldk e/; fcUnq fn;k x;k gS
(Equation of the chord of the parabola which is bisected at
Q
Y′ a given point)
(at22 ,2 at2 )
't1' o 't2' ds e/; lEcU/k] ;fn 't1' ij vfHkyEc ijoy; dks ijoy; y 2 = 4 ax dh fcUnq (x 1 , y1 ) ij
iqu% 't2' ij feyrk gS (Relation between 't1' and 't2' if normal lef}Hkkftr gksus okyh thok dk lehdj.k gS] (x2,y2)Q
at 't1' meets the parabola again at 't2') T = S 1, tgk¡ T = yy 1 − 2a(x + x 1 ) rFkk
P(x1,y1)
;fn fcUnq P(at 12 ,2at1 ) ij vfHkyEc ijoy; y 2 = 4 ax dks iqu% S 1 = y12 − 4ax 1
fcUnq Q(at22 ,2at2 ) ij feyrk gS] Y (at12 , 2 at1 ) vFkkZr~] yy 1 − 2a(x + x 1 ) = y12 − 4 ax 1 (x3,y3)R
P
2
rc t2 = −t1 − ijoy; ij fLFkr nks fcUnqvksa dks feykus okyh thok dk lehdj.k
t1 X′ X
A (Equation of the chord joining any two points on the
parabola)

Y′ Q ekuk ijoy; y 2 = 4 ax ij nks fcUnq P(at12 ,2at1 ) rFkk

(at 22 ,2 at 2 )
Q(at 22, , 2 at 2 ) gSaA rc bu fcUnqvksa dks feykus okyh thok dk lehdj.k
lg&vfHkyEc fcUnq (Co-normal points)

oØ ij os fcUnq] ftu ij
gS] y − 2at1 =
2 at 2 − 2 at1
at 22 − at12
(x − at12 ) ;k y − 2at1 =
2
t1 + t 2
(
x − at12 ) ;k
Y
vfHkyEc ,d mHk;fu"B fcUnq ls Q y(t1 + t 2 ) = 2 x + 2 at1 t 2
gksdj xqtjrs gSa] lgvfHkyEc fcUnq P(x1,y1)
dgykrs gSaA X′ X
(1) fcUnqvksa t1 o t2 dks feykus okyh thok ds ukHkh; thok gksus dk
O çfrcU/k : ;fn ijoy; ij fcUnqvksa rFkk (at22 ,2at2 ) dks
(at12 ,2 at1 )
Q, R, S lgvfHkyEc fcUnq gSaA R
lgvfHkyEc fcUnqvksa dks vfHkyEc S
feykus okyh thok] ukfHk ls xqtjrh gS] rc fcUnq (a,0) lehdj.k
dk ikn Hkh dgrs gSaA Y′ y(t1 + t 2 ) = 2 x + 2 at1 t 2 dks larq"V djsxkA
lg vfHkyEc fcUnq ds xq.k/keZ % 1
∴ 0 = 2a + 2at1 t 2 ⇒ t1 t2 = −1 ;k t 2 = −
(1) fdlh
fcUnq ls ijoy; ij rhu vfHkyEc [khaps tk ldrs gSaA t1
(2) rhu laxkeh vfHkyEcksa dh ço.krkvksa dk chtxf.krh; ;ksx 'kwU; s(2) ukHkh; thok dh yECkkbZ% ukHkh; thok dh yECkkbZ= a(t2 − t1 )2 ]
gksrk gSA tgk¡ t o t ukHkh; thok ds fljksa ds fcUnqvksa ds çkpy gSaA
1 2

(3) lg-vfHkyEc fcUnqvksa dh dksfV;ksa dk ;ksx 'kwU; gksrk gSA

ijoy; dk O;kl (Diameter of a parabola)
(4) lg-vfHkyEc fcUnqvksa ls fufeZr f=Hkqt dk dsUæd ijoy; ds
v{k ij fLFkr gksrk gSA fdlh ijoy; dh lekUrj thokvksa ds e/; fcUnqvksa dk fcUnqiFk
(5) ijoy; ds vfHkyEc ds iknksa }kjk fufeZr f=Hkqt dk dsUæd
mldk O;kl dgykrk gSA ijoy; dk O;kl] ijoy; ds v{k ds lekUrj
ijoy; ds v{k ij gksrk gS rFkk dsUæd ds funsZ'kkad gksrk gSA ijoy; y 2 = 4 ax dh m ço.krk dh lekUrj thokvksa
2a
⎛ am12 + am 22 + am 32 2 am1 + 2 am 2 + 2am 3 ⎞ y = mx + c ds lkis{k O;kl dk lehdj.k gS] y = A
= ⎜ , ⎟ m
⎜ 3 3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ Y P(x1,y1)

⎛ am12 + am 22 + am 32 ⎞ y=mx+c
=⎜ ,0 ⎟⎟ R(h,k)
⎜ 3 X′ X
⎝ ⎠ A
O;kl
(6)fcUnq (h, k) ls ijoy; y 2 = 4 ax ij [khaps x;s rhuksa vfHkyEc
okLrfod gksaxs ;fn h > 2a . (a = 1 ds fy,) Y′ Q(x2,y2)
Li'khZ] v/kksLi'khZ] vfHkyEc rFkk v/kksyEc dh yEckbZ (Length of
(7) rhuksa vfHkyEcksa esa ls de ls de ,d vfHkyEc okLrfod gksxk]
tangent, subtangent, normal and subnormal)
D;ksafd dkYifud vfHkyEc lnSo ;qXeksa ds :i esa mifLFkr gksaxsA
ekuk ijoy; dk lehdj.k y 2 = 4 ax gS rFkk fcUnq (x 1 , y1 ) ij
ijoy; dh Li'kZ js[kkvksa dh Li'kZ thok dk lehdj.k
(Equation of the chord of contact of tangents to a parabola) ijoy; dh Li'kZ js[kk rFkk vfHkyEc x -v{k ls Øe'k% T rFkk G ij
feyrs gSaA ekuk fcUnq P(x 1 , y1 ) ij Li'kZjs[kk] x–v{k dh /kukRed fn'kk
Y ls ψ dks.k cukrh gS (x1,y1)
Y
Q yy1=2a(x+x1) P
Li’kZ
thok ψ S(a,0)
X′ X′ X′ X
O (–x1,0)T A N G
(x1,y1)P

R
Y′ y2=4ax
Y'
 720 'kkado ifjPNsn
ekuk nh?kZo`Ùk dh ukfHk S, fu;rk ZM rFkk nh?kZo`Ùk ij dksbZ
ijoy; dk 'kh"kZ A(0, 0) gS rFkk PN = y1 , rc x2 y2
fcUnq P(x , y ) gS] rc ifjHkk"kk ls] + = 1 , tgk¡ b 2 = a 2 (1 − e 2 ) .
(1) Li'kZjs[kk dh yEckbZ = PT = PN cosec ψ = y1 cosec ψ a 2
b2

(2) vfHkyEc dh yEckbZ = PG = PN cosec (90 o − ψ ) = y1 sec ψ Y

fu;rk
fu;rk
M′ (0,b) p(x,y)
(3) v/kksLi'khZ dh yECkkbZ = TN = PN cot ψ = y1 cot ψ
Z′ C M Z
X′ X
(4) v/kksyEc dh yEckbZ = NG = PN cot(90 o − ψ ) = y1 tan ψ A′ S′(–ae,0) S(ae,0) A
(–a,0) (a,0)
2a (0,–b) B′
;gk¡ tan ψ = =m, [m, P(x , y ) ij Li'kZjs[kk dh ço.krk gS ] x=–a/e Y′ x=a/e
y1
1 1

x2 y2
nh?kZo`Ùk dk lehdj.k vU; :i esa] + =1 gS] tgk¡
ijoy; y =4ax ds fcUnq(at ,2at) ij Li'khZ] v/kksLi'khZ] vfHkyEc
2 2
y 2
b2
rFkk v/kksyEc dh yEckbZ (Length of tangent, Subtangent, a 2 = b 2 (1 − e 2 ) vFkkZr~ a < b .
Normal and subnormal to y =4ax at (at ,2at)) 2 2
Y
y=b/e Z K
(1) fcUnq (at 2 ,2at) ij Li'kZjs[kk dh yEckbZ = 2at cosec ψ A(0,b)

= 2at (1 + cot 2 ψ ) = 2at 1 + t 2

(0,be)
S
(2) fcUnq (at , 2 at) ij
2
vfHkyEc dh yEckbZ = 2at sec ψ
X′ B′ C (0,0) B X
(–a,0) (a,0)
= 2 at (1 + tan 2 ψ ) = 2 a t 2 + t 2 tan 2 ψ = 2 a (t 2 + 1)

(0,–be)
S′
(3) fcUnq (at 2 ,2 at) ij v/kksLi'khZ dh yEckbZ = 2at cot ψ = 2at 2
A′(0,– b)
(4) fcUnq (at 2 , 2at) ij v/kksyEc dh yEckbZ = 2at tan ψ = 2a y=–b/e Z′ K′
/kqzo rFkk /kqzoh (Pole and Polar) Y′
nksuksa nh?kZo`Ùkksa ds e/; vUrj fuEu rkfydk ls Li"V gksrk gS
fdlh fLFkj fcUnq P ls [khaph x;h thok ds fljksa ij] ijoy; dh lkj.kh % 18.11
Li'kZ js[kkvksa ds çfrPNsn fcUnq dk fcUnqiFk] fcUnq P dh /kzqoh dgykrk gS nh?kZo`Ùk
rFkk fcUnq P dks /kqzoh dk /kqzo dgrs gSaA ⎧⎪ x 2 y2 ⎫⎪
lEcfU/kr ⎨ 2 + 2 = 1⎬
⎪⎩ a b ⎪⎭
/kqzoh dk lehdj.k % ijoy; y 2 = 4 ax
ds lkis{k fcUnq (x 1 , y1 ) dh in
/kqzoh dk lehdj.k] Li'kZ thok ds lehdj.k ds leku gksrk gS] vFkkZr~ a > b ds fy, b > a ds fy,
/kqzoh dk lehdj.k gS] yy 1 = 2a(x + x 1 ) dsUæ (0, 0) (0, 0)
(h,k) Q (h,k) T 'kh"kZ (±a, 0) (0, ± b )
T Q
Q′ R nh?kZ v{k dh yEckbZ 2a 2b
/kzqo
P(x1,y1) /kzqo /kzqoh y?kq v{k dh yEckbZ 2b 2a
P
R (x1,y1) R′ ukfHk;k¡ (±ae , 0) (0,± be )
T′
/kzqoh Q′
R′ T′ fu;rkvksa ds lehdj.k x = ±a / e y = ±b / e
/kzqo ds funsZ'kkad%
a, b rFkk e ls lEcU/k b = a (1 − e )
2 2 2
a = b 2 (1 − e 2 )
2
ijoy; y 2 = 4 ax ds lkis{k js[kk lx + my + n = 0 ds /kzqo ds
ukfHkyEc dh yEckbZ 2b 2 2a 2
n −2 am ⎞
funsZ'kkad ⎛⎜ , ⎟ gksrs gSa A a b
⎝l l ⎠
ukfHkyEc ds fljksa ds ⎛ b2 ⎞ ⎛ a2 ⎞
⎜ ± ae ,± ⎟ ⎜± ⎟
funsZ’kkads ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ b ,±be ⎟
nh?kZo`Ùk ⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
çkpfyd lehdj.k (a cos φ , b sin φ ) (a cos φ , b sin φ )
ifjHkk"kk (Definition)
(0 ≤ φ < 2π )
nh?kZo`Ùk ml fcUnq dk fcUnqiFk gS tks bl çdkj xfr djrk gS] fd ukHkh; f=T;k;sa SP = a − ex 1 SP = b − ey 1
bldh ,d fLFkj fcUnq ls nwjh rFkk fLFkj js[kk ls nwjh dk vuqikr lnSo
vpj (< 1) jgrk gSA fLFkj fcUnq dks ukfHk rFkk fLFkj js[kk dks fu;rk S ' P = a + ex 1 S ' P = b + ey 1
dgrs gSaA vpj vuqikr dks nh?kZo`Ùk dh mRdsUærk dgrs gS rFkk bls e ls ukHkh; f=T;kvksa dk ;ksx 2a 2b
çnf'kZr djrs gSaA SP + S ' P =
nh?kZo`Ùk dk ekud lehdj.k (Standard equation of the ellipse) ukfHk;ksa ds e/; nwjh 2ae 2be
fu;rkvksa ds e/; nwjh 2a/e 2 b/ e
'kh"kks± ij Li'kZ js[kk;sa x = –a, x = a y = b, y = – b
 'kkado ifjPNsn 721

nh?kZo`Ùk dk çkpfyd lehdj.k (Parametric form of the ellipse) Li'kZ fcUnq % js[kk y = mx ± a 2m 2 + b 2 , nh?kZo`Ùk
x 2 y2
+ =1 dks
a2 b 2
x2 y2
nh?kZo`Ùk dk ekud lehdj.k gS] + = 1 rc nh?kZo`Ùk ds ⎛ ± a 2m ⎞ m b2
a2 b 2 fcUnqvksa ⎜ , ⎟ ij Li'kZ djrh gSA
⎜ a 2m 2 + b 2
a m + b ⎟⎠
lehdj.k dk çkpfyd :i gS] x = a cos φ , y = b sin φ , tgk¡ φ mRdsUæ ⎝
2 2 2

dks.k gS ftldk eku vUrjky 0 ≤ φ < 2π esa gksrk gSA vr% nh?kZo`Ùk ij (3) çkpfyd :i % fcUnq φ (a cos φ , b sin φ ) ij Li'kZ js[kk dk
fdlh fcUnq P ds funsZ'kkad (a cos φ , b sin φ ) gksaxsA x y
lehdj.k gS] cos φ + sin φ = 1 .
a b
nh?kZo`Ùk ds fof'k"V :i (Special forms of an ellipse) Li'kZ js[kk ;qXe dk lehdj.k SS1 = T2
;fn nh?kZo`Ùk dk dsUæ fcUnq (h, k ) ij gS rFkk v{kksa dh fn'kk;sa]
(1) (Equation of pair of tangents SS = T ) 1
2

funsZ'kkad v{kksa ds lekUrj gS] rc nh?kZo`Ùk dk lehdj.k gS]

x2 y2
(x − h)2 (y − k )2 Li'khZ ;qXe % ekuk nh?kZo`Ùk + = 1 ds ckgj dksbZ fcUnq
+ =1 a2 b 2
a2 b2 P(x 1 , y1 ) gS
rFkk bl fcUnq P ls [khaps x;s Li'khZ ;qXe PA, PB gSa rc
(lx + my + n)2 (mx − ly + p)2
(2) ;fn oØ dk lehdj.k + = 1, Li'khZ ;qXe PA rFkk PB dk lehdj.k gS] SS 1 = T 2
a2 b2 A
tgk¡ lx + my + n = 0 rFkk mx − ly + p = 0 yEcor~ js[kk;sa gSa rc tgk¡ S ≡
x2 y2
+ −1 (x1,y1)P
lx + my + n mx − ly + p a2 b 2
= X, = Y , çfrLFkkfir dj lehdj.k dks B
l2 + m 2 l2 + m 2 x 12 y12 xx yy
S1 ≡ + 2 − 1 , T ≡ 21 + 21 − 1
ekud :i esa ifjoÆrr djrs gSaA a 2
b a b

nh?kZo`Ùk ds lkis{k fcUnq dh fLFkfr fu;ked o`Ùk : og o`Ùk ftl ij nh?kZo`Ùk dh ijLij yEc Li'kZ
js[kkvksa dk çfrPNsn fcUnq fLFkr gksrk gS] fu;ked o`Ùk dgykrk gSA ekuk
(Position of a point with respect to an ellipse) fcUnqiFk ij dksbZ fcUnq P(x 1 , y1 ) gSA vr% P(x 1 , y1 ) dk fcUnqiFk vFkkZr~
x2 y2 fu;ked o`Ùk dk lehdj.k gS] x 2 + y 2 = a 2 + b 2 .
ekuk nh?kZo`Ùk dk lehdj.k + =1 rFkk dksbZ fcUnq
a2 b 2
gSA fcUnq P(x 1 , y1 )
P ( x 1 , y1 ) Y
vfHkyEc ds lehdj.k ds fofHké :i
(Equations of normal in different forms)
nh?kZo`Ùk ds ckgj] nh?kZo`Ùk ij ;k P(ckgj)
nh?kZo`Ùk ds Hkhrj fLFkr gksxk] P(Åij) x2 y2
P(vUnj)
(1) fcUnq iFk % fcUnq (x 1 , y1 ) ij nh?kZo`Ùk + = 1 ds vfHkyEc
x 12 y12 X′ X a2 b 2
;fn S 1 = + − 1 dk eku C
a2 b 2 a2 x b 2y
dk lehdj.k gS] − = a2 − b 2
Øe'k% > 0, = 0 ;k < 0 gksA x1 y1
Y′ x2 y2
(2) çkpfyd :i% fcUnq (a cos φ , b sin φ ) ij nh?kZo`Ùk + =1 ds
js[kk rFkk nh?kZo`Ùk dk çfrPNsn fcUnq a2 b 2
(Intersection of a line and an ellipse) vfHkyEc dk lehdj.k gS] ax sec φ − by cosec φ = a 2 − b 2
x2 y2
x2 y2 (3) ço.krk :i % ;fn nh?kZo`Ùk + = 1 ds vfHkyEc dh ço.krk
js[kk y = mx + c ] nh?kZo`Ùk + = 1 dks nks fHké fcUnqvksa ij a2 b 2
a2 b 2
m (a 2 − b 2 )
çfrPNsn djrh gS ;fn a 2 m 2 + b 2 > c 2 , ,d fcUnq ij çfrPNsn djrh m gks] rc vfHkyEc dk lehdj.k gS] y = mx ± rFkk
gS ;fn c 2 = a 2m 2 + b 2 rFkk çfrPNsn ugha djrh gS ;fn a 2 + b 2m 2
a 2m 2 + b 2 < c 2 . ⎛ ± a2 ± mb 2 ⎞
Li'kZ fcUnq ds funsZ'kkad ⎜ , ⎟ gSA
⎜ a 2 + b 2m 2 a 2 + b 2m 2 ⎟⎠
Li'kZ js[kk ds lehdj.k ds fofHké :i ⎝
(Equations of tangent in different forms) lgk;d o`Ùk (Auxiliary circle)
(1) fcUnq :i : fcUnq ( x 1 , y1 ) ij nh?kZo`Ùk dh Li'kZ js[kk dk lehdj.k
nh?kZo`Ùk ds nh?kkZ{k dks O;kl ekudj [khapk x;k o`Ùk] lgk;d o`Ùk
xx 1 yy 1
gS] + 2 =1. x2 y2
a2 b dgykrk gSA ;fn + = 1 ,d nh?kZo`Ùk gS] rc bldk lgk;d o`Ùk
2 2
a2 b 2
x y Y
(2) ço.krk :i % ;fn js[kk y = mx + c , nh?kZo`Ùk + = 1 dks x 2 + y 2 = a2 gksxkA Q
a2 b 2 P(x,y)
Li'kZ djrh gS] rc c = a m +b ,
2 2 2 2
vr% ljy js[kk φ
X′ X
C M
y = mx ± a m + b 2 2 2
lnSo nh?kZo`Ùk dh Li'kZ js[kkvksa dks çnÆ'kr
djrh gSA x2 y2
2
+ =1
a b2
Y′
 722 'kkado ifjPNsn

x2 y2 x2 y2
fdlh fcUnq dk mRdsUæ dks.k : ekuk nh?kZo`Ùk + = 1 ij dksbZ /kzqoh dk lehdj.k % nh?kZo`Ùk + = 1 ds lkis{k fcUnq (x 1 , y1 )
a2 b 2 a2 b 2
fcUnq P gSA vc nh?kZo`Ùk ds nh?kkZ{k ij fcUnq P ls yEc PM [khapk rFkk MP xx 1 yy 1
dh /kqzoh dk lehdj.k gS + 2 = 1 , (vFkkZr~ T = 0 )
dks vkxs c<+kus ij ;g lgk;d o`Ùk dks fcUnq Q esa feyrk gSA CQ dks a2 b
feyk;kA nh?kZo`Ùk ij fcUnq P dk mRdsUæ dks.k ∠XCQ = φ dgykrk gSA
x2 y2
;g /;ku j[kuk pkfg;s fd dks.k ∠XCQ, fcUnq P dk mRdsUæ dks.k ugha /kqzo ds funsZ'kkad % nh?kZo`Ùk + = 1 ds lkis{k js[kk s ds /kqzo ds
a2 b 2
gSA
⎛ − a 2l − b 2m ⎞
funsZ'kkad P ⎜⎜ , ⎟ gksaxsA
Li'kZ thok (Chord of contact) ⎝ n n ⎟⎠

x2 y2 /kqzo rFkk /kqzoh ds xq.k/keZ %

;fn P(x 1 , y1 ) ls nh?kZo`Ùk + =1 dh Li'kZ js[kk;sa PQ rFkk
a2 b 2 (1) ;fn P(x 1 , y1 ) dh /kqzoh Q(x 2 , y 2 ) ls gksdj xqtjrh gS] rc
Y
PR gS] rc Li'kZ thok QR dk lehdj.k gS] Q( x 2 , y 2 ) dh /kqzoh P(x 1 , y1 ) ls gksdj tk;sxh rFkk bl çdkj ds
Q
xx 1 yy 1 fcUnqvksa dks la;qXeh fcUnq dgrs gSA
+ 2 =1 (x1,y1)P
a2 b X’ C X (2) ;fn js[kk l1 x + m1y + n1 = 0 dk /kqzo vU; js[kk
;k T = 0 ( fcUnq x 1 , y1 ij) . l2 x + m 2 y + n2 = 0 ij fLFkr gS] rc nwljh js[kk dk /kqzo igyh js[kk ij
R
fLFkr gksxk rFkk bl çdkj dh js[kkvksa dks la;qXeh js[kk;sa dgrs gSA
Y′ (3) fdlh nh xbZ js[kk dk /kqzo] blds fljksa ij Li'kZ js[kkvksa dk
thok dk lehdj.k] ftldk e/; fcUnq (x1, y1) gS çfrPNsn fcUnq gksrk gSA
(Equation of chord with mid point (x1, y1)
nh?kZo`Ùk dk O;kl (Diameter of the ellipse)
2 2
x y
nh?kZo`Ùk + = 1 dh thok dk lehdj.k ftldk e/; fcUnq ifjHkk"kk % nh?kZo`Ùk dh lekUrj thokvksa ds fudk; ds e/; fcUnqvksa
a2 b 2 Q(x2,y2) dk fcUnqiFk nh?kZo`Ùk dk O;kl dgykrk gS rFkk thok;sa] f}xqf.kr dksfV;k¡
(x 1 , y 1 ) gS T = S1 dgykrh gS] vFkkZr~ nh?kZo`Ùk ds dsUæ ls gksdj tkus okyh js[kk] nh?kZo`Ùk
P (x ,y )
xx 1 yy 1 1 1 dk O;kl dgykrh gSA
tgk¡ T = + −1
a2 b2 R(x3,y3) og fcUnq tgk¡ O;kl nh?kZo`Ùk dks çfrPNsfnr djrk gS] O;kl dk
x 12 y 12 'kh"kZ dgykrk gSA Y
S1 = 2
+ −1 .
a b2 y=mx+c

nh?kZo`Ùk ij nks fcUnqvksa dks feykus okyh thok dk lehdj.k X′ X

(Equation of the chord joining two points on an ellipse) 2 2
x
+
y
=1 −b 2
y= x
2 2 a2 b2 a 2m
x y
ekuk nh?kZo`Ùk + = 1 ij nks fcUnq P(a cos θ , b sin θ ) ; Y′
a2 b 2 x2 y2
ekuk nh?kZo`+Ùk + =1 dh lekUrj thokvksa dk fudk;
Q(a cos φ , b sin φ ) gS] rc bu fcUnqvksa dks feykus okyh thok dk a2 b 2
b sin φ − b sin θ x2 y2
lehdj.k gS] y − b sinθ = (x − a cos θ ) A vr% nh?kZo`Ùk y = mx + c gS] tgk¡ m vpj gS rFkk c pj gSA nh?kZo`Ùk + =1 dh
a cos φ − a cos θ a2 b 2
x2 y2 m ço.krk dh thokvksa dks lef}Hkkftr djus okys O;kl dk lehdj.k
+ =1 ij mu fcUnqvksa dks feykus okyh thok dk lehdj.k]
a2 b 2 b2
gS] y = − x , tks fd (0, 0) ls xqtjrk gSA
ftuds mRdsUæ dks.k θ rFkk φ gS] a 2m
x ⎛θ + φ ⎞ y ⎛θ + φ ⎞ ⎛θ −φ ⎞ la;qXeh O;kl % tc nh?kZo`Ùk ds nks O;klksa esa ls çR;sd nwljs dh
cos ⎜ ⎟ + sin⎜ ⎟ = cos ⎜ ⎟ gksxkA lekUrj thokvksa dks lef}Hkkftr djrk gS] rks os nksuksa O;kl la;qXeh
a ⎝ 2 ⎠ b ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
O;kl dgykrs gSA
/kqzo rFkk /kqzoh (Pole and Polar) o`Ùk ds la;qXeh O;kl vFkkZr~ A A′ rFkk B B′ ijLij yEcor~ gksrs gSaA
vr% nh?kZo`Ùk ds la;qXeh O;kl PP′ rFkk QQ ′ gSaA
ekuk nh?kZo`Ùk ds Hkhrj ;k ckgj dksbZ fcUnq P(x 1 , y1 ) gSA P ls gksdj
∴ nh?kZo`Ùk ds la;qXeh O;klksa ds e/; dks.k > 90 o .
tkus okyh thok nh?kZo`Ùk dks Øe'k% A o B ij çfrPNsn djrh gSA ;fn
Y
fcUnqvksa A rFkk B ij nh?kZo`Ùk dh Li'kZ js[kk;sa Q(h,k) ij feyrh gS] rc
nh?kZo`Ùk ds lkis{k Q dk fcUnq iFk] fcUnq P dh /kqzoh dgykrk gS rFkk fcUnq B A
P, /kqzo dgykrk gS Q P
90°
Q(h,k) θ
Q(h,k) A A X′ C
X
A′ P′ Q′
P(x1,y1) /kzqoh A′ B′
/kzqoh B A′
B
/kzqo B′ Y′
T B′
Q′
/kzqo P(x1,y1)
 'kkado ifjPNsn 723

vc nksuksa la;qXeh O;klksa ds pkjksa fljksa ds funsZ'kkad gS] ⇒ (a − b )(cos φ − sin φ ) = 0

2 2 2 2

P(a cos φ , b sin φ ); P ′(−a cos φ ,−b sin φ ) ;

π 3π
Q (a 2 − b 2 ) ≠ 0 , ∴ cos 2φ = 0 . blfy,, φ = ;k
Q(−a sin φ , b cos φ ); Q ′(a sin φ ,−b cos φ ) 4 4
;fn nh?kZo`+Ùk ds nks la;qXeh O;kl y = m1 x rFkk y = m 2 x gks] rc
(a 2 + b 2 )
− b2 (CP ) = (CD ) = ¼la;qXeh O;kl ds fy;s½
m 1m 2 = 2 2
a
(1) O;kl ds xq.k % v/kks Li'khZ rFkk v/kksyEc (Subtangent and subnormal)
(i) fdlh O;kl ds fljksa ij Li'kZ js[kk] lef}Hkkftr djus okyh
thokvksa ds lekUrj gksrh gS ;k la;qXeh O;kl ds lekUrj gksrh gSA ekuk fcUnq P(x 1 , y1 ) ij Li'kZ js[kk rFkk vfHkyEc x–v{k dks
(ii) fdlh thok ds fljksa ij Li'kZ js[kk ml O;kl ij feyrh gS] tks Øe'k% fcUnqvksa A rFkk B ij feyrs gSaA
thok dks lef}Hkkftr djrk gSA
x2 y2
(2) la;qXeh O;kl ds xq.k % fcUnq P(x 1 , y1 ) ij nh?kZo`Ùk + =1 dh v/kksLi'khZ dh
a2 b 2
(i) nh?kZo`Ùk ds la;qXeh O;klksa ds ;qXe ds fljksa ds mRdsUæ dks.kksa esa a2
π yEckbZ gS] DA = CA − CD = − x1
,d ledks.k dk vUrj gksrk gS] vFkkZr~ φ − φ ′ = x1
2
(a cos φ ' , b sin φ ' ) Y
P(a cos φ , b sin φ ) A′
D
P(x1,y1)
A′ A X′ X
C C B D A
P′ D′
(ii)fdlh nh?kZo`Ùk ds nks la;qXeh v)ZO;klksa ds oxks± dk ;ksx vpj
gksrk gS rFkk nh?kZo`Ùk ds v)Z v{kksa ds oxks± ds ;ksx ds cjkcj gksrk gS Y′
x2 y2
fcUnq P(x 1, y 1 ) ij nh?kZo`Ùk + = 1 ds v/kksyEc dh
vFkkZr~ CP 2 + CD 2 = a 2 + b 2 a 2
b2
D P(a cos φ , b sin φ ) ⎛ b 2 ⎞⎟ b 2
yEckbZ gS] BD = CD − CB = x 1 − ⎜⎜ x 1 − x1 = x 1 = (1 − e 2 )x 1 .
⎝ a 2 ⎟⎠ a 2
S′ C S
P′ D′
vfrijoy;
nh?kZo`Ùk ij fdlh fcUnq dh ukHkh; nwfj;ksa dk xq.kuQy
(iii) ifjHkk"kk (Definition)
v)ZO;kl ds oxZ ds cjkcj gksrk gS] tks fd fcUnq ls gksdj tkus okys
vfrijoy; ml fcUnq dk fcUnqiFk gS tks fdlh ry esa bl çdkj
O;kl ds la;qXeh gS] vFkkZr~ SP .S ′P = CD 2
Y
xfr djrk gS] fd ,d fLFkj fcUnq ls nwjh rFkk ,d fLFkj js[kk ls nwjh
Q dk vuqikr lnSo vpj jgsA
M
D P ;g vpj vuqikr lnSo ,d ls vf/kd gksrk gSA fLFkj fcUnq dks
R′ R X
C ukfHk rFkk fLFkj js[kk dks fu;rk dgrs gSaA
P′ D′
vpj vuqikr mRdsUærk dgykrk gS] ftls e ls çnÆ'kr djrs gSa
Q′
rFkk e > 1.
(iv) la;qXeh O;klksa ds ;qXeksa ds fljksa ij Li'kZ js[kk;sa ,d lekUrj
prqHkqZt cukrh gS] ftldk {ks=Qy vpj jgrk gS rFkk v{kksa ds xq.kuQy
ds cjkcj gksrk gS] vFkkZr~
lekUrj prqHkqZt dk {ks=Qy = (2a)(2b) = vk;r dk {ks=Qy
ftlesa nh?kkZ{k rFkk y?kqv{k lekfgr gSA
(v) nh?kZo`Ùk ds lkis{k fdlh fcUnq dh /kzqoh ml O;kl ds lekUrj
gksrh gS] ftl ij fcUnq fLFkr gksrk gSA vr% ml thok dk lehdj.k
çkIr gksrk gS ftldk e/;fcUnq fn;k gS vFkkZr~ thok T = S 1 .
(3) le la;qXeh O;kl % nks la;qXeh O;kl lela;qXeh dgykrs gSa] ;fn
la;qXeh O;klksa dh yEckbZ;k¡ leku gSa] vFkkZr~ (CP )2 = (CD)2
∴ a cos φ + b sin φ = a sin φ + b cos φ
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

⇒ a (cos φ − sin φ ) − b (cos φ − sin φ ) = 0

2 2 2 2 2 2
 724 'kkado ifjPNsn

svfrijoy; dk ekud lehdj.k ;fn vfrijoy; dk dsUæ (h, k) gS rFkk blds v{k] funsZ'kkad v{kksa ds
(x − h)2 (y − k)2
(Standard equation of the hyperbola) lekUrj gSa] rc vfrijoy; dk lehdj.k 2
− =1 gSA
a b2
ekuk vfrijoy; dh ukfHk S, fu;rk ZM rFkk mRdsUærk e gS] rc
vfrijoy; dk lgk;d o`Ùk (Auxiliary circle of hyperbola)
x2 y2 x 2 y2
ifjHkk"kk ls] − 2 2 =1 ⇒ − =1
a 2
a (e − 1) a2 b 2 x2 y2
Y ekuk − =1 ,d vfrijoy; gS] ftldk dsUæ C rFkk vuqçLFk
L1 (x,y) Q a2 b 2
M′
M P L
v{k AA ' gS] vr% C dks dsUæ rFkk [k.M AA ' dks O;kl ysdj [khapk x;k
X′ x2 y2
(–ae,0)S′ (–a,0) A′ Z′ C Z A (a, 0) S X o`Ùk] vfrijoy; − =1 dk lgk;d o`Ùk dgykrk gSA
(ae,0) a2 b 2
fu;rk

fu;rk

L1′ L′ ∴ lgk;d o`Ùk dk lehdj.k gS] x 2 + y 2 = a 2

Q′
x=–a/e Y′ ekuk ∠QCN = φ A ;gk¡ P rFkk Q lgk;d o`Ùk rFkk vfrijoy; ij
la;qXeh vfrijoy; (Conjugate x=a/e
hyperbola)
laxr fcUnq gSaA (0 ≤ φ < 2π )
og vfrijoy;] ftlds vuqçLFk rFkk la;qXeh v{k fn;s x;s Y
vfrijoy; ds Øe'k% la;qXeh rFkk vuqçLFk v{k gSa] fn;s x;s (x,y)
Q P
vfrijoy; dk la;qXeh vfrijoy; dgykrk gSA 90o
Y φ N
X′ X
(– a,0)A′ (0,0)C A(a,0)
(0, be)
S

Y′
Z B(0,b) y= b/e
C
vfrijoy; dk çkpfyd lehdj.k
X′ y= –b/e
X
(Parametric equations of hyperbola)
Z′
B (0,–b) x2 y2
vfrijoy; 2
− =1 ds çkpfyd lehdj.k x = a sec φ rFkk
a b2
S′
(0,–be) y = b tan φ
gSaA φ ds lHkh ekuksa ds fy, fcUnq ( a sec φ , b tan φ )
vfrijoy; ij fLFkr gSA
nh x;h rkfydk esa nksuksa vfrijoy;ksa dk vUrj Li"V fd;k x;k gS
Y′ % 18.12
lkj.kh vfrijoy; ds lkis{k fcUnq dh fLFkfr
2 2 (Position of a point with respect to a hyperbola)
vfrijoy; −
x y
+ 2 =1 ;k
x2
y 2 a2 b
− =1 x2 y2
a2 b2 x2 y2 ekuk vfrijoy; dk lehdj.k − =1 gSaA rc]
lEcfU/kr in − = −1 a2 b 2
a2 b2
dsUæ x 2 y2
(0, 0) (0, 0) − −1 ds /kukRed] Y P (ckgj)
vuqçLFk v{k dh yEckbZ 2a 2b
a2 b 2
'kwU; ;k _.kkRed eku ds P
la;qXeh v{k dh yEckbZ 2b 2a (Åij)
vuqlkj fcUnq P(x 1 , y1 ) Øe'k% P(vUnj)
ukfHk;k¡ (± ae , 0 ) (0, ± be ) X′ X
A′ C A
x12 y12
fu;rkvksa ds lehdj.k x = ±a / e y = ±b / e vfrijoy; − =1 ds
a2 b 2
⎛ a2 + b 2 ⎞ ⎛ a2 + b 2 ⎞ vUnj] ij ;k ckgj gksxkA
mRdsUærk e = ⎜
⎜ a2
⎟
⎟ e = ⎜
⎜ b2
⎟
⎟ Y′
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
ukfHkyEc dh yEckbZ 2b 2 / a 2a 2 / b vfrijoy; rFkk js[kk dk çfrPNsn fcUnq
(a sec φ , b tan φ ) (b sec φ , a tan φ ) (Intersection of a line and a hyperbola)
çkpfyd funsZ'kkad
0 ≤ φ < 2π 0 ≤ φ < 2π
x2 y2
SP = ex 1 − a SP = ey 1 − b ljy js[kk y = mx + c ] vfrijoy; − = 1 dks
ukHkh; f=T;k;sa a2 b 2
S ′P = ex 1 + a S ′P = ey 1 + b
c 2 >, =, < a 2 m 2 − b 2
ds vuqlkj Øe'k% nks okLrfod] lEikrh ;k
ukHkh; f=T;kvksa dk vUrj
(S ′P − SP )
2a 2b dkYifud fcUnqvksa ij çfrPNsn djsxhA
'kh"kksZa ij Li'kZ js[kk;sa x = −a, x = a y = −b, y = b
Li'kZrk dk çfrcU/k % ;fn ljy js[kk y = mx + c , vfrijoy;
vuqçLFk v{k dk lehdj.k y=0 x =0 x2 y2
− =1 dks Li'kZ djrh gS] rc c 2 = a 2 m 2 − b 2 .
la;qXeh v{k dk lehdj.k x =0 y =0 a2 b2

vfrijoy; dk fof'k"V :i (Special form of hyperbola) Li'kZ js[kk ds lehdj.k ds fofHké :i

(Equations of tangent in different forms)
 'kkado ifjPNsn 725

(1) fcUnq :i % fcUnq (x1 , y1 ) ij vfrijoy; dh Li'kZ js[kk dk (4) vfHkyEcrk dk çfrcU/k % ;fn ljy js[kk y = mx + c ]
x 2
y 2
x 2
y 2
m (a 2 + b 2 )
lehdj.k gS] − =1. vfrijoy; − =1 dk vfHkyEc gS] rc c = m ;k
a 2
b 2 a2 b 2 a 2 − m 2b 2
(2) çkpfyd :i : fcUnq (a sec φ , b tan φ ) ij vfrijoy; m 2 (a 2 + b 2 )2
c2 = , tks fd vfHkyEcrk dk çfrcU/k gSA
x 2 y2 x y (a 2 − m 2b 2 )
− =1 dh Li'kZ js[kk dk lehdj.k gS] sec φ − tan φ = 1
a2 b 2 a b ⎛ a2 mb2 ⎞
(5) Li'kZ fcUnq % Li'kZ fcUnq ds funsZ'kkad ⎜± ,m ⎟ gSaA
2 2 ⎜ a −b m
2 2 2
a − b m ⎟⎠
2 2 2
x y ⎝
(3) ço.krk :i % vfrijoy; − = 1 dh m ço.krk dh Li'kZ
a2 b 2 fdlh fcUnq ls vfrijoy; ij [khaph x;h Li'kZ js[kkvksa dh Li'kZ
js[kk dk lehdj.k y = mx ± a 2m 2 − b 2 gS rFkk Li'kZ fcUnq ds thok dk lehdj.k (Equation of chord of contact of tangents
⎛ a 2m b2 ⎞ drawn from a point to a hyperbola)
funsZ'kkad ⎜ ± ,± ⎟ gSaA
⎜ a 2m 2 − b 2 a 2m 2 − b 2 ⎟ x2 y2
⎝ ⎠ ekuk] fdlh cká fcUnq P (x 1 , y 1 ) ls vfrijoy; − =1
2
a b2
Li'kZ js[kk ;qXe dk lehdj.k (Equation of pair of tangents) ij [khaph x;h Li'kZ js[kk;sa PQ rFkk PR gSaA
Y
x 2 y2
ekuk vfrijoy; − =1 ds ckgj dksbZ fcUnq P(x 1 , y1 ) gS] Q
a2 b 2
rc P ls Li'khZ ;qXe PQ rFkk PR [khaps tk ldrs gSaA X′ A′ C P A X
(x1,y1)
Li'khZ ;qXe PQ rFkk PR dk lehdj.k gS] SS 1 = T 2
R
x 2
y x 2
y 2 2 Y′
tgk¡] S = − 2 − 1 , 2 − 2 = 1 , x 2 + y 2 = a2 − b 2 xx 1 yy 1
2 rc Li'kZ thok QR dk lehdj.k gS] − =1 ;k T = 0
a b a b a2 b2
Y (fcUnq x 1 , y 1 ij )
Q
(h,k)T vfrijoy; dh thok dk lehdj.k] ftldk e/;fcUnq (x1, y1)
X′
A′ C P A
X Kkr gS (Equation of the chord of the hyperbola whose mid
(x1,y1) point (x1, y1) is given)
R
x 2 y2
fu;ked o`Ùk % vfrijoy;Y′ dh ijLij yEcor~ Li’kZ js[kkvksa ds vfrijoy; −
a2 b 2
=1 dh ml thok dk lehdj.k] tks fn;sa
çfrPNsn fcUnq dk fcUnqiFk fu;ked o`Ùk dgykrk gSA x, fcUnq (x 1 , y1 ) ij Y
x 2
y 2
lef}Hkkftr gksrh gS] (x2,y2) Q
vfrijoy; − =1 ds fu;ked o`Ùk dk lehdj.k
a2 b 2 xx 1 yy 1
− 2 −1 P
a2 X′ X
x 2 + y 2 = a2 − b 2 gSA b C A (x1,y1)
x 12 y12
vfHkyEc ds lehdj.kksa ds fofHké :i = 2
− −12
(x3,y3) R
a b Y′
(Equations of normal in different forms)
vFkkZr~ T = S 1 gksxkA
2 2
(1) fcUnq :i % fcUnq ( x 1 , y1 ) ij vfrijoy;
x
2
y
− 2 =1 ds vfrijoy; ij nks fcUnqvksa dks feykus okyh thok dk lehdj.k
a b (Equation of the chord joining two points on the hyperbola)
a2 x b 2y
vfHkyEc dk lehdj.k gS] + = a2 + b 2 fcUnqvksa P(a sec φ1 , b tan φ1 ) rFkk Q(a sec φ2 , b tan φ 2 ) dks feykus
x1 y1
okyh thok dk lehdj.k gS
(2) çkpfyd :i% fcUnq (a sec θ , b tan θ ) ij vfrijoy;
b tan φ 2 − b tan φ1
2 2 y − b tan φ1 = ( x − a sec φ1 )
x
−
y
=1 ds vfHkyEc dk lehdj.k gS] a sec φ 2 − a sec φ1
a2 b 2
x ⎛ φ − φ2 ⎞ y ⎛ φ + φ2 ⎞ ⎛ φ + φ2 ⎞
ax cos θ + by cot θ = a 2 + b 2 cos ⎜ 1 ⎟ − sin⎜ 1 ⎟ = cos ⎜ 1 ⎟
a ⎝ 2 ⎠ b ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
x2 y2
(3) ço.krk :i % vfrijoy; −
a2 b 2
=1 ij vfHkyEc dk /kqzo rFkk /kqzoh (Pole and Polar)
m (a 2 + b 2 ) ekuk vfrijoy; ds vUr% ;k ckár% dksbZ fcUnq P gSA ;fn P ls
ço.krk m ds inksa esa lehdj.k gS] y = mx m [khaph xbZ ljy js[kk vfrijoy; dks A rFkk B ij çfrPNsn djrh gS] rc
a 2 − b 2m 2 fcUnqvksa A rFkk B ij vfrijoy; dh Li'kZ js[kkvksa ds çfrPNsn fcUnq dk
fcUnqiFk vfrijoy; ds lkis{k fn;s x;s fcUnq P dh /kzqoh dgykrh gSa
rFkk fcUnq P , bl /kzqoh dk /kqzo dgykrk gSA
 726 'kkado ifjPNsn

vr% vHkh"V /kqzoh dk lehdj.k gS]

xx 1 yy 1
− 2 = 1 , ¼tcfd ( x 1 , y1 ) /kzqo gS½ vfrijoy; dh v/kksLi'khZ rFkk v/kksyEc
a2 b (Subtangent and Subnormal of the hyperbola)
ukfHk dh /kqzoh fu;rk gksrh gSA
]

ekuk fcUnq P(x1 , y1 ) ij Li'kZ js[kk rFkk vfHkyEc x–v{k dks Øe'k%
dksbZ Li'kZ js[kk] Lo;a ds Li'kZ fcUnq dh /kqzoh gksrh gSA
a2
A A rFkk B ij feyrs gSaA v/kksLi'khZ dh yEckbZ AN = CN − CA = x 1 −
x1
(h,k) Q Pole
Polar A′
X′
P(x1,y1)
X v/kksyEc dh yEckbZ =
B (a 2 + b 2 ) b2
Q′ BN = CB − CN = 2
x 1 − x 1 = 2 x 1 = (e 2 − 1)x 1
B′ a Y a

(h, k)Q B′ (x1, y1)P

A′ Polar
X′ X X′ N B X
Pole C A
P
(x1,y1) A
B
Q′ Y′
x2 y2 vfrijoy; dh vuUr Lif'kZ;k¡ (Asymptotes of a hyperbola)
nh xbZ js[kk dk /kqzo : vfrijoy; − = 1 ds lkis{k nh xbZ
a2 b2 ewy fcUnq ls fuf'pr nwjh ij fdlh oØ dh vuUr LiÆ'k;k¡] os
⎛ a 2l b 2m ⎞
ljy js[kk,¡ gSa] tks fd oØ dks vuUr ij Li'kZ djrh gSaA
js[kk lx + my + n = 0 dk /kqzo (x1 , y1 ) = ⎜⎜ − , ⎟ gSA x 2 y2
⎝ n n ⎟⎠ vfrijoy; − =1 dh nks vuUr LiÆ'k;ksa ds lehdj.k
a2 b 2
/kqzo rFkk /kqzoh ds xq.k/keZ % b x y
y=± x ;k ± = 0 gSaA
(i) ;fn P(x1 , y1 ) dh /kqzoh Q(x 2 , y 2 ) ls gksdj xqtjrh gS] rc a a b

Q(x 2 , y 2 ) dh /kqzoh P(x 1 , y1 ) ls gksdj tk;sxh rFkk bl çdkj ds

vuUr Lif'kZ;ksa ls lEcfU/kr egRoiw.kZ fcUnq %
x2 y2
fcUnqvksa dks la;qXeh fcUnq dgrs gSaA (i) vfrijoy; − = 1 dh vuUr LiÆ'k;ksa dk l;aqä
a2 b 2
(ii) ;fn js[kk lx + my + n = 0 dk /kqzo vU; js[kk
x2 y2
l' x + m ' y + n' = 0 ij fLFkr gS] rc nwljh js[kk dk /kqzo igyh js[kk ij lehdj.k − = 0 gksrk gSA
a2 b 2
fLFkr gksxk rFkk bl çdkj dh js[kkvksa dks la;qXeh js[kk;sa dgrs gSaA
;fn b = a ,vFkkZr~ vk;rkdkj vfrijoy; x 2 − y 2 = a 2 dh
(ii)
(iii) fdlh nh xbZ js[kk dk /kqzo] blds fljksa ij Li'kZ js[kkvksa dk vuUr LiÆ'k;k¡ y = ± x gksrh gSa] tks fd yEcor~ gSaA
çfrPNsn fcUnq gksrk gSA Y
vuUr Lif'kZ;k¡
vfrijoy; dk O;kl (Diameter of the hyperbola) B

vfrijoy; dh lekUrj thokvksa ds fudk; ds e/; fcUnqvksa dk A

X′ C X
A′
fcUnqiFk vfrijoy; dk O;kl dgykrk gSa rFkk og fcUnq] tgk¡ O;kl
x2 y2
vfrijoy; dks çfrPNsfnr djrk gS] O;kl dk 'kh"kZ dgykrk gSA ekuk B′ 2
− =1
a b2
2 2
x y Y Y′ x 2 y2
vfrijoy; − = 1 dh (x1,y1)P − = −1
a2 b 2 a2 b2
fofHké thokvksa ds fy;s
X′ X (iii) vfrijoy; rFkk
blds l;aqXeh dh vuUr LiÆ'k;k¡ ,d leku gksrh gSaA
lekUrj thokvksa dk fudk; C
(iv) vuUr Li'khZ
;qXe rFkk vfrijoy; esa vUrj vkSj la;qXeh
y = mx + c gS] rc R(h,k)
(x2,y2)Q vfrijoy; rFkk vuUr LiÆ'k;ksa esa vUrj ,d leku gksrk gS] vFkkZr
vfrijoy; ds O;kl dk ⎛ x2 y2 ⎞ ⎛ x2 y2 ⎞ ⎛ x 2 y2 ⎞ ⎛ x2 y2 ⎞
Y′ ⎜ ⎟−⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
b x 2 −
⎜ a2 b 2 − 1 ⎟ ⎜ a2 − b 2 ⎟ = ⎜ a2 − b 2 ⎟ − ⎜ a2 − b 2 + 1 ⎟ .
lehdj.k y = gS] tks ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
a 2m
(v) vuUr LiÆ'k;k¡ vfrijoy; ds dsUæ ls gksdj tkrh gSaA
(0, 0) lsgksdj xqtjrk gSA (vi) vuUr LiÆ'k;ksa ds e/; dks.kksa dk lef}Hkktd funsZ'kkad v{k gksrk gSA
la;qXeh O;kl : tc vfrijoy; ds nks O;klksa esa ls çR;sd] nwljs dh x 2
y 2

lekUrj thokvksa dks lef}Hkkftr djrk gS] rks os nksuksa O;kl la;qXeh (vii) vfrijoy; S = 0 vFkkZr~ − =1 dh vuUr LiÆ'k;ksa ds
a2 b 2
O;kl dgykrs gSaA b
e/; dks.k 2 tan −1 ;k 2 sec −1 e gksrk gSA
;fn la;qXeh O;kl y = m1 x , y = m 2 x gSa] a
(viii) vuUr LiÆ'k;k¡] vfrijoy; ds v{k ls cjkcj dks.k ij >qdh
b2
rc m1m 2 = . gksrh gSaA
a2
ledks.kh; ;k vk;rkdkj vfrijoy;
 'kkado ifjPNsn 727

(Rectangular or equilateral hyperbola) yc c2

vFkkZr~ xct − = c 2 t 2 − 2 ⇒ xt 3 − yt − ct 4 + c = 0
(1) ifjHkk"kk % og vfrijoy;] ftldh vuUr LiÆ'k;k¡ ijLij t t
yEcor~ gksa] vk;rkdkj ;k ledksf.kd vfrijoy; dgykrk gSA
fcUnq ⎛⎜ ct, ⎞⎟ ij vfHkyEc dk lehdj.k] t esa prqFkZ ?kkrh; gS] vr%]
c
vk;rkdkj vfrijoy; dh mRdsUærk lnSo 2 gksrh gSA ⎝ t⎠
f}?kkr dk O;kid lehdj.k ,d vk;rkdkj vfrijoy; dks çnÆ'kr lkekU;r% fdlh fcUnq ls vfrijoy; xy = c 2 ij pkj vfHkyEc [khaps
djrk gS] ;fn Δ ≠ 0, h 2 > ab rFkk x 2 dk xq.kkad + y 2 dk xq.kkad = 0 tk ldrs gSaA
(2) vfrijoy; XY = c2 ij fdlh fcUnq ds çkpfyd funsZ'kkad % ;fn t
fcUnq ⎛⎜ ct, ⎞⎟ ls oØ xy = c 2 ij vfHkyEc] oØ dks iqu% t ′ esa
c
v'kwU; vpj gS] rc ledksf.kd vfrijoy; xy = c 2 ij fdlh fcUnq ds ⎝ t⎠
çkpfyd funsZ'kkad (ct, c / t) gksaxsA vfrijoy; xy = c 2 ij fcUnq −1
feyrk gS] rc t′ = A fcUnqvksa ' t1 ' o ' t 2 ' ij vfHkyEcksa dk çfrPNsn
(ct, c / t) dks fcUnq ‘t’ ls funsZf'kr djrs gSaA t3
ledksf.kd vfrijoy; x 2 − y 2 = a 2 ds fy;s ukfHk;ksa ds ⎛ c {t1 t 2 (t12 + t1 t 2 + t 22 ) − 1} c {t13 t 23 + (t12 + t1 t 2 + t 22 )} ⎞
fcUnq ⎜ , ⎟ gksrk gSA
⎜ t1 t 2 (t1 + t 2 ) t1 t 2 (t1 + t 2 ) ⎟
⎝ ⎠
funsZ'kkad (± a 2 , 0) rFkk fu;rk;sa x = ±a 2 gksrh gaSA
ledksf.kd vfrijoy; xy = c 2 ds fy;s ukfHk;ksa ds funsZ'kkad
(± c 2 , ± c 2 ) rFkk fu;rk;sa x + y = ± c 2 gksrh gSaA
(3) fcUnqvksa t1 rFkk t2 dks feykus okyh thok dk lehdj.k %
⎛ c⎞ ⎛ c⎞
vfrijoy; xy = c 2 ij nks fcUnqvksa ⎜⎜ ct1 , ⎟⎟ rFkk ⎜⎜ ct2 , ⎟⎟ dks
⎝ t1 ⎠ ⎝ t2 ⎠ " ijoy; y 2 = 4 ax ds vUnj cus f=Hkqt dk {ks=Qy
c c = 1 (y 1 ~ y 2 )(y 2 ~ y 3 )(y 3 ~ y 1 ), tgk¡ y1 , y 2 , y 3 'kh"kksZa dh dksfV;k¡ gSaA
−
c t t1 8a
feykus okyh thok dk lehdj.k gS] y− = 2 (x − ct1 )
t1 ct2 − ct1
" ijoy; y 2 = 4 ax ds vUnj cus leckgq f=Hkqt dh Hkqtk dh
⇒ x + y t1 t2 = c (t1 + t2 ) .
yEckbZ = 8 a 3 ¼,d dks.kh; fcUnq 'kh"kZ ij gS½A
(4) Li'kZ js[kk ds lehdj.k ds fofHké :i % " ijoy;] ftldh ukfHk ewyfcUnq rFkk v{k] x-v{k gS] dk
(i) fcUnq :i % fcUnq (x1 , y1 ) ij vfrijoy; xy = c 2 dh Li'kZ js[kk lehdj.k y 2 = 4 a(x + a) gSA
x y " ijoy;] ftldk v{k x-v{k rFkk fu;rk y-v{k gS] dk lehdj.k
dk lehdj.k gS] xy 1 + yx 1 = 2c 2 ;k + =2
x1 y 1
y 2 = 4 a(x − a) gSA
çkpfyd :i % vfrijoy; xy = c 2 ds fcUnq ⎛⎜ ct, ⎞⎟ ij Li'kZ
c " ijoy;] ftldh ukfHk ewy fcUnq rFkk v{k] y-v{k gS] dk
(ii)
⎝ t⎠ lehdj.k x 2 = 4 a(y + a) gSA
x " ijoy;] ftldk v{k] y-v{k rFkk fu;rk x-v{k gS] dk lehdj.k
jss[kk dk lehdj.k gS] + yt = 2 c
t
x 2 = 4 a(y − a) gSA
c
x1 dks ct ls rFkk y1 dks ls çfrLFkkfir djus ij fcUnq " ;fn ijoy; ds 'kh"kZ rFkk ukfHk x-v{k ij] ewyfcUnq ls Øe'k% a
t
rFkk a' nwjh ij gSa] rc ijoy; dk lehdj.k y 2 = 4 (a'−a)(x − a)
(x 1 , y 1 ) ij Li'kZ js[kk dk lehdj.k xy 1 + yx 1 = 2c 2 ] çkpfyd
gksxkA
x
lehdj.k + yt = 2c ds :i esa ifjofrZr gks tkrk gSA " ijoy;] ftldk v{k] x-v{k ds lekUrj gS] dk lehdj.k
t
x = Ay 2 + By + C rFkk y-v{k ds lekUrj ijoy; dk lehdj.k
fcUnqvksa ' t1 ' rFkk ' t2 ' ij Li'kZ js[kkvksa dk çfrPNsn fcUnq
y = Ax 2 + Bx + C gksrk gSA
⎛ 2 ct1 t 2 2c ⎞
⎜ ⎟ gksrk gSA
⎜t +t , t +t ⎟ " ;fn ljy js[kk lx + my + n = 0 , ijoy; y 2 = 4 ax dks Li'kZ
⎝ 1 2 1 2 ⎠
(5) vfHkyEc ds lehdj.k ds fofHké :i % djrh gS] rc l n = am 2
:i : fcUnq (x 1 , y 1 ) ij vfrijoy; xy = c 2 ds vfHkyEc
(i) fcUnq " ;fn ljyjs[kk x cos α + y sin α = p ] ijoy; y 2 = 4 ax , dks
dk lehdj.k gSa] xx 1 − yy 1 = x12 − y12 . Li'kZ djrh gS] rc p cos α + a sin 2 α = 0 rFkk Li'kZ fcUnq
(a tan 2 α ,−2a tan α ) gSA
çkpfyd :i : fcUnq ⎛⎜ ct, ⎞⎟ ij vfrijoy; xy = c 2 ds
c
(ii)
⎝ t⎠ x y
" ;fn js[kk + = 1] ijoy; y 2 = 4 a(x + b) dks Li'kZ djrh
l m
vfHkyEc dk lehdj.k xt 3 − yt − ct 4 + c = 0 gksxk] tks lehdj.k
c
gS] rc m 2 (l + b) + al 2 = 0 .
xx 1 − yy 1 = x 12 − y12 , esa x1 dks ct rFkk y1 dks ls çfrLFkkfir djus
t " ;fn nks ijoy; y 2 = 4 x rFkk x 2 = 4 y fcUnq P] ftldh Hkqt
ij çkIr gksrk gSA 'kwU; ugha gS] ij izfrPNsn djrs gSaA rc fcUnq P ij izR;sd oØ dh
Li'kZ js[kk x-v{k ds lkFk iwjd dks.k cukrh gSA
 728 'kkado ifjPNsn

" ijoy; dh ukHkh; thok ds fljksa ij [khaph xbZ Li'kZ js[kk;sa " ijoy; ij nks fcUnqvksa ' t1 ' o ' t 2 ' dks feykus okyh thok dh
fu;rk ls ledks.k ij feyrh gSaA
yEckbZ a(t1 − t 2 ) (t1 + t 2 ) 2 + 4 gksrh gSA
" ijoy; ds fdUgha rhu fcUnqvksa dks feykus ls çkIr f=Hkqt dk
{ks=Qy] mu fcUnqvksa ij [khaph xbZ Li'kZ js[kkvksa ls fufeZr f=Hkqt ds " ijoy; y 2 = 4 ax ds e/;] js[kk y = mx + c }kjk cus
{ks=Qy dk nqxquk gksrk gSA 4
" ;fn ijoy; ds fcUnqvksa P rFkk Q ij [khaph xbZ Li'kZ js[kk;sa T var%[k.M dh yECkkbZ a(1 + m 2 )(a − mc ) gksrh gSA
m2
ij feyrh gSa] rc SP rFkk SQ dk xq.kksÙkj ek/; ST gksxk] vFkkZr~ " fdlh ijoy; ds 'kh"kZ fcUnq ij ledks.k varfjr djus okyh
ST 2 = SP .SQ thokvksa ds e/; fcUnqvksa dk fcUnqiFk ,d ijoy; gksrk gSA
" ijoy; dh ukHkh; thok ds ,d fljs ij Li'kZ js[kk nwljs fljs " ijoy; y 2 = 4 ax dh ukHkh; thok] tks x-v{k ds lkFk α dks.k
ij vfHkyEc ds lekUrj gksrh gSA
cukrh gS] dh yEckbZ 4acosec 2α gksrh gS rFkk bl ij 'kh"kZ ls yEc
" ijoy;ksa y 2 = 4 ax rFkk x 2 = 4 by ds e/; çfrPNsnu dks.k dh yEckbZ a = sin α gksrh gSaA
3 a1 / 3 b 1 / 3 " ijoy; dh ukHkh; thok dh yEckbZ] 'kh"kZ ls bldh nwjh ds oxZ
tan −1 gksrk gSA
2(a 2 / 3 + b 2 / 3 ) ds lekuqikrh gksrh gSA
" ijoy;ksa y 2 = 4 ax rFkk x 2 = 4 by dh mHk;fu"B Li’kZ js[kk " ;fn ijoy; dh ukHkh; thok ds [k.Mksa dh yEckbZ l1 o l2 gS]
4 l1l2
1 1 2 2
rc blds ukfHkyEc dh yEckbZ gksxhA
dk lehdj.k a3 x+ b3y + a3b 3 = 0 gksrk gSA l1 + l2
" js[kk lx + my + n = 0 , ijoy; y 2 = 4 ax ij vfHkyEc gksxh] " ijoy; y 2 = 4 ax dk v)ZzZukfHkyEc] ijoy; dh fdlh ukHkh;
;fn al(l 2 + 2m 2 ) + m 2 n = 0 thok ds [k.Mksa dk gjkRed ek/; gksrk gSA
" ;fn (at12 ,2at) rFkk (at 22 ,2at 2 ) ij [khaps x;s vfHkyEc ijoy; x 2 y2
" ljy js[kk lx + my + n = 0 , nh?kZo`Ùk + =1 dks Li'kZ
a2 b 2
y 2 = 4 ax ij feyrs gSa] rc t 1 t 2 = 2
djrh gS] ;fn a 2 l 2 + b 2 m 2 = n 2 .
" ;fn ijoy; ds fcUnq P(at 2 ,2at) ij vfHkyEc ijoy; ds 'kh"kZ x 2 y2
ij ledks.k vUrfjr djrk gS] rc t 2 = 2 " js[kk x cos α + y sin α = p , nh?kZo`Ùk + =1 dks Li'kZ
a2 b 2
" ;fn ijoy; y 2 = 4 ax dk vfHkyEc v{k ds lkFk φ dks.k cukrk djrh gS ;fn a 2 cos 2 α + b 2 sin 2 α = p 2 rFkk Li'kZ fcUnq ds
gS] rc ;g oØ dks tan −1 ⎛⎜ tan φ ⎞⎟ ds dks.k ij dkVrk gSA ⎛ a 2 cos α b 2 sin α ⎞
1
funsZ'kkad ⎜⎜ , ⎟ gksaxsA
⎟
⎝2 ⎠ ⎝ p p ⎠
" ;fn ijoy; y = 4 ax ds nks fcUnqvksa P rFkk Q ij vfHkyEc
2
x2 y2
oØ ds rhljs fcUnq R ij çfrPNsn djrk gS] rc P rFkk Q dh " ;fn ,d r f=T;k dk o`Ùk] nh?kZo`Ùk + =1 ds ladsUæh;
a2 b 2
dksfV;ksa dk xq.kuQy 8 a 2 gksxkA gS] rc mHk;fu"B Li'khZ dk nh?kZ v{k ls >qdko
" ijoy; dh nks yEcor~ Li'kZ js[kkvksa ds Li'kZ fcUnqvksa dks feykus ⎛r −b 2 2 ⎞
okyh Li'kZ thok lnSo ukfHk ls gksdj xqtjrh gSA tan −1 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟
⎟ gksrk gSA
⎝a −r
2
⎠
" ;fn fcUnq (x 1 , y1 ) ls ijoy; y 2 = 4 ax , ij Li'kZ js[kk;sa [khaph
x2 y2
tk;sa] rc Li'kZ thok dh yECkkbZ " dsUæ ls nh?kZo`Ùk + = 1 dh Li'kZ js[kk ij [khaps x;s yEc
(at12 , 2at1 )Q a2 b 2
1
= (y 12 − 4 ax 1 )(y 12 + 4 a 2 ) ds ikn dk fcUnqiFk (x 2 + y 2 )2 = a 2 x 2 + b 2 y 2 ;k
| a|
(x1,y1)P r = a cos θ + b sin θ (/kzqoh;
2 2 2 2 2
funsZ'kkadksa esa) gksrk gSA
2 2
x y
(at22 ,2 at2 )R " nh?kZo`Ùk + = 1 dh Li'kZ js[kk dk Hkkx] tks fd v{kksa ds
a2 b 2
" fcUnq (x1 , y1 ) ls ijoy; y 2 = 4 ax ij [khaph x;h Li'kZ js[kkvksa e/; var%[kUM dkVrk gS] ds e/; fcUnq dk fcUnqiFk
rFkk budh Li'kZ thok ls fufeZr f=Hkqt dk {ks=Qy a2y 2 + b 2 x 2 = 4 x 2y 2 gksrk gSA
(y 12 − 4 ax 1 ) 3 / 2 x 2 y2
gksrk gSA " ;fn nh?kZo`Ùk + =1 dk vfHkyEc y = mx + c gS] rc
2a a2 b 2
" ;fn ukHkh; thok ds ,d fljs ds funsZ'kkad (at12 ,2at1 ) gSa] rc m 2 (a 2 − b 2 )2
vfHkyEcrk ds çfrcU/k ls] c 2 = .
⎛ a − 2a ⎞ (a 2 + b 2m 2 )
t 1 t 2 = −1 ls] nwljs fljs (at22 ,2at2 ) ds funsZ'kkad ⎜⎜ , ⎟ gksaxsA
2
⎝ t1 t 1 ⎟⎠ " ;fn nh?kZo`Ùk
x2 y2
+ = 1, dk vfHkyEc ljy js[kk
a2 b 2
" ;fn ukHkh; thok dk ,d fljk (at ,2at) gS] rc nwljk fljk 2
2
a2 b 2 ⎛ a2 − b 2 ⎞
⎛a ⎞
2 lx + my + n = 0` gks, rc + 2 = ⎜⎜ ⎟ .
rFkk thok dh yEckbZ = a⎛⎜ t + ⎞⎟ . ⎟
1 2 2
⎜ 2 , − 2 at ⎟ gksxk l m ⎝ n ⎠
⎝ t ⎠ ⎝ t⎠
" nh?kZo`Ùk esa ,d fcUnq ls pkj vfHkyEc [khaps tk ldrs gSA
 'kkado ifjPNsn 729

" ;fn S ukfHk gS rFkk fcUnq P ij vfHkyEc nh?kZo`Ùk ds v{k dks " lkekU;r% fdlh fcUnq ls vfrijoy; ij pkj vfHkyac [khaps tk
fcUnq G ij feyrk gS rc SG = e .SP , rFkk P ij Li'kZ js[kk rFkk ldrs gSaA
vfHkyEc P dh ukHkh; nwfj;ksa ds e/; cká% rFkk vUr%dks.kksa dks
lef}Hkkftr djrh gSA Y x2 y2
vfHkyEc " ;fn vfrijoy; − =1 ij mu rhu fcUnqvksa ds mRdsUæ
P(x1,y1) a2 b 2
X dks.k α, β ,γ gSa] ftu ij vfHkyEc laxkeh gSa] rc
X′ S′ C G S T
sin(α + β ) + sin(β + γ ) + sin(γ + α ) = 0

x 2 y2
Y′ " fcUnq (h, k ) ls vfrijoy; − =1 ds vfHkyEcksa dk ikn
" ;fn nh?kZo`Ùk ds fdlh fcUnq P dks nh?kZ v{k ds fljksa ls feyk;k a2 b 2
tk;s] rc blds }kjk vUr%[kafMr fu;rk dk [k.M] laxr ukfHk ij a 2 y( x − h) + b 2 x (y − k ) = 0 ij fLFkr gksrk gSA
ledks.k vUrfjr djrk gSA
" nh?kZo`Ùk dh ukfHkyEc ds fljksa ij vfHkyEcksa ds lehdj.k rFkk x2 y2
" ljy js[kk y = mx + c ls vfrijoy; − =1 }kjk
çR;sd lehdj.k y?kq v{k ds fljs ls xqtjrk gS] ;fn a2 b 2

e4 + e2 −1 = 0 2 ab [c 2 − (a 2 m 2 − b 2 )](1 + m 2 )
vUr%[kf.Mr thok dh yEckbZ = .
(b 2 − a 2 m 2 )
x 2 y2
" nh?kZo`Ùk + = 1 ij rhu fcUnqvksa }kjk fuÆer f=Hkqt dk
a2 b 2 " ;fn fcUnqvksa (a sec θ 1 , b tan θ 1 ) rFkk (a sec θ 2 , b tan θ 2 ) dks
⎛ φ −ψ ⎞ ⎛ψ − θ ⎞ ⎛θ −φ ⎞
{ks=Qy 2 ab sin⎜ ⎟ sin⎜ ⎟ sin⎜ ⎟ gksxk] tgk¡ θ ,φ rFkk x2 y2
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ feykus okyh thok] vfrijoy; 2
− =1 dh ukfHk ls xqtjrh
a b2
ψ mRdsUæ dks.k gSA
θ1 θ2 1−e
gS] rc tan tan = .
x 2 y2 x2 y2 2 2 1+e
" ;fn nh?kZo`Ùkksa + = 1 rFkk + = 1 dk çfrPNsn
a2 b 2 α2 β2
x2 y2
fcUnq] igys nh?kZo`Ùk ds l;qaXeh O;kl ds fljksa ij gks] rc " ;fn vfrijoy; 2
− =1 ds lkis{k fcUnqvksa (x 1 , y 1 ) rFkk
2 2
a b2
a b
+ =2 x1 x 2 a4
α 2
β2 (x 2 , y 2 ) dh /kqzfo;k¡ ledks.k ij gksa] rc + =0
y1 y 2 b 4
" nh?kZo`Ùk ds nks yEcor~ O;klksa ds O;qRØe ds oxks± dk ;ksx vpj
jgrk gSA " vfrijoy; ds la;qXeh O;klksa ds fljksa ij Li’kZ js[kkvksa }kjk
" nh?kZo`Ùk esa] y?kq v{k ds lekUrj lHkh thokvksa dk nh?kkZ{k
fufeZr lekUrj prqHkqZt ds 'kh"kZ vuUr Lif’kZ;ksa ij fLFkr gksrs gSa rFkk
lef}Hkkftr djrk gS rFkk bldk foykse Hkh lR; gSA vr% nh?kZo`Ùk ds {ks=Qy vpj gksrk gSA
nh?kkZ{k rFkk y?kqv{k nh?kZo`Ùk ds la;qXeh O;kl gksrs gSa fdUrq os çfrcU/k x2 y2
" vfrijoy; − =1 ij] fdlh fcUnq ls vuUr Lif’kZ;ksa
m 1 . m 2 = −b 2 / a 2 dks lUrq"V ugha djrs gS rFkk dsoy yEcor~ a 2
b2
la;qXeh O;kl gksrs gSaA a2b 2
ij [khaps x;s yEcksa dh yEckbZ;ksa dk xq.kuQy gksrk gSA
" vfrijoy; rFkk blds la;qXeh dh ukfHk;k¡ pØh; gksrh gSaA a2 + b 2
" fdlh cká fcUnq ls vfrijoy; ij nks Li'kZ js[kk;sa [khaph tk
fcUnq ⎛⎜ ct, ⎞⎟ ls oØ xy = c 2 ij vfHkyEc] oØ dks iqu% t ′ esa
c
"
ldrh gSA ⎝ t⎠
2
x y 1
" ;fn ljy js[kk lx + my + n = 0 vfrijoy; − =1 feyrk gS] rc t′ = −
a2 b 2 t3
dks Li’kZ djrh gS] rc a 2 l 2 − b 2 m 2 = n 2 - " ;fn fdlh f=Hkqt ds 'kh"kZ] ledksf.kd vfrijoy; ij gksa] rc
" ;fn ljy js[kk x cos α + y sin α = p , vfrijoy; f=Hkqt dk yEcdsUæ Hkh blh vfrijoy; ij fLFkr gksxkA
x2 y2 " nks ledksf.kd vfrijoy;ksa ds çfrPNsnu ls xqtjus okys lHkh
− =1 dks Li’kZ dkVrh gS] rc a 2 cos 2 α − b 2 sin 2 α = p 2 .
a2 b 2 'kkado] ledksf.kd vfrijoy; gksrs gSaA
x2 y2
" ;fn js[kk lx + my + n = 0 , vfrijoy; − = 1 dk " ledksf.kd vfrijoy; xy = c 2 ds vanj vuUr f=Hkqt fuÆer
a2 b 2
a2 b 2 (a 2 + b 2 )2 fd;s tk ldrs gSa] ftudh lHkh Hkqtk;sa ijoy; y 2 = 4 ax dks Li'kZ
vfHkyEc gS] rc − 2 = .
l 2
m n2 djrh gSaA
 lfn'k chtxf.kr 785

Chapter

19
lfn'k chtxf.kr
çLrkouk (Introduction) (4) lejs[kh; ;k lekUrj lfn'k (Collinear or parallel vectors): lfn'k]
lfn'k ,d vR;ar egRoiw.kZ xf.krh; i)fr dks O;ä djrk gS] ftuds leku vFkok lekUrj vk/kkj gksa] lejs[kh; lfn'k dgykrs gSaA
ftldk mi;ksx T;kfefr] vfHk;kaf=dh] HkkSfrdh rFkk xf.kr ds vU; (5) lg&izkjfEHkd lfn'k (Co-initial vectors) : lfn'k] ftuds izkjfEHkd
foHkkxksa ls lEcfU/kr leL;kvksa ds gy djus esa gksrk gSA fcUnq leku gksa] lg-izkjfEHkd lfn'k dgykrs gSaA
vfn'k rFkk lfn'k jkf'k;k¡ % HkkSfrd jkf'k;k¡ nks Jsf.k;ksa esa foHkkftr (6) leryh; lfn'k (Co-planar vectors) : lfn'kksa dk ,d fudk;
dh tkrh gSa – vfn'k jkf'k;k¡ ,oa lfn'k jkf'k;k¡A os jkf'k;k¡] ftudk leryh; dgykrk gS] ;fn muds vk/kkj leku ry ds lekUrj gksaA
dsoy ifjek.k gksrk gS vkSj ftudk lEcU/k f=foe esa fLFkr fdlh fLFkj nks lfn'k] ftuds izkjfEHkd fcUnq leku gksa] loZFkk leryh; gksrs gSa
fn'kk ls ugha gksrk] vfn'k jkf'k;k¡ dgykrh gSaA æO;eku] vk;ru] ?kuRo] fdUrq ,sls rhu ;k vf/kd lfn'k leryh; gks Hkh ldrs gSa vkSj ugha HkhA
dk;Z] rkieku bR;kfn vfn'k jkf’k;ksa ds mnkgj.k gSaA fdlh vfn'k jkf'k (7) layXu lfn'k (Coterminous vectors) : lfn'k] ftuds fljk fcUnq
dks mi;qä bdkbZ ds lkFk fdlh okLrfod la[;k }kjk O;ä fd;k tkrk leku gSa] layXu lfn'k dgykrs gSaA
gSA (8) _.k lfn'k (Negative of a vector) : lfn'k] ftldk ifjek.k lfn'k a
nwljs izdkj dh jkf'k;k¡ os gSa] ftuesa ifjek.k ,oa fn'kk nksuksa gksrs ds cjkcj gks] fdUrq fn'kk foijhr gks] a dk _.k lfn'k dgykrk gS rFkk −a
gSaA ;s jkf'k;k¡ lfn'k dgykrh gSaA foLFkkiu] osx] Roj.k] laosx] Hkkj] cy
bR;kfn lfn'k jkf'k;ksa ds mnkgj.k gSaA }kjk O;ä fd;k tkrk gSA vr% ;fn PQ = a , rks QP = −a .
(9) O;qRØe lfn'k (Reciprocal of a vector) : ,d lfn'k] ftldh fn'kk
lfn'k dk fu:i.k (Representation of vectors)
fn, x, lfn'k a dh fn'kk ds leku gks] fdUrq ifjek.k fn, x, lfn'k ds
T;kferh; :i esa lfn'k dks ,d js[kk-[k.M }kjk B ifjek.k ds O;qRØe ds cjkcj gks] a dk O;qRØe lfn'k dgykrk gS rFkk bls
1
O;ä fd;k tkrk gSA mnkgj.kr% a = AB . ;gk¡ A a −1 }kjk O;ä djrs gSaA vr% ;fn | a | = a,| a −1 | =
izkjfEHkd fcUnq rFkk B vfUre fcUnq dgykrk gSA a a a
(10) LFkkuhd`r ,oa eqä lfn'k (Localized and free vectors) : ,d
ds ifjek.k ;k ekikad dks | a | =| AB | = AB }kjk O;ä
A lfn'k] tks fdlh fn, x, lfn'k ds lekUrj [khapk x;k gks rFkk f=foe
fd;k tkrk gSA esa ,d fof'k"V fcUnq ls xqtjrk gks] LFkkuhd`r lfn'k dgykrk gSA
lfn'kksa ds çdkj (Types of vector) mnkgj.kr% fdlh n`<+ fiaM ij yxk cy ,d LFkkuhd`r lfn'k gS] D;ksafd
(1) 'kwU; lfn'k ,d lfn'k] ftldk ifjek.k 'kwU;
(Zero or null vector) : bldk izHkko cy dh fØ;k-js[kk ij fuHkZj djrk gSA ;fn fdlh lfn'k
dk eku dsoy bldh yEckbZ rFkk fn'kk ij fuHkZj gksrk gS rFkk f=foe esa
gS] 'kwU; lfn'k dgykrk gS rFkk bls O }kjk O;ä fd;k tkrk gSA bldh fLFkfr ls Lora= gS] eqä lfn'k dgykrk gSA
(2) bdkbZ lfn'k (Unit vector) : ,d lfn'k] ftldk ifjek.k bdkbZ (11) fLFkfr lfn'k (Position vectors) : lfn'k OA ] tks ,d fLFkj fcUnq O
gks] bdkbZ lfn'k dgykrk gSA fdlh lfn'k a dh fn'kk esa bdkbZ lfn'k (ewy-fcUnq) ds lkis{k fcUnq A dh fLFkfr dks O;ä djrk gS] fcUnq A dk fLFkfr
dks â }kjk O;ä fd;k tkrk gS rFkk bls a dSi i<+rs gSaA vr% | aˆ | = 1 . lfn'k dgykrk gSA ;fn fcUnq A dk dkÙkhZ; funsZ'kkad (x, y, z) gks] rks
a lfn'k a OA = x i + y j + z k
aˆ = = .
| a | a dk ifjek.k (12) lfn'kksa dh lekurk (Equality of vectors) : nks lfn'k a ,oa b
(3) lefn'k ,oa vlefn'k lfn'k (Like and unlike vectors) : lfn'k leku dgyk,¡xs] ;fn (i) | a | =| b | (ii) muds vk/kkj leku vFkok
lefn'k dgykrs gSa] ;fn mudh vfHkfn'kk,¡ leku gksa rFkk vlefn'k] lekUrj gksa (iii) leku vfHkfn'kk gksaA
tc mudh vfHkfn'kk,¡ foijhr gksaA
 786 lfn'k chtxf.kr

lfn'kksa ds xq.k/keZ (Properties of vectors) la[;k½ gS] rks m a ,d lfn'k gksxk] ftldk ifjek.k a ds ifjek.k dk
m xquk gksxk rFkk ftldh fn'kk a dh fn'kk ds leku gksxh, ;fn m
(1) lfn'kksa dk ;ksx (Addition of vectors) /kukRed gS rFkk a dh fn'kk ds foijhr gksxh] ;fn m _.kkRed gSA
lfn'k ;ksx dk f=Hkqt&fu;e% ΔABC esa] AB = a , BC = b
(i) lfn'k dk vfn'k ls xq.ku ds xq.k/keZ % lfn'k ds vfn'k ls xq.ku ds
fuEufyf[kr xq.k/keZ gSa] tgk¡ a , b lfn'k gSa rFkk m, n vfn'k gSaA
rFkk AC = c rks AB + BC = AC vFkkZr~ a + b = c.
(i) m (−a ) = (−m ) a = −(m a ) (ii) (−m ) (−a ) = m a
C
(iii) m (n a ) = (mn ) a = n(m a ) (iv) (m + n) a = m a + n a

c = a+b
(v) m (a + b ) = m a + m b
b
(4) nks cyksa dk ifj.kkeh (Resultant of two forces) : ekuk nks cy P
a o Q gSa rFkk budk ifj.kkeh R gS] rc R = P + Q
A B →
lfn'k ;ksx dk lekarj prqHkqZt&fu;e: lekUrj prqHkqZt OACB esa]
(ii) | R | = R = P 2 + Q 2 + 2 PQ cos θ Q
→
;fn OA = a , OB = b rFkk OC = c tgk¡] | P | = P, | Q | = Q , R
B C
Q sin θ θα
c = a+b tan α = θ
b P + Q cos θ →
P
P sin θ
mi&lk/;% tc | P | =| Q | , vFkkZr~ P = Q, tan α =
P + P cos θ
O a A
rks OA + OB = OC vFkkZr~ a + b = c , tgk¡ OC, lekUrj prqHkqZt sin θ θ θ
= = tan ; ∴ α=
1 + cos θ 2 2
OABC dk ,d fod.kZ gSA
vr% nks bdkbZ lfn'kksa a ,oa b dk dks.kk/kZd lfn'k ;ksx a + b
(iii) ?kVd :i esa ;ksx : ;fn lfn'k i , j rFkk k ds inksa esa ifjHkkf"kr ds vuqfn'k gksrk gSA
gksa] vFkkZr~ ;fn a = a1 i + a 2 j + a 3 k rFkk b = b 1 i + b 2 j + b 3 k gkas, rks
mudk ;ksx fLFkfr lfn'k (Position vector)
a + b = (a1 + b 1 )i + (a 2 + b 2 )j + (a 3 + b 3 )k }kjk ifjHkkf"kr gksxkA
;fn O ,d fu;r fcUnq gS] tks f=foe ¼vFkok ry½ esa ewy fcUnq gS rFkk
lfn'k ;ksx ds xq.k/keZ % lfn'k ;ksx ds fuEufyf[kr xq.k/keZ gSaA P dksbZ fcUnq gS] rks OP dks P dk O ds lkis{k fLFkfr lfn'k dgrs gSaA
(a) f}/kkjh
lafØ;k : nks lfn'kksa dk ;ksx loZFkk ,d lfn'k gksrk gSA
P
(b) Øefofues;rk : fdUgha nks lfn'kksa a ,oa b ds fy,
r
a +b =b+a
(c) lkgp;Zrk : fdUgha rhu lfn'kksa a , b ,oa c ds fy,]
a + (b + c ) = (a + b ) + c
O(ewyfcUnq)
(d)rRledrk : 'kwU; lfn'k ;ksT; rRled lfn'k dgykrk gSA
fdlh lfn'k a ds fy,] 0 + a = a = a + 0 ;fn P ,d fcUnq r gS] rks bldk rkRi;Z gS] fd P dk fdlh ewy
(e) ;ksT; izfrykse : fdlh lfn'k a ds fy, blds _.kkRed lfn'k fcUnq O ds lkis{k fLFkfr lfn'k r gSA
−a dk vfLrRo bl çdkj gS fd a + (−a ) = (−a ) + a = 0 vFkkZr~ (−a ) , (1) fcUnq A rFkk B ds fLFkfr lfn'k ds inksa esa AB : ;fn a vkSj b
lfn'k a dk ;ksT; izfrykse dgykrk gSA
Øe'k% fcUnqvksa A rFkk B ds fLFkfr lfn'k gSa] rks OA = a ] OB = b
(2) lfn'kksa dk O;odyu
(Subtraction of vectors) : ;fn a vkSj b nks
lfn'k gks]a rks mudk O;odyu a – b fuEu çdkj ls ifjHkkf"kr gksrk gS f=Hkqt OAB es,a OA + AB = OB ⇒ AB = OB − OA = b − a
a − b = a + (− b ) ] tgk¡ − b , b dk _.k lfn'k gS] ftldk ifjek.k] b
⇒ AB = (B dk fLFkfr lfn'k) – (A dk fLFkfr lfn'k)
ds ifjek.k ds leku rFkk fn’kk] b dh fn'kk ds foijhr gSA
;fn a = a 1i + a 2 j + a 3 k ⇒ AB = (vfUre fcUnq dk fLFkfr lfn'k) – (izkjfEHkd fcUnq dk
fLFkfr lfn'k)
rFkk b = b 1i + b 2 j + b 3 k rks
(2) foHkktu fcUnq dk fLFkfr lfn'k (Position vector of a dividing point)
a − b = (a 1 − b 1 )i + (a 2 − b 2 )j + (a 3 − b 3 )k
: js[kk AB dks m : n ds vuqikr esa var% foHkkftr rFkk ckâ; foHkkftr
lfn'k O;odyu ds xq.k/keZ mb + na mb − na
djus okys fcUnq ds fLFkfr lfn'k Øe'k% rFkk
(i) a − b ≠ b − a (ii) (a − b ) − c ≠ a − (b − c ) m +n m −n
pw¡fd fdlh f=Hkqt dh dksbZ ,d Hkqtk vU; nks Hkqtkvksa ds ;ksx ls
(iii) gksaxsA
de rFkk muds vUrj ls vf/kd gksrh gSA vr% nks lfn'kksa a ,oa b ds fy,] lfn'kksa dk js[kh; la;kstu (Linear combination of vectors)
(a) | a + b | ≤| a | + | b | (b) | a + b | ≥| a | − | b |
(c) | a − b | ≤| a | + | b | (d) | a − b | ≥| a | −| b |
lfn'k r dks lfn'kksa a , b , c ..... bR;kfn dk js[kh; la;kstu dgrs
gSa] ;fnx, y, z bR;kfn dk vfLrRo bl izdkj gks] fd
(3) ,d lfn'k dk vfn'k ls xq.ku (Multiplication of a vector by a r = x a + y b + z c + ....
scalar) : ;fn a ,d lfn'k gS rFkk m ,d vfn'k ¼vFkkZr~ ,d okLrfod
 lfn'k chtxf.kr 787

mnkgj.kkFkZ% lfn'k r1 = 2 a + b + 3 c , r2 = a + 3 b + 2 c lfn'kksa a1 a2 a3 1

a, b, c ds js[kh; la;kstu gSaA b1 b2 b3 1
leryh; gksaxs] ;fn ,oa dsoy ;fn =0 .
(1) lajs[kh; rFkk vlajs[kh; lfn'k(Collinear and Non-collinear vectors) : c1 c2 c3 1
ekuk a rFkk b nks lajs[kh; lfn'k gSa rFkk ekuk x̂ , a dh fn'kk esa ,d d1 d2 d3 1
bdkbZ lfn'k gS] rc b dh fn'kk esa bdkbZ lfn'k a rFkk b ds
lefn'k ;k vlefn'k lekUrj lfn'k gksus ds vuqlkj] x̂ ;k − x̂ gksxkA jSf[kdr% LorU=k rFkk vkfJr lfn'k
vc] a =| a | x̂ rFkk b = ± | b | xˆ (Linear independence and dependence of vectors)

⎛| a | ⎞ ⎛ | a| ⎞ (1) jSf[kdr% Lora= lfn'k (Linearly independent vectors) : v'kwU;

∴ a = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟| b | xˆ ⇒ a = ⎜⎜ ± ⎟⎟ b
⎝| b | ⎠ ⎝ | b| ⎠ lfn'kksa a 1 , a 2 ,..... a n dk ,d leqPp; jSf[kdr% LorU=
| a| dgyk,xk];fn x1a 1 + x 2 a 2 + ..... + x n a n = 0 ⇒ x1 = x2 = ..... = xn = 0 .
⇒ a = λb , tgk¡ λ = ± .
| b| (2) jSf[kdr% vkfJr lfn'k (Linearly dependent vectors) : lfn'kksa
vr% ;fn a , b lejs[kh; lfn'k gSa] rks a = λ b ;k b = λ a , tgk¡ a 1 , a 2 ,..... a n dk ,d leqPp; jSf[kdr% vkfJr dgyk,xk] ;fn vfn'k
λ ,d vfn'k gSA x 1 , x 2 ,......, x n ¼lHkh 'kwU; ugha½ bl izdkj vfLrRo j[krs gksa] fd
(2) nks lekUrj lfn'kksa esa lEcU/k (Relation between two parallel x 1 a 1 + x 2 a 2 + ......... + x n a n = 0
vectors)
rhu lfn'k a = a1i + a2 j + a3 k , b = b1i + b 2 j + b3 k rFkk
(i) ;fn a rFkk b nks lekUrj lfn'k gSa] rks ,d vfn'k k dk vfLrRo
bl izdkj gS] fd a = k b . c = c1i + c2 j + c3 k vkfJr lfn'k gksaxs] ;fn ,oa dsoy
vFkkZr~ ] nks v'kwU; vfn'k jkf'k;k¡ x rFkk y bl izdkj vfLrRo j[krh a1 a2 a3
gSa] fd x a + y b = 0 . b1 b2 b3 = 0 .
;fn a rFkk b nks v'kwU;] vlekUrj lfn'k gksa] rks x a + y b = 0 c1 c2 c3
⇒ x = 0 rFkk y = 0 . jSf[kdr% Lora= ,oa vkfJr lfn'kksa ds xq.k/keZ %
⎧a = 0 , b = 0 (i) nks v'kwU;] vlejsf[kd lfn'k jSf[kdr% Lora= gksrs gSaA
⎪ (ii) dksbZ nks lejsf[kd lfn'k jSf[kdr% vkfJr gksrs gSaA
⎪⎪ ;k
Li"Vr% x a + y b = 0 ⇒ ⎨ x = 0, y = 0 (iii) dksbZ rhu vleryh; lfn'k jSf[kdr% Lora= gksrs gSaA
⎪ ;k (iv) dksbZ rhu leryh; lfn'k jSf[kdr% vkfJr gksrs gSaA
⎪
⎪⎩ a || b (v) f=foe esa dksbZ Hkh pkj lfn'k jSf[kdr% vkfJr gksrs gSaA

(ii) ;fn a = a1 i + a 2 j + a 3 k rFkk b = b 1 i + b 2 j + b 3 k rc lfn'kksa dk vfn'k xq.kuQy

a1 a2 a3 (Scalar or dot product of two vectors)
lekUrj lfn'kksa ds xq.k/keZ ls] a || b ⇒ = =
b1 b 2 b3 (1) nks lfn'kksa dk vfn'k xq.ku (Scalar or Dot product of two vectors)
(3) rhu fcUnqvksa ds lejs[kh; gksus dk izfrca/k (Test of collinearity of three : ;fn a rFkk b nks v'kwU; lfn'k gSa rFkk θ muds chp dk dks.k gS] rks
points): rhu fcUnq] ftuds fLFkfr lfn'k a , b, c gSa] lejs[kh; gksaxs] ;fn ,oa mudk vfn'k xq.ku a . b }kjk O;ä B
dsoy ;fn vfn'k x, y, z ¼lHkh 'kwU; ugha½ bl izdkj vfLrRo j[krs gSa] fd fd;k tkrk gS rFkk bls vfn'k
b
x a + y b + zc = 0 , tgk¡ x + y + z = 0 . ;fn a = a1i + a2 j , | a | | b | cos θ ds :i esa ifjHkkf"kr djrs
b = b 1 i + b 2 j rFkk c = c 1 i + c 2 j , rc os fcUnq ftuds fLFkfr lfn'k gSa] tgk¡ | a | ,oa | b | Øe'k% a rFkk b
θ
a1 a2 1
ds ekikad gSa vkSj 0 ≤ θ ≤ π . O a A

a, b, c gSa] lejs[kh; gksaxs] ;fn ,oa dsoy ;fn b 1 b 2 1 = 0 . nks lfn'kksa ds chp dk dks.k : ;fn
a , b nks lfn'k gSa] ftuds chp dk dks.k θ gS, rc]
c1 c2 1
a . b =| a | | b | cos θ
(4) rhu lfn'kksa ds leryh; gksus dk izfrca/k (Test of coplanarity of three
vectors) : ekuk a rFkk b fn, x, nks v'kwU;] vlejSf[kd lfn'k gSa] rc a a.b ⎛ a .b ⎞
⇒ cos θ = ⇒ θ = cos −1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
rFkk b ds leryh; fdlh lfn'k r dks vf}rh; :i esa r = x a + y b | a || b | ⎝| a | | b | ⎠
}kjk O;ä fd;k tk ldrk gS] tgk¡ x ,oa y vfn'k gSaA ;fn a = a1 i + a 2 j + a 3 k rFkk b = b1 i + b 2 j + b 3 k , rc
(5) pkj fcUnqvksa ds leryh; gksus dk izfrca/k (Test of coplanarity of
⎛ ⎞
Four points) : pkj fcUnq] ftuds fLFkfr lfn'k a , b , c , d gSa] leryh; a1b1 + a2b2 + a3 b3
θ = cos −1 ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟.
gksaxs] ;fn ,oa dsoy ;fn] vfn'k x, y, z, u ¼lHkh 'kwU; ugha½ bl izdkj ⎜ a12 + a22 + a32 b12 + b 22 + b32 ⎟⎠
⎝
vfLrRo j[krs gSa fd x a + y b + zc + u d = 0 , tgk¡ x + y + z + u = 0 .
(2) vfn'k xq.ku ds xq.k/keZ (Properties of scalar product) :
pkj fcUnq ftuds fLFkfr lfn'k
a = a1 i + a 2 j + a 3 k , b = b 1 i + b 2 j + b 3 k Øefofues;rk : nks lfn'kksa dk vfn'k xq.kuQy Øefofues; fu;e
(i)
c = c1 i + c 2 j + c 3 k , d = d 1 i + d 2 j + d 3 k gSa] dk ikyu djrk gS] vFkkZr~ a . b = b . a .
(ii) vfn'k xq.ku dk lfn'k ;ksx ij forj.k : lfn'kksa dk vfn'k
xq.ku] lfn'k ;ksx ij forfjr gksrk gS] vFkkZr~
(a) a . (b + c ) = a . b + a . c (okekorZ forj.k)
 788 lfn'k chtxf.kr
(b) (b + c ) . a = b . a + c . a (nf{k.kkorZ forj.k) (i) lfn'k xq.ku Øefofues; ugha gS] vFkkZr~ ;fn a rFkk b nks
(iii) ekuk a rFkk b nks v'kwU; lfn'k gSa] rc a . b = 0 ⇔ a ⊥b . lfn'k gSa] rks a × b ≠ b × a , ;|fi, a × b = −(b × a ) .
pw¡fd i, j, k funsZ'kk{kksa ds vuqfn'k] ,d-nwljs ds yEcor~ bdkbZ (ii) ;fn a, b nks lfn'k gSa rFkk m, n vfn'k gSa] rks
lfn'k gSa] vr% i . j = j . i = 0 ; j . k = k . j = 0; k . i = i . k = 0 . m a × n b = mn (a × b ) = m (a × n b ) = n(m a × b ) .
(iv) fdlh lfn'k a ds fy,] a . a =| a | 2 . (iii) lfn'k xq.ku dk lfn'k ;ksx ij forj.k
pw¡fd i, j, k funsZ'kk{kksa ds vuqfn'k bdkbZ lfn'k gSa] vr% i . i =| i | 2 = 1 , ekuk a , b , c dksbZ rhu lfn'k gSa] rc
j . j =| j | 2 = 1 rFkk k. k =| k | 2 = 1 (a) a × (b + c ) = a × b + a × c , (okekorZ forj.k)
(v) ;fn m ,d vfn'k gS rFkk a , b dksbZ nks lfn'k gSa] rks (b) (b + c ) × a = b × a + c × a , (nf{k.kkorZ forj.k)
(m a ) . b = m (a . b ) = a . (m b ) (iv) fdUgha rhu lfn'kksa a , b , c ds fy, a × (b − c ) = a × b − a × c
(vi) ;fn m, n vfn'k gSa rFkk a , b nks lfn'k gSa] rc (v) nks v'kwU; lfn'kksa dk lfn'k xq.kuQy 'kwU; gksrk gS] ;fn vkSj
m a . n b = mn (a . b ) = (mn a ). b = a . (mn b ) dsoy ;fn os lekUrj jSf[kd gSa vFkkZr~ a × b = 0 ⇔ a || b , a o b
(vii) dksbZ nks lfn'k a rFkk b ds fy,] v'kwU; lfn'k gSaA
(a) a . (− b ) = −(a . b ) = (−a ) . b (b) (−a ) . (− b ) = a . b mijksä xq.k ls ;g fu"d"kZ fudyrk gS fd] fdlh v'kwU; lfn'k a
(viii) dksbZ
nks lfn'k a rFkk b ds fy,] ds fy, a × a = 0 , i × i = j × j = k × k = 0 .
(a) | a + b | 2 = | a | 2 + | b | 2 + 2a . b (vi) bdkbZ ykfEcd f=d lfn'kksa dk lfn'k xq.ku] lfn'k xq.ku dh
(b) | a − b | 2 = | a | 2 + | b | 2 − 2a . b
ifjHkk"kk ls] i × j = k, j × k = i , k × i = j , j × i = −k , k × j = −i ,
i × k = − j gksrk gSA
(c) (a + b ) . (a − b ) = | a | 2 − | b | 2
(3) ?kVdksa ds inksa esa lfn'k xq.ku (Vector product in terms of
(d) | a + b | = | a | + | b | ⇒ a || b
components): ;fn a = a1i + a2 j + a3 k rFkk b = b 1 i + b 2 j + b 3 k . rks,
(e) | a + b | 2 = | a | 2 + | b | 2 ⇒ a ⊥b
a × b = (a 2 b 3 − a 3 b 2 ) i − (a1 b 3 − a 3 b 1 )j + (a1 b 2 − a 2 b 1 ) k
(f) | a + b | = | a − b | ⇒ a ⊥b
i j k
(g) (a + b + c )2 = | a | 2 + | b | 2 + | c | 2 +2(a . b + b . c + c . a )
= a1 a2 a2
(3) ?kVdksa ds inksa esa vfn'k xq.ku (Scalar product in terms of b1 b2 b2
components): ;fn a = a1 i + a 2 j + a 3 k rFkk b = b 1 i + b 2 j + b 3 k , rc,
a . b = a1 b 1 + a 2 b 2 + a 3 b 3 . a ds vuqfn'k rFkk yEcor~] b ds ?kVd
(4) nks lfn'kksa ds chp dk dks.k (Angle between two vectors): ;fn θ ,
| a ×b|
⎛ a .b ⎞ ⎛ a .b ⎞ a rFkk b ds chp dk dks.k gS] rks sin θ = .
Øe'k% ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ a rFkk b − ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ a gksrs gSaA | a || b |
⎝| a | ⎠ ⎝| a | ⎠ (5) (i) lfn'kksa dk nf{k.kkorZ fudk; : rhu ijLij yEcor~ lfn'k
(4) cy }kjk fd;k x;k dk;Z (Work done by a force) : fd;k x;k a , b , c lfn'kksa ds nf{k.kkorZ fudk; dk fuekZ.k djrs gSa] ;fn ,oa dsoy
dk;Z = | F | | OA | cos θ = F.OA = F.d tgk¡ d = OA ;fn a × b = c , b × c = a , c × a = b
;k dk;Z = ¼cy½-¼foLFkkiu½ B mnkgj.kkFkZ : bdkbZ lfn'k i , j , k nf{k.korZ fudk; cukrs gSaA
i × j = k , j × k = i , k × i = j , j × i = − k , k × j = −i , i × k = − j
F
Y b
θ
A j
;fn fdlh d.k ij O,d ls vf/kd cy ,d lkFk vkjksfir gSa] rks
i`Fkd-i`Fkd cyksa }kjk fd;s x;s dk;ksZa dk ;ksx ifj.kkeh cy }kjk fd;s X
k i a
x;s dk;Z ds cjkcj gksxkA c

lfn'kksa dk lfn'k xq.ku (Vector or Cross product) Z

(ii) lfn'kksa
dk okekorZ fudk; : rhu ijLij yEcor~ lfn'k a , b , c ,
(1) nks lfn'kksa dk lfn'k xq.ku (Vector or Cross product of two lfn'kksa ds okekorZ fudk; dk fuekZ.k djrs gSa]
vectors) : ekuk a, b nks v'kwU;] vlekUrj lfn'k gSaA rc a × b ¼blh ;fn ,oa dsoy ;fn c × b = a , a × c = b , a
Øe esa½ dks ml lfn'k }kjk ifjHkkf"kr djrs gSa] ftldk ifjek.k | a | | b | b
b ×a = c .
sin θ gSA

η̂ b
(6) nks lfn'kksa ds ry ds vfHkyEcor~ lfn'k % ;fn ac, b
nks v'kwU;]
vlekUrj lfn'k gSa rFkk θ buds e/; dks.k gS] rc
θ
nwljs 'kCnksa es,a a × b O=| a | | b | a sin θ η̂ tgk¡ θ , a rFkk b ds chp a × b =| a | | b | sin θ η̂ , tgk¡ a rFkk b ds ry ds yEcor~ bdkbZ lfn'k
dk dks.k gS, η̂ ,d bdkbZ lfn'k gS] tks a rFkk b ds ry ds yEcor~ η̂ bl izdkj gS] fd a , b , η̂ ,d nf{k.kkorZ fudk; cukrs gSaA
bl izdkj gS] fd a , b , η̂ ,d nf{k.kkorZ fudk; cukrs gSaA
(2) lfn'k xq.ku ds xq.k/keZ (Properties of vector product)
 lfn'k chtxf.kr 789

a ×b (vii) ;fn a , b , c , d pkj lfn'k gSa] rks

bl izdkj a rFkk b ds ry ds yEcor~ bdkbZ lfn'k = gSA
| a ×b| [(a + b ) c d ] = [a c d ] + [b c d ]
a×b
/;ku nsa fd − Hkh a rFkk b ds ry esa yEcor~ bdkbZ lfn'k gSaA rhu v'kwU;] vlejSf[kd lfn'kksa a , b , c ds leryh; gksus ds
(viii)
| a ×b|
fy, vko';d ,oa i;kZIr izfrcU/k gS [a b c ] = 0 vFkkZr~ a , b , c
λ(a × b )
a rFkk b ds ry ds yEcor~ ' λ ' ifjek.k ds lfn'k ± }kjk leryh; gSa ⇔ [a b c ] = 0 .
| a ×b|
izkIr gksrs gSaA (ix) pkj fcUnq ftuds fLFkfr lfn'k a, b, c rFkk d gSa] leryh; gksaxs]
(7) lekUrj prqHkqZt rFkk f=Hkqt dk {ks=Qy (Area of parallelogram and ;fn [d b c ] + [d c a ] + [d a b ] = [a b c ] .
Triangle) (x) lekarj "kV~Qyd (Parallelopiped), ftldh layXu dksjs a, b, c gSa]
(i) layXu Hkqtkvksa a vkSj b okys lekUrj prqHkqZt dk {ks=Qy dk vk;ru [a b c] ;k a.(b × c) gksrk gSA
=| a × b | .
(3) ?kVdksa ds inksa esa vfn'k f=d xq.kuQy (Scalar triple product in
(ii) fod.kksZa d 1 rFkk d 2 okys lekUrj prqHkqZt dk {ks=Qy terms of components)
1 (i) ;fn a = a1 i + a 2 j + a 3 k , b = b 1 i + b 2 j + b 3 k rFkk
= | d1 × d 2 | .
2
a1 b1 c1
1
(iii) prqHkqZt ABCD dk {ks=Qy = | AC × BD | , tgk¡ AC rFkk BD c = c1 i + c 2 j + c 3 k rhu lfn'k gSa] rks [a b c ] = a 2 b 2 c 2
2
fod.kZ gSaA a3 b3 c3
(iv) layXu Hkqtkvksa a rFkk b okys f=Hkqt dk {ks=Qy = (ii) ;fn a = a1 l + a 2 m + a 3 n, b = b1 l + b 2 m + b 3 n rFkk
1
| a × b| a1 a2 a3
2
c = c1l + c 2 m + c3 n , rks [a b c ] = b1 b2 b 3 [l m n ]
1 1
(v) f=Hkqt ABC dk {ks=Qy = | AB × AC | ;k | BC × BA | c1 c2 c3
2 2
1 (iii) rhu lfn'kksa a , b rFkk c ds fy,]
;k | CB × CA |
2
(a) [a + b b + c c + a ] = 2[a b c ]
(vi) ;fn a , b , c fdlh f=Hkqt ABC ds 'kh"kksZa ds fLFkfr lfn'k gSa]
1 (b) [a − b b − c c − a ] = 0
rks bldk {ks=Qy = | (a × b ) + (b × c ) + (c × a )|
2 (c) [a × b b × c c × a ] = [a b c ] 2
(vii) rhu fcUnq] ftuds fLFkfr lfn'k a , b , c gSa] lejSf[kd gksaxs]
(4) prq"Qyd prq"Qyd ,d f=foeh; fp= gS] tks
(Tetrahedron) :
;fn (a × b ) + (b × c ) + (c × a ) = 0 pkj f=Hkqtksa ls curk gSA OABC ,d prq"Qyd gS] ftldk vk/kkj
(8) cy vk?kw.kZ fdlh fcUnq O ds ifjr% cy F
(Moment of a force): ΔABC gSA OA , OB , OC , AB , BC rFkk CA dks prq"Qyd dh dksj
dk vk?kw.kZ = OP × F ; tgk¡ P, cy F dh fØ;k js[kk ij dksbZ fcUnq gSA dgrs gSaA OA , BC ; OB , CA rFkk OC , AB dks foijhr dksjksa dk ;qXe
vfn'k f=d xq.ku (Scalar triple product) dgrs gSaA ,d prq"Qyd] ftldh dksjsa leku yEckbZ dh gSa]
leprq"Qyd dgykrk gSA A(a)
(1) rhu lfn'kksa dk vfn'k f=d xq.ku % ;fn a , b , c rhu lfn'k gSa]
a
rks mudk vfn'k f=d xq.kuQy nks lfn'kksa a rFkk b × c ds vfn'k
xq.ku }kjk ifjHkkf"kr gksrk gSA bls lk/kkj.kr% a . (b × c ) ;k [a b c ] }kjk O
fu:fir djrs gSaA prq"Qyd dk vk;ru % b c
(2) vfn'k f=d xq.ku ds xq.k/keZ (Properties of scalar triple product) : 1 B(b) C(c)
(i) ;fn a , b , c dks pØh; Øepf;r fd;k tk,] rks vfn'k f=d (i) prq"Qyd dk vk;ru = ¼vk/kkj dk {ks=Qy½ × ¼laxr Å¡pkbZ½
3
xq.kuQy dk eku leku jgrk gS] 1
vFkkZr~ (a × b ) . c = (b × c ) . a = (c × a ) . b = [ AB BC AD ]
6
vFkok [a b c ] = [b c a ] = [c a b ] (ii) ;fn 'kh"kksZa A, B rFkk C ds O ds lkis{k fLFkfr lfn'k Øe'k%
(ii) vfn'k f=d xq.ku esa lfn'kksa dk pØh; Øe cnyus ij vfn'k 1
f=d xq.ku dk fpUg cny tkrk gS] fdUrq ifjek.k ugha cnyrk] vFkkZr~ a, b, c gksa] rks prq"Qyd OABC dk vk;ru = [a b c ]
6
[a b c ] = −[b a c ] = −[c b a ] = −[a c b ] (iii) ;fn fdlh prq"Qyd ABCD ds 'kh"kksZa A, B, C, D ds fLFkfr
(iii) ;fn lfn’kksa dk pØh; Øe vifjofrZr jgs] rc vfn’k 1
lfn'k Øe'k% a , b , c , d gksa] rks mldk vk;ru = [b − a c − a d − a ]
f=dxq.ku esa MkWV (Dot) rFkk ØkWl (Cross) fpUg dk LFkku vUr% 6
ifjofrZr fd;k tk ldrk gS] vFkkZr~ (a × b ) . c = a . (b × c ) (5) lfn'kksa dk O;qRØe fudk; (Reciprocal system of vectors): ekuk
rhu lfn'kksa ds vfn'k f=d xq.kuQy dk eku 'kwU; gksxk] ;fn
(iv) a , b , c rhu vleryh; lfn'k gSa vkSj ekuk
buesa ls dksbZ Hkh nks leku gksA b ×c c ×a a ×b
(v) rhu lfn'k a , b , c rFkk vfn'k λ ds fy,] [λ a b c ] = λ[a b c ] a′ = , b′ = , c′ = .
[abc ] [abc ] [abc ]
(vi) rhu lfn'kksa ds vfn'k f=d xq.kuQy dk eku 'kwU; gksxk] ;fn lfn'k a , b , c ds fy, a ′, b ′, c ′ lfn'kksa dk O;qRØe fudk; cukrs gSaA
buesa ls dksbZ nks lekUrj vFkok lejs[kh; gksA
 790 lfn'k chtxf.kr
;fn a , b , c rFkk a ′, b ′, c ′ lfn'kksa dk O;qRØe fudk; cukrs gSa] rks (ii) ;fn fudk; dks y-v{k ds ifjr% α dks.k ls ?kwf.kZr fd;k tk;s] rc
a ds u;s ?kVd (−a3 sin α + a1 cos α , a2 , a3 cos α + a1 sin α ) gksaxsA
(i) a .a′ = b .b′ = c .c′ = 1
(iii) ;fn fudk; dks z-v{k ds ifjr% α dks.k ls ?kwf.kZr fd;k tk;s] rc
(ii) a . b ′ = a . c ′ = 0; b . c ′ = b . a ′ = 0; c . a ′ = c . b ′ = 0
a ds u;s ?kVd (a1 cos α + a2 sin α , − a1 sin α + a2 cos α , a3 ) gksaxsA
1
(iii) [a ′ b ′ c ′] = f=foeh; T;kfefr esa lfn'k dk vuqiz;ksx
[a b c ]
(Application of vectors in 3-dimensional geometry)
(iv) a , b , c vleryh; gksaxs ;fn ,oa dsoy ;fn a ′, b ′, c ′ a b c
vleryh; gksaA (1) r = ai + b j + ck dh fnd~ dksT;k,¡ , , gSaA
| r| | r| | r|

lfn'k f=d xq.ku (Vector triple product) (2) vUr%dsUæ lw= % ΔABC ds var%dsUnz dk fLFkfr lfn'k
aa +b b +cc
gskrk gSA
ekuk a , b , c dksbZ Hkh rhu lfn'k gSa] rks lfn'k a × (b × c ) rFkk a+b +c
(a × b ) × c dks a, b, c dk lfn'k f=d xq.ku dgrs gSaA (3) yEcdsUnz lw= % ΔABC ds yEcdsUnz dk fLFkfr lfn'k
a tan A + b tan B + c tan C
a × (b × c ) = (a . c ) b − (a . b )c gksrk gSA
tan A + tan B + tan C
lfn'k f=d xq.ku ds xq.k/keZ (Properties of vector triple product) (4) fdlh fLFkj fcUnq] ftldk fLFkfr lfn'k a gS] ls xqtjus okyh
(i) lfn'k f=d xq.ku a × (b × c ) mu nks lfn'kksa dk js[kh; la;kstu ,d ljy js[kk] tks lfn'k b ds lekUrj gS] dk lfn'k lehdj.k
gS] tks dks"Bd esa gSA r = a + λb gSA
(5) nks fcUnqvksa ftuds fLFkfr lfn'k a rFkk b gSa] ls xqtjus okyh
(ii) lfn'k r = a × (b × c ) , a ij yEc gS rFkk b ,oa c ds ry esa
ljy js[kk dk lfn'k lehdj.k r = a + λ(b − a ) gSA
fLFkr gSA
(6) fdlh js[kk ls ,d fcUnq dh yEcor~ nwjh % ekuk js[kk r = a + λb
(iii) lw= a × (b × c ) = (a . c ) b − (a . b ) c rHkh lR; gS] tc dks"Bd r
ij P(α ) ls [khaps x;s yEc dk ikn L gSA p¡wfd r, js[kk r = a + λb ij
ls ckgj dk lfn'k ck¡;h vksj gSA ;fn ,slk u gks] rks ge igys bls fdlh fcUnq ds fLFkfr lfn'k dks O;Dr djrk gSA blfy,] ekuk L dk
lfn'k xq.ku ds xq.k/keZ dk mi;ksx dj ck¡;h vksj LFkkukUrfjr djrs gSa
⎛ ⎞
vkSj rc mijksDr lw= dk mi;ksx djrs gSaA fLFkfr lfn'k a + λb gSA rc PL = a − α + λb = (a − α ) − ⎜ (a − α2)b ⎟b
⎜ ⎟
vr% (b × c ) × a = −{a × (b × c )} = −{(a . c ) b − (a . b )c } ⎝ | b| ⎠
→
= (a . b ) c − (a . c ) b P(α)

(iv) lfn'k f=d xq.kuQy ,d lfn'k jkf'k gSA

(v) a × (b × c ) ≠ (a × b ) × c

pkj lfn'kksa dk vfn'k xq.ku (Scalar product of four vectors) A r

B
r = a+λb L = (a + λb )
(a × b ) . (c × d )
pkj lfn'kksa dk ,d vfn'k xq.ku gSA ;g lfn'kksa PL dk ekikad yEckbZ PL, gS tks fd vHkh"V yEc dh yEckbZ gSA
a × b rFkk c × d dk vfn'k xq.ku gSA ;g lfn'kksa a , b rFkk c × d dk (7) fdlh ljy js[kk esa ,d fcUnq dk izfrfcEc % ekuk r = a + λb esa
vfn'k f=d xq.ku gS rFkk lfn'kksa a × b , c rFkk d dk Hkh vfn'k f=d r
P dk izfrfcEc Q(β ) gS
xq.ku gSA r
r ⎛ 2(a − α).b ⎞ r
a .c a .d rks] β = 2a − ⎜⎜ 2
⎟b − α
⎟
(a × b ) . (c × d) = ⎝ | b | ⎠
b.c b .d →
P (α)
pkj lfn'kksa dk lfn'k xq.ku (Vector product of four vectors)

(1) (a × b ) × (c × d )
pkj lfn'kksa dk lfn'k xq.ku gSA ;g lfn'kksa A B
r =(a+λb) r
a×b rFkk c × d dk lfn'k xq.ku gSA L = (a + λb )
(2) a × {b × (c × d )}, {(a × b ) × c } × d Hkh pkj lfn'kksa a , b , c rFkk →
Q(β)(çfrfcEc)
d ds fofHké lfn'k xq.ku gSaA
(8) nks lekUrj js[kkvksa ds e/; U;wure nwjh % ekuk nks js[kk;sa l1 o
lfn'k dk v{k ds ifjr% ?kw.kZu l2 gSa] ftuds lehdj.k Øe'k% l1 : r = a 1 + λ b 1 rFkk
(Rotation of a vector about an axis) l2 : r = a 2 + μ b 2 gSa] rc U;wure nwjh
ekuk a = (a1 , a 2 , a 3 )
(b 1 × b 2 ) . (a 2 − a 1 ) [b 1 b 2 (a 2 − a 1 )]
(i) ;fn fudk; dks x-v{k ds ifjr% α dks.k ls ?kwf.kZr fd;k tk;s] PQ = =
| b1 × b 2 | | b1 × b 2 |
rc a ds u;s ?kVd (a1 , a2 cos α + a3 sin α , − a2 sin α + a3 cos α ) gksaxsA
 lfn'k chtxf.kr 791

;fn js[kk,¡ r = a 1 + λb 1 ,oa r = a 2 + λb 2 izfrPNsn djrh gSa] leryksa r1 .n 1 = d1 rFkk r2 .n 2 = d 2 ds chp dks.kk/kZdksa ds
(18)

rks muds chp U;wure nwjh 'kwU; gksxh] blfy, [b 1 b 2 (a 2 − a 1 )] = 0 lehdj.k gksaxsA
| r.n 1 − d1 | | r.n 2 − d 2 |
⇒ [(a 2 − a 1 ) b 1 b 2 ] = 0 =
| n1 | | n2 |
⇒ (a 2 − a 1 ).(b 1 × b 2 ) = 0 , (a 2 − a 1 ).(b 1 × b 2 ) = 0 .
r.n1 − d1 r.n 2 − d 2
;k =±
(9) ;fn js[kk,¡ r = a 1 + λb 1 rFkk r = a 2 + λb 2 leryh; gSa] rc | n1 | | n2 |

[a 1 b 1 b 2 ] = [a 2 b 1 b 2 ] ,oa ml lery dk lehdj.k] tks bls lekfgr d1 d

;k ˆ1 ±n
r.(n ˆ 2)= ± 2 .
djrk gS] [r b 1 b 2 ] = [a 1 b 1 b 2 ] ;k [r b 1 b 2 ] = [a 2 b 1 b 2 ] gksxkA | n1 | | n 2 |

(10) lery] tks fcUnq A(a ) ls xqtjrk gS] ,oa lfn'k n ds yEcor~ (19) fcUnq a ls tkus okys ,oa b o c ls ds lekUrj lery dh fcUnq
(r − a ). (b × c )
gS] dk lfn'k lehdj.k (r − a ).n = 0 ;k r.n gksxkA P (r) ls yEcor~ nwjh PM =
| b ×c|
tgk¡ d = a .n , ;g lery dk vfn'k xq.ku :i esa lehdj.k
(20) fcUnqvksa a,b,c ls tkus okys lery dh fcUnq P(r) ls yEcor~
dgykrk gSA
nwjh
(11) bdkbZ lfn'k n̂ ij yEc vkSj ewyfcUnq ls d nwjh ij fLFkr
(r − a ) . (b × c + c × a + a × b )
PM = .
lery dk lfn'k lehdj.k r.nˆ = d gSA | b × c + c × a + a × b|
;fn n ,d bdkbZ lfn'k ugha gS] rks lehdj.k r.n = d dks vfHkyac (21) js[kk o lery ds e/; dks.k % ;fn js[kk r = (a + λb ) ,oa
:i esa ifjofrZr djus ds fy, nksuksa rjQ |n| ls Hkkx nsrs gSa] rc
lery r.n = d ds chp dks.k θ gks] rks
n d d
r⋅ = ;k ˆ =
r.n .
| n| | n| | n| b .n
sin θ = .
| b || n |
fdlh fn, gq, fcUnq ls xqtjus okys ,oa nks fn, gq, lfn'kksa ds
(12)
(i) yEc gksus dk izfrca/k : ;fn js[kk lery ds yEcor~ gks] rks ;g
lekUrj lery dk lehdj.k% ,d fcUnq] ftldk fLFkfr-lfn'k a gS] ls lery ds vfHkyac ds lekUrj gksxhA vr% b ,oa n lekUrj gksaxsA
xqtjus okys rFkk b vkSj c ds lekUrj lery dk lehdj.k
blfy, b × n = 0 ;k b = λn, fdlh vfn'k λ ds fy,A
r = a + λb + μc ;k [r b c ] = [a b c ] gksxk] tgk¡ λ, μ vfn'k gSaA
lekUrj gksus dk izfrca/k : ;fn js[kk lery ds lekUrj gks] rks
(ii)
(13)fcUnqvksa a, b o c ls gksdj tkus okys lery dk lehdj.k ;g lery ds vfHkyEc ds yEcor~ gksxhA vr% b rFkk n yEcor~ gSA
r = (1 − s − t) a + s b + t c ;k r. (b × c + c × a + a × b ) = [a b c ] gksrk gSA blfy, b.n = 0
(14) nks leryksa r.n 1 = d 1 o r . n 2 = d 2 ds izfrPNsnu ls tkus (iii) ;fn js[kk r = a + λb lery r.n = d esa fLFkr gks] rks
okys lery dk lehdj.k r.(n 1 + λn 2 ) = d 1 + λd 2 gS] tgk¡ λ ,d (a) b.n = 0 rFkk (b) a.n = d
LosPN fu;rkad gSA (22) xksys dk lehdj.k] ftldk dsUnz C(c) ,oa f=T;k ‘a’ gS]
(15) ,d fcUnq] ftldk fLFkfr lfn'k a gS] ls lery r.n = d ij | r − c | = a gksxkA

| a .n − d | (23) lery r.n = d , xksyk | r − a | = R dks Li'kZ djsxk] ;fn

Mkys x;s yEc dh yEckbZ p = gksrh gSA
| n|
| a .n − d |
=R
(16) leryksa r1 .n 1 = d 1 rFkk r2 .n 2 = d 2 ds chp dks.k θ fuEu | n|

n 1 .n 2 (24) ;fn xksys ds O;kl ds fljksa ds fLFkfr lfn'k a rFkk b gksa] rks
}kjk fn;k tkrk gS] cos θ = ± .
| n 1 || n 2 | bldk lehdj.k (r − a ).(r − b ) = 0 ;k | r | 2 − r.(a − b ) + a .b = 0
(17) a ls tkus okyh ,oa b ds lekUrj js[kk dh fcUnq P(r) ls gksxkA
1/2
| (r − a ) | ×b | ⎡ ⎧ (r − a ) ⎫ ⎤
2
yEcor~ nwjh = PM = ;k PM = ⎢(r − a )2 ⎨ ⎬ ⎥
| b| ⎢ ⎩ | b | ⎭ ⎥⎦
⎣
 792 lfn'k chtxf.kr

" x-v{k, y-v{k rFkk z-v{k ds lekUrj bdkbZ lfn'k dks Øe'k% i, j
rFkk k }kjk O;ä fd;k tkrk gSA lfn'k dk ekikad] lfn'kksa dk chtxf.kr
1. Hkqtkvksa 3 i + 4 j + 5 k, 4 i − 3 j − 5 k vkSj 7 i + j ls fufeZr f=Hkqt
" nks bdkbZ lfn'k leku gksaxs] ;fn mudh fn'kk,¡ leku gksaA
dk ifjeki gksxk [MP PET 1991]

" bdkbZ lfn'k Lo-O;qRØe.kh; gksrk gSA (a) 450 (b) 150
(c) 50 (d) 200
" nks lfn'kksa ds chp ds dks.k dk vUr%dks.kk/kZd] laxr bdkbZ 2. ;fn fdlh f=Hkqt ds 'kh"kksZa ds fLFkfr lfn’k 2i + 4 j − k,
4 i + 5 j + k rFkk 3 i + 6 j − 3 k gksa] rks f=Hkqt gS
lfn'kksa ds lfn'k ;ksx ds vuqfn'k gksrk gSA [UPSEAT 2004]
(a) ledks.kh; (b) lef}ckgq
" nks lfn'kksa ds chp ds dks.k dk cká%dks.kk/kZd] laxr bdkbZ (c) leckgq (d) ledks.kh; lef}ckgq
lfn'kksa ds lfn'k vUrj ds vuqfn'k gksrk gSA 3. ;fn fdlh oxZ dh ,d Hkqtk lfn’k 3 i + 4 j + 5 k }kjk fu:fir
gks rks oxZ dk {ks=Qy gS
(a) 12 (b) 13
" ;fn a, b, c fdlh f=Hkqt ds 'kh"kksZa ds fLFkfr lfn'k gksa] rks blds (c) 25 (d) 50
a +b +c 4. ;fn a = 2i + 2 j − k vkSj | x a | = 1, rks x =
dsUnzd dk fLFkfr lfn'k gksxkA
3 1 1
(a) ± (b) ±
3 4
" ;fn a, b, c, d fdlh prq"Qyd ds 'kh"kksZa ds fLFkfr lfn'k gksa] rks 1 1
a +b +c +d (c) ± (d) ±
blds dsUnzd dk fLFkfr lfn'k gksxkA 5 6
4 5. fuEu esa ls dkSulk lfn’k θ ds lHkh ekuksa ds fy;s bdkbZ lfn’k
ugha gS
" ySxjsat loZlfedk % ;fn a, b dksbZ nks lfn'k gS]a rc (a) (cos θ )i − (sin θ ) j (b) (sin θ ) i + (cos θ ) j
2 2 2
| a × b | =| a | | b | −(a . b ) 2
;k 2 2 2 2
| a × b | +(a . b ) =| a | | b | . (c) (sin 2θ ) i − (cos θ ) j (d) (cos 2θ ) i − (sin 2θ ) j
6. ;fn a + b lfn’kksa a rFkk b ds chp ds dks.k dks lef}Hkkftr
" a . b ≤| a | | b | . djrk gks] rks a rFkk b gSa
(a) ijLij yEcor~ (b) vlefn’k lfn’k
(c) ifjek.k esa cjkcj (d) buesa ls dksbZ ugha
" a .b > 0 ⇒ a rFkk b ds chp dk dks.k U;wudks.k gSA
7. ;fn a = i + 2 j + 2 k vkSj b = 3 i + 6 j + 2 k, rks ,d lfn’k
ftldh fn’kk a dh fn’kk vkSj ftldk ifjek.k |b| ds cjkcj gks] gS
" a .b < 0 ⇒ a rFkk b ds chp dk dks.k vf/kddks.k gSA 7
(a) 7 (i + j + k ) (b) (i + 2 j + 2 k )
3
" ,d 'kwU; lfn'k rFkk v'kwU; lfn'k dk vfn'k xq.kuQy] vfn'k 7
(c) (i + 2 j + 2 k ) (d) buesa ls dksbZ ugha
'kwU; gSA 9
8. ;fn p = 7i − 2j + 3k rFkk q = 3 i + j + 5 k, rks p − 2q dk
" ;fn leprq"Qyd] xksys ds Hkhrj lekfgr gks] rc xksys dk ifjek.k gS [MP PET 1987]
(a) 29 (b) 4
dsUæ] leprq"Qyd dk dsUæd gksrk gSA
(c) 62 − 2 35 (d) 66
1 9. ekuk fd a = i ,d lfn’k gS tks ,dd (unit) lfn’k b ds lkFk
" leprq"Qyd ds nks Qydksa ds chp dks.k cos −1 gksrk gSA 120 o dk dks.k cukrk gS] rc ,dd lfn’k (a + b ) gS
3
[MP PET 1991]

" leprq"Qyd ds fdlh Hkh 'kh"kZ ls mlds foijhr Qyd ds chp 1 3 3 1

(a) − i+ j (b) − i+ j
2 2 2 2
2
dh nwjh k gksrh gS] tgk¡ k dksj dh yEckbZ gSA 1 3 3 1
3 (c) i+ j (d) i− j
2 2 2 2
 f=foeh; funsZ'kkad T;kfefr 855

Chapter

20
f=foeh; funsZ'kkad T;kfefr
(3) xksykdkj /kzqoh; funsZ'kkad % jkf'k;ksa r, θ, φ ds eki fcUnq P ds
funsZ'kkad i)fr xksykdkj ;k f=foe /kzqoh; funsZ'kkad dgykrs gSaA ;fn P ds ledksf.kd
dkrhZ; funsZ'kkad (x, y, z) gksa] rks z = r cosθ, u = r sinθ
(Co-ordinates of a point in space)
∴ x = u cosφ = r sinθ cosφ, y = u sinφ = r sinθ sinφ
(1) dkrhZ; funsZ'kkad % ekuk O ,d fLFkj fcUnq gS] ftls ewyfcUnq rFkk z = r cosθ
dgrs gSa rFkk ekuk OX, OY ,oa OZ rhu Z u x2 + y2 y
ijLij yEcor~ js[kk;sa] tks fd Øe'k% r2 = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ,oa tan θ = = ; tan φ = .
C E
z z x
x-v{k] y-v{k rFkk z-v{k dgykrh gSa] bl
izdkj gSa] fd ;s nk¡;k i{k&i)fr cukrh gSaA F
k
P(x, y,
nwjh dk lw= (Distance formula)
j
ry XOY, YOZ ,oa ZOX dks O ) Y (1) nwjh&lw= % nks fcUnqvksa A(x 1 , y1 , z1 ) ,oa B(x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) ds chp
B
Øe'k% xy-ry] yz-ry vkSj zx-ry i
dgrs gSa rFkk OA = x , OB = y, OC = z - A D dh nwjh AB = [(x 2 − x 1 ) + (y 2 − y1 ) + (z 2 − z1 )2 ]
2 2

X
rhu funsZ'kkad ry (XOY, YOZ rFkk ZOX) f=foe dks vkB Hkkxksa esa (2) ewyfcUnq ls nwjh % ekuk O ewyfcUnq ,oa P(x, y, z) dksbZ fcUnq gS]
foHkkftr djrs gSa ,oa ;s Hkkx v"Vka'kd (octants) dgykrs gSaA rks OP = (x + y + z ) .
2 2 2

fcUnq ds funsZ'kkad dk fpUg~ % f=foe esa fdlh fcUnq ds funsZ'kkadksa ds (3) funsZ'kkad&v{kksa ls fcUnq dh nwjh % ekuk f=foe esa dksbZ fcUnq P(x,
fpUg bl ifjikVh dk vuqlj.k djrs gSa] fd OX, OY, OZ ds vuqfn'k y, z) gSA ekuk v{kksa OX, OY vkSj OZ ij fcUnq P ls Mkys x;s yEcksa dh
vFkok lekUrj ekih xbZ nwfj;k¡ /kukRed gksaxh rFkk OX′, OY′, OZ′ ds yEckbZ;k¡ Øe'k% PA, PB ,oa PC gaS] Z
vuqfn'k vFkok lekUrj r; dh xbZ nwfj;k¡ _.kkRed gksaxhA
rks PA = (y 2 + z 2 ) C
(2) csyukdkj funsZ'kkad % ;fn P ds ledksf.kd dkrhZ; funsZ'kkad (x, P(x,y,z)
y, z) gSa] rks N ds funsZ'kkad (x, y, 0) gksaxs ,oa fuEu lEca/k LFkkfir gksaxs : PB = (z 2 + x 2 )
x = u cosφ, y = u sinφ rFkk z = z. A
O X
Z PC = (x 2 + y 2 ) B
Y
Y N
P(x, y, z) foHkktu lw= (Section formula)
(u, φ, z)
(r, θ, φ) (1) vUr% foHkktu rFkk cká foHkktu ds fy, foHkktu lw= % ekuk
θ r
O P(x 1 , y1 , z1 ) ,oa Q( x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) nks fcUnq gSaA ekuk P vkSj Q dks
feykus
X′ φ X
okyh js[kk ij fcUnq R bl izdkj gS] fd ;g P vkSj Q dks feykus okyh
u js[kk dks vuqikr m1 : m 2 esa vUr% foHkkftr ;k ckâr% foHkkftr djrk
Y′
Z′ N gS] rks R ds funsZ'kkad gSa]
(x, y, 0)
⎛ m 1 x 2 ± m 2 x 1 m 1 y 2 ± m 2 y1 m 1 z 2 ± m 2 z 1 ⎞
⎜ , , ⎟.
vr% u 2 = x 2 + y 2 ,oa φ = tan −1 (y / x ) . ⎜ m ±m m1 ± m 2 m 1 ± m 2 ⎟⎠
⎝ 1 2

P dk csyukdkj funsZ'kkad ≡ (u, φ, z). /kukRed fpUg vUr% foHkktu ds fy, rFkk _.kkRed fpUg cká%
foHkktu ds fy;s iz;qDr gksrk gSA
 856 f=foeh; funsZ'kkad T;kfefr
(2)O;kid fcUnq ds funsZ'kkad% fcUnq P(x 1 , y1 , z1 ) ,oa Q(x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) dks dksT;kvksa l, m, n ds lekuqikrh rhu la[;k,¡ a, b, c gksa] rks a, b, c ml
feykus okyh js[kk ij fLFkr dksbZ fcUnq] tks js[kk dks vuqikr k : 1 esa js[kk ds fnd~ vuqikr dgykrs gSaA
kx + x ky + y kz + z vr% ifjHkk"kk ls]
foHkkftr djrk gS] ds funsZ'kkad ⎛⎜ 2 1 , 2 1 , 2 1 ⎞⎟ gksaxsA
⎝ k +1 k +1 k +1 ⎠ a
,m = ±
b
,n = ±
c
l=±
;g js[kk PQ ij O;kid fcUnq dgykrk gSA a +b +c
2 2 2
a2 + b 2 + c 2 a + b2 + c2
2

tgk¡ lHkh fpUg~ ;k rks /kukRed gSa ;k lHkh _.kkRed gSaA

f=Hkqt rFkk prq"Qyd (Triangle and tetrahedron)
fnd~ vuqikr vf}rh; ugha gksrs] tcfd fnd~ dksT;k;sa vf}rh; gksrh
(1) dsUæd ds funsZ'kkad gSa] vFkkZr~ a 2 + b 2 + c 2 ≠ 1 .
(i) ;fn (x 1 , y1 , z1 ), (x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) ,oa (x 3 , y 3 , z 3 ) fdlh f=Hkqt ds (3) nks fcUnqvksa dks feykus okyh js[kk dh fnd~ dksT;k,¡ ,oa fnd~
'kh"kZ gksa] rks blds dsUnzd ds funsZ'kkad vuqikr% fcUnqvksa ,oa Q(x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) dks feykus okyh js[kk
P ( x 1 , y1 , z1 )
PQ ds fnd~ vuqikr gSa] x 2 − x 1 = a , y 2 − y1 = b rFkk z 2 − z1 = c ]
⎛ x 1 + x 2 + x 3 y1 + y 2 + y 3 z 1 + z 2 + z 3 ⎞
⎜ , , ⎟ gksaxsA ¼ekuk½ rc fnd~ dksT;k,¡]
⎝ 3 3 3 ⎠
(x 2 − x 1 ) (y 2 − y1 ) (z 2 − z1 )
l= ,m = ,n=
(ii) ;fn (x r , y r , z r ) ; r = 1, 2, 3, 4 fdlh prq"Qyd ds 'kh"kZ gksa] rks ∑(x 2 − x 1 ) 2
∑(x 2 − x 1 ) 2
∑(x 2 − x 1 )2
blds dsUnzd ds funsZ'kkad
x 2 − x1 y − y1 z − z1
⎛ x 1 + x 2 + x 3 + x 4 y1 + y 2 + y 3 + y 4 z 1 + z 2 + z 3 + z 4 ⎞ vFkkZr~ l = ,m = 2 ,n = 2 .
⎜ , , ⎟ gksaxsA PQ PQ PQ
⎝ 4 4 4 ⎠
(2) f=Hkqt dk {ks=Qy % ekuk A(x 1 , y1 , z1 ) , B(x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) ,oa
ç{ksi (Projection)
C( x 3 , y 3 , z 3 ) fdlh f=Hkqt ds 'kh"kZ gksa] rks nks fcUnqvksa P(x1, y1, z1) ,oa Q(x2, y2, z2) dks feykus okyh js[kk
y1 z1 1 x1 z1 1
dk vU; js[kk] ftldh fnd~ dksT;k,¡ l, m, n gSa] ij iz{ksi % ekuk PQ ,d
1 1 js[kk[k.M gS] tgk¡ P ≡ (x 1 , y1 , z1 ) ,oa Q = (x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) ,oa nh gqbZ js[kk
Δx = y2 z2 1 , Δy = x2 z2 1 ,
2 2 AB gS] ftldh fnd~ dksT;k,¡ l, m, n gSaA ;fn js[kk[k.M PQ, js[kk AB ds
y3 z3 1 x3 z3 1
lkFk θ dks.k cukrk gS] rks Q
x1 y1 1 Z
1 K M θ
Δz = x2 y2 1 P
2
x3 y3 1 N′ Q
P
N
vc] ΔABC dk {ks=Qy Δ = Δ2x + Δ2y + Δ2z . O M′ K′ X A B
P′ Q′
(3) lejSf[kdrk dk çfrcU/k % fcUnq A( x 1 , y1 , z1 ), B(x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) rFkk YPQ dk P ′Q ′ ij iz{ksi = PQ cosθ
C( x 3 , y 3 , z 3 ) lejs[kh; gksaxs]
= (x 2 − x 1 ) cos α + (y 2 − y1 ) cos β + (z 2 − z1 ) cos γ
x1 − x 2 y − y2 z − z2 = (x 2 − x 1 ) l + (y 2 − y1 ) m + (z 2 − z1 )n
;fn = 1 = 1 .
x 2 − x 3 y2 − y3 z2 − z3
x-v{k ds fy,] l = 1, m = 0, n = 0
(4) prq"Qyd dk vk;ru % 'kh"kksaZ (x r , y r , z r ) ; r = 1, 2, 3, 4 okys vr% x-v{k ij PQ dk iz{ksi = x2 – x1, y-v{k ij PQ dk iz{ksi =
y2 – y1 rFkk z-v{k ij PQ dk iz{ksi = z2 – z1.
x1 y1 z1 1

prq"Qyd dk vk;ru V =
1 x2 y2 z2 1
.
nks js[kkvksa ds chp dks.k (Angle between two lines)
6 x3 y3 z3 1
ekuk nks ljy js[kkvksa AB rFkk AC, ftudh fnd~ dksT;k,¡ Øe'k%
x4 y4 z4 1
l1 , m1 , n1 ,oa l2 , m 2 , n2 gSa] ds chp dks.k θ gS] rks
cos θ = l1l2 + m1m 2 + n1n 2 .
fnd~ dksT;k,¡ ,oa fnd~ vuqikr ;fn nks js[kkvksa ds fnd~ vuqikr a1 , b1 , c1 ,oa a2 , b 2 , c 2 gksa rFkk
(Direction cosines and direction ratios)
a1a2 + b1b 2 + c1c 2
(1) fnd~ dksT;k,¡ % ;fn ,d funsZf’kr js[kk x, y, z v{kksa dh /kukRed js[kkvksa ds chp dks.k θ gks] rc cos θ =
a12 + b12 + c12 . a22 + b 22 + c 22
fn’kk ls Øe’k% α, β, γ dks.k cukrh gS] rc cosα, cosβ, cosγ ml js[kk
dh fnd~ dksT;k,¡ dgykrh gSa] ftUgsa ge izk;% l, m, n ls O;Dr djrs gSaA fo'ks"k ifj.kke %
sin 2 θ = 1 − cos 2 θ = (l12 + m 12 + n12 )(l22 + m 22 + n 22 )
bl izdkj l = cos α , m = cos β rFkk n = cos γ , l 2 + m 2 + n 2 = 1 .
− (l1l2 + m1m 2 + n1n 2 )2
ifjHkk"kk ls] x v{k dh fn~d dksT;k,¡ cos 0 o , cos 90 o , cos 90 o
vFkkZr~ (1, 0, 0) gSaA blh izdkj y-v{k ,oa z-v{k dh fnd~ dksT;k,¡ = (l1m 2 − l2m1 )2 + (m1n2 − m 2n1 )2 + (n1l2 − n2l1 )2
Øe'k% (0, 1, 0) ,oa (0, 0, 1) gSaA
⇒ sin θ = ± ∑(l1m 2 − l2 m 1 )2 , tks fd ySaxjsat loZlfedk gSA
(2) fnd~ vuqikr % fdlh js[kk dh fnd~ dksT;kvksa ds lekuqikrh rhu
la[;k,¡ ml js[kk ds fnd~ vuqikr dgykrs gSaA ;fn fdlh js[kk dh fnd~ sinθ dk eku fuEu :i esa vklkuh ls Kkr fd;k tk ldrk gSA
 f=foeh; funsZ'kkad T;kfefr 857
x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
=μ
2 2 2
l1 m1 m n1 n l1 rFkk = =
sin θ = + 1 + 1 a2 b2 c2
l2 m2 m2 n2 n2 l2
vFkkZr~ (a1λ + x 1 , b1λ + y1 , c1λ + z1 )
tc nh xbZ nks js[kkvksa ds fnd~ vuqikr a1 , b1 , c1 ,oa a2 , b 2 , c 2 gksa
rFkk (a2 μ + x 2 , b 2 μ + y 2 , c 2 μ + z 2 ) .
∑(a1b 2 − a2b1 )2 fLFkfr II : ;fn js[kk,¡ (i) o (ii) izfrPNsn djrh gSa] rc mudk ,d
,oa muds chp dks.k θ gks] rks sin θ =
a12 + b12 + c12 a22 + b 22 + c 22 mHk;fu"B fcUnq a1λ + x 1 = a2 μ + x 2 , b1λ + y1 = b 2 μ + y 2 rFkk
yEcor~ gksus dk izfrca/k : ;fn nh gqbZ js[kk,¡ yEcor~ gksa] rks c1λ + z1 = c 2 μ + z 2 gksxkA
θ = 90 ° , vFkkZr~ cosθ = 0 fLFkfr III : Step II ls λ ,oa μ esa izkIr lehdj.kksa esa ls fdlh nks
⇒ l1l2 + m1m 2 + n1n 2 = 0
;k a1a2 + b1b 2 + c1c 2 = 0 . dks gy djus ij λ rFkk μ ds eku Kkr djrs gSaA ;fn λ ,oa μ ds ;s eku
rhljs laca/k dks lUrq"V djrs gSa] rc js[kk,¡ (i) o (ii) ,d nwljs dks
lekUrj gksus dk izfrca/k : ;fn nh gqbZ js[kk,¡ lekUrj gksa] rks
izfrPNsn djsaxh] vU;Fkk ughaA
θ = 0 o , vFkkZr~ sinθ = 0
fLFkfr IV : izfrPNsn fcUnq Kkr djus ds fy, λ (;k μ) dk eku
l1 m1 n1 a1 b c Step I ls izkIr O;kid fcUnq ds funsZ'kkad esa j[krs gSaA
⇒ = = . blh izdkj] = 1 = 1 .
l2 m 2 n2 a2 b 2 c 2
fcUnq ls js[kk ij Mkys x;s yEc dk ikn
ljy js[kk (Foot of perpendicular from a point to the line)

f=foe esa ljy js[kk (Straight line in space) fcUnq A(α, β, γ) ls js[kk x − x 1 = y − y1 = z − z 1 ij Mkys x;s
l m n
izFke ?kkr dk izR;sd lehdj.k ,d lery dks O;Dr djrk gSA yEc dk ikn : A(α, β, γ)
çFke ?kkr ds nks lehdj.k] buds }kjk O;Dr fd;s x;s leryksa dh ;fn P yEc-ikn gks] rks
izfrPNsn js[kk ij fLFkr izR;sd fcUnq ds funsZ'kkadksa }kjk larq"V gksrs gSa] P (lr + x 1 , mr + y1 , nr + z1 ) gksxkA
blfy,] ;s nks lehdj.k ,d lkFk bl js[kk dks O;Dr djrs gSaA vr% AP ds fnd~ vuqikr Kkr djrs gSa ,oa
lehdj.k ax + by + cz + d = 0 ,oa a′x + b ′y + c′z + d ′ = 0 ,d lkFk nh gqbZ js[kk ,oa AP ds yEcor~ gksus P x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
,d ljy js[kk dks fu:fir djrs gSaA dk izfrca/k yxkrs gS,a ftlls r dk l
=
m
=
n
(1) ,d fn;s gq, fcUnq ls xqtjus okyh js[kk dk lehdj.k % ,d fLFkj eku izkIr gksrk gS vkSj bl izdkj
fcUnq (x 1 , y1 , z1 ) ls xqtjus okyh ljy js[kk] ftlds fnd~ vuqikr a, b, c fcUnq P izkIr gksrk gS] tks yEc-ikn gSA
x − x 1 y − y1 z − z1 yEc dh yEckbZ ,oa yEc dk lehdj.k % yEc dh yEckbZ AP gS ,oa
gSa] dk dkrhZ; lehdj.k = = gksxkA
a b c fcUnqvksa A rFkk P dks feykus okyh js[kk bldk lehdj.k gSA fdlh js[kk
(2) fn;s gq, nks fcUnqvksa ls xqtjus okyh ljy js[kk dk lehdj.k% ;fn ls fn;s gq;s fcUnq dh yEcor~ nwjh gh yEc dh
P
fn;s gq, nks fcUnq A(x 1 , y1 , z1 ), B(x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) gSa] rks js[kk AB dk yEckbZ gksrh gSA
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 ljy js[kk esa fcUnq dk izfrfcEc % ;fn nh
lehdj.k = = gksxkA gqbZ js[kk ij fcUnq P ls yEc PL dks Q rd bl A
x 2 − x1 y 2 − y1 z 2 − z1 B
izdkj c<+k;k tk;s fd PL = QL gks] rks nh gqbZ L
vlefer :i ls lefer :i esa ifjorZu js[kk esa P dk izfrfcEc Q gksxkA L yEcikn gS
(Changing unsymmetrical form to symmetrical form) ;k js[kk ij P dk iz{ksi gSA Q(çfrfcEc)

js[kk ds vlefer :i ax + by + cz + d = 0, a′x + b′y + c′z + d′ = 0 nks ljy js[kkvksa ds chp dh U;wure nwjh
(Shortest distance between two straight lines)
dks lefer :i esa fuEu izdkj ls fy[k ldrs gSa :
b d ′ − b ′d d a′ − d ′a (1) fo"ke js[kk,¡ (Skew lines) : nks ljy js[kk,¡ tks u lekUrj gSa]
x− y− vkSj u gh izfrPNsn djrh gSa] fo"ke js[kk,¡ dgykrh gSaA
ab ′ − a′b = ab ′ − a′b = z
.
′
bc − b c′ ′
ca − c a′ ab − a′b
′ vr% fo"ke js[kk,¡ os js[kk;sa gSa] tks ,d gh lery esa fLFkr ugha gSaA
Q
nks js[kkvksa dk izfrPNsnu (Intersection of two lines)
l2
loZizFke ge ns[krs gSa] fd nks js[kk,¡ izfrPNsn djasaxh ;k ughaA ;fn U;wure nwjh dh
js[kk,¡ izfrPNsn djrh gSa] rks mudk izfrPNsnu fcUnq Kkr djus ds fy, js[kk
fuEu fØ;k&fof/k dk mi;ksx djrs gSaA l1
fØ;k fof/k % ekuk nks js[kk,¡ gSa] (2) P
U;wure nwjh dh js[kk % ;fn ,oa l 2 nks fo"ke js[kk,¡ gksa] rks
l1
x − x 1 y − y1 z − z1 og js[kk] tks bu nksuksa vizfrPNsfnr js[kkvksa ds yEcor~ gS] U;wure nwjh
= = ……(i)
a1 b1 c1 dh js[kk dgykrh gSA
x − x 2 y − y2 z − z2 js[kkvksa l1 o l 2 ds yEcor~ dsoy ,d gh js[kk gksrh gSA
,oa = = ……(ii)
a2 b2 c2 (3) nks fo"ke js[kkvksa dh U;wure nwjh % ekuk nks fo"ke js[kk,¡
fLFkfr I : lehdj.k (i) o (ii) ij fLFkr O;kid fcUnq ds funsZ'kkad x − x 1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x 2 y − y2 z − z2
= = ,oa = = gSaA
x − x 1 y − y1 z − z 1 l1 m1 n1 l2 m2 n2
Øe'k% fuEu izdkj fn;s tkrs gSa] = = =λ
a1 b1 c1 vr% bu js[kkvksa ds chp U;wure nwjh
 858 f=foeh; funsZ'kkad T;kfefr

x 2 − x1 y 2 − y1 z 2 − z1 (iii) z-v{k ds lekUrj ;k XOY-lery ds yEcor~ lery dk

l1 m1 n1 lehdj.k Ax + By + D = 0 gksxkA
l2 m2 n2 (7) fn;s gq, lery ds lekUrj lery dk lehdj.k % fn;s gq,
d = gSA lery ax + by + cz + d = 0 ds lekUrj lery ax + by + cz + d ′ = 0
(m 1n 2 − m 2 n1 )2 + (n1l2 − l1n 2 )2 + (l1m 2 − m 1l2 )2
gS] vFkkZr~ dsoy fLFkjkad in dks ifjofrZr djrs gSaA
(8) nks leryksa ds izfrPNsnu ls tkus okys lery dk lehdj.k% nks
lery leryksa P = a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0 ,oa
Q = a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d 2 = 0 ds izfrPNsnu ls tkus okys lery dk
lery dh ifjHkk"kk ,oa blds lehdj.k lehdj.k P + λQ = 0 gksxk] tgk¡ λ izkpy gSA
(Definition of plane and its equations)
fn;s gq, fcUnq ls xqtjus okys lery dk lehdj.k
;fn fcUnq P(x, y, z) fdlh fo'ks"k izfrcU/k ds vUrxZr xfr djrk (Equation of plane passing through the given point)
gS] rks ;g f=foeh; {ks= esa fdlh lrg ij ;k fdlh js[kk ij fLFkr gksxk
vFkok ;g dsoy ,d fcUnq ek= gksxkA izfrcU/k vkjksfir djus ds i'pkr~ (1) ,d fn;s gq, fcUnq ls xqtjus okys lery dk lehdj.k : fcUnq
P ds {ks= ds :i esa tks dqN Hkh gesa izkIr gksrk gS] mls P dk fcUnqiFk ( x 1 , y1 , z 1 ) ls xqtjus okys lery dk lehdj.k
dgrs gSaA vc ge lery ;k oØ-i`"B dh ppkZ djrs gSaA ;fn fcUnqiFk A( x − x 1 ) + B(y − y1 ) + C(z − z1 ) = 0 gksrk gS] tgk¡ A, B, C lery ds
ij Q dksbZ vU; fcUnq gS] rFkk ljy js[kk PQ ds lHkh fcUnq] fcUnqiFk ij vfHkyac ds fnd~ vuqikr gSaA
fLFkr gSa] rks ;g ,d lery gksxkA nwljs 'kCnksa esa] ljy js[kk PQ, (2) rhu fcUnqvksa ls xqtjus okys lery dk lehdj.k % rhu vlejs[kh;
ftruh Hkh NksVh o ftl fn'kk esa Hkh gks] iw.kZr% ;fn fcUnqiFk ij fLFkr fcUnqvksa (x 1 , y1 , z1 ), (x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) ,oa (x 3 , y 3 , z 3 ) ls xqtjus okys lery dk
gks] rc fcUnqiFk ,d lery gksxk] vU;Fkk dksbZ oØ-i`"BA
x y z 1 x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
(1) lery dk O;kid lehdj.k : Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 :i dk x1 y1 z1 1
izR;sd ,d ?kkrh; lehdj.k fdlh lery dks O;Dr djrk gSA x, y, z lehdj.k gS] =0 ;k x 2 − x 1 y 2 − y1 z 2 − z1 = 0
x2 y2 z2 1
ds xq.kkad] vFkkZr~ A, B, C lery ds vfHkyac ds fnd~ vuqikr gSaA x 3 − x1 y 3 − y1 z 3 − z1
x3 y3 z3 1
(2) funsZ'kkad&leryksa ds lehdj.k
lery XOY : z = 0 fcUnq A(α, β, γ) ls fn;s gq, lery ax + by + cz + d = 0 ij
lery YOZ : x = 0
Mkys x;s yEc dk ikn (Foot of perpendicular from a point
A(α, β, γ) to a given plane ax + by + cz + d = 0)
lery ZOX : y = 0
;fn fn;s gq, lery ij A ls [khapk x;k ,d yEc AP gS] rks ;g
(3) fofHkUu :iksa esa lery dk lehdj.k vfHkyEc ds lekUrj gksxkA vr% bldk lehdj.k gksxk
(i) vUr%[k.M :i : ;fn lery funsZ'kkad v{kksa ij a, b, c yEckbZ dk x −α y−β z −γ
= = =r, ¼ekuk½
x y z a b c
vUr%[k.M dkVrk gS] rks bldk lehdj.k + + =1 gSA
a b c bl ij dksbZ fcUnq P (ar + α , br + β , cr + γ ) gS] tks fd fn;s gq, lery
(ii) vfHkyEc :i : lery ds lehdj.k dk vfHkyEc :i ij fLFkr gS] ftlls r dk eku izkIr gksrk gS] vr% fcUnq P izkIr gksrk gSA
lx + my + nz = p gSa] (1) yEcor~ nwjh% fcUnq P ( x 1 , y1 , z 1 ) ls lery
ax + by + cz + d = 0 ij Mkys x;s yEc dh yEckbZ
tgk¡ l, m, n lery ds vfHkyac dh fnd~ dksT;k,¡ gSa ,oa p ewy
fcUnq ls Mkys x;s yEc dh yEckbZ gSA ax 1 + by 1 + cz1 + d
gksrh gSA
(4) fo'ks"k fLFkfr esa lery dk lehdj.k % ewyfcUnq ls xqtjus okys a2 + b 2 + c 2
lery dk lehdj.k Ax + By + Cz = 0 gS vFkkZr~ ;fn D = 0 rks nks lekUrj leryksa Ax + By + Cz + D1 = 0 ,oa
lery ewy fcUnq ls xqtjrk gSA D 2 ~ D1
Ax + By + Cz + D 2 = 0 ds chp dh nwjh gksrh gSA
(5)funsZ'kkad&v{kksa ds yEcor~ ;k funsZ'kkad&leryksa ds lekUrj lery A + B2 + C2
2

dk lehdj.k (2) lery ds lkis{k nks fcUnqvksa dh fLFkfr% nks fcUnq P ( x 1 , y1 , z 1 )

(i) YOZ-lery ds lekUrj ¼;k x-v{k ds yEcor~½ rFkk ‘a’ nwjh rFkk Q(x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) , lery ax + by + cz + d = 0 ds ,d gh rjQ ;k
ij lery dk lehdj.k x = a gksxkA foijhr vksj gksrs gSa] ;fn ax 1 + by 1 + cz1 + d rFkk
(ii) ZOX-lery ds lekUrj ¼;k y-v{k ds yEcor~½ rFkk ‘b’ nwjh ax 2 + by 2 + cz 2 + d Øe'k% leku ;k foijhr fpUg ds gSaA fcUnq P rFkk
ij lery dk lehdj.k y = b gksxkA Q dks tksM+us okyh js[kk dks lery ckg~;r% ;k vUr% foHkkftr djrk gS]
(iii) XOY-lery ds lekUrj ¼;k z-v{k ds yEcor~½ rFkk ‘c’ nwjh ;fn P rFkk Q Øe'k% lery ds ,d vksj gSa] ;k foijhr vksj gSaA
ij lery dk lehdj.k z = c gksxkA nks leryksa ds chp dks.k (Angle between two planes)
(6)funsZ'kkad&v{kksa ds lekUrj ;k funsZ'kkad lery ds yEcor~ lery
dk lehdj.k dkrhZ; :i : leryksa ds chp dks.k] fdlh fcUnq ls leryksa ij [khaps
(i) x-v{k ds lekUrj ;k YOZ-lery ds yEcor~ lery dk x;s vfHkyacksa ds e/; dks.k ds cjkcj gksrk gSA leryksa
lehdj.k By + Cz + D = 0 gksxkA
(ii) y-v{k ds lekUrj ;k ZOX-lery ds yEcor~ lery dk
lehdj.k Ax + Cz + D = 0 gksxkA
 f=foeh; funsZ'kkad T;kfefr 859
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0 rFkk a2 x + b 2 y + c 2 z + d 2 = 0 ds e/; dks.k js[kkvksa ds leryh; gksus dk izfrca/k % ;fn js[kk,¡
⎛ ⎞ x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
a1a2 + b1b 2 + c1c 2 = = rFkk = = leryh;
θ = cos −1 ⎜⎜ ⎟
gSA l1 m1 n1 l2 m2 n2
⎜ (a12 + b12 + c12 )(a22 + b 22 + c 22 ) ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠ x 2 − x1 y 2 − y1 z 2 − z1
(i) ;fn a1a2 + b1b 2 + c1c 2 = 0 , rks lery ,d-nwljs ds yEcor~ gksaxsA gksa] rks l1 m1 n1 =0 rFkk lery dk lehdj.k
a1 b c l2 m2 n2
(ii) ;fn = 1 = 1 , rks lery ,d-nwljs ds lekUrj gksaxsA
a2 b 2 c 2 x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
l1 m1 n1 =0 ;k l1 m1 n1 =0 gksxkA
fn;s x;s nks leryksa ds chp dks.kk/kZd leryksas ds lehdj.k l2 m2 n2 l2 m2 n2
(Equation of planes bisecting angle between two given
planes)

leryksa a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0 js[kk ,oa lery

,oa a 2 x + b 2 y + c 2 z + d 2 = 0
ds chp dks.kk/kZd leryksa ds lehdj.k gSa] ,d nh gqbZ js[kk ls xqtjus okyk lery
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 a2 x + b 2 y + c 2 z + d 2 (Equation of plane through a given line)
=± .
(a12 + b12 + c12 ) (a22 + b 22 + c 22 )
(1) ;fn lefer :i esa js[kk dk lehdj.k
(i) ;fn dks.kk/kZd lery ,oa fn;s x;s leryksa esa ls ,d ds chp x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
dks.k 45o ls de gks] rks ;g dks.kk/kZd] U;wu dks.kk/kZd dgykrk gS] = = gks] rks
l m n
vU;Fkk ;g vf/kd dks.kk/kZd gksxkA
lery dk lehdj.k gS] a(x − x 1 ) + b(y − y1 ) + c(z − z1 ) = 0 … (i)
(ii) ;fn a1a2 + b1b 2 + c1c 2 _.kkRed gks] rc ewyfcUnq U;wudks.k esa
fLFkr gksxk rFkk ;fn a1 a 2 + b1b 2 + c1 c 2 /kukRed gks] rc ewyfcUnq tgk¡ al + bm + cn = 0 …..(ii)
vf/kddks.k esa fLFkr gksxk] tcfd d1 rFkk d2 leku fpUg j[krs gksaA (2) ;fn O;kid :i esa js[kk dk lehdj.k
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0 = a2 x + b 2 y + c 2 z + d 2 gks] rks bu
lery esa fdlh fcUnq dk izfrfcEc (Image of a point in a plane) js[kkvksa ls xqtjus okys lery dk lehdj.k
(a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 ) + λ (a2 x + b 2 y + c 2 z + d 2 ) = 0 gksxkA
ekuk P vkSj Q nks fcUnq gSa ,oa π ,d lery bl izdkj gS] fd
(i) js[kk PQ, lery π ds yEcor~ gSA (3) ,d nh xbZ js[kk ls xqtjus okys rFkk nwljh js[kk ds lekUrj fdlh
(ii) PQ dk e/; fcUnq lery π ij fLFkr gSA lery dk lehdj.k : ekuk nwljh js[kk dh fnd~ dksT;k,¡ l2 , m 2 , n2 gSa]
rc nksuksa fcUnq lery π esa ,d-nwljs ds izfrfcEc gksaxsA rks pw¡fd lery nh gqbZ js[kk ds lekUrj gS] vr% lery ij vfHkyEc]
bl js[kk ds yEcor~ gksxkA
izfrfcEc Kkr djus dh fØ;k-fof/k%
∴ al2 + bm 2 + cn2 = 0 …..(iii)
(i) P ls xqtjus okyh rFkk fn;s gq;s lery ij vfHkyEc js[kk dk
x − x 1 y − y1 z − z 1 vr% (i), (ii) o (iii) ls] lery dk lehdj.k gksxk]
lehdj.k fuEu :i esa fy[krs gSa = = =r
a b c x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
(ii) izfrfcEc Q ds funsZ'kkad (x 1 + ar, y1 + br , z1 + cr) ds :i esa l1 m1 n1 =0.
fy[krs gSaA l2 m2 n2
(iii) PQ ds e/; fcUnq R ds funsZ'kkad Kkr djrs gSa A
(iv) e/; fcUnq R ds funsZ'kkad dks lery ds lehdj.k esa j[kdj r fdlh js[kk vkSj lery dk izfrPNsnu fcUnq
dk eku Kkr djrs gSaA (Intersection point of a line and a plane)
(v) r dk eku Q ds funsZ'kkad esa j[krs gSaA ,d js[kk vkSj lery ds izfrPNsn fcUnq dks Kkr djus ds fy,
fuEu fØ;k&fof/k dk mi;ksx djrs gSa
P(x1,y1,z1)
Step I : izkpy r ds inksa esa js[kk ij fLFkr fdlh fcUnq ds
ax+by+cz+d=0 funsZ'kkad fy[krs gSaA
Step II : bl fcUnq ds funsZ'kkad dks lery ds lehdj.k esa
R
izfrLFkkfir djus ij r dk eku izkIr gksrk gSA
π
Step III : Step I ls izkIr fcUnq ds funsZ'kkad esa r dk eku j[krs
(x1+ar,y1+br,z1+cr) Q gSaA
leryh; js[kk,¡ (Coplanar lines) js[kk vkSj lery ds chp dks.k (Angle between line and plane)
js[kk,¡ leryh; dgyk;saxh] ;fn os ,d gh lery esa fLFkr gksa ;k
,d ry bu js[kkvksa ls xqtjrk gksA
 860 f=foeh; funsZ'kkad T;kfefr
x −α y−β z −γ ekuk fd fdlh xksys dks ,d lery }kjk dkVk tkrk gSA xksys ,oa
js[kk = = ,oa lery ax + by + cz + d = 0 lery nksuksa ds mHk;fu"B fcUnqvksa ds leqPp; dks xksys dk leryh;
l m n
al + bm + cn [k.M dgrs gSaA xksys dk lery [k.M ges'kk ,d o`Ùk gksrk gSA xksys rFkk
ds chp dks.k θ gks] rks sin θ = . lery ds lehdj.k dks ,d lkFk ysus ij lery [k.M iznf'kZr gksrk gSA
(a + b + c 2 ) (l 2 + m 2 + n 2 )
2 2
ekuk C xksys dk dsUæ gS ,oa lery ij C ls Mkys x;s yEc dk
(i) js[kk] lery ds yEcor~ gksxh] ;fn
a b
=
c
= . ikn M gS] rks M o`Ùk dk dsUæ gksxk ,oa o`Ùk dh f=T;k
l m n
PM = CP 2 − CM 2 gksxhA
(ii) js[kk]lery ds lekUrj gksxh] ;fn al + bm + cn = 0 .
(iii) js[kk] lery esa fLFkr gksxh] ;fn al + bm + cn = 0 ,oa C
aα + b β + cγ + d = 0 .

,d lery ij fdlh js[kk dk iz{ksi P

M
Q
(Projection of a line on a plane)
;fn P nh gqbZ js[kk rFkk lery dk izfrPNsn fcUnq gks rFkk js[kk ij js[kk CM, tks C ls xqtjrh gS ,oa lery ds yEcor~ gS] rFkk
fLFkr fdlh fcUnq ls lery ij Mkys x;s yEc dk ikn Q gks] rks PQ lery dk izfrPNsn fcUnq gh o`Ùk dk dsUæ M gSA
fn;s gq, lery ij nh xbZ js[kk dk iz{ksi dgykrk gSA o`+Ùk dk dsUæ : xksys ds dsUæ ls lery ij Mkys x;s yEc dk
lery ds ifjr% js[kk dk izfrfcEc% ekuk js[kk yEcikn o`Ùk dk dsUæ gksrk gSA
x − x 1 y − y1 z − z 1 (o`Ùk dh f=T;k)2 = (xksys dh f=T;k)2 – (o`Ùk ls lery ij Mkyk
= = gS rFkk lery a2 x + b 2 y + c 2 z + d = 0 gSA
a1 b1 c1 x;k yEc)2
js[kk vkSj lery dk izfrPNsn fcUnq (ekuk P) Kkr djrs gSaA fcUnq o`gn~ o`Ùk (Great circle) : xksys ds dsUæ ls tkus okys lery }kjk
dk izfrfcEc (ekuk Q) lery ds ifjr% Kkr djrs gSaA js[kk
( x 1 , y1 , z 1 ) xksys dk foHkktu [k.M o`gn~ o`Ùk gksrk gSA blds dsUæ rFkk f=T;k fn;s
gq;s xksys ds dsUæ rFkk f=T;k ds leku gksrs gSaA
PQ ijkofrZr js[kk gksrh gSA
xkssys ls fdlh lery ds Li'khZ gksus dk izfrca/k
xksyk (Condition of tangency of a plane to a sphere)
xksyk ml fcUnq dk fcUnqiFk gS] tks f=foe esa bl izdkj xfr'khy ,d lery fn;s gq, xksys dks Li'kZ djsxk] ;fn xksys ds dsUnz ls
gS] fd ;g ,d fLFkj fcUnq ls loZFkk vpj nwjh ij jgrk gSA lery ij Mkys x;s yEc dh yEckbZ] xksys dh f=T;k ds cjkcj gksA
fLFkj fcUnq dks xksys dk dsUnz rFkk vpj nwjh dks f=T;k dgrs gSaA
lery lx + my + nz = p , xksyk
P(r)
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0 dks Li'kZ djsxk] ;fn
C (ul + vm + wn − p ) = (l + m + n )(u + v 2 + w 2 − d ) .
2 2 2 2 2
( )

ljy js[kk ,oa xksys dk izfrPNsnu

xksys dk O;kid lehdj.k (General equation of sphere)
(Intersection of straight line and a sphere)
xksys dk O;kid lehdj.k gS]
ekuk xksys rFkk ljy js[kk ds lehdj.k Øe'k% gSa]
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0 , ftldk dsUnz (–u,–v,–w) gSA
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2 ux + 2 vy + 2 wz + d = 0 .....(i)
⎛–x dk xq.kkad – y dk xq.kkad – z dk xq.kkad ⎞⎟
vFkkZr~ ] ⎜⎜ , , ⎟ x −α y − β z −γ
⎝ 2 2 2 ⎠ rFkk = = = r ,(ekuk) .....(ii)
l m n
,oa f=T;k = u 2 + v 2 + w 2 − d . js[kk (ii) ij dksbZ fcUnq (α + lr, β + mr , γ + nr ) gSA
fofHkUu :iksa esa xksys dk lehdj.k ;fn ;g fcUnq xksys (i) ij fLFkr gks] rks
(Equation of sphere in various forms) (α + lr)2 + (β + mr )2 + (γ + nr )2 + 2u(α + lr)

(1) fn;s gq, dsUnz rFkk f=T;k ds lkFk xksys dk lehdj.k % xksys dk +2v(β + mr ) + 2w(γ + nr ) + d = 0
2
lehdj.k] ftldk dsUæ (a, b, c) gS rFkk f=T;k R gS] gksxk ;k r [l + m + n ] + 2r[l(u + α ) + m (v + β ) + n(w + γ )]
2 2 2

(x − a) + (y − b ) + (z − c) = R
2 2 2 2
……(i) + (α 2 + β 2 + γ 2 + 2u α + 2v β + 2w γ + d ) = 0 ....(iii)
;fn dsUnz ewyfcUnq gks] rks xksys dk lehdj.k x + y + z = R 2 2 2 2
;g r esa ,d f}?kkr lehdj.k gS] ftlls r ds nks eku izkIr gksaxsA
gksxk] tks fd xksys ds lehdj.k dk ekud :i dgykrk gSA blfy, js[kk (ii), xksyk (i) ls nks fcUnqvksa ij feyrh gS] tks fd
(2) xksys ds lehdj.k dk O;kl&:i % ;fn (x 1 , y1 , z1 ) ,oa lehdj.k (iii) ds ewy ds vuqlkj okLrfod] laikrh rFkk vf/kdfYir gks
(x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) xksys ds O;kl ds fljksa ds funsZ'kkad gksa] rks bldk lehdj.k ldrs gSaA
(x − x 1 )(x − x 2 ) + (y − y1 )(y − y 2 ) + (z − z1 )(z − z 2 ) = 0 gksxkA ;fn l, m, n js[kk dh okLrfod fnd~ dksT;k,¡ gSa] rks
l + m 2 + n 2 = 1 rFkk rc lehdj.k (iii) dks gy dj ldrs gSaA
2
,d lery }kjk xksys dk foHkktu
(Section of a sphere by a plane)
nks xksyksa dk izfrPNsn dks.k
 f=foeh; funsZ'kkad T;kfefr 861
(Angle of intersection of two spheres) dksT;k,¡ Øe'k% 1, 0, 0; 0, 1, 0 ,oa 0, 0, 1 gksrh gSa] blfy, x-v{k dk
nks xksyksa dk izfrPNsnh dks.k muds izfrPNsnu fcUnq ij Li'khZ ryksa lehdj.k %
ds chp ds dks.k ds cjkcj gksrk gSA p¡wfd mHk;fu"B fcUnq ij xksyksa dh x −0 y −0 z −0
f=T;k,¡ Li'khZ leryksa ij vfHkyEc gksrh gSa] blfy, ;g dks.k muds = = ;k y = 0 rFkk z = 0.
1 0 0
izfrPNsn fcUnq ij xksyksa dh f=T;kvksa ds chp dks.k ds cjkcj gksrk gSA
x −0 y −0 z −0
;fn nks xksyksa dk izfrPNsnh dks.k ledks.k gks] rks xksys ykfEcd y-v{k dk lehdj.k: = = ;k x = 0 rFkk z = 0;
0 1 0
dgykrs gSaA
nks xksyksa ds ykfEcd gksus dk izfrca/k % x −0 y −0 z −0
z-v{k dk lehdj.k: = = ;k x = 0rFkk y = 0.
ekuk nks xksyksa ds lehdj.k gSa] 0 0 1

x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0 ....(i) " fo"ke js[kk,¡ vleryh; js[kk,¡ gksrh gSaA
" lekUrj js[kk,¡ fo"ke js[kk,¡ ugha gksrh gSaA
,oa x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2u′x + 2v′y + 2w′z + d ′ = 0 .....(ii)
" ;fn nks js[kk,¡ izfrPNsn djsa] rks muds chp U;wure nwjh 'kwU;
;fn xksys (i) rFkk (ii) ykfEcd :i ls dkVrs gSa] rks
2u u ′ + 2v v ′ + 2w w ′ = d + d ′, tks fd vHkh"V izfrca/k gSA
gksrh gSA
" nks fo"ke js[kkvksa dh U;wure nwjh nksuksa js[kkvksa ds yEcor~ gksrh
• ;fn xksys x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = a 2 rFkk gSA
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0 ykfEcd dkVsa] rks d = a 2 .
" lery }kjk foHkktu : ,d lery ax + by + cz + d = 0 ,
• ;fn r1 rFkk r2 f=T;k ds nks xksys ykfEcd dkVsa] rks mHk;fu"B fcUnq P(x1, y1, z1) o Q(x2, y2, z2) dks tksM+us okys js[kk[k.M PQ dks
o`Ùk dh f=T;k
r1r2
gksrh gSA ⎛ ax + by 1 + cz1 + d ⎞
− ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟
⎟ ds vuqikr esa foHkkftr djrk gSA
r12 + r22 ⎝ ax 2 + by 2 + cz 2 + d ⎠
" ;fn ax + by + cz + d = 0 ,d lery gS] rc fcUnq
ax 1 + by 1 + cz1 + d
(x 1 , y1 , z1 ) rFkk (x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) , >0 ;k < 0 ds
ax 2 + by 2 + cz 2 + d
vuqlkj Øe'k% ,d gh vksj ;k foijhr vksj gksaxsA
" funsZ'kkad leryksa }kjk foHkktu : funsZ'kkad lery] fcUnq P(x1,
" funsZ'kkad&v{kksa ds lkFk leku dks.k ij >qdh js[kkvksa dh la[;k y1, z1) o Q(x2, y2, z2) dks tksM+us okys js[kk[k.M PQ dks fuEu
4 gksrh gSA vuqikr esa foHkkftr djrs gSa :
" ;fn js[kk dh fnd~ dksT;k,¡ l, m, n gksa] rks lmn dk vf/kdre (i) yz-lery : −
x1
1 x2
eku gksxkA
3 3 y1
(ii) zx-lery : −
" xy-ry ij fdlh fcUnq ds funsZ'kkad (x, y, 0)] yz-ry ij y2
(0, y, z) rFkk zx-ry ij (x, 0, z) gksrs gSaA
z1
(iii) xy-lery : −
" x-v{k ij fdlh fcUnq ds funsZ'kkad (x, 0, 0)] y-v{k ij z2
(0, y, 0) ,oa z-v{k ij (0, 0, z) gksrs gSaA
" tc nks xksys ,d nwljs dks Li'kZ djrs gSa] rks mudk mHk;fu"B
" ;fn dksbZ fcUnq P(x1, y1, z1) gS] rks ,d js[kk ftldh fnd~ Li'kZ lery S 1 − S 2 = 0 gksxk rFkk tc os ,d o`Ùk esa dkVrs gSa] rks
dksT;k,¡ l, m, n gSa] ij OP dk iz{ksi l1x1 + m1y1 + n1z1 gksxk] tgk¡
O ewyfcUnq gSA
o`Ùk dk lery S 1 − S 2 = 0 gksxkA nksuksa fLFkfr;ksa esa x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ds
xq.kkad dks bdkbZ j[krs gSaA
" ;fn nks laxkeh js[kkvksa dh fnd~ dksT;k,¡ l1, m1, n1 ,oa l2, m2,
n2 gksa] rks js[kkvksa ds chp dks.k dks lef}Hkkftr djus okyh js[kkvksa " ekuk xksyk x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = r 2 ds dsUæ ls lery
dh fnd~ dksT;k,¡ l1 ± l2, m1 ± m2, n1 ± n2. ds lekuqikrh gksaxh A Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 ij Mkys x;s yEc dh yEckbZ p gks] rks
(i) lery xksys dks ,d o`Ùk esa dkVsxk] ;fn ,oa dsoy ;fn
fdlh ?ku ds nks fod.kksZa ds chp dks.k cos −1 ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ gksrk gSA
1
"
⎝3⎠ p < r rFkk bl fLFkfr esa] o`Ùk dh f=T;k r2 − p 2 gksxhA
" fdlh ?ku ds Qydksa ds fod.kZ ,oa ?ku ds fod.kZ ds chp dk (ii) lery] xksys dks Li'kZ djsxk] ;fn ,oa dsoy ;fn p = r .
⎛ 2⎞
dks.k cos −1 ⎜ ⎟ gksrk gSA (iii) lery]xksys ls ugha feysxk] ;fn ,oa dsoy ;fn p > r.
⎜ 3⎟
⎝ ⎠ " ladsUæh xksys dk lehdj.k%
" ;fn fdlh ledksf.kd ?kukHk dh dksjsa a, b, c gksa] rks nks fod.kksZa xksyk x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0
dk ladsUæh
⎡± a ± b ± c ⎤
2 2 2
xksyk x + y + z + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + λ = 0 gksrk gS] tgk¡ λ ,d
2 2 2
ds chp dk dks.k cos −1 ⎢ 2 2 ⎥
gksxkA
⎣⎢ a + b + c ⎦⎥
2
okLrfod la[;k gS] ftlls fd xksys dk lehdj.k çkIr gksrk gSA
" pw¡fd x, y rFkk z-v{k ewy fcUnq ls xqtjrs gSa] rFkk budh fnd~
 
Qyu] lhek] lkarR; rFkk vodyuh;rk 899 
 

Chapter

21
Qyu] lhek] lkarR; rFkk vodyuh;rk
(6) fHkUUkkRed Hkkx :  ge tkurs gS fd x ≥ [x ].  la[;k ‘x’ rFkk
Qyu
mlds egRre iw.kkZad eku ‘[x]’ds vUrj dks fHkUukRed Hkkx dgrs gSa
;fn Ao Bnks vfjDr leqPp; gks rFkk leqPp; Adk çR;sd vo;o
rFkk bls {x}ls çnf'kZr djrs gSA vFkkZr~ { x } = x − [ x ]  
leqPp;B ds vf}rh; vo;o ls lEcfU/kr gks] rks Qyu f, leqPp; A ls
mnkgj.kkFkZ :;fn x=4.92rc [x]=4rFkk{x}=0.92.
leqPp; Besa dgykrk gS rFkk bls f : A → B ls çnf'kZr djrs gSaA
egRoiw.kZ ifjHkk"kk;sa (Some important definitions) fdlh Hkh la[;k dk fHkUukRed Hkkx lnSo v_.kkRed rFkk 1 ls
de gksrk gSA
(1) okLrfod la[;k;sa  :  os la[;k;sa] tks ;k rks ifjes; gSa ;k vifjes;]
vUrjky (Intervals) 
okLrfod la[;k,¡a dgykrh gSaA okLrfod la[;kvksa dk oxZ lnSo 

v_.kkRed (Non-negative) gksrk gSA okLrfod la[;kvksa ds leqPp; vUrjky pkj çdkj ds gksrs gaS %
(1) foo`r vUrjky (Openinterval) : ekuk
dks Rls çnf'kZr djrs gSaAs
aobnks okLrfod la[;k;sa bl çdkj gSa fd a< a<x<b
(2) lEcfU/kr jkf'k;k¡ (Relatedquantities):  tc nks jkf'k;k¡ bl )
b, rks la[;kvksa a o b ds e/; lHkh okLrfod (
çdkj gks fd ,d jkf'k esa ifjorZu djus ij nwljh jkf'k esa ifjorZu gks a b
[kqyk vUrjky
tkrk gS vFkkZr~ ;fn ,d jkf'k dk eku nwljs ij fuHkZj djrk gks] rc os la[;kvksa ds ekuksa ds leqPp; (a, b) ;k ]a, b[ ls
jkf'k;k¡ lEcfU/kr jkf'k;k¡ dgykrh gSA çnf'kZr djrs gSa rFkk bls aobdse/; [kqyk vUrjky dgrs gSA
(3) pj (variable) :  ,d ,slh jkf'k tks fdlh leL;k dh xf.krh;
vr% ]a,b[;k(a,b)= { x ∈ R : a < x < b} 
lafØ;kvksa esa fHkUu fHkUu la[;kRed ekuksa dks xzg.k dj ldsa vFkkZr~ ftl jkf'k
dks çR;sd la[;kRed eku fn;k tk lds] pj jkf'k ;k pj dgykrh gSA (2) lao`r vUrjky (Closedinterval) : ekuk a o b nks okLrfod
(i) LorU= pj %  ,d ,slk pj tks fdlh Hkh LosPN eku dks xzg.k la[;k;sa bl çdkj gS fd a<brFkk ,d pj x a≤x≤b
dj lds] LorU= pj dgykrk gSA dk eku aobds e/; gks rFkk bldk eku ao [ ]
a b
(ii) ijrU= pj % ,d ,slk pj ftldk eku LorU= pj ij fuHkZj bds cjkcj Hkh gks ldrk gS rks ao b lfgr]a can vUrjky
djrk gS] ijrU= pj dgykrk gSA o bds e/; x ds lHkh okLrfod ekuksa ds
(4) vpj (Constant)  :  ,d ,slh jkf'k ftldk eku lHkh xf.krh;
leqPp; dks x dk cUn vUrjky dgrs gS rFkk bls [a, b] ls çnf'kZr djrs
lafØ;kvksa esa vifjofrZr jgs] vpj jkf'k ;k vpj dgykrh gSA ;s lkekU;r%
a,b,cbR;kfn ls çnf'kZr fd;s tkrs gSaA vpj nks çdkj ds gksrs gSaA 
gSaA vr%,[a,b]= {x ∈ R : a ≤ x ≤ b} 
 (5) fujis{k eku (Absolute value)  :  fdlh la[;k  x dk fujis{k
(3) [kqyk cUn vUrjky (Open-Closed a<x≤b
( ]
interval)  :  bls ]a, b] ;k (a, b] ls çnf'kZr a b
eku |x| og la[;k gS] tks fuEu çfrcU/kksa dks lUrq"V djrk gSA   [kqyk cUn varjky
⎧− x , ;fn x < 0
djrs gSaA vr% ]a, b] ;k (a, b] =
⎪ { x ∈ R : a < x ≤ b} 
| x | = ⎨ 0 , ;fn x = 0 . |x| dks fuEu çdkj Hkh ifjHkkf"kr fd;k tk
⎪ x , ;fn x > 0 (4) cUn [kqyk vUrjky (Closed-Openinterval) : bls [a,b[;k
⎩
a ≤ x <b
ldrk gS % |x|=vf/kdre {x,–x};k|x|= x 2   [ )
a b
cUn [kqyk varjky
 
900 Qyu] lhek] lkarR; rFkk vodyuh;rk

[a,b)ls çnf'kZr djrs gSaA vr% [a,b[;k[a,b)= {x ∈ R : a ≤ x < b} 
 (3)  Qyuksa dh la[;k :  ekuk X o Y  nks
ifjfer leqPp; ftuesa


Øe'k% m o n vo;o gSaA rc leqPp; X dk çR;sd vo;o leqPp; Y

Qyu dh ifjHkk"kk (Definition of function) ds  n vo;oksa esa ls fdlh ,d vo;o ls lEcfU/kr gks ldrk gSA vr%]
 (1)
Qyu dks çfrfp=.k (Mapping) dh vk/kkjHkwr ladYiuk ls leqPp; Xls leqPp; Yesa dqy Qyuksa dh la[;k n m gksxhA
ljyrk ls ifjHkkf"kr fd;k tk ldrk gSA ekuk X o Y nks vfjDr   (4) Qyu dk eku % ;fn y = f (x )  ,d Qyu gS rks x ds fdlh Hkh
leqPp; gSaA “leqPp;  X ls leqPp; Y esa Qyu ‘f ’ ,d ,slk eku (ekuk x = a) ds fy, Qyu dk eku lEcU/k y = x 2 esa x dk
fu;e gS ftlds }kjk leqPp; X dk çR;sd vo;o leqPp; Y ds eku çR;{k çfrLFkkfir dj Kkr dj ldrs gSaA 
vf}rh; (dsoy ,d vkSj dsoy ,d) vo;o ls lEcfU/kr gksA xf.krh; mnkgj.k ds fy,] ;fn f (x ) = x 2 + 1, rc f (1) = 1 2 + 1 = 2, 
:i esa Qyu ‘f’ dks f : X → Y  ls çnf'kZr djrs gS tcfd f (2) = 2 2 + 1 = 5,  f (0 ) = 0 2 + 1 = 1 bR;kfnA


y = f ( x ), x ∈ X  rFkk y ∈ Y .  ge dg ldrs gSa fd y, x dk çfrfcEc gS Qyu dk çkUr] lgçkUr rFkk ifjlj
(;kx,ydk iwoZ çfrfcEc gS)A (Domain, co-domain and range of function)
 Qyu dks ifjHkkf"kr djrs le; fuEu nks rF;ksa dks /;ku esa j[kuk pkfg,A ;fn ,d Qyu leqPp; Als leqPp; Besa ifjHkkf"kr gS rc Qyu
 (i) ,d çfrfp=.k f : X → Y  ,d Qyu dgykrk gS ;fn leqPp; f : A → B ds fy,] leqPp; A ds lHkh vo;o Qyu f dk çkUr
X ds çR;sd vo;o dk leqPp; Y esa çfrfcEc gksA ;g lEHko gS fd (domain) dgykrs gSa rFkk leqPp; B  ds lHkh vo;o Qyu f dk
leqPp; Y esa dqN vo;o fjDr gks tks fd leqPp; X ds fdlh vo;o lgçkUr (co-domain) dgykrs gSA leqPp; B ds mu vo;oksa dk
dk çfrfcEc u gksA
leqPp; tks fd leqPp; A ds vo;oksa ds f çfrfcEc gS]a Qyu f dk
(ii) leqPp; X ds çR;sd vo;o dk ,d vkSj dsoy ,d çfrfcEc
ifjlj (range)dgykrk gSA 
gksuk pkfg,A bldk vFkZ gS fd ;g vlEHko gS fd leqPp; X ds ,d nwljs 'kCnksa esa] ge dg ldrs gSa çkUr (domain) = x ds lHkh
fo'ks"k vo;o ds ,d ls vf/kd çfrfcEc gksA Qyu cgqekuh ugha gks
lEHkkfor eku ftuds fy, f(x)dk vfLrRo gS 
ldrs gSa (,d çfrfp=.k tks fd cgqekuh gS] leqPp; Xls leqPp; Y esa
ifjlj (range)=xds lHkh ekuksa ds fy,] f(x)ds lHkh lEHkkfor eku
,d Pp;X gS)mnkgj.k ds
leqlEcU/k Pp;Y leqPp;X
leqfy, leqPp; Y

 a 1 a 1

 b 2 b 2 ifjlj

 c 3 c 3

 (Qyu gS) (Qyu gS)
 çkUr lgçkUr
 leqPp;X
leqPp;Y leqPp;X leqPp; Y
1 1  B
 a a A
çkUr ={a,b,c,d}=A
f
b 2 b 2  a p
 lgçkUr={p,q,r,s}=B
b q
c 3 c 3 
 
c r ifjlj = {p q r}
 (Qyu ugha gS) (Qyu ugha gS) d s

(2) Å/okZ/kj js[kk

ijh{k.k }kjk Qyu dk ijh{k.k : ,d lEcU/k Qyu dk çkUr (domain) rFkk ifjlj (range)Kkr djus dh fof/k;k¡
f : A → B  ,d Qyu gS ;k ugha] bldk ijh{k.k lEcU/k ds xzkQ }kjk   (i) çkUr (domain) Kkr djus dh fof/k  
dj ldrs gSSA ;fn ,d m/okZ/kj js[kk tks oØ dks ,d ls vf/kd fcUnqvksa (a)oxZewy] ?kuewy rFkk dj.khxr fpUgksa ds vUnj fy[ksa O;atd dk
ij dkVrh gS rc fn;k x;k lEcU/k Qyu ugh gS rFkk tc ;g m/okZ/kj
js[kk (Y-v{k ds lekUrj)oØ dks dsoy ,d fcUnq ij dkVrh gS rc fn;k eku ≥0j[krs gSa] gj esa fy[ksa in dk eku 'kwU; ugha gksuk pkfg,A
x;k lEcU/k Qyu gSA xzkQ (iii)o(iv),d Qyu çnf'kZr djrs gSaA (b) ;fn Qyu y = f (x )  o y = g (x )  ds çkUr (domain) Øe'k%
Y Y D1  o D 2  gks rks Qyu f ( x ) ± g (x )  ;k f ( x ).g (x )  dk Mksesu 


 D1 ∩ D2  gksxkA tcfd
f (x )
 dk çkUr (domain)
X ′ X g( x )
 O
D1 ∩ D2 − {g(x ) = 0} gksxkA
X ′ X
 O (c)Qyu ( f (x ))
dk çkUr (domain) = D1 ∩ {x : f (x ) ≥ 0} 
Y′ (i) Y′ (ii)
 Y Y   (ii)  ifjlj (range)  Kkr djus dh fof/k :  Qyu y = f (x )  dk
 ifjlj] Mksesu xds lHkh okLrfod ekuksa ds laxr f (x ) ds lHkh ekuksa dk

leqPp; gSA  

X ′ X X ′ X
O O
Y′ (iii) Y′ (iv)
 
Qyu] lhek] lkarR; rFkk vodyuh;rk 901 
(a) ;fnMksesu esa vo;oksa dh la[;k fuf'pr gS] rks bu vo;oksa ds Li"Vr% f : A → B  ,d ,dSdh Qyu gS fdUrq g : X → Y  ,dSdh
laxr f (x ) ds ekuksa dk leqPp; ifjlj (range)dgykrk gS Qyu ugh gS D;ksafd leqPp; Xds nks fofHkUu vo;o x 1 o x 3 leqPp;
 (b) ;fn Mksesu lHkh okLrfod la[;kvksa dk leqPp; ;k dqN Yds ,d gh vo;o y 2 ls lEcfU/kr gSA 
fuf'pr ekuksa ds vfrfjDr okLrfod la[;kvksa dk leqPp; gS] rc x dks   (i)Qyu ds ,dSdh gksus dk çfrcU/k 
y ds inksa esa O;Dr djrs gSaA x ds lHkh ifjHkf"kr ekuksa ds fy,] y ds   in I : Qyu fds çkUr (domain)esa nks LosPN vo;o xoyysrs gSaA
ekuksa dk leqPp;] Qyu dk ifjlj (range) dgykrk gS (vFkkZr y ds   in II :  f (x ) = f (y ) j[krs gSaA
og leLr eku ftuds fy, xdk vfLrRo gS)A   in III :  f (x ) = f (y ) dks gy djrs gSaA ;fn f (x ) = f (y ) dsoy ,d
(c) ;fn Qyu dk Mksesu] ,d fuf'pr vUrjky gS] rks bl gyx=ynsrk gS] rks f : A → B ,d ,dSdh Qyu gS vU;Fkk ughaA 
vUrjky esa Qyu ds U;wure o vf/kdre eku Qyu dk ifjlj • ;fn Qyu Øfer ;qXeksa ds :i esa fn;k gS rFkk ;fn nks Øfer
(range)gksxsaA ;qXeksa ds f}rh; vo;o leku ugha gS rks Qyu ,dSdh gksxkA
Qyuksa dk chtxf.kr (Algebra of functions) • ;fn Qyu y = f (x )  dk xzkQ fn;k gS rFkk x-v{k ds lekUrj
 

çR;sd js[kk fn;s x;s oØ dks vf/kdre ,d fcUnq ij dkVrh gS rc

  (1) Qyu dk vfn'k xq.kuQy% (c f )(x ) = c f (x ), tgka c ,d vfn'k
Qyu ,dSdh gksxkA mnkgj.kkFkZ :
Y Y
gS u;s Qyu c f (x ) dk çkUr (domain) X f gSA 

(2)  Qyuksa dk ;ksx@vUrj% ( f ± g)(x ) = f ( x ) ± g(x )   u;s Qyu dk 

çkUr (domain)X gksxkA  (0,1)
(3)  Qyuksa dk xq.kuQy% ( fg)(x ) = (g f )(x ) = f (x )g (x ) u;s Qyu  X′ X ′
X X
O O f(x)=ax(0<a<1)
dk çkUr (domain)XgksxkA  
f(x)=ax+b
⎛f⎞ f (x ) Y′ Y′
  (4)  Qyuksa dk HkkxQy % (i) ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (x ) = . nks Qyuksa ds 
⎝g⎠ g( x )

HkkxQy ls çkIr Qyu dk çkUr (domain) x ∈ X (= X f ∩ Xg ) ,tcfd
{ x : g(x ) ≠ 0} ls ifjHkkf"kr fd;k tkrk gSA   Qyuksa dh la[;k :  ;fn A o B nks ifjfer leqPp; ,sls
(ii) ,dSdh

⎛g⎞ g( x ) gSa ftuesa Øe'k% m o n vo;o gSa] rc leqPp; A ls B esa cuus okys
 (ii) ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (x ) =   nks Qyuksa ds HkkxQy ls çkIr Qyu dk
⎧ n Pm , ;fn n ≥ m
⎝f⎠
,dSdh Qyuksa dh la[;k = ⎪⎨
f (x )

çkUr (domain) x ∈ X (= X g ∩ X f ) , tcfd { x : f (x ) ≠ 0}   ls ⎪⎩ 0 , ;fn n < m
ifjHkkf"kr fd;k tkrk gSA    (2) cgq,dSdh Qyu (Many-one function)  : ,d Qyu
 (5) leku Qyu % nks Qyu f o g leku dgykrs gS] ;fn vkSj f : A → B  cgq,dSdh dgykrk gS] ;fn leqPp;  A ds nks ;k nks ls
dsoy ;fn
vf/kd vo;oksa dk leqPp; Besa ,d gh çfrfcEc gksA
(i) fdk çkUr(domain)=gdk çkUr(domain)
vr%] f : A → B  cgq,dSdh Qyu gS ;fn x , y ∈ A  bl çdkj gS
(ii) fdk lgçkUr(codomain)=gdk lgçkUr(co-domain)
(iii)  f (x ) = g(x ) ∀x ∈ mudk mHk;fu"B çkUr(domain)
fd x≠yijUrq f (x ) = f (y ). 
nwljs 'kCnksa esa f : A → B  ,d cgq,dSdh Qyu gksxk ;fn ;g
  (6)  okLrfod Qyu :   ;fn R, okLrfod la[;kvksa dk leqPp; gS
,dSdh Qyu ugha gSA
rFkkAoB,Rds nks mileqPp; gSa rc Qyu f : A → B ,d okLrfod A B X Y
f g
;k okLrfod ekuh Qyu dgykrk gSA a1 b1 x1 y1
b2 y2
a2 b3 x2
Qyuksa ds çdkj (Kinds of function) a3
b4 x3 y3
a4 x4 y4
b5


 (1)  ,dSdh Qyu (Injective function)  :  ,d

Qyu f : A → B  a5 b6 x5 y5

,dSdh Qyu dgykrk gS] ;fn leqPp; A ds fHkUu fHkUu vo;oksa ds  • ;fn Qyu Øfer ;qXeksa ds leqPp; ds :i esa fn;k gS rFkk de
leqPp; Besa fHkUu fHkUu çfrfcEc gksA vr% f : A → B ,dSdh gSA ls de nks Øfer ;qXeksa ds nwljs vo;o leku gS rc Qyu cgq,dSdh
dgykrk gSA 
 ⇔ a ≠ b ⇒ f (a) ≠ f (b ) ∀ a, b ∈ A 
 •;fn Qyu y = f (x ) dk xzkQ fn;k gS rFkk x-v{k ds lekUrj js[kk
 ⇔ f (a) = f (b ) ⇒ a = b ∀  a, b ∈ A . oØ dks ,d ls vf/kd fcUnqvksa ij dkVrh gks rks Qyu cgq,dSdh gksxkA
 mnkgj.kkFkZ % ekuk f : A → B  o g : X → Y  nks Qyu fuEu fp=ksa Y Y
}kjk çnf'kZr fd;s x;s gS 
 A B X Y
f g
 a1 b1  x1 y1
a2 b2  x2 y2 X′ X′ X
b3  y3 O f(x)=x2 X O
f (x)=|x|
a3 x3 y4 Y′ Y′
b4 
a4
b5  x4 y5
 
902 Qyu] lhek] lkarR; rFkk vodyuh;rk
,dSdh vkPNknd Qyu gS] rc lqePp; A o B esa vo;oksa dh la[;k

leku gksxhA ;fn leqPp;  A esa n vo;o gS] rks leqPp; A ls leqPp;
 (3) vkPNknd Qyu (Surjective function): 
,d Qyu
Besa cuus okys ,dSdh vkPNknd Qyuksa dh la[;k n!gksxhA
f : A → B  vkPNknd gksxk ;fn leqPp; B ds çR;sd vo;o dk
(6) chth; Qyu (Algebraicfunction):  os Qyu] tks LorU= pj
leqPp; Aesa iwoZ çfrfcEc gksA vr% ;fn f −1 (y ) ∈ A, ∀y ∈ B rc Qyu
dh ?kkrksa] oxZewy rFkk pkj ewyHkwr lafØ;kvksa ;ksxQy] vUrj] xq.kuQy
vkPNknd gksxkA nwljs 'kCnksa esa  f dk ifjlj (range) = f dk lg o HkkxQy ls feydj curs gSa] chth; Qyu dgykrs gSa mnkgj.kkFkZ
çkUr (co-domain):fuEu fp= vkPNknd Qyu dks çnf'kZr djrs gSA. 3
x +1
A
mnkgj.kkFkZ (i) x 2 + 5 x (ii) , x ≠ 1 (iii) 3 x 4 − 5 x + 7 
 B X Y x −1
f g
 a1 x1 y1  (7) vchth; Qyu (Transcedental function):  og Qyu tks
b1
 a2 b2 x2 y2 chth; ugh gS] vchth; Qyu dgykrs gSaA f=dks.kferh;] çfrykse
x3 f=dks.kferh;] pj ?kkarkdh rFkk y?kqx.kdh; Qyu vchth; Qyu gSaA 
 a3 b3 x4 y3
 
  (i) f=dks.kferh; Qyu % og Qyu ftuesa pj dks.kksa ds o`Rrh;
  Qyu (sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant, cosecant)
vkPNknd Qyuksa dh la[;k :  ;fn nks leqPp;ksa A o B esa Øe'k% m fufgr gksrs gSa] f=dks.kferh; Qyu dgykrs gSaA.
onvo;o bl çdkj gS fd 1 ≤ n ≤ m , rks leqPp; Als leqPp; Besa (a)Sine Qyu % 
n
Y (π/2,1)
cuus okys vkPNknd Qyuksa dh la[;k  ∑ (−1) n −r n
Cr r m
gksxhA  (–
r =1

 (4) vUr%{ksih Qyu (Intofunction):  ,d Qyu f : A → B vUr% X′ π X
–π O
{ksih gksxk ;fn leqPp; B ds de ls de ,d vo;o dk leqPp;  A esa 
dksbZ iwoZ çfrfcEc u gksA 
izkUr=R (–π/2,–1) Y′ (3π/2,–1) ifjlj=[–1,1]
nwljs 'kCnksa esa f : A → B  ,d vUr%{ksih Qyu gksxk ;fn ;g

vkPNknd Qyu ugh gSA fuEu fp= vUr%{ksih Qyu dks çnf'kZr djrs gaSA
A B X Y 
 f g
a1 x1 y1 
 b1
a2 b2 x2 y2
  (b)Cosine Qyu :
x3 Y

a3 b3 x4 y3  (0,1)

 
 vkPNknd ;k vUr%{ksih Qyu Kkr djus dh fof/k %    X π π X
− O
2 2
 (i) xdks ydk Qyu ysdj f (x ) = y dks gy djrs gSaA   
 (ii) vc ;fn g(y )  çR;sd y ∈ lgçkUr rFkk g(y ) ∈  çkUr ∀   çkUr=R (–π,–1) Y′ (π,–1) ifjlj=[–1,1]
y ∈ lgçkUr ds fy, ifjHkkf"kr gS] rc Qyu f (x )  vkPNknd gksxk rFkk
 
;fn mijksDr esa ls fdlh Hkh ,d 'krZ dk ikyu ugha gksrk gS rc f (x )   

vUr%{ksih gksxk A 
 


  (5)  ,dSdh vkPNknd Qyu (Bijective function):  ,d Qyu
f : A → B ,dSdh vkPNknd gksxk] ;fn ;g ,dSdh rFkk vkPNknd gSA   (c)  Tangent Qyu %  Y
 nwljs 'kCnksa esa] ,d Qyu f:A→B  ,dSdh vkPNknd 
(bijection)gksxk] ;fn    –π O π
X′ X
–3π/2 –π/2 π/2 3π/2
 (i) ;g ,dSdh gS vFkkZr~ f (x ) = f (y ) ⇒ x = y lHkh x , y ∈ A.   
 (ii) ;g vkPNknd gS vFkkZr~ lHkh y ∈ B  ds fy, x ∈ A  bl   Y′
çdkj gS fd f (x ) = y.  Li"Vr% Qyu f  ,dSdh vkPNknd gS D;ksafd ;g izkUr =R–{(2n+1)π/2|n∈I},ifjlj=R
 
,dSdh o vkPNknd gSA 
 
  ,dSdh vkPNknd Qyuksa dh
la[;k  :  ;fn A o B nks ifjfer  
A B  

leqPp; gS rFkk f : A → B  ,d
a1 f b1
a2 b2
a3 b3
a4 b4
 
Qyu] lhek] lkarR; rFkk vodyuh;rk 903 
(d)Cosecant Qyu % [−π /2, π /2] − {0} y = cosec −1 x 
cosec −1 x   R–(–1,1)
   ⇔ x = cosec y 
Y
  y = sec −1 x 
(–3π/2,1) sec −1 x   R–(–1,1) [0, π ] − [π /2] 
(π/2,1) ⇔ x = sec y 
  y =1
X ′ X  (iii)  pj?kkrkadh Qyu :ekuk a (≠ 1) ,d /kukRed okLrfod la[;k
  O y =–1
  (–π/2,– gS] rc f : R → (0, ∞)  tks f (x ) = a x  }kjk ifjHkkf"kr gS; pj?kkrkadh
(–3π/2,–
  x=–2π x=–π Y′ x=π x=2π Qyu dgykrk gSYA bldk çkUr RrFkk ifjlj (0, ∞) gSA
Y
izkUr=R–{(nπ|n∈I},ifjlj=(–∞,–1]∪[1,∞) a >1 a<1

  (0,1)
 f(x) = ax f(x) = ax (0, 1)
(e)Secant Qyu % X′ X X′ X
 O O
 
Y 
  Y′ Y′
 f (x ) = a x dk xzkQ] a<1
(–2π,1) (2π,1) f (x ) = a x dk xzkQ] a>1
  (0,1)

  X ′ X
O
  (–π,–1) (π,–1) 
  x=–3π/2 x = – Y′ x=π/2 x =  (iv)  y?kqx.kdh; Qyu :  ekuk a (≠ 1)  ,d /kukRed okLrfod
  izkUr=R–{(2n+1)π/2|n∈I},ifjlj=(–∞,–1]∪[1,∞) la[;k gS] rc f : (0, ∞) → R  tks fd f (x ) = log a x  }kjk ifjHkkf"kr gS]
 

 
y?kqx.kdh; Qyu dgykrk gSA
Y Y

(f)Cotangent Qyu %

 f( x ) =
Y (1,0)
 X′ X X ′ X
 O O
(1, 0)
X ′

f( x ) =
 (– (– (π/2,0 (3π/2,0)
X  Y′ Y′
 O
f (x ) = log a x , dk xzkQ] tc a >1 f ( x ) = log a x , dk xzkQ] tc a<1




 x=–2π x=–π
Y′
x=π x=2π
izkUr=R–{nπ|n∈I},ifjlj=R 



 (8)  Li"V rFkk vLi"V Qyu (ExplicitandImplicitfunction): 


;fn fdlh Qyu dks Lora= pj ds inksa esa lh/ks gh O;Dr dj lds] rks
  (ii)çfrykse f=dks.kferh; Qyu  ;g Li"V Qyu dgykrk gSA vLi"V Qyu og gS] ftlesa Qyu dks
Lora= pj ;k pjksa ds inksa esa O;Dr u fd;k tk ldsA
lkj.kh % 21.1 
Qyu Qyu dh ifjHkk"kk mnkgj.kkFkZ % y = sin −1 x + log x 
Li"V Qyu gS] tcfd
çkUr ifjlj x + y = xy rFkk x y = (a − x ) (b − y ) 2  vLi"V Qyu gSA
2 2 3 2 2
(Function (Definitionofthe
(Domain) (Range)
)  function)  (9) vpj Qyu (Constant function) : ekuk k ,d fLFkj
−1
y = sin x   okLrfod la[;k gSA ,d ,sls Qyu Y
sin −1 x   [−1, 1]   [−π /2, π /2]  
⇔ x = sin y   ij fopkj dhft, tks fd izR;sd
okLrfod la[;k x dks bl vpj k f(x)=k
y = cos −1 x 
cos −1 x   [–1,1] [0,π] la[;k α dh lgpkjh (associate) X′ X
⇔ x = cos y  O
djrk gSA rc ;g Qyu R → R
y = tan −1 x 
tan −1 x   (–∞,∞);kR (–π/2,π/2) ,d vpj Qyu (constant
⇔ x = tan y  Y′
function) dgykrk gSA vpj Qyu
y = cot −1 x 
(–∞,∞);k R (0,π) esa x ds izR;sd eku ds fy,] y ;k f(x) dk eku lnSo fLFkj jgrk gSA
cot −1 x  
⇔ x = cot y 
dHkh-dHkh bl vpj Qyu dks f (x ) = k ∀x ∈ R ;k vf/kd la{ksi esa
 
904 Qyu] lhek] lkarR; rFkk vodyuh;rk
;k blls Hkh vf/kd la{ksi esa vpj Qyu kls çnf'kZr djrs gSaA
f (x ) = k dgykrk gSA lkadsfrd :i esa bls fuEu çdkj fy[k ldrs gSa(
vpj Qyu k dk Mksesu Li"Vr% R gS rFkk ¼jsat½ ifjlj {k} gSA vpj f (x ) = sgn( x )  
⎧ 1, ;fn x > 0
Qyu dk xzkQ x-v{k ds lekUrj ljy js[kk gksrh gS tks fd k ds ⎪
tgk¡ sgn( x ) = ⎨ 0, ;fn x = 0 
/kukRed ;k _.kkRed eku ds vuqlkj] x v{k ds Åij ;k uhps gks ⎪− 1, ;fn x < 0
⎩
ldrh gSA ;fn k = 0 rc ljy js[kk xv{k ds lEikrh gksrh gSA 

 (10) rRled Qyu (Identityfunction):  og Qyu] tks f (x ) = x ; 

x ∈ R  }kjk ifjHkkf"kr gks] rRled Y



Qyu dgykrk gSA Li"Vr% rRled

 (14)  çfrykse Qyu (Inversefunction):  ;fn a 'kwU;srj okLrfod
Qyu dk izkUr rFkk ifjlj Rgksrk gSA  f(x)=x 1
la[;k gS rks  dks a dk izfrykse
rRled Qyu dk xzkQ X′ X a
ewyfcUnq ls xqtjus okyh ljy js[kk O dgrs gSaA 'kwU; dk izfrykse ifjHkkf"kr Y
gS] tks fd x v{k dh /kukRed fn'kk ugha gSA Qyu tks izR;sd 'kwU;srj f(x) =1/
ls 45odk dks.k cukrh gSA Y′ okLrfod la[;k dks blds izfrykse ds
lgpkjh
1
 ls çnf'kZr fd;k tkrk X ′ X
 x O

 (11) ekikad Qyu (Modulusfunction):  çR;sd

okLrfod la[;k gSA bls f (x ) =
1
,x ≠0 ls
x Y′
xds fy, ekikad Qyu |x|,xdk fujis{k eku iznf'kZr djrk gSA
Y ifjHkkf"kr djrs gSaA mi;qZDr rhuksa mnkgj.kksa dh Hkk¡fr bldk Mksesu R
ugha gSA ;gk¡ Mksesu R − {0} gSA 
f(x)=–x f(x)=x
 (15) ?kkr Qyu (Power function) : ,d
Qyu f : R → R  tks
X′ X
O
α
fd f (x ) = x , α ∈ R }kjk ifjHkkf"kr gS] ?kkr Qyu dgykrk gSaA 


Y′ lkj.kh : 21. 2 ekud Qyuksa ds izkUr (Domain) rFkk ifjlj (Range) 

⎧ x , ;fn x ≥ 0


mnkgj.kkFkZ] f (x ) =| x | , tgkW f (x ) =| x | = ⎨ , |x| dk Qyu (Function) izkUr (Domain) ifjlj(Range) 

⎩-x , ;fn x < 0
Mksesu RgS rFkk jsat R+gSA cgqin Qyu R R
rRled Qyu x R R
 (12)  egÙke iw.kkZad Qyu (The Greatest integer function) : 
vpj QyuK R {K}
;fn xokLrfod la[;k gS] rks ,sls egÙke iw.kkZad dks tks xls cM+k u gks] 1
ge [x] ls fu:fir djrs gSaA egRre iw.kkZad dk Mksesu R rFkk jsat I
izfrykse Qyu  R0 R0
x
gksrk gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ [1.1]=1,[2.2]=2,[–0.9]=–1,[–2.1]=– x 2 ,| x |  R R+ ∪{0} 
3 bR;kfnA Qyu f tks f ( x ) = [ x ]  (tcfd x ∈ R ) }kjk ifjHkkf"kr gS] x 3, x| x |  R R
egÙe iw.kkZad Qyu dgykrk gSA flXue Qyu R {−1, 0, 1} 
Y x+| x |  R R+ ∪{0} 
3 x −| x |  R– ∪{0} 
R
2
[x ]  R I
1
X′ X
x − [x ]  R [0,1)
O
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 x  [0, ∞)  [0,∞]
–1
 –2 a 
x R R+ 

 –3 log x  R 
+ R
Y′ R [−1, 1] 
sin x 
 (13) flxue Qyu (Signum function) : 
R [−1, 1] 
cos x 
⎧| x |
⎪ , tc x ≠ 0  }kjk ifjHkkf"kr Qyu f, tgk¡ |x| ,d ekikad ⎧ π 3π ⎫
f (x ) = ⎨ x tan x  R– ⎨± ,± ,... ⎬  R
⎪⎩0 , tc x = 0 ⎩ 2 2 ⎭
(modulus) Qyu gS ftldk izkUr (Mksesu) okLrfod la[;kvksa dk cot x  R– {0, ± π , ± 2π ,...}  R

leqPp; gS rFkk jsat (range) leqPp; {–1, 0, 1} gS] flxue Qyu ⎧ π 3π ⎫
R– ⎨ ± , ± ,... ⎬  R–(–1,1)
Y sec x 
⎩ 2 2 ⎭
(0,1)

X′ X
O
(0,–1)
Y′
 
Qyu] lhek] lkarR; rFkk vodyuh;rk 905 
cosec x  R– {0, ± π , ± 2π ,...}  R–(–1,1) la;qDr Qyu (Composite function)
⎡ −π π ⎤


sin −1
x [−1, 1]  ⎢ 2 , 2⎥ ;fn f : A → B rFkk g : B → C nks Qyu bl izdkj gSa fd ijkl
⎣ ⎦
[−1, 1]  [0, π ]  f ⊆ çkar g,rks fvkSj gds la;qä Qyu dksgofvFkok gfls fu:fir
cos −1 x 
djrs gSa rFkk gof (x ) = g [ f (x )], ∀x ∈ f  dk çkar
⎛ −π π ⎞
tan −1 x  R ⎜ , ⎟
⎝ 2 2⎠ Qyuksa ds la;kstu ds xq.k/keZ %
cot −1 x  R (0, π )  (i) frFkk gle Qyu gS ⇒ fog le Qyu gS 
⎧π ⎫ (ii)  frFkk gfo"ke Qyu gS ⇒ fog fo"ke Qyu gS
sec −1 x  R– (−1, 1)  [0, π ] − ⎨ ⎬ 
⎩2⎭
 (iii) fle rFkk gfo"ke Qyu gS ⇒ fog le Qyu gS
⎡ π π⎤
cosec −1 x  R– (−1, 1)  ⎢− 2 , 2 ⎥ − {0} 
⎣ ⎦  (iv)ffo"ke rFkkgle Qyu gS ⇒ fog le Qyu gS 
  

le vkSj fo"ke Qyu (Even and Odd function)   (v) Qyuksa dk la;kstu Øe fofues; fu;e dk ikyu ugha djrk
gS vFkkZr~, fog ≠ gof 
 (1) le Qyu % Qyu f(x)dks xdk leQyu dgrs gSA ;fn xds
 (vi) Qyuksa dk la;kstu lkâp;Z fu;e dk ikyu djrk gS vFkkZr~
lHkh ekuksa ds fy, f (− x ) = f (x ) 
( fog )oh = fo(goh )  
mnkgj.kkFkZ, f (x ) = e x + e − x , f ( x ) = x 2 , f (x ) = x sin x ,
 (vii) ;fn f : A → B  ,dSdh vkPNknd rFkk g : B → A , f dk
f (x ) = cos x ,  f ( x ) = x 2 cos x lHkh leQyu gSA  O;qRØe Qyu gS rc fog = IB rFkk gof = I A . 
 (2)  fo"ke Qyu % Qyu f(x) dks x dk fo"ke Qyu dgrs gSaA ;fn  tgk¡ I A rFkk IB Øe'k% leqPp; ArFkk Bds rRled Qyu gSaA 
xds lHkh ekukas ds fy, f (− x ) = − f (x ) 
 (viii)  ;fn f : A → B
rFkk g : B → C  nks ,dSdh vkPNknd gSa
mnkgj.kkFkZ:Z f (x ) = e x − e − x , f ( x ) = sin x , f (x ) = x 3 ,
rc gof : A → C ,dSdh vkPNknd gS rFkk (gof )−1 = ( f −1og −1 ) 
f ( x ) = x cos x , f (x ) = x 2 sin x lHkh fo"ke Qyu gSaA
(ix)  fog ≠ gof  fdarq ;fn] fog = gof  rc ;k rks f −1 = g  ;k
  le rFkk fo"ke Qyuksa ds xq.k/keZ   g −1 = f ,lkFk gh ( fog ) (x ) = (gof ) (x ) = (x ) A
• leQyu dk xzkQ lnSo y-v{k ds ifjr% lefer gksrk gSA
(x) gof(x), ls
rkRi;Z Qyu f(x) ds g-izfrfcac ls gS] tgk¡ f(x),
• fo"ke Qyu dk xzkQ lnSo ewy fcUnq ds ifjr% lefer gksrk gSA vo;o x∈Adk f-izfrfcac gSA
• nks le Qyuksa dk xq.kuQy lnSo leQyu gksrk gSA (xi) Qyu gof dk vfLrRo rHkh gksxk tc f dh ijkl] g ds izkar
• leQyuksa dk ;ksx rFkk varj le Qyu gksrk gSA dk mileqPp; gskxhA
• fo"ke Qyuksa dk ;ksx rFkk varj fo"ke Qyu gksrk gSA
• nks fo"ke Qyuksa dk xq.kuQy le Qyu gksrk gSA
• le vkSj fo"ke Qyuksa dk xq.kuQy fo"ke Qyu gksrk gSA
• ;g vko';d ugha gS fd izR;sd Qyu ;k rks le gksxk vFkok
fo"ke dqN Qyu ,sls Hkh gksrs gSa tks u rks le gksrs gS vkSj u gh
fo"ke mnkgj.kkFkZ] f (x ) = x 2 + x 3 , f (x ) = log e x , f (x ) = e x .
• le rFkk fo"ke Qyu dk ;ksxQy u rks le vkSj u gh fo"ke
Qyu gksrk gSA
• 'kwU; Qyu f (x ) = 0 dsoy ,d gh ,slk Qyu gS tks le rFkk
fo"ke nksuska Qyu gSA
vkorhZ Qyu (Periodic function)
,d Qyu f(x) dks vkorhZ Qyu dgrs gSa] ;fn ,d fuf'pr
vUrjky ds ckn blds çR;sd eku dh iqujko`fÙk gksrh gSA ;fn ,d ,slh
/kukRed okLrfod la[;k T fo|eku gks fd,
f ( x ) = f ( x + T ) = f (x + 2 T ) = f (x + 3 T ) = ..... , ∀x . T , 2 T , 3 T ,......
rc bu lHkh vkorZukadksa ds U;wure eku dks Qyu f (x ) dk ewy
vkoZrukad ;k dsoy vkoZrukad dgrs gSaA 

 Qyu] lhek] lkarR; rFkk vodyuh;rk 905

(xii) fog dk vfLrRo ugha gksxk ;fn g dh ijkl] f ds izkar dk s (4) lhek dk vfLrRo % lim f ( x ) dk vfLrRo gksxk] tc
x →a
mileqPp; ugha gSA
(xiii) fog rFkk gof dks lnSo ifjHkkf"kr ugha dj ldrsA
(i) lim− f (x ) rFkk lim+ f (x ) dk vfLrRo gks] vFkkZr~ L.H.L. rFkk
x →a x →a
(xiv) ;fn f rFkk g nksuksa gh ,dSdh gSa] rc fog rFkk gof Hkh ,dSdh gksaxsA R.H.L. nksuksa lhek,¡ fo|eku gksA
(xv) ;fn f rFkk g nksuksa vkPNknd gSa rc gof vkPNknd gksxkA (ii) lim− f (x ) = lim+ f (x ) vFkkZr~ L.H.L. = R.H.L.
x →a x →a
çfrykse Qyu (Inverse function)
;fn f : A → B , A ls B ij ,d ,dSdh vkPNknd çfrfp=.k gS]
lhekvksa ds ewyHkwr çes;
(Fundamental theorems on limits)
rc çR;sd b ∈ B ds fy;s f −1 (b) ∈ A vf}rh; gksxkA vr%
fdlh Qyu dh lhek Kkr djus ds fy, fuEufyf[kr ewyHkwr çes;
f −1 : B → A ,d Qyu gS tks fuEu izdkj ifjHkkf"kr gS% f −1 (b ) = a
ç;qDr dh tkrh gSaA ;fn lim( f (x ) = 1 rFkk lim g(x ) = m (l rFkk m
;fn vkSj dsoy ;fn f (a) = b, rc f −1 , f dk izfrykse Qyu dgykrk x →a x →0

gSA ;fn f dk izfrykse Qyu ifjHkkf"kr gS] rc f izfrykseh; Qyu okLrfod la[;k;sa gS), rc
(Invertiable) dgykrk gSA (1) lim( f (x ) + g(x )) = l + m (;ksx fu;e)
x →a
−1 −1
f : B → A, f (b) = a ⇒ f (a) = b (2) lim( f (x ) − g(x )) = l − m (varj fu;e)
x →a
çfrykse Qyu ds xq.k/keZ % (3) lim( f (x ).g(x )) = l.m (xq.ku fu;e)
x →a
(i) ,dSdh vkPNknd (bijection) Qyu dk izfrykse Hkh ,dSdh
(4) lim k f (x ) = k .l (vpj xq.ku fu;e)
vkPNknd Qyu gksrk gSA x →a
(ii) ,dSdh vkPNknd Qyu dk O;qRØe vf}rh; gksrk gSA f (x ) l
(iii) (f ) = f (5) lim = ,m ≠ 0 (foHkktu fu;e)
x →a
–1 –1

g( x ) m
(iv) ;fn f rFkk g nks ,dSdh vkPNknd Qyu bl izdkj gSa fd 1
(gof) dk vfLrRo gS] rc (gof) = f og –1 –1 –1 (6) ;fn lim f (x ) = +∞ ;k −∞ , rc lim =0
x →a x →a f (x )
(v) ;fn f : A → B ,dSdh vkPNknd Qyu gS rc f : B → A, f dk
–1

(7) lim log{ f (x )} = log { lim f (x )}

izfrykse Qyu gSA f of = I rFkk fof = I , ;gk¡ I ,
–1

A
–1

B A
leqPp; A dk rFkk I ,B
x →a x →a
leqPp; B dk rRled Qyu gSA (8) ;fn f ( x ) ≤ g(x ) ∀ x, rc lim f ( x ) ≤ lim g(x )
x →a x →a

lhek (9) lim[ f (x )] g( x )

lim g ( x )
= { lim f (x )}x → a
x →a x →a
Qyu dh lhek (Limit of a function) (10) ;fn p rFkk q iw.kkZad gSa] rc lim( f (x ))p / q = l p / q , (l) p / q ,d
x →a
ekuk y = f (x ) , x dk ,d Qyu gSA ;fn x = a ij Qyu f (x ) okLrfod la[;k gSA
vfu/kkZfjr :i xzg.k djrk gS] rc ge Qyu dk eku Kkr djus ds (11) ;fn lim f (g(x )) = f ( lim g(x )) = f (m ) , g(x ) = m . ij lrr~ gS
x →a x →a
fy, ‘a’ dk fudVre eku ysrs gSA ;fn ;g eku ,d fuf'pr vf}rh;
la[;k dh vksj vxzlj gks] vFkkZr~ x, ‘a’ dh vksj vxzlj gks rks ;g vFkkZr~ lim ln[ f (x )] = ln(l), ;fn l > 0 .
x →a
fuf'pr la[;k f (x ) dh x = a ij lhek dgykrh gS rFkk bls ge
lim f (x ) fy[krs gSaA lhek Kkr djus dh fof/k;k¡ (Methods of evaluation of limits)
x →a

(1) oke i{k rFkk nf{k.k i{k lhek % a ds ck¡;h vksj a ds fudVre
fdlh Qyu dh lhek Kkr djus dh fuEufyf[kr fof/k;k¡ gSaA
fcanqvksa ij pj Qyu ds ekuksa ij fopkj djrs gSaA ;fn ;g eku ,d (1) chtxf.krh; lhek % ekuk f (x ) ,d chth; Qyu rFkk ‘a’ ,d
fuf'pr vf}rh; la[;k dh vksj vxzlj gks vFkkZr~ x, a dh vksj vxzlj okLrfod la[;k gSA rc lim f (x ) dks chth; lhek dgrs gSaA
x →a
gks] rc bl izdkj çkIr vf}rh; la[;k f (x ) dh x = a ij oke i{k lhek
(i) çR;{k çfrLFkkiu fof/k % fn, x, O;atd esa fcUnq ds lh/ks
dgykrh gS vkSj ladsr :i esa bls f (a − 0) = lim− f (x ) = lim f (a − h) izfrLFkkiu }kjk ,d fuf'pr la[;k izkIr gksrh gSA bl izkIr la[;k dks
x →a h →0

fy[krs gSaA fn, x, O;atd dh lhek dgrs gSaA

blh çdkj f (x ) dh x = a ij nkW;h lhek Kkr djrs gSa] ftls (ii) xq.ku[k.M fof/k : bl fof/k esa va'k rFkk gj ds xq.ku[k.M djds
f (a + 0 ) = lim+ f (x ) = lim f (a + h) ls O;Dr djrs gSaA
leku inksa dk foyksiu djus ds ckn 'ks"k in gh ifj.kke gksxkA
x →a h →0 (iii) ifjes;hdj.k fof/k : bl fof/k dk mi;ksx rHkh gksrk gS tc
f (a + 0 ) = lim f ( x ) = lim f (a + h) . O;atd ds va'k ;k gj ;k nksuksa esa fHkUukRed ?kkrsa (Fractional powers)
x →a + h →0
1 1
, bR;kfn gks] rc ifjes;hdj.k ds i'pkr~ inksa ds xq.ku[k.M djds]
(2) L.H.L. rFkk R.H.L. dks Kkr djus dh fof/k 2 3
(i)Qyu dh nk¡;h lhek (R.H.L.) Kkr djus ds fy,] x ds LFkku ij ifj.kke izkIr djrs gSaA
x + h fy[krs gSa] tcfd ck¡;h lhek (L.H.L.) ds fy, x ds LFkku ij x – h (iv) x → ∞ ds :i ij vk/kkfjr : bl çdkj ds O;atdksa dks
fy[krs gSaA loZizFke
1
ds Qyu ds :i esa O;Dr djrs gSaA blds ckn vfu/kkZfjr
(ii) bl çdkj çkIr Qyu esa x dks fn, gq, fcUnq ‘a’ ls çfrLFkkfir x
0 ∞
djrs gSaA :iksa ⎛⎜ , vkfn ⎞⎟ dks gVkus ds i'pkr~
1
dks 'kwU; (0) ls
(iii) vc h → 0 j[kdj Qyu dh lhek Kkr djrs gSaA ⎝0 ∞ ⎠ x
çfrLFkkfir djrs gSaA
 906 Qyu] lhek] lkarR; rFkk vodyuh;rk
(2) f=dks.kferh; lhek % f=dks.kferh; lhek Kkr djus ds fy, ⎛ λ⎞
x

fuEufyf[kr ifj.kke egRoiw.kZ gSA (d) lim (1 + λx )1 / x = e λ (e) lim ⎜ 1 + ⎟ = e λ

x →0 x → ∞⎝ x⎠
sin x x
(i) lim = 1 = lim ⎧∞ , if a > 1
x →0 x x → 0 sin x • lim a x = ⎨ vFkkZr~ a ∞ = ∞ , ;fn a > 1 rFkk a ∞ = 0
tan x x
x →∞
⎩0 , if a < 1
(ii) lim = 1 = lim ;fn a < 1 .
x →0 x x → 0 tan x
(5) L’ gkWLihVy fu;e % ;fn f (x ) rFkk g(x ) , x ds nks Qyu bl
sin −1 x x
(iii) lim = 1 = lim çdkj gS] fd
x →0 x x → 0 sin −1 x (i) lim f (x ) = lim g(x ) = 0
x →a x →a
tan −1 x x
(iv) lim = 1 = lim (ii) x = a ij nksuksa Qyu lrr~ gSA
x →0 x x → 0 tan −1 x
(iii) x = a ij nksuksa Qyu vodyuh; gSA
sin x 0 π (iv) f ' (x ) rFkk g ' ( x ) fcUnq x = a ij lrr~ gS, rc
(v) lim = (vi) lim cos x = 1
x →0 x 180 x →0
f (x ) f ' (x )
sin( x − a) tan( x − a) lim = lim bl izdkj gS fd g ' (a) ≠ 0
x → a g( x ) x → a g ' ( x )
(vii) lim =1 (viii) lim =1
x →a x −a x →a x −a ;fn lim f (x ) = ∞ vkSj lim g(x ) = ∞ gks] rc Hkh mijksDr
x →a x →a
(ix) lim sin −1 x = sin −1 a, | a | ≤ 1
x →a fu;e ykxw gksrk gSA
(x) lim cos −1
x = cos −1
a; | a | ≤ 1 f ' (x ) ∞
x →a ;fn lim dk :i vfu/kkZfjr gS] vFkkZr~ 0 ;k gS rFkk
x →a g' (x ) 0 ∞
(xi) lim tan −1 x = tan −1 a; − ∞ < a < ∞ f ' (x ), g ' ( x ) L’ gkWLihVy fu;e ds lHkh çfrcU/kksa dks lUrq"V djrk gS]
x →a
f ' (x )
(xii) lim
sin x
= lim
cos x
=0 rc bl fu;e ds lHkh inksa dh ij iqujko`fÙk dj ldrs gS]
x →∞ x x →∞ x g' (x )
sin (1 / x ) vFkkZr~ lim
f ' (x )
= lim
f "(x )
. dHkh-dHkh bl çfØ;k dks ,d ls vf/kd
(xiii) lim =1
x → ∞ (1 / x )
x →a g' (x ) x →a g "( x )

(3) y?kqx.kdh; lhek % y?kqx.kdh; lhek Kkr djus ds fy, fuEu ckj rc rd nksgjkrs gS] tc rd fd lhek dk eku çkIr u gks tk;sA
lw=ksa dk mi;ksx djrs gSaA lkarR;
x2 x3 çLrkouk (Introduction)
(i) log(1 + x ) = x − + − .......... . .vuUr inksa rd , tgk¡
2 3
−1 < x ≤ 1 rFkk ;g O;atd rHkh lR; gS] ;fn vk/kkj (base) e gksA lrr~rk dk vFkZ gS ‘fcuk fdlh O;o/kku vkSj fjDrrk ds’A ;fn
log(1 + x ) fdlh Qyu ds vkjs[k (xzkQ) esa dksbZ O;o/kku rFkk fjDrrk ugha gS] rc
(ii) lim = 1 (iii) lim log e x = 1 mls lrr~ Qyu dgrs gSaA Qyu tks fd lrr~ ugha gksrk gS mls vlrr~
x →0 x x →e

log(1 − x ) log a (1 + x )
Qyu dgrs gSaA tc Qyu ds vkjs[k dk v/;;u djrs gSa] rc ge ns[krs
(iv) lim = −1 (v) lim = log a e , a > 0, ≠ 1 gSa fd Qyu sin x , x, cos x , ex vkfn dk vkjs[k (xzkQ) lrr~ gksrk gS]
x →0 x x → 0 x
tcfd egÙke iw.kkZad Qyu [x] izR;sd iw.kkZad fcUnq ij vlrr~ gSA vr%
(4) pj?kkrkadh lhek % (i) Js.kh ds foLrkj ij vk/kkfjr : ge tkurs
;g Qyu vlrr~ Qyu dgykrk gSA blh çdkj] tan x , cot x , sec x ,
x2 x3
gSa fd e x = 1 + x + + + .......... ... ∞ 1
vkfn Hkh vlrr~ Qyu gSA
2! 3! x
pj?kkrakdh lhek Kkr djus ds fy, fuEu ifj.kkeksa dk mi;ksx djrs gSaA lrr~ Qyu
Y Y
ex −1 ax − 1
(a) lim =1 (b) lim = log e a
x →0 x x →0 x (0, 1)
λx
e −1 π
f (x) = x
(c) lim = λ (λ ≠ 0 ) –π/2 2π
x →0 x O π/2 X X′ X
–2π –π
∞
ds :i ij vk/kkfjr % pj?kkrkadh :i 1 ∞ Kkr djus ds
(ii) 1
(0,–1)
fy, fuEu ifj.kkeksa dk mi;ksx djrs gSaA y = sinx
(a) ;fn lim f (x ) = lim g(x ) = 0 , Y′
x →a x →a vlrr~ Qyu Y
f (x ) Y
lim 3
rc lim {1 + f (x )}1 / g( x ) = e x →a g( x ) , 2
x →a
1
vFkok tc lim f (x ) = 1 rFkk lim g(x ) = ∞ rc lim{ f (x )}g( x ) =
x →a x →a x →a
X X’ O X
lim ( f ( x )−1) g ( x ) lim ( f ( x )−1) g ( x ) O –3 –2 –1 1 2 3
lim [1 + f (x ) − 1] g( x )
= e x →a
e x →a
–1
x →a f(x)= 1/x
–2
x y = [x]
⎛ 1⎞ –3
(b) lim (1 + x )1 / x = e (c) lim ⎜ 1 + ⎟ = e
x →0 x → ∞⎝ x⎠
fdlh fcUnq ij Qyu dh lrr~rk Y’
 Qyu] lhek] lkarR; rFkk vodyuh;rk 907
(Continuity of a function at a point)
fdlh fcUnq ij Qyu dh vodyuh;rk
fdlh fcUnq x = a ij Qyu f (x ) dks mlds Mksesu esa lrr~ dgrs (Differentiability of a function at a point)
gSa] ;fn vkSj dsoy ;fn lim f (x ) = f (a) , vFkkZr~ Qyu f (x ) , x = a
x →a
vr% f (x ) fcUnq P ij vodyuh; gS, ;fn vkSj dsoy ;fn fcUnq P ij
ij lrr~ gS] rc og fuEufyf[kr rhu fLFkfr;ksa dks larq"V djrk gS % vf}rh; Li'kZ js[kk dk vfLrRo gS] nwljs 'kCnksa esa f(x) fcUnq P ij
(1) f (a) dk vfLrRo gks (‘a’, Qyu f(x) ds Mksesu esa gks) vodyuh; gS] ;fn vkSj dsoy ;fn fcUnq P oØ ds fljs ij fLFkr ugha gS
(2) lim f (x ) dk vfLrRo gks] vFkkZr~ lim+ f (x ) = lim− f (x ) vFkok vFkkZr~ “Qyu mu fcUnqvksa ij vodyuh; ugha gS] ftu ij Qyu ds xzkQ
x →a x →a x →a esa fNnz rFkk rh{.k fljs izkIr gks vFkkZr~ Qyu ml fcUnq ij vlrr~ gksA”
R.H.L. = L.H.L.
(3) lim f (x ) = f (a) (Qyu dk eku] lhek ds cjkcj gks) Y
x →a

lkarR; dh dkS'kh (Cauchy's) ifjHkk"kk : dksbZ Qyu f vius çkUr D esa

fdlh fcUnq a ij lrr~ dgykrk gS] ;fn vkSj dsoy ;fn lHkh ε > 0 ds f (x)=–x+1 f (x) = x – 1
fy;s ,d δ > 0 (ε ij fuHkZj) dk vfLrRo bl çdkj gks fd
f ' (x)= –1 f ' (x) = 1
| x − a | < δ ⇒| f (x ) − f (a)| < ε .

bl ifjHkk"kk dh lhek dh ifjHkk"kk ls rqyuk djus ij Qyu f (x ) , X

O 1 2 3
x =a ij lrr~ gksxk] ;fn lim f (x ) dk vfLrRo gks ,oa ;g f (a) ds
x →a
cjkcj gks vFkkZr~ lim− f (x ) = f (a) = lim f (x ) . Qyu f (x ) =| x − 1 | dk xzkQ [khapus ij ge ns[krs gSa] fd f (x ) ,
x →a x →a +
x = 1 ij vodyuh; ugha gS] D;ksafd g(x ) , x = 1 ij rh{.k fljk izkIr
oke i{k rFkk nf{k.k i{k dh lrr~rk djrk gSA
(Continuity from left and right)
(1) nk¡;k vodyt % x = a ij f (x ) ds nk¡;s vodyt dks x = a
Qyu f (x ) f (a + h) − f (a)
vFkok f ′(a+) ls çnf'kZr djrs gSa rFkk ;g lim gksrk gSA
h →0
(1) ck¡;s i{k ls lrr~ gksxk ;fn fcUnq x = a ij lim f (x ) = f (a) gSA h
x →a −0
(2) ck¡;k vodyt % x = a ,ij f (x ) ds ck¡;s vodyt dks
(2) nk¡;s i{k ls lrr~ gksxk ;fn fcUnq x =a ij
f ' (a − 0 ) vFkok f ' (a −) ls çnf'kZr djrs gSa rFkk ;g
lim f ( x ) = f (a) gSA
x →a + 0 f (a − h) − f (a)
lim gksrk gSA
vr% Qyu f (x ) , fcUnq x = a ij lrr~ gksxk] ;fn mldh nk¡;s i{k h →0 −h
ls rFkk ck¡;s i{k ls lrr~rk ,d leku gksA (3) Qyu f (x ) , fcUnq x = a ij fuf'pr :i ls vodyuh; gS] ;fn
lrr~ Qyuksa ds xq.k/keZ % ekuk f (x ) rFkk g(x ) , x = a ij nks lrr~ f ' (a + 0) = f ' (a − 0 ) = ifjfer gSA
Qyu gSa] rc f (a + h) − f (a) f (a − h) − f (a)
vFkkZr~ lim = lim = ifjfer rFkk
(i) cf (x ) , x = a ij lrr~ gksxk] tgk¡ c ,d vpj gSA h →0 h h →0 −h
(ii) f ( x ) ± g(x ) , x = a ij lrr~ gksxkA mHk;fu"B lhek dks x = a ij f (x ) dk vodyt dgrs gSa] ftls f ' (a)
f ( x ) − f (a)
(iii) f (x ) . g(x ) , x = a ij lrr~ gksxkA ls çnf'kZr djrs gSaA Li"V gS fd f ' (a) = lim {x → a tSls
x →a x −a
(iv) f (x ) / g(x ) , x = a ij lrr~ gksxk ysfdu g(a) ≠ 0 . ck¡;h vksj ls] oSls gh nk¡;h vksj ls}
vlrr~ Qyu (Discontinuous function) (4) vodyuh;rk ds dqN egRoiw.kZ fu"d"kZ %
(i) çR;sd cgqin Qyu] çR;sd x ∈ R ds fy, vodyuh; gksrk gSA
dksbZ Qyu ‘f ’ vius çkUr D ds fdlh fcUnq x = a ij vlrr~
dgykrk gS ;fn bl fcUnq ij lrr~ ugha gSa rFkk fcUnq ‘a’ dks vlrr~rk (ii) pj?kkrkadh Qyu a x , a > 0 çR;sd x ∈ R ds fy, vodyuh;
dk fcUnq dgrs gSaA gksrk gSA
vlrr~rk fuEu esa ls fdlh Hkh ,d fLFkfr esa gks ldrh gS % (iii) çR;sd vpj] x ∈ R ds fy, vodyuh; gksrk gSA
(iv) y?kqx.kdh; Qyu vius Mksesu ds çR;sd fcUnq ij vodyuh;
(i) lim+ f (x ) ;k lim− f (x ) ;k nksuksa dk vfLrRo u gksA
x →a x →a gksrk gSA
(ii) lim+ f (x ) o lim f (x ) dk vfLrRo gks ijUrq vkil esa (v) f=dks.kferh; rFkk çfrykse f=dks.kferh; Qyu vius Mksesu esa
x →a x →a − vodyuh; gksrs gSaA
cjkcj u gksaA (vi) nks vodyuh; Qyuksa dk ;ksx] vUrj] xq.kk rFkk Hkkx Hkh
(iii) lim+ f (x ) o lim f (x ) nksuksa dk vfLrRo gks ijUrq buesa vodyuh; gksrk gSA
x →a x →a −
(vii) vodyuh; Qyuksa dk la;kstu Hkh vodyuh; gksrk gSA
dksbZ ,d ;k nksuksa f (a) ds cjkcj u gksaA

vodyuh;rk
 908 Qyu] lhek] lkarR; rFkk vodyuh;rk

Qyu
" ;fn fdlh Qyu dk çkUr (domain) ,d prqFkkZa'k esa gks rks
f=dks.kferh; Qyu lnSo ,dSdh gksxkA 1.
1
;fn f (x ) = cos(log x ) , rc f (x ) f (y ) − [ f (x / y ) + f (xy )] =
" ;fn f=dksferh; Qyu fdUgh nks Øekxr prqFkkZa'kksa esa vius 2
[IIT 1983; RPET 1995; MP PET 1995;
fpUg~ cnyrk gS rc ;g ,dSdh gksxk ysfdu ;fn ;g vius fpUg ugha Karnataka CET 1999; UPSEAT 2001]
cnyrk gS rc ;g cgq,dSdh gksxkA
1
" rhu Øekxr prqFkkZa'kksa esa f=dks.kferh; Qyu lnSo cgq,dSdh (a) −1 (b)
2
gksrs gSaA (c) −2 (d) buesa ls dksbZ ugha
" ;fn dksbZ Qyu vius izkar esa iw.kZr% o/kZeku vFkok àkleku gS 1−x
rks Qyu ,dSdh gksxkA 2. ;fn f (x ) = , rc f [ f (cos 2θ )] =
1+ x
" dksbZ lrr Qyu ftldk de ls de ,d mfPp"B vFkok [MP PET 1994, 2001; Pb. CET 2002]
fufEu"B eku gks cgq,dSdh Qyu gksxkA (a) tan 2θ (b) sec 2θ
" dksbZ cgqin Qyu f : R → R vkPNknd gksxk ;fn f fo"ke ?kkr (c) cos 2θ (d) cot 2θ
dk Qyu gksxk rFkk var{ksZih gksxk ;fn f le?kkr dk Qyu gksxkA ⎛x⎞
3. ;fn f (x ) = sin log x , rc f (xy ) + f ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 2 f (x ). cos log y dk
" fdlh var{ksZih Qyu ds lgMksesu dks ewy Qyu dh jsat dh ⎝y⎠
rjg iqu% ifjHkkf"kr dj vkPNknd Qyu cuk ldrs gSA eku gS [Orissa JEE 2004]
" ;fn f(x) dk vkorZukad T gS rks 1/f(x) dk vkorZukad Hkh T gksxkA (a) 1 (b) 0
(c) –1 (d) sin log x . cos log y
" ;fn f(x) dk vkorZukad T gS rks f (x ) dk vkorZukad Hkh T
4. b o c ds os eku] tks fd loZlfedk f (x + 1) − f (x ) = 8 x + 3 dks
gksxkA
larq"V djrs gSa] tgk¡ f (x ) = bx 2 + cx + d , gSa [Roorkee 1992]
" x − [x ] dk vkorZukad 1 gksrk gSA chtxf.krh; Qyu
(a) b = 2, c = 1 (b) b = 4 , c = −1
x , x 2, x 3 + 5 bR;kfn ds vkorZukad dk vfLrRo ugha gSA
(c) b = −1, c = 4 (d) b = −1, c = 1
" ;fn lim f (x ) dk vfLrRo ugha gS] rc ge ml vlrr~rk dks
x →a a x + a−x
5. fn;k x;k Qyu gS f (x ) = , (a > 2) rc
nwj ugha dj ldrs] ;g nwj u djus ;ksX; (non-removable) vlrr~rk 2
vFkok vko';d vlrr~rk gksrh gSA f (x + y ) + f (x − y ) =
" ;fn Qyu (f), fcUnq x = c ij lrr~ gS rFkk nwljk Qyu (g), (a) 2 f (x ). f (y ) (b) f ( x ). f (y )
fcUnq x = c ij vlrr~ gS] rc f (x )
(c) (d) buesa ls dksbZ ugha
(a) f + g rFkk f – g vlrr~ gSA (b) f.g lrr~ gks ldrk gSA f (y )
" ;fn f rFkk g, x = c ij vlrr~ gS] rc f + g, f – g rFkk fg Hkh x f (a)
6. ;fn f (x ) = , rc = [MP PET 1996]
lrr~ gks ldrs gSaA x −1 f (a + 1)
" fcUnq Qyu (ftlds Mksesu rFkk jsat esa dsoy ,d eku gksrk gS) ⎛1⎞
(a) f (−a) (b) f⎜ ⎟
vlrr~ Qyu gksrk gSA ⎝a⎠
) ;fn dksbZ Qyu fdlh fcUnq ij vodyuh; gS rc og ml fcUnq ⎛ −a ⎞
(c) f (a 2 ) (d) f⎜ ⎟
ij lrr~ Hkh gksxkA ⎝ a −1⎠
vFkkZr~ vodyuh;rk ⇒ lrr~rk] ijUrq bldk foykse lR; ugha gSA
1 ⎡ ⎛ x2 ⎞ ⎛ x 2 ⎞⎤
" ;fn ,d Qyu ‘f’, x = a ij vodyuh; ugha gS] fdarq lrr~ gS] 7. ;fn f (x ) = cos(log x ) , rc f (x 2 ) f (y 2 ) − ⎢ f ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + f ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟⎥
2 ⎣⎢ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ y ⎠⎦⎥
rc og x = a ij xzkQ esa rh{.k fljk çkIr djrk gSA
dk eku gS [MNR 1992]
" ;fn x = a ij f(x) rFkk g(x) nksuksa gh vodyuh; ugha gS] rc x = (a) –2 (b) –1
a ij xq.kuQy f(x).g(x) vodyuh; gks ldrk gSA (c) 1/2 (d) buesa ls dksbZ ugha
" ;fn x = a ij f(x) vodyuh; gS rFkk g(x) vodyuh; ugha gS] 8. log x 2
dk rqY; Qyu gS [MP PET 1997]
rc ;ksx Qyu f(x) + g(x); x = a ij vodyuh; ugha gksxkA (a) 2 log x (b) 2 log | x |
" ;fn f(x) rFkk g(x) nksuksa x = a ij vodyuh; ugha gS, rc ;ksx
(c) | log x 2 | (d) (log x ) 2
Qyu vodyuh; Qyu gks ldrk gSA
 Chapter

22
vodyu rFkk vodyu ds vuqç;ksx
(4) çfrykse f=dks.kferh; Qyuksa dk vodyu :
vodyu d 1
(i) sin −1 x = , −1 < x < 1 ds fy,
dx 1 − x2
çLrkouk (Introduction)
d −1
(ii) cos −1 x = , −1 < x < 1 ds fy,
,d jkf'k ds ifjorZu dh nj] fdlh nwljh jkf'k ds lkis{k cM+k dx 1 − x2
egRo j[krh gSA d 1
,d jkf'k ‘y’ ds ifjorZu dh nj] fdlh nwljh jkf'k ‘x’ ds lkis{k y dk (iii) sec −1 x = , | x|>1 ds fy,
dx | x| x2 − 1
x ds lkis{k vodyt ;k vodyu xq.kkad dgykrh gSA
d −1
ekud vody xq.kkad (Some standard differentiation) (iv) cosec −1 x = , | x|>1 ds fy,
dx | x| x2 − 1
d n
(1) chtxf.krh; Qyuksa dk vodyu % x = nx n −1 (v)
d
tan −1 x =
1
, x ∈R ds fy,
dx dx 1 + x2
d d 1
(i) [ f (x )]n = n [ f (x )] n −1 f ′( x ) (ii) ( x)= d −1
dx dx 2 x (vi) cot −1 x = , x∈R ds fy,
dx 1 + x2
d ⎛ 1 ⎞ n (5) vfrijoyf;d Qyuksa dk vodyu :
(iii) ⎜ ⎟ = − n +1
dx ⎝ x n ⎠ x d d
(i) sinh x = cosh x (ii) cosh x = sinh x
(2) f=dks.kferh; Qyuksa dk vodyu % dx dx
d d d d
(i) sin x = cos x (ii) cos x = − sin x (iii) tanh x = sech 2 x (iv) coth x = − cosech 2 x
dx dx dx dx
d d d
(iii) tan x = sec 2 x (iv) sec x = sec x tan x (v) sech x = − sech x tanh x
dx dx dx
d d d
(v) cosec x = −cosec x cot x (vi) cot x = −cosec 2 x (vi) cosech x = −cosech x coth x
dx dx dx
(3) y?kqx.kdh; o pj?kkrkadh Qyuksa dk vodyu : (vii)
d
sinh −1 x = 1 / (1 + x 2 )
dx
d 1
(i) log x = , x > 0 ds fy, d
dx x (viii) cosh −1 x = 1 / ( x 2 − 1)
dx
d x
(ii) e =e x
d d
dx (ix) tanh −1 x = 1 /(x 2 − 1) (x) coth −1 x = 1 /(1 − x 2 )
dx dx
d x
(iii) a = a x log a , a > 0 ds fy, d
dx (xi) sech −1 x = −1 / x (1 − x 2 )
dx
d 1
(iv) log a x = , x > 0, a> 0, a ≠ 1 ds fy, d
dx x log a (xii) cosech −1 x = −1 / x (1 + x 2 )
dx
 980 vodyu rFkk vodyu ds vuqç;ksx
(6) dqN egRoiw.kZ çfrLFkkiu : vodyu dh fof/k;k¡ (Methods of differentiation)
lkj.kh % 22.1
(1) vLi"V Qyuksa dk vodyu % ;fn y dks iw.kZ :i ls x ds inksa esa
Qyu çfrLFkkiu Qyu çfrLFkkiu O;Dr fd;k tk lds] rks ge y dks x dk Li"V Qyu dgrs gSaA
x = a sin θ x = a tan θ mnkgj.kkFkZ : y = sin x, y = e , y = x + x + 1 bR;kfnA ;fn y, x ls lEcfU/kr gS
x 2

a2 − x 2 x 2 + a2
;k a cos θ ;k a cot θ rFkk y = f (x ) ds :i esa mls lqfo/kkiwoZd O;Dr ugha dj ldrs gSa ijUrq
x = a sec θ a−x f ( x , y ) = 0 ds :i esa O;Dr dj ldrs gSa rks ge y dks x dk vLi"V
x 2 − a2 x = a cos 2θ
;k acosec θ a+x Qyu dgrs gSaA
a2 − x 2 x 2 = a 2 cos 2θ
x = a sin 2 θ
dk;Zfof/k : (a) f (x , y) = 0 ds çR;sd in dk x ds lkis{k
(i)
ax − x 2
a2 + x 2 vodyu djrs gSaA
x x
x = a tan 2 θ x = a sin 2 θ (b)
dy
ds lHkh in ,d i{k esa rFkk 'ks"k in nwljs i{k esa
a+x a−x
dx
(x − a)(x − b ) x = a sec 2 θ (x − a)(b − x ) x = a cos 2 θ LFkkukUrfjr djrs gSaA
− b tan θ 2
+ b sin 2 θ
dy
(c) dks x o y nksuksa ds Qyu ds :i esa O;Dr djrs gSaA
vodyu ij izes; (Theorems for differentiation) dx

dy
ekuk f (x ), g(x ) vkSj u(x ) vodyuh; Qyu gSaA • vLi"V vodyu dh fLFkfr esa , x vkSj y nksuksa ds in
dx
;fn ,d fuf'pr varjky ds lHkh fcUnqvksa ij f ′(x ) = 0, rc
(1) lfEefyr dj ldrk gSA
Qyu f (x ) bl varjky esa ,d fu;r eku j[krk gSA ⎛ ∂f ⎞
⎜ ⎟
(2) J`a[kyk fu;e % dy ⎝ ∂x ⎠
(ii) dk;Zfof/k : ;fn f(x, y)= vpj] rks =− ,
dx ⎛ ∂f ⎞
(i) fLFkfr I : ;fn y] u dk Qyu gS vkSj u] x dk Qyu gS] rc x ds ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ ∂y ⎠
dy dy du
lkis{k y dk vodyt = . ;k y = f (u)
dx du dx ∂f ∂f
tgk¡ o Øe'k% x o y ds lkis{k] f (x , y ) ds vkaf'kd
∂x ∂y
dy du
⇒ = f ' (u) gksxkA vody xq.kkad gSaA
dx dx

(ii) fLFkfr II : ;fn y vkSj x nksuksa dks t ds inksa esa O;Dr dj ldrs gSa] (2) y?kqx.kdh; vodyu ;fn fdlh fn,
(Logarithmic differentiation) :
rks y vkSj x nksuksa dks t ds lkis{k vodfyr djrs gSaA x;s Qyu ds nksuksa i{kksa dk y?kqx.kd ysdj çkIr ifj.kke dk vodyu
djrs gSa rks vodyu dh ;g fof/k y?kqx.kdh; vodyu dgykrh gSA
dy dy / dt
= vodyu dh ;g fof/k fuEu :i ds Qyuksa ds fy, mi;ksxh jgrh gSA
dx dx / dt

(3) ;ksx o vUrj fu;e : (i) y = [ f (x ]g( x ) ]

tgk¡ f (x ) o g(x ) ] x ds Qyu gSaA bl rjg ds
Qyuksa ds vodyu ds fy, fuEu çfØ;k viukrs gSa:
d d d
( f (x ) ± g( x )) = ( f (x )) ± (g(x ))
dx dx dx ekuk y = [ f (x )]g( x ) .
(4) xq.ku fu;e : nksuksa i{kksa dk y?kqx.kd ysus ij] log y = g(x ). log f (x).
d d d
(i) ( f (x ).g(x )) = f ( x ) g(x ) + g(x ) f (x ) f1 (x ). f2 (x )
dx dx dx (ii) y =
g1 (x ).g 2 (x )
d dw du dv
(ii) (u.v.w.) = u.v. + v.w. + u.w.
dx dx dx dx nksuksa i{kksa dk y?kqx.kd ysus ij]
d d log y = log[ f1 (x )] + log[ f2 (x )] − log[ g1 (x )] − log[ g 2 (x )]
(5) vfn'k xq.ku fu;e : (k f (x )) = k f (x )
dx dx
x ds lkis{k vodyu djus ij]
d d
g(x ) ( f (x )) − f (x ) (g(x )) 1 dy f ′( x ) f2′ (x ) g1′ (x ) g′2 (x )
(6) foHkktu fu;e : d ⎛⎜⎜ f (x) ⎞⎟⎟ = dx dx , y dx
= 1 + − −
f1 ( x ) f2 (x ) g1 (x ) g 2 (x )
.
dx ⎝ g(x ) ⎠ (g(x ))2

tcfd g(x ) ≠ 0 . (3) çkpfyd Qyuksa dk vodyu : ;fn x vkSj y fdlh ,d pj ds

Qyu ds :i esa fn, x;s gSa vFkkZr~ x = φ (t) , y = ψ (t) nks Qyu gSa vkSj
t ,d pj gSA bl fLFkfr esa x vkSj y çkpfyd Qyu ;k çkpfyd d 2y
dgykrk gS vkSj ;fn Hkh vodyuh; gS rks bldk vodyt y dk
lehdj.k dgykrs gSa rFkk t çkpy dgykrk gSA çkpfyd Qyu dh fLFkfr dx 2

esa
dy
dk eku Kkr djus ds fy, ge loZçFke Qyu esa ç;qDr çkpy t d 3y
r`rh; dksfV dk vodyt dgykrk gS ftls ls çnf'kZr djrs gSaA
dx dx 3
dk foyksiu djds x vkSj y nksuksa esa lEcU/k çkIr djrs gSa vkSj fQj mudk x ;s lHkh vodyt mRrjksRrj vodyt dgykrs gSa rFkk bl çfØ;k dks
ds lkis{k vodyu djrs gSaA ysfdu ;fn çkpy t dk foyksiu dfBu gks rks mRrjksRrj vodyu dgrs gSaA y = f (x ) ds mRrjksRrj vodyu dks
dy dy dy / dt lkadsfrd :i esa fuEu çdkj çnf'kZr djrs gSa :
dk eku lw= = ls Kkr djrs gSA
dx dx dx / dt y 1 , y 2 , y 3, ........., y n ,...... y ′, y ′′, y ′′′........., y n ,......

(4) vuUr Jsf.k;ksa dk vodyu : tc y] pj x dh vuUr Js.kh ds d

Dy, D 2 y, D 3 y........., D n y,...... , (tgk¡ D = )
dy dx
:i esa fn;k x;k gks rFkk gesa Kkr djuk gks rks ge bl rF; dk
dx
dy d 2y d 3y dny
mi;ksx djrs gSa] fd vuUr Js.kh ls ,d ;k vf/kd in gVk nsa rks Js.kh , , , ....... ,......... ..
vçHkkfor jgrh gSA dx dx 2 dx 3 dx n
f ′(x ), f ′′(x ), f ′′′(x ),........ ., f n (x ),......
(i) ;fn y = f (x ) + f (x ) + f (x ) + .... ∞ , rc y = f (x ) + y
;fn y = f (x ) rks fcUnq x = a ij Qyu f (x ) dk nok¡ vodyt
dy dy
⇒ y 2 = f (x ) + y ⇒ 2 y = f ′(x ) + lkekU;r% fuEu çdkj çnf'kZr fd;k tkrk gS
dx dx
dy f ′(x ) ⎛ d ny ⎞
∴ = . ⎜ ⎟ ;k (y n ) x =a ;k (y n ) x =a ;k f n (a)
dx 2 y − 1 ⎜ dx n ⎟
⎝ ⎠ x =a
f ( x ) f ( x )..... ∞
(ii) ;fn y = f (x ) f ( x ) , rc y = f (x )y (2) dqN egRoiw.kZ Qyuksa ds n osa vodyt
1 dy y . f ′(x ) dy
∴ log y = y log f (x ) ; = + log f (x ). dn ⎛ nπ ⎞
y dx f (x ) dx (i) (a) n
sin(ax + b ) = an sin⎜ + ax + b ⎟
dx ⎝ 2 ⎠
dy y 2 f ′(x )
∴ =
dx f ( x )[1 − y log f ( x )] dn ⎛ nπ ⎞
(b) cos(ax + b) = a n cos ⎜ + ax + b ⎟
1 dy y f ′( x ) dx n ⎝ 2 ⎠
(iii) ;fn y = f (x ) + , rc = .
f (x ) +
1 dx 2 y − f (x ) dn m!
f ( x ) + .... ∞ (ii) (ax + b)m = an (ax + b)m −n , tgk¡ m > n
dx n (m − n) !
(5) la;qDr Qyuksa dk vodyu : ekuk dksbZ Qyu fog (x ) ;k
f [g(x )] ds :i esa fn;k x;k gSA
fo'ks"k fLFkfr;k¡ :
dk;Zfof/k % J`[kayk fu;e (Chain rule) ls voydu djus ij] (a) tc m = n ; D n {(ax + b) n } = a n .n !
d
f [g(x )] = f ' [g(x )].g ' (x ) . (b) • tc a = 1, b = 0 , rc y = x m
dx
m!
∴ Dn (x m ) = m (m − 1).......( m − n + 1)x m −n = x m −n
,d Qyu dk nwljs Qyu ds lkis{k vodyu (Differentiation of (m − n)!
a function w.r.t. another function)
• tc m < n, D n {(ax + b)m } = 0
ekuk u = f (x ) vkSj v = g(x ) , x ds nks Qyu gSa] rc Qyu f (x ) (c) tc a = 1, b = 0 rFkk m = n ,
dk vodyu] Qyu g(x ) ds lkis{k fuEu lw= }kjk Kkr fd;k tk
du du / dx
rc y = x n ;∴ D n (x n ) = n !
ldrk gS = .
dv dv / dx 1
(d) tc m = −1, y =
(ax + b)
mRrjksRrj vodyu ;k mPpdksfV ds vodyt (Successive Dn (y ) = an (−1)(−2)(−3)........( −n)(ax + b)−1 −n
differentiation or higher order derivatives)
an (−1)n n !
= an (−1)n (1 . 2 .3 ...... n)(ax + b)−1 −n =
(1) ifjHkk"kk ,oa fu:i.k : ;fn y, x dk Qyu gS o x ds lkis{k (ax + b )n +1
dy
vodyuh; gS rks bldk vodyt Kkr fd;k tk ldrk gS] tks dn (−1)n −1 (n − 1)!an
dx (iii) log(ax + b ) =
dx n (ax + b)n
dy
çFke dksfV dk vodyt dgykrk gSA ;fn Hkh vodyuh; Qyu d n ax
dx (iv) (e ) = a n e ax
d 2y dx n
gS rks bls iqu% x ds lkis{k vodfyr dj ldrs gSa rFkk bls ls d n (a x )
dx 2 (v) = a x (log a)n
çnf'kZr djrs gSa] tks y dk x ds lkis{k f}rh; dksfV dk vodyt dx n
 982 vodyu rFkk vodyu ds vuqç;ksx

d n ax
(vi) (a) e sin(bx + c) = r n e ax sin(bx + c + n φ ) , f (x , y ) dk x ds lkis{k vkaf'kd vodyu, f (x , y ) dk lkekU;
dx n
∂f
tgk¡ r = a 2 + b 2 ; φ = tan −1
b vodyu xq.kkad dgykrk gS] tcfd y dks vpj fy;k tk;sA bls ;k
a ∂x
d n ax Dx f ;k f x }kjk iznf'kZr djrs gSaA
(b) e cos(bx + c) = r n e ax cos(bx + c + n φ )
dx n ∂f f (x + h, y ) − f (x , y )
bl izdkj] = lim
vkaf'kd fHkUuksa ds mi;ksx ls n okW vodyt Kkr djuk ∂x h →0 h
(nth derivatives using partial fractions) iqu% f (x , y ) dk y ds lkis{k vkaf'kd vodyu] f (x , y ) dk lkekU;
vodyu xq.kkad dgykrk gS] tcfd x dks vpj fy;k tk;sA
chtxf.krh; O;atdksa ftuds va'k rFkk gj ifjes; chtxf.krh;
O;atd gks] dk nok¡ vodyt Kkr djus ds fy, O;atd dks loZçFke ∂f f (x , y + k ) − f (x , y )
bl çdkj, = lim
1 ∂y k → 0 k
vkaf'kd fHkUuksa esa fo;ksftr djrs gSa rFkk mlds mijkUr ds nosa
ax + b
vodyt dks Kkr djus okys lw= dk mi;ksx djrs gSaA
mnkgj.kkFkZ% ;fn z = f (x , y ) = x 4 + y 4 + 3 xy 2 + x 2 y + x + 2 y

∂z ∂f
rc ;k ;k fx = 4 x 3 + 3 y 2 + 2 xy + 1 ,
lekdyuh; Qyu dk vodyu ∂x ∂x
(Differentiation of integral function) (tcfd y vpj gS)
∂z ∂f
;fn g1 (x ) o g 2 (x ) nksuksa Qyu vUrjky [a, b] esa ifjHkkf"kr gS ;k ;k fy = 4 y 3 + 6 xy + x 2 + 2 ,
∂y ∂y
vkSj fcUnq x ∈ (a, b) esa vodyuh; gSa rFkk f (t) , g 1 (a ) ≤ f (t ) ≤ g 2 (b )
(tcfd x vpj
ds fy, lrr~ gSa] rks
gS)
d g 2 (x )

dx ∫
g1 ( x )
f (t)dt = f [g 2 (x )]g′2 (x ) − f [g1 (x )]g1′ (x )
mPp dksfV ds vkaf'kd vodyt
d d (Partial derivatives of higher order)
= f [g 2 (x )] g 2 (x ) − f [g1 (x )] g1 (x ) .
dx dx
∂f ∂f
yScuht izes; (Leibntiz’s theorem) ekuk nks pjksa dk Qyu f (x , y ) bl çdkj gS] fd ,
∂x ∂y
nksuksa

teZu xf.krK th- MCY;w- yScuht us nks Qyuksa ds xq.kuQy ds nosa dk vfLrRo gSA
vody xq.kkad dks Kkr djus ds fy, ,d fof/k nh gSA ;g fof/k ∂f ∂2 f
(1) dk x ds lkis{k vkaf'kd vodyt ;k fxx ls çnf'kZr
yScuht çes; ds uke ls tkuh tkrh gSA ∂x ∂x 2
gksrk gSA
çes; dk dFku % ;fn u o v, x ds nks Qyu bl çdkj gSa fd muds
nosa vodyt vfLrRo esa gSa] rks ∂f ∂2 f
(2) dk y ds lkis{k vkaf'kd vodyt ;k fyy ls iznf'kZr
n −1 n−2
∂y ∂y 2
D (u.v.) =
n n
C0 (D u)v + C1 D
n n
u.Dv + C 2 D
n
u.D v + .......... .
2
gksrk gSA
n −r
+ Cr D
n
u.D v + ......... + u.( D v)
r n
∂f ∂2 f
(3) dk y ds lkis{k vkaf'kd vodyt ;k fxy ls iznf'kZr
∂x ∂y ∂x
bl çes; ds }kjk Qyu dk nok¡ vodyt Kkr djus ds fy, çFke
o f}rh; Qyu dk mfpr p;u (Proper selection) djuk pkfg,A çFke gksrk gSA
Qyu dk p;u bl çdkj gksuk pkfg, fd bldk nok¡ vodyt lw= ds ∂f ∂2 f
}kjk Kkr fd;k tk ldsA f}rh; Qyu bl çdkj gksuk pkfg, fd dqN (4) dk x ds lkis{k vkaf'kd vodyt ;k fyx ls
∂y ∂y ∂x
inksa rd mRrjksRrj vodyu djus ij 'kwU; gks tk;s] ftlls bldh iqu% iznf'kZr gksrk gSA
fy[kus dh vko';drk u jgsA
mijksDr pkjksa f}rh; dksfV ds vkaf'kd vodyt gSaA
• ;fn f (x , y ) lrr~ vkaf'kd vodyt j[krk gS] rc lHkh lkekU;
∂2 f ∂2 f
fLFkfr;ksa esa = ;k fxy = fyx .
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
vkaf'kd vodyu
le?kkrh; Qyuksa ds fy;s ;wwyj çes;
ifjHkk"kk (Definition) (Euler’s theorem on homogeneous functions)
 ;fn f (x , y ) , x o y esa n ?kkr dk le?kkrh; Qyu gS] rc ⎛ dy ⎞
ψ =0⇒⎜ ⎟ =0
∂f ∂f ⎝ dx ⎠( x 1 , y1 )
x +y = nf .
∂x ∂y • ;fn Li'kZ js[kk x-v{k ds yEccr~ gks]rc
;wyj izes; ls lEcfU/kr rF; ψ=
π ⎛ dy ⎞
⇒⎜ ⎟ =∞
(Deduction of Euler’s theorem) 2 ⎝ dx ⎠ ( x 1 , y1 )
;fn f (x , y ) , x o y esa n ?kkr dk le?kkrh; Qyu gS] rc (2) vfHkyEc dh ço.krk : fdlh oØ ds ,d fcUnq ij P(x 1 , y 1 )
∂ f
2
∂ f 2
∂f vfHkyEc og js[kk gS tks fcUnq P ij [khaph xbZ Li'kZ js[kk ij yEc gks
(1) x +y = (n − 1) rFkk fcUnq P ls xqtjrh gks] rc
∂x 2
∂x ∂y ∂x
−1
∂2 f ∂2 f ∂f vfHkyEc dh ço.krk =
(2) x + y 2 = (n − 1) Li'kZ js[kk dh ço.krk
∂y ∂x ∂y ∂y
−1 ⎛ dx ⎞
∂2 f ∂2 f ∂2 f = = −⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
(3) x2 + 2 xy + y 2 2 = n(n − 1) f (x , y ) ⎛ dy ⎞ ⎝ dy ⎠ P ( x 1 , y1 )
∂x 2
∂x ∂y ∂y ⎜ ⎟
⎝ dx ⎠ P ( x 1 , y1 )
vodyu ds vuqç;ksx • ;fn vfHkyEc x-v{k ds lekUrj gks] rc
⎛ dx ⎞ dx⎛ ⎞
− ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ =0 ;k ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ =0
;kaf=kdh esa vuqiz;ksx ,oa ifjorZu dh nj ⎝ dy ⎠ ( x 1 , y1 ) ⎝ ⎠ ( x 1 , y1 )
dy

js[kh; xfr esa osx rFkk Roj.k • ;fn vfHkyEc x-v{k ij yEc gks (;k y-v{k ds lekUrj gks)] rc
(Velocity and acceleration in rectilinear motion) ⎛ dy ⎞
−⎜ ⎟ =0
⎝ dx ⎠ ( x 1 , y1 )
fdlh xfr'khy d.k dh le; ds lkis{k foLFkkiu esa ifjorZu dh
nj osx rFkk le; ds lkis{k osx esa ifjorZu dh nj Roj.k dgykrh gSA Li'kZ js[kk ,oa vfHkyEc ds lehdj.k
ekuk le; t ij d.k ds osx o Roj.k Øe’k% v rFkk a gkas] rks (Equation of the tangent and normal)
ds dv d 2 s
osx (v) = ; Roj.k (a) = = 2 . (1) Li'kZ js[kk dk lehdj.k % oØ y = f (x ) ds fcUnq P(x 1 , y 1 ) ij
dt dt dt
Li'kZ js[kk dk lehdj.k gS] y − y 1 = ⎛⎜
dy ⎞
vodyt dk ifjorZu dh nj dh rjg O;ogkj ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ( x 1 , y1 )
dx
(x − x 1 )
(Derivative as the rate of change)
(2) vfHkyEc dk lehdj.k % oØ y = f (x ) ds fcUnq P(x 1 , y 1 ) ij
;fn ,d pj jkf'k y dk t esa Qyu y = f (t) gS] rc le; Δt ds −1
eku esa FkksM+k lk Hkh ifjorZu gksus ij y ds eku esa laxr ifjorZu vfHkyEc dk lehdj.k gS] y − y 1 = (x − x 1 )
Δy gksrk gSA ⎛ dy ⎞
⎜ ⎟
Δy ⎝ dx ⎠ ( x 1 , y1 )
bl çdkj] vkSlr ifjorZu dh nj =
Δt nks oØksa dk izfrPNsnu dks.k
dy (Angle of intersection of two curves)
x ds lkis{k y dk vody xq.kkad vFkkZr~ , x ds lkis{k y esa
dx
ifjorZu dh nj gSA nks oØksa dk çfrPNsnu dks.k nksuksa oØksa ds çfrPNsn fcUnq ij [khaph
xbZ Li'kZ js[kkvksa ds chp dk dks.k gSA
Li'kZ js[kk ,oa vfHkyEc vr% nksuksa oØksa y = f1 (x ) ,oa y = f2 (x ) dh Li'kZ js[kkvksa ds chp
⎛ dy ⎞ ⎛ dy ⎞
Li'kZ js[kk ,oa vfHkyEc dh izo.krk ⎜ ⎟ −⎜ ⎟
⎝ dx ⎠1( x 1 , y1 ) ⎝ dx ⎠ 2( x 1 , y1 )
(Slope of the tangent and normal) dk dks.k gS] tan φ =
⎛ dy ⎞ ⎛ dy ⎞
1+⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
(1) Li'kZ js[kk dh ço.krk : ;fn fdlh oØ y = f (x ) ds ,d fcanq ⎝ dx ⎠1( x , y ) ⎝ dx ⎠ 2( x , y )
1 1 1 1
P(x 1 , y 1 ) ij Li'kZ js[kk [khaph tk;sa vkSj ;g Li'kZ js[kk x-v{k dh
ledks.kh; ;k ykfEcd oØ : ;fn nks oØksa dk çfrPNsn dks.k ,d
/kukRed fn'kk ls ψ dks.k cukrh gS] rc ledks.k gks] rks nksuksa oØksa dks ledks.kh; oØ ;k ykfEcd oØ dgrs gSaA
Y Li'kZ js[kk π
;fn oØ ledks.kh; gksa] rks φ =
vfHkyEc 2

vr% m 1 m 2 = −1 ⇒ ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ = −1
dy dy
y = f(x) P(x1, y1) ⎝ dx ⎠ 1 ⎝ dx ⎠ 2
ψ Li'kZ js[kk] vfHkyEc] v/kksLi'kZ js[kk ,oa v/kksyEc dh yEckbZ
X
O ⎛ dy ⎞
Li'kZ js[kk dh ço.krk = tan ψ = ⎜ ⎟ (Length of tangent, normal, subtangent and subnormal)
⎝ dx ⎠ ( x1 , y1 )
Y
• ;fn Li'kZ js[kk x-v{k ds lekUrj gks] rc
Li'kZ js[kk
vfHkyEc
P(x,y)
y ψ
ψ
X
O A C B
 984 vodyu rFkk vodyu ds vuqç;ksx
2 ;k f ( x ) − f (a) > 0 ∀ x ∈ (a − δ , a + δ ), x ≠ a
⎛ dy ⎞
1+⎜ ⎟
⎝ dx ⎠ x =aij Qyu dk eku vFkkZr~ f (a) , x = a ij f (x ) dk LFkkuh;
(1) Li'kZ js[kk dh yEckbZ : PA = y cosec ψ = y
⎛ ⎞
dy
fufEu"B eku dgykrk gSA
⎜ ⎟
⎝ dx ⎠
2
os fcUnq ftl ij Qyu LFkkuh; mfPp"B ;k LFkkuh; fufEu"B eku
⎛ dy ⎞ j[krk gS pje fcUnq dgykrs gSa rFkk LFkkuh; mfPp"B o LFkkuh; fufEu"B
(2) vfHkyEc dh yEckbZ : PB = y sec ψ = y 1 + ⎜ ⎟
⎝ dx ⎠
ekuksa dks Qyu f (x ) dk pje eku dgrs gSaA bl çdkj ,d Qyu
y
(3) v/kksLi'khZ dh yEckbZ : AC = y cot ψ = x = a ij pje eku j[krk gS ;fn f (a) , ;k rks LFkkuh; mfPp"B eku gks
⎛ dy ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ;k LFkkuh; fufEu"B eku gksA
⎝ dx ⎠

(4) v/kksyEc dh yEckbZ ⎛ dy ⎞

: BC = y tan ψ = y ⎜ ⎟ .
ifj.kker% pje fcUnq ' a' ds fy, f (x ) − f (a) , x ds lHkh ekuksa ds fy,
⎝ dx ⎠ a ds lkehI; esa ,d tSlk fpUg j[krk gSA
v{kksa ij Li'kZ js[kk ds vUr%[k.Mksa dh yEckbZ pje ekuksa ds fy, vko';d çfrcU/k
(Length of intercept made on axes by the tangent) (Necessary condition for extreme values)
oØ y = f (x ) ds fcUnq (x 1 , y 1 ) ij Li'kZ js[kk dk lehdj.k
Qyu f(x) dk pje fcUnq f(a) gksus ds fy;s vko';d izfrcU/k bl
⎛ dy ⎞
y − y1 = ⎜ ⎟ (x − x 1 ) gS] rc x-v{k ij dVk vUr%[k.M izdkj gS fd f ' (a) = 0 , ;fn f ′(a) dk vfLrRo gSA
⎝ dx ⎠( x 1 , y1 )
⎡ ⎤
bl ifj.kke dk vk'k; gS fd ;fn vodyt dk vfLrRo gS rks
(1)
⎢ ⎥ bls pje fcUnqvksa ij 'kwU; gksuk pkfg,A ;|fi dksbZ Qyu fdlh fcUnq ij
⎢
= OQ = x 1 − ⎢
y1 ⎥
⎛ dy ⎞ ⎥ pje eku rc Hkh j[k ldrk gS tcfd ml fcUnq ij vodyuh; u gksA
⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠( x 1 , y1 ) ⎥⎦
dx mnkgj.kkFkZ % Qyu f (x ) =| x | dk x = 0 ij U;wure eku gS tcfd
⎡ ⎛ dy ⎞ ⎤ ;g x = 0 ij vodyuh; ugha gSA
y –v{k ij dVk vUr%[k.M = OR rFkk y1 − ⎢ x 1 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥.
⎢⎣ ⎝ dx ⎠( x 1 , y1 ) ⎥⎦ (2) ;g izfrcU/k fcUnq x = a ds pje eku gksus ds fy, vko';d
izfrcU/k gSA ;g i;kZIr ugha gS vFkkZr~, f ' (a) = 0 ;g iznf'kZr ugha djrk
ewy fcUnq ls Li'kZ js[kk ij yEc dh yEckbZ
(Length of perpendicular from origin to the tangent)
gS fd x = a ,d pje fcUnq gS D;ksafd ,sls dbZ Qyu gSa ftudk izFke
vodyt x = a ij 'kwU; gks tkrk gS] ijUrq ;g fcUnq pje fcUnq ugha
oØ y = f (x ) ds fdlh fcUnq P(x1 , y1 ) ij [khaph xbZ Li'kZ js[kk gksrk gSA
⎛ dy ⎞
y1 − x 1 ⎜ ⎟ mnkgj.kkFkZ % f (x ) = x 3 , x = a ij pje eku ugha j[krk ijUrq
⎝ dx ⎠( x 1 , y1 )
ij ewy fcUnq ls Mkys x, yEc dh yEckbZ gS] p = f ' (0 ) = 0 .
2
⎛ dy ⎞
1+⎜ ⎟ (3)T;kferh; :i ls mijksä izfrcU/k dk vFkZ gS fd oØ
⎝ dx ⎠
. y = f (x )ds ml fcUnq ij Li'khZ tgk¡ dksfV mfPp"B ;k fufEu"B gS]
mfPp"B rFkk fufEu"B x-v{k ds lekUrj gksrh gSA

ifjHkk"kk (Definition) ds os eku ftu ij f ' (x ) = 0 gS] fLFkj fcUnq ;k ØkfUrd fcUnq
(4) x
dgykrs gSa ,oa buds laxr Qyu f (x ) dk eku fLFkj (Stationary) ;k
Qyu f (x ) , x = a ij LFkkuh; mfPp"B dgykrk gS] ;fn a ds
(1)
ØkfUrd (Turning) eku dgykrk gSA
y?kqlkehI; (a − δ , a + δ ) dk vfLrRo bl çdkj gS fd f (x ) < f (a) , ∀
(5) os fcUnq tgk¡ ij Qyu mfPp"B ¼;k fufEu"B½ eku xzg.k djrk
x ∈ (a − δ , a + δ ), x ≠ a .
gS mUgsa LFkkuh; mfPp"B ¼;k LFkkuh; fufEu"B½ fcUnq dgrs gSa ,oa bu
;k f (x ) − f (a) < 0 , ∀ x ∈ (a − δ , a + δ ), x ≠ a . fcUnqvksa ds laxr eku dks LFkkuh; mfPp"B ¼;k LFkkuh; fufEu"B½ eku
dgrs gSaA
bl fLFkfr esa f (a) , x = a ij f (x ) dk LFkkuh; mfPp"B eku
dgykrk gSA pje eku fudkyus ds fy, izFke vodyt ijh{k.k (First
Qyu f (x ) , x = a ij LFkkuh; fufEu"B dgykrk gS ;fn a ds
(2) derivatives test for extreme values)

y?kqlkehI; (a − δ , a + δ ) dk vfLrRo bl çdkj gS fd ekuk f (x ) ,d ,slk Qyu gS tks x = a ij vodyuh; gS] rks
(1) f (x ) dk ,d LFkkuh; mfPp"B fcUnq x = a gksxk] ;fn
f (x ) > f (a) ∀ x ∈ (a − δ , a + δ ), x ≠ a
(i) f ' (a) = 0 ,oa
 dk eku /kukRed ls _.kkRed gksuk pkfg, tc x, a ls
(ii) f ' (a) ;fn x = a1 ij f iv (a1 ) = 0 , rks f v (x ) Kkr djrs gSa ,oa
(4)
xqtjrk gks vFkkZr~ a ds ck;sa lkehI; (a − δ , a) esa f ' (x ) > 0 gksuk pkfg, vko’;drkuqlkj blh izdkj izfØ;k dks nksgjkrs gSaA
rFkk a ds nk;sa lkehI; (a, a + δ ) esa f ' (x ) < 0 gksuk pkfg,A mfPp"B rFkk fufEu"B ds xq.k
(2) f (x ) dk LFkkuh; fufEu"B fcUnq x = a gksxk ;fn (Properties of maxima and minima)
(i) ;fn f (x ) blds çkUr (Mksesu) esa lrr~ gSa rks x ds nks ekuksa ds
(i) f ' (a) = 0 ,oa
e/; de ls de ,d mfPp"B vkSj ,d fufEu"B eku vo'; gksxkA
(ii) f ' (a)dk fpUg _.kkRed ls /kukRed esa ifjofrZr gksrk gS] (ii) mfPp"B rFkk fufEu"B ,dkUrj Øe esa gksrs gSa vFkkZr~ nks mfPp"B
tcfd x, a ls xqtjrk gS vFkkZr~ a ds ck;sa lkehI; (a − δ , a) esa ds chp ,d fufEu"B gksrk gS rFkk bldk foykse Hkh lR; gSA
f ' (x ) < 0 rFkk a ds nk;sa lkehI; (a, a + δ ) esa f ' (x ) > 0 gksuk pkfg,A (iii) ;fn a rFkk b ds e/; x ds dsoy ,d eku (ekuk c) ds fy,
f ( x ) → ∞ tcfd x → a ;k b vkSj f ' (x ) = 0 ] rc f (c) vko';d
(3) ;fn f ' (a) = 0 ijUrq f ' (a) dk fpUg ifjofrZr ugha gksrk gS
:i ls fufEu"B o U;wure eku gSA
vFkkZr~ f ' (a) dk a ds iw.kZ lkehI; esa fpUg ugha cnyrk gS] rc a u rks
;fn f (x ) → −∞ tcfd x → a ;k b, rc f (c) vko';d :i ls
LFkkuh; mfPp"B vkSj u gh LFkkuh; fufEu"B fcUnq gksxkA mfPp"B vkSj egRre eku gSA
Qyu f(x) ds pje eku Kkr djus dh dk;Zdkjh fof/k % vUrjky [a, b] esa Qyu dk egÙke o y?kqÙke eku (Greatest and
least values of a function defined on an interval [a, b])
in I : y = f (x ) j[ksaA
fdlh Qyu f (x ) dk c ∈ [a, b] ds fy, LFkkuh; mfPp"B ¼;k
dy
in II : Kkr djsaA LFkkuh; fufEu"B½ eku dk vFkZ gS fd ;g Qyu dk c ds lkehI; esa
dx
egÙke ;k y?kqÙke eku gSA bldk vFkZ ;g fcYdqy ugha gS fd ;g Qyu
dy dk [a, b] esa egÙke ;k y?kqÙke eku gSA
in III : =0 j[ksa ,oa bl lehdj.k dks x ds fy, gy djsaA
dx fdlh Qyu ds vUrjky [a, b] esa dbZ LFkkuh; mfPp"B o fufEu"B
dy eku gks ldrs gSa rFkk lkis{k LFkkuh; fufEu"B dk eku LFkkuh; mfPp"B
ekuk x = c1 , c 2 ,....., cn ; =0 ds gy gSa rks bUgsa x ds fLFkj eku
dx eku ls cM+k Hkh gks ldrk gSA
(Stationary values) dgrs gSaA vr% fdlh Hkh vUrjky esa LFkkuh; mfPp"B eku dks egÙke ,oa
dy LFkkuh; fufEu"B dks y?kqÙke eku ugha ekuk tk ldrk gSA
in IV : ekuk x = c1 . vc ;fn dk fpUg /kukRed ls _.kkRed
dx ;fn dksbZ Qyu f(x) vUrjky [a, b] esa lrr~ gS] rks bldk egÙke
gksrk gks] tc x, c ls xqtjrk gS rks
1
x = c1 ij Qyu ,d LFkkuh; ;k y?kqÙke eku ;k rks ØkfUrd fcUnqvksa ;k fQj vUrjky [a, b] ds fljs
mfPp"B j[krk gSA ;fn ;g _.kkRed ls /kukRed esa ifjofrZr gksrk gS okys fcUnqvksa ij gksrs gSaA vr% ;fn gesa Qyu f(x) dk vUrjky [a, b] esa
rks x = c1 ij Qyu ,d LFkkuh; fufEu"B j[krk gSA tc fpUg fujis{k egÙke ¼y?kqÙke½ eku fudkyuk gks rks gesa
f (a), f (c1 ), f (c 2 ),...., f (c n ), f (b) esa ls egÙke o y?kqÙke pquuk pkfg,
ifjofrZr u gks rks bl fcUnq ij u rks LFkkuh; mfPp"B gksxk vkSj u gh
LFkkuh; fufEu"B gksxkA tgk¡ x = c1 , c 2 ,...., c n ØkfUrd fcUnq gSaA

mPp dksfV vodyt ijh{k.k (Higher partial derivatives) o/kZeku ,oa âkleku Qyu
(1) f ' (x )Kkr djds bldh '0' ¼’kwU;½ ls rqyuk djrs gSaA vc
ifjHkk"kk (Definition)
f ' (x ) = 0 dks gy djrs gSaA ekuk ewy x = a1 , a 2 ..... gSaA (1) iw.kZr% o/kZeku Qyu : Qyu f(x), varjky (a, b) esa iw.kZr% o/kZeku
gksxk] ;fn x 1 < x 2 ⇒ f (x 1 ) < f (x 2 ) ∀ x , x ∈ (a, b).
1 2

(2) f ′′(x ) Kkr djrs gSaA vc ;fn x = a1 ij ; (2) iw.kZr% âkleku Qyu : Qyu f(x), vUrjky (a, b) esa iw.kZr%
(i) ;fn f "(a1 ) /kukRed gS rks f (x ) , x = a1 ij fufEu"B gSA âkleku gksxk] ;fn x1 < x 2 ⇒ f (x1 ) > f (x 2 )∀ x 1 , x 2 ∈ (a, b) .
Qyu f(x) ,d âkleku Qyu ugha gksxk] ;fn f ′(x ) ≥ 0 rFkk
(ii) ;fn f "(a1 ) _.kkRed gS rks f (x ) , x = a1 ij mfPp"B gSA
o/kZeku Qyu ugha gksxk] ;fn f ′(x ) ≤ 0 -
(iii) ;fn f "(a1 ) = 0 rks vkxs fcUnq (3) ds vuqlkj gy djsaxsaA (3) ,dfn"V Qyu (Monotonic function)% fdlh vUrjky esa Qyu f
(3) ;fn f "(a1 ) = 0 rks f ′′′(x ) Kkr djrs gSaA ;fn f ′′′(a1 ) ≠ 0 , rks ,dfn"V gksxk ;fn ;g ml varjky esa ;k rks o/kZeku gS ;k âkleku gSA
f (x ) , x = a1 ij u rks mfPp"B gS vkSj u gh fufEu"B gSA lkj.kh % 22.2
(i) ;fn f ′′′(a1 ) = 0 rks f iv (x ) Kkr djrs gSaA
(ii) ;fn f iv (x ) = /kukRed (fufEu"B eku)
f (x ) = _.kkRed (mfPp"B
iv
eku)
 986 vodyu rFkk vodyu ds vuqç;ksx
(Larange’s mean value theorem)
f′( a1 ) f ′′( a1 ) f ′′′( a1 ) a1 ij f dk O;ogkj
+ o/kZeku ;fn Qyu f (x ) ,
– âkleku
0 + (1) lao`r varjky [a, b] esa lrr~ gS] rFkk
-–
U;wure
0
vf/kdre
(2) foo`r varjky (a, b) esa vodyuh; gS
0 0
0 0 ± ? rc foo`r varjky (a, b) esa de ls de ,d fcUnq ‘c’ ,slk gksrk gS]
0 0 ufr ifjorZu f (b ) − f (a)
? fd f ′(c) = .
b −a
y fjDr LFkku iznf'kZr djrk gS fd a ij Qyu dksbZ Hkh eku xzg.k
1

dj ldrk gSA
• ç'u fpUg~ ;g n'kkZrk gS fd fn;s x;s vkadM+ksa ds vk/kkj ij f dk
O;ogkj Kkr ugha fd;k tk ldrk gSA
,dfn"V Qyu ds xq.k&/keZ "
dy
dks
d
(y ) fy[k ldrs gSa ftlesa
d
lk/kkj.kr% lafØ;k
(Properties of monotonic functions) dx dx dx
dks çnf'kZr djrk gS u fd d] dx ls foHkkftr gSA
(1);fn vUrjky [a, b] esa f (x ) iw.kZr% o/kZeku gS rks f −1 vfLrRo esa
gksxk ,oa ;g Hkh iw.kZr% o/kZeku Qyu gksxkA " ;fn f ′(x 0 ) = ∞, rks Qyu fcUnq x ij vuUr vodyt j[krk
0

(2) ;fn vUrjky [a, b] esa f (x ) iw.kZr% o/kZeku gS rFkk bl çdkj gS

gSA bl fLFkfr esa oØ y = f(x) ij fLFkr fcUnq x ij [khaph x;h Li'kZ
0

fd ;g lrr~ gS] rks f −1 vUrjky [ f (a), f (b)] esa lrr~ gksxkA js[kk x-v{k ds yEcor~ gksrh gSA
(3) ;fn vUrjky [a, b] esa f (x ) bl çdkj ls lrr~ gS fd
" fn, x, ifjeki okys vk;r dk {ks=Qy vf/kdre gksxk ;fn
f ′(c) ≥ 0( f ′(c) > 0 ) ∀ c ∈ (a, b ), rks f (x ) ; vUrjky [a, b] esa ,dfn"V
og ,d oxZ gksA
(;k iw.kZr%) o/kZeku Qyu gksxkA
(4) ;fn vUrjky [a, b] esa f (x ) bl çdkj ls lrr~ gS fd " fn, x, {ks=Qy ds vk;r dh ifjeki fuEure gksxh ;fn og
f ′(c) ≤ 0( f ′(c) < 0) ∀ c ∈ (a, b ) ,
rks f (x ) ; vUrjky [a, b] esa ,dfn"V (;k ,d oxZ gksA
iw.kZr%) âkleku Qyu gksxkA
" r f=T;k ds xksys ls f?kjs gq, vf/kdre vk;ru okys 'kadq dh
(5) ;fn f (x ) ,oa g(x ) , vUrjky [a, b] esa ,dfn"V (;k iw.kZr%½
o/kZeku (;k âkleku½ Qyu gksa] rks gof(x) vUrjky [a, b] esa ,dfn"V (;k 4r
Å¡pkbZ gksxhA
3
iw.kZr%) o/kZeku Qyu gksxkA
(6) ;fn f (x ) ,oa g(x ) esa ls dksbZ ,d iw.kZr% ¼;k ,dfn"V½ o/kZeku " r f=T;k ds xksys ls f?kjs gq, vf/kdre vk;ru okys yEc o`Ùkh;
rFkk nwljk iw.kZr% ¼;k ,d fn"V½ âkleku gks] rks gof(x) vUrjky [a, b] esa 2r
iw.kZr% (;k ,dfn"V) âkleku gksxkA csyu dh Å¡pkbZ gksxhA
3

jksys dk çes; ,oa ySaxjkt dk " ;fn oØ y = f (x ) ij fLFkr fdlh fcUnq P(x 1 , y 1 ) ij [khaph
e/;eku çes; xbZ Li'kZ js[kk v{kksa ls cjkcj dks.k cukrh gS] rc fcUnq P ij
jksys dk çes; π 3π dy
(Rolle’s theorem) ψ = ;k . vr% P ij] tan ψ = = ±1 .
4 4 dx
ekuk f dksbZ okLrfod Qyu gS] tks fd cUn vUrjky [a, b] esa bl
izdkj ifjHkkf"kr gS] fd
(1) f(x) lao`r ¼cUn½ varjky [a, b] esa lrr~ gSA

(2) f (x ) foo`r ¼[kqyk½ varjky ]a, b[ ;k (a, b) esa vodyuh; gSA

(3) f (a) = f (b)
rc foo`r varjky (a, b) esa de ls de dksbZ ,d
fcUnq ‘c’ bl izdkj gksxk] fd f ′(c) = 0 .
ySaxjkt dk e/;eku çes;
 vfuf’pr lekdyu 1083

Chapter

23
vfuf'pr lekdyu
ifjHkk"kk (Definition) (9) ∫ sec x tan x dx = sec x + c
;fn φ ′ (x ) = f (x ) gks] rc ewy Qyu φ (x ) dks f (x ) dk iwoZx ;k (10) ∫ cosec x cot x dx = −cosec x + c
çfrvodyt dgrs gSaA
ekuk φ (x ) , Qyu f (x ) dk iwoZx gS rFkk c dksbZ vpj gS] (11) ∫ tan x dx = − log | cos x | + c = log | sec x | + c
d
rc
dx
(φ (x ) + c) = f ( x ) ⇒ ∫ f (x ) dx = φ (x ) + c (12) ∫ cot x dx = log | sin x | +c = − log | cosec x | + c

⇒ φ (x ) + c dks Hkh f (x ) dk çfrvodyt dgrs gSa] tgk¡ c ,d ⎛π x⎞

LosPN vpj gS ftlds fHkUu&fHkUu eku gks ldrs gSaA
(13) ∫ sec x dx = log | sec x + tan x | +c = log tan ⎜⎝ 4 + 2 ⎟⎠ + c
x
lekdyu ds dqN ekud lw= (14) ∫ cosec x dx = log | cosec x − cot x | +c = log tan 2 + c
dx
(Fundamental integration formulae) (15) ∫ 1−x 2
= sin −1 x + c = − cos −1 x + c

x n +1
(1) (i) ∫ x n dx =
n +1
+ c, n ≠ −1
(16) ∫
dx
= sin −1
x x
+ c = − cos −1 + c
a −x
2 2 a a
1 (ax + b )n +1
(ii) ∫ (ax + b )n dx =
a
.
n +1
+ c , n ≠ −1
(17) ∫
dx
= tan −1 x + c = − cot −1 x + c
1 + x2
1
(2) (i) ∫ x
dx = log | x | +c
(18) ∫
dx 1 x
= tan −1 + c =
−1 x
cot −1 + c
a2 + x 2 a a a a
1 1
(ii) ∫ ax + b
dx = (log | ax + b |) + c
a (19) ∫
dx
= sec −1 x + c = − cosec −1 x + c
x x2 − 1
∫ e dx = e + c
x x
(3)
dx 1 x −1 x
ax
(20) ∫ x x 2 − a2
= sec −1 + c =
a a a
cosec −1 + c
a
∫ a dx = +c
x
(4)
log e a lekdyu ds ekud lw= esa ;fn x dh txg ax + b vkrk gS rc
ogh lw= mi;ksx gksxk ysfdu mlesa x ds xq.kkad ls ;k
(5) ∫ sin x dx = − cos x + c ax + b ds vodyu vFkkZr~ a ls Hkkx nsrs gSaA
(6) ∫ cos x dx = sin x + c lkekU;r;k ;fn ∫ f (x )dx = φ (x ) + c , rc

∫ sec x dx = tan x + c
1
∫ f (ax + b) dx = a φ (ax + b) + c
2
(7)

∫ cosec x dx = − cot x + c −1
2
(8)
∫ sin(ax + b) dx = a
cos(ax + b) + c,
 1084 vfuf’pr lekdyu
1 f ′( x )
∫ sec(ax + b) dx = a log | sec(ax + b) + tan( ax + b) | +c bR;kfnA (6)
f(x)
s bl rjg ds lekdyu esa f (x ) = t j[kus ij]
dqN egRoiw.kZ ifj.kke f ′( x )
1 1 x −a −1 x
∫ f (x )
dx = 2 f ( x ) + c
(i) ∫ x 2 − a2
=
2a
log
x +a
+c =
a
coth −1 + c ,
a
tc x > a
(7) ekud çfrLFkkiu
1 1 a+x 1 x lkj.kh : 23.1
(ii)
∫a 2
− x2
dx =
2a
log
a−x
+ c = tanh −1 + c ,
a a
tc x < a
lekdyu :i izfrLFkkiu
a2 − x 2 ,
1
, a −x
2 2 x = a sin θ ,
dx ⎛x⎞
∫
(i)
(iii) = log{| x + x 2 − a 2 |} + c = cos h −1 ⎜ ⎟ + c a2 − x 2 ;k x = a cos θ
x 2 − a2 ⎝a⎠
1 x = a tan θ
(ii) x 2 + a2 , , x 2 + a2
x +a
2 2 ;k x = a sinh θ
dx ⎛x⎞
(iv) ∫ x +a2 2
= log{| x + x 2 + a 2 |} + c = sinh −1 ⎜ ⎟ + c
⎝a⎠ x −a ,
2 2 1
, x 2 − a2 x = a sec θ
(iii)
x −a
2 2 ;k x = a cosh θ
1 1 ⎛x⎞
∫ a − x dx = x a 2 − x 2 + a 2 sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ + c a+x
2 2 x
(v) , , x (a + x ),
2 2 ⎝a⎠ a+x x
(iv) x = a tan 2 θ
1
1 1
(vi) ∫ x 2 − a 2 dx =
2
x x 2 − a 2 − a 2 log{x + x 2 − a 2 } + c
2
x (a + x )

x a−x
, , x (a − x ) ,
1 1 ⎛x⎞ a−x
= x x 2 − a 2 − a 2 cosh −1 ⎜ ⎟ + c x
2 2 ⎝a⎠
(v) x = a sin 2 θ
1
x (a − x )
1 1
(vii) ∫ x 2 + a 2 dx =
2
x x 2 + a 2 + a 2 log{x + x 2 + a 2 } + c
2 (vi)
x
,
x −a
, x (x − a) ,
1
x = a sec 2 θ
x −a x x (x − a)
1 1 ⎛x⎞ a−x a+x
= x x 2 + a 2 + a 2 sinh −1 ⎜ ⎟ (vii) , x = a cos 2θ
2 2 ⎝a⎠ a+x a−x
x −α
( x − α )(β − x ) , (β > α ) x = α cos 2 θ + β sin 2 θ
çfrLFkkiu }kjk lekdyu (Integration by substitution) (viii)
β−x
,

(1) ∫ f [φ ( x )]φ '( x ) dx :i ds Qyu dk lekdyu: ekuk φ ( x ) = t, [k.M'k% lekdyu (Integration by parts)
φ ' (x )dx = dt , rc lekdyu ekud :i ∫ f (t)dt esa cny tkrk gSA (1) tc lekdY; esa ,d ls vf/kd Qyu gks % bl izdkj ds
lekdyuksa dks [k.M’k% lekdyu }kjk gy djrs gSaA
(2) I = ∫ f ( x ). f ′( x ). dx :i ds Qyu dk lekdyu% ;gk¡ nks ?kVd
ge tkurs gS
d
(uv ) = u
dv
+v
du
gS ftuesa ,d ?kVd] nwljs dk vodyu gSA blesa f (x ) = t j[kus ij dx dx dx
lekdyu ekud :i esa cny tkrk gSA
(3) f (ax + b ) :i ds Qyu dk lekdyu % blesa ax + b = t j[kus
⇒ d (uv ) = udv + vdu ⇒ d (uv ) = udv + vdu∫ ∫ ∫
ij lekdyu ekud :i esa cny tkrk gSA ;fn ∫ f (x )dx = φ (x ) gks] rks ;fn u rFkk v, x ds nks Qyu gks] rks ∫ u v dx = u ∫ v dx −
I II

du
∫ ∫
1
∫ f (ax + b )dx = φ (ax + b ) + c
a
{ . vdx }dx vFkkZr~
dx
nks Qyukas ds xq.kuQy dk lekdyu =
(çFke Qyu) × (f}rh; Qyu dk lekdyu) – {(çFke Qyu dk
f ′( x )
(4) :i ds Qyu dk lekdyu : blesa f(x) = t j[kus ij] vodyu) × (f}rh; Qyu dk lekdyu)} dk lekdyu
f(x)
f ′(x )
[k.M'k% lekdyu esa çFke Qyu o f}rh; Qyu dk mfpr p;u
f ′( x )dx = dt gks tkrk gSA vr% ∫ dx = log [ f (x )] + c djus ls lekdyu 'kh?kz o vklkuh ls gks tkrk gS vr% çFke Qyu dk
f (x )
p;u djus esa fuEu fcUnqvksa dk /;ku j[krs gSaS %
(5) [ f ( x )]n f ′( x ) :i ds Qyu dk lekdyu % blesa f (x ) = t (i) lkekU;r% çfrykse o y?kqx.kd Qyu dks çFke Qyu ysrs gSa]
[ f (x )]n +1 tSls log | x |, sin −1 x , cos −1 x , tan −1 x ......bR;kfnA
j[kus ij] f ′(x )dx = dt ∫ [ f (x )]n f ′( x ) dx =
n +1
+ c , [n ≠ −1]
(ii) ;fn çfrykse f=dks.kferh; ,oa y?kqx.kd Qyu ds lkFk vU;
dksbZ Qyu fo|eku ugha gks] rks 1 dks f}rh; Qyu ysdj [k.M'k%
lekdyu djrs gSaA tSls ∫ sin −1 x dx , ∫ log x dx , bR;kfn esaA
 vfuf’pr lekdyu 1085

(iii) ;fn nksuksa Qyuksa dk lekdyu vklkuh ls gks lds] rc izFke 1 dx

∫ ∫ ∫
dx dx
= , tks fd ,
Qyu dk p;u bl izdkj djrs gSa] fd blds vodyt ls izkIr Qyu a ⎛ b ⎞ c b2
2
X 2 − A2 X 2 + A2
dk lekdyu vklkuh ls gks ldsA ⎜x + ⎟ + −
⎝ 2a ⎠ a 4c
lkekU;r% izFke Qyu dk p;u “ILATE’’ fu;e ds vuqlkj fd;k
∫
dx
tkrk gSA ;k :i esa gksxkA
A2 − X 2
(2) ∫e
x
{ f ( x ) + f '( x )} dx :i dk lekdyu: ;fn
∫
dx
(2) :i dk lekdyu: bls fuEu :i esa
ax + bx + c
2

∫e
x
{f (x ) + f ' (x )}dx , :i dk lekdyu gks rc bl lekdyu dks nks
dx dx
∫ ∫ ∫
dx
lekdY;ksa esa foHkDr djrs gSaA buesa ls ,d lekdyu dks [k.M’k% ifjofrZr dj ldrs gSa , ;k .
lekdyu }kjk gy djrs gSa rFkk nwljs lekdyu dks jksddj j[krs gSaA a −x2 2
x −a2 2
x + a2
2

(i) ∫ e [ f (x ) + f '(x )]dx = e f (x ) + c

x x (3) ∫ ax 2 + bx + c dx :i dk lekdyu: bls fuEu :i esa

(ii) ∫ e [mf ( x ) + f ' (x )]dx = e f (x ) + c

mx mx ifjorfrZr dj ldrs gSa ∫ a 2 − x 2 dx , ∫ x 2 − a 2 dx ;k ∫ a 2 + x 2 dx
( px + q ) dx ( px + q ) dx
(iii) ∫
⎡
e mx ⎢ f (x ) +
f ' (x ) ⎤
dx =
e mx f (x )
+c
. (4) ∫ ax 2 + bx + c
, ∫ ,
⎣ m ⎥⎦ m ax 2 + bx + c

(3) ∫ [ x f ′( x ) + f(x )] dx :i dk lekdyu % ∫ ( px + q ) ax 2 + bx + c dx :

bl izdkj ds lekdyuksa dks gy djus ds fy,

∫ [ x f ' (x ) + f (x )] dx :i ds lekdyu dks gy djus ds fy, ge ⎧d ⎫
px + q = A ⎨ (ax 2 + bx + c)⎬ + B
lekdY; dks nks Hkkxksa esa foHkDr djrs gSaA izFke Hkkx dks [k.M’k% ⎩ dx ⎭
lekdyu }kjk gy djrs gSa rFkk nwljs Hkkx dks jksddj j[krs gSaA vr% nksuksa i{kksa ls x ds xq.kkad o vpj in dh rqyuk djds A o B ds
bl izdkj] ∫ [ x f ' (x ) + f (x )] dx = x f (x ) + c eku Kkr djrs gSaA
bl izdkj lekdyu dks nks Hkkxksa esa foHkDr dj gy djrs gSaA
∫e ∫ :i dk lekdyu x2 +1 x2 −1
ax
(4) sin bxdx , e ax cos bx dx
∫ ∫ ∫
dx
(5) dx, dx ,
ax x + kx 2 + 1
4
x + kx 2 + 1
4
x 4 + kx 2 + 1
e
∫e sin bx = (a sin bx − b cos bx ) + c tgk¡ k ∈ R :i dk lekdyu
ax
a + b2
2
dk;Z fof/k % (i) bl izdkj ds lekdyu dk eku Kkr djus ds fy,
e ax b
= sin(bx − tan −1 ) + c va'k o gj esa x 2 ls Hkkx nsrs gSaA
a +b
2 2 a 1 1
(ii) x + =t ;k x − =t j[krs gSaA
ax x x
e
∫ e ax . cos bx dx =
a2 + b 2
(a cos bx + b sin bx ) + c
x 2 + a2 x 2 − a2
e ax ⎛ b⎞
(6) ∫ x + kx 2 + a 4
4
dx , ∫ x + kx 2 + a 4
4
dx , tgk¡ k ,d vpj]
= cos ⎜ bx − tan −1 ⎟ + c _.kkRed ;k 'kwU; gSA
a +b
2 2 ⎝ a⎠
bl izdkj ds lekdyuksa dks Kkr djus ds fy, va'k o gj esa x 2
e ax
∫ e ax . sin(bx + c) dx = [a sin(bx + c) − b cos(bx + c)] + k a2 a2
a2 + b 2 ls Hkkx nsrs gSa rFkk x − =t rFkk x + =t j[krs gSaA
x x
e ax ⎡ ⎛ b ⎞⎤
= sin ⎢(bx + c) − tan −1 ⎜ ⎟⎥ + k (7) vifjes; Qyuksa ds fy, mfpr çfrLFkkiu
a +b
2 2
⎣ ⎝ a ⎠⎦
⎛ x −α ⎞
∫ ∫
dx
e ax (i) , ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ dx
∫ e ax . cos(bx + c) dx = [a cos(bx + c) − b sin(bx + c)] + k (x − α )(x − β ) ⎝β −x⎠
a + b2
2

=
e ax ⎡ ⎛ b ⎞⎤
cos ⎢(bx + c) − tan −1 ⎜ ⎟⎥ + k ∫ (x − α )(β − x ) dx , x = α cos 2 θ + β sin 2 θ j[kdj
a +b2
⎣ 2 ⎝ a ⎠⎦
dx
ekud ifj.kkeksa ds mi;ksx ls fofHkUu :iksa ds lekdyu Kkr
(ii) ∫ ( px + q ) (ax + b )
, ax + b = t 2 j[kdj

djuk (Evaluation of the various forms of integrals by use of (iii) ∫

dx
, px + q =
1
j[kdj
standard results) ( px + q ) ax + bx + c 2 t

dx 1
(1) ∫
dx
:i dk lekdyu (iv)
∫ ( px + r) (ax + c)
2 2
,çFke esa x =
t
j[kdj rFkk a + ct 2 = z 2 .
ax + b x + c
2

dx
∫P
dx 1 dx
dk;Z fof/k : ∫ ax + bx + c
2
=
a ∫ b
x + x+
2 c
(8)
Q
:i dk lekdyu ¼tgk¡ P vkSj Q, x esa js[kh; ;k oxZ
a a lehdj.k gksa½ %
 1086 vfuf’pr lekdyu

(i) tc Q js[kh; rFkk P js[kh; ;k oxZ lehdj.k gksa] rc Q = t 2 j[krs gSaA dx dx

1 ∫ a + b cos x + c sin x , ∫ a sin x + b cos x
(ii) tc P js[kh; rFkk Q oxZ lehdj.k gksa] rc P = j[krs gSaA
t :i dk lekdyu
1
(iii) tc P vkSj Q nksuksa oxZ lehdj.k gksa] rc x= j[krs gSaA dx
t (1) ∫ a + b cos x + c sin x :i dk lekdyu : bl çdkj ds
dx
∫ a + b cos vkSj ∫ dx :i dk lekdyu lekdyu dks Kkr djus ds fy,, loZçFke b = r cos α vkSj
x a + b sin x c = r sin α j[kus ij
bl çdkj ds lekdyu dks fuEu izdkj ls Kkr dj ldrs gS: vr% r 2 = b 2 + c 2 rFkk α = tan −1 .
c
x x b
1 − tan 2 2 tan dx
∫ a + r(cos α cos x + sin α sin x ) = ∫ a + r cos( x − α )
dx
(1) cos x = 2 rFkk sin x = 2 j[krs gSaA ∴ I=
x x
1 + tan 2 1 + tan 2
2 2
j[kus ij I = ∫
dt
x x x − α = t ⇒ dx = dt ,
(2) va'k esa 1 + tan 2 ds LFkku ij sec 2 j[krs gSaA a + r cos t
2 2 bl çdkj ds lekdyu dks igys n'kkZ;k tk pqdk gSA
x 1 x dx
(3) tan = t rc sec 2 dx = dt j[krs gSaA
2 2 2
(2) ∫ a sin x + b cos x :i dk lekdyu : bl çdkj ds
dt
(4) vc izkIr lekdyu dks] tks ∫
at 2 + bt + c
ds :i esa gksxk] lekdyu dks Kkr djus ds fy,] loZçFke a = r cos θ , b = r sin θ
b
igys nh xbZ fof/k ls gy djrs gSaA j[kus ij r = a 2 + b 2 , α = tan −1
a
dx
(i) ∫ a + b cos x ∴
dx
∫ a sin x + b cos x = r ∫
1 dx
=
1
∫
cosec (x + α )dx
sin( x + α ) r
fLFkfr I : tc a > b , rc
1 ⎛x α⎞ 1 ⎛x 1 b⎞
dx 2 ⎛ a−b x⎞ = log tan ⎜ + ⎟ = log tan ⎜ + tan −1 ⎟ + c
∫ a + b cos x
=
a2 − b 2
tan −1 ⎜
⎜ a+b
⎝
tan ⎟ + c
2 ⎟⎠
r ⎝2 2⎠ a +b2 ⎝
2 2 2 a⎠
1 − tan 2 x / 2 2 tan( x / 2)
fLFkfr II : tc a < b , rc cos x = vkSj sin x = dk mi;ksx
1 + tan x / 2
2
1 + tan 2 (x / 2)
x
b − a tan + b+a mijksDr lekdyu dks Kkr djus ds fy, djrs gSaA
dx 1
∫ a + b cos x
=
b 2 − a2
log 2
x
b − a tan − b+a
+c
dx dx dx
2 ∫ a + b cos 2 x , ∫ a + b sin 2 x , ∫ a sin 2 x + b cos 2 x ,
dx 1 x
fLFkfr III : tc a = b , rc ∫ = tan +c. dx dx
dx
a + b cos x a 2
∫ (a sin x + b cos x )2
, ∫ a + b sin 2 x + c cos 2 x
(ii) ∫
a + b sin x :i dk lekdyu
fLFkfr I : tc a 2 > b 2 ;k a > 0 rFkk a > b , rc bl çdkj ds lekdyu dks Kkr djus ds fy, fuEukafdr fcUnqvksa
⎡ x ⎤ dk vuqlj.k djrs gSa %
dx 2 ⎢ a tan 2 + b ⎥
∫ a + b sin x = (1) va'k o gj nksuksa dks cos 2 x ls Hkkx nsrs gSaA
−1
tan ⎢ ⎥+c
a2 − b 2 ⎢ a2 − b 2 ⎥ (2) gj esa sec 2 x dh txg (1 + tan 2 x ) j[krs gSaA
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
(3) vc tan x = t ⇒ sec 2 xdx = dt j[krs gSaA
fLFkfr II : tc a 2 < b 2 , rc
(4) vc çkIr gq, lekdyu dks iwoZ esa nh x;h fof/k }kjk gy djrs gSaA
x
+ b) − ( b 2 − a 2 )
(a tan
dx 1 a sin x + b cos x a sin x + b cos x + q
∫ a + b sin x
=
b 2 − a2
log 2
x
(a tan + b ) + b 2 − a 2
+c
∫ c sin x + d cos x vkSj ∫ c sin x + d cos x + r
2
:i dk lekdyu
fLFkfr III : tc a 2 = b 2
a sin x + b cos x
b = a ;k b = −a
(a) tc b = a , rc
(1) ∫ c sin x + d cos x
dx :i dk lekdyu : bl çdkj ds

dx −1 ⎛π x⎞ 1 lekdyu dks Kkr djus ds fy, va'k dks fuEu çdkj ls O;Dr djrs gSaA
∫ a + b sin x = a
cot ⎜ + ⎟ + c = [tan x − sec x ] + c
⎝4 2⎠ a va'k = M (gj dk vodyu) + N (gj)
dx 1 ⎛π x⎞ vFkkZr~
(b) tc b = −a , rc ∫ a + b sin x = a tan ⎜⎝ 4 + 2 ⎟⎠ + c . a sin x + b cos x = M
d
(c sin x + d cos x ) + N (c sin x + d cos x )
dx
tgk¡ M vkSj N vpj gSa ftudk eku nksuksa i{kksa esa sinx rFkk cosx ds
xq.kkadksa dh rqyuk dj Kkr djrs gSaA
 vfuf’pr lekdyu 1087

a sin x + b cos x ;fn ∫ R(sin x ) cos x dx

I= ∫ c sin x + d cos x dx (a) ds :i dk lekdyu gks] rc
sin x = t izfrLFkkfir djrs gSaA
M (c cos x − d sin x ) + N (c sin x + d cos x )
= ∫ c sin x + d cos x
dx
(b) ;fn ∫ R(cos x ) sin x dx ds :i dk lekdyu gks] rc
c cos x − d sin x cos x = t izfrLFkkfir djrs gSaA
=M ∫ c sin x + d cos x dx + N ∫ 1dx (c) ;fn lekdyu dsoy tan x ij vkfJr gksa] rc tanx = t,
= M log | c sin x + d cos x | + Nx + c. dt
dx = izfrLFkkfir djrs gSaA
a sin x + b cos x + q 1 + t2
(2) ∫ c sin x + d cos x + r dx :i dk lekdyu : bl çdkj ds (d) ;fn R(− sin x , cos x ) = − R(sin x , cos x ) , rc cos x = t
lekdyu dks Kkr djus ds fy, va'k dks fuEu çdkj ls O;Dr djrs gSaA izfrLFkkfir djrs gSaA
va'k = M (gj) + N (gj dk vodyu) + P (e) ;fn R(sin x ,− cos x ) = − R(sin x , cos x ) , rc sin x = t
(c sin x + b cos x + q ) = M (c sin x + d cos x + r) + N (c cos x − d sin x ) + P. izfrLFkkfir djrs gSaA
tgk¡ M, N, P vpj gSa] ftudk eku nksuksa i{kksa esa sinx, cosx (f) ;fn R(− sin x ,− cos x ) = − R(sin x , cos x ) , rc tan x = t
rFkk vpj in ds xq.kkadksa dh rqyuk dj Kkr djrs gSaA izfrLFkkfir djrs gSaA
a sin x + b cos x + q (2) fo'ks"k izdkj ds leku;u lw=
∴ ∫ c sin x + d cos x + r dx − cos x . sin n −1 x n − 1
∫ sin x dx = + sin n − 2 x dx∫
n
(i)
gj dk vodyu dx dx n n
∫
= M dx + N ∫ gj
+ ∫ c sin x − d cos x + r sin x cos n −1 x n − 1
∫ cos x dx = + ∫
cos n − 2 x dx
n
(ii)
dx
∫ c sin x + d cos x + r .
n n
= Mx + N log | gj | +P
n −1
tan x
∫ tan − tan n − 2 x dx
x dx = ∫
n
(iii)
n −1
vkaf'kd fHkUuksa }kjk ifjes; chth; Qyuksa dk lekdyu (Integration
−1
of rational functions by using partial fractions)
∫
(iv) cot n x dx =
n −1
cot n −1 x − cot n − 2 x dx ∫
;fn fn;k x;k Qyu nks cgqinksa dk HkkxQy gS] rks blds
lekdyu ds fy, bls vkaf'kd fHkUuksa esa foHkDr djrs gSa ¼;fn lEHko gS½A ∫
(v) sec n x dx =
1
(n − 1)
[
sec n − 2 x . tan x + (n − 2) sec n − 2 x dx ∫ ]
iwoZ v/;k; esa vkaf'kd fHkUuksa dks gy djus dh fof/k ge i<+ pqds gSaA
1
(vi)
∫ cosec xdx = ∫
[− cosec n − 2 x cot x + (n − 2) cosec n − 2 xdx ]
n

f=dks.kferh; Qyuksa dk lekdyu (n − 1)

q +1 p −1
(Integration of trigonometric functions) sin x . cos x
∫ sin x cos q x dx = −
p
(vii)
p+q
∫ sin :i dk lekdyu bl çdkj ds
m
(1) x cos n x dx : (i)
p −1
lekdyu dks Kkr djus ds fy, I = ∫ sin m x cos n x dx , tgk¡ m vkSj n
+
p+q ∫
sin p − 2 x . cos q x dx
p +1 q −1
sin x . cos x
ifjes; la[;k;sa gS
∫ sin x cos q x dx =
p
(viii)
p+q
(a) ;fn n fo"ke gks] rc sin x = t, izfrLFkkfir djrs gSaA
p −1
(b) ;fn m fo"ke gks] rc cos x = t, izfrLFkkfir djrs gSaA +
p+q ∫
sin p x . cos q − 2 x dx
(c) ;fn m + n _.kkRed le iw.kkZad gks] rc tan x = t,
dx x (2n − 3) dx
izfrLFkkfir djrs gSaA (ix)
∫ (x 2
= +
+ k )n k (2n − 2) (x 2 + k )n −1 k (2n − 2) ∫ (x 2
+ k )n −1
1
(d) ;fn (n − 1) ,d iw.kkZad gks] rc cot x = t izfrLFkkfir djrs gSaA
2 vfrijoyf;d Qyuksa dk lekdyu
m +n−2⎞ (Integration of hyperbolic functions)
(e) ;fn m vkSj n ifjes; la[;k,¡ gks rFkk ⎛⎜ ⎟ ,d
⎝ 2 ⎠ (1) ∫ sinh x dx = cos hx + c (2) ∫ cosh x dx = sinh x + c
_.kkRed iw.kkZad gks] rc cos x = t ;k tan x = t çfrLFkkfir djrs gSaA
(3) ∫ sec h x dx = tan h x + c
2

(ii) ∫ R(sin x, cos x ) dx :i dk lekdyu %

(4) ∫ cosech x dx = − coth x + c
2

∫ R(sin x , cos x ) dx ] ds :i dk lekdyu tgk¡ R, sin x rFkk

(5) ∫ sec h x tan h x dx = − sec h x + c
x
cos x dk ifjes; Qyu gSA bl izdkj ds lekdyu dks tan = t (tgk¡ (6) ∫ cosec h x cot h dx = −cosec h x + c
2
−π < x < π ) j[kdj] ifjes; Qyu ds lekdyu esa ifjofrZr dj nsrs gSaA
x
dHkh&dHkh cot = t (tgk¡ 0 < x < 2π ) j[kdj] ifjes; Qyu ds
2
lekdyu ds :i esa vklkuh ls ifjofrZr dj ldrs gSaA
 1088 vfuf’pr lekdyu
" ;fn vUrjky [a, b] esa Qyu f(x) ds nks izfrvodyt F1 (x ) 1
" sin mx . sin nx = [cos(m − n)x − cos(m + n)x ]
rFkk F2 (x ) gksa] rc mudk vUrj ,d vpj gksrk gSA 2
" flXue Qyu dk izfr vodyt ml vUrjky esa gksrk gS] ftlesa 1
⇒ cos mx . cos nx = [cos(m − n)x + cos(m + n)x ]
fcUnq x = 0 'kkfey ugha gSA 2
" izR;sd leQyu dk izfrvodyt fo"ke Qyu gksrk gS rFkk sin n x
izR;sd fo"ke Qyu dk izfrvodyt le Qyu gksrk gSA " I(n, m ) = ∫ cos
m
x
dx ds fy, leku;u lw=

x n e ax n sin n −1 x (n − 1)
" ;fn In = ∫ x n . e ax dx , rks In = − In −1 I(n,m ) =
1
. − . I(n − 2, m − 2) gSA
m −1
a a m − 1 cos x (m − 1)
" ;fn In = ∫ (log x ) dx , rks In = x log x − x
1
" ;fn In = ∫ dx , rks
log x
(log x )2 (log x )3
In = log(log x ) + log x + + + .......... .......... ...
2 .(2 !) 3(3 !)
ewyHkwr lekdyu
"
∫
;fn In = (log x )n dx ; rks In = x (log x )n − n.In −1
" mRrjksRrj [k.M’k% lekdyu dk mi;ksx rc dj ldrs gSa] tcfd
,d Qyu x n ( n /kukRed iw.kkZad gS) gS] tks mRrjksRrj vodfyr gksxk
1. ∫ 1 − sin 2 x dx = ........, x ∈ (0, π / 4 ) [MP PET 1987]

(a) − sin x + cos x (b) sin x − cos x

,oa nwljk Qyu tks fd sin ax , cos ax , e ax , e − ax , (x + a)m esa ls dksbZ
(c) tan x + sec x (d) sin x + cos x
,d gS] mRrjksRrj lekdfyr gksxkA
1 + cos 2 x
" Ja`[kyk fu;e : ∫ u.vdx = uv1 − u′v 2 + u′′v 3 − u′′′v 4 + .......... .. 2. ∫ sin 2 x
dx = [MP PET 1993; BIT Ranchi 1982]

+ (−1)n −1 u n −1 v n + (−1)n ∫u − cot x − 2 x + c −2 cot x − 2 x + c

n
.v n dx (a) (b)
(c) −2 cot x − x + c (d) −2 cot x + x + c
d nu
tgk¡ u = rFkk v , v ds n osa lekdyu dks O;Dr djrk gSA
∫ sin
−1
n

dx n
n
3. (cos x)dx =
ax
" ∫xe
ax
sin(bx + c) dx =
xe
[a sin(bx + c) − b cos(bx + c)] πx πx 2
a2 + b 2 (a) (b)
2 2
e ax
− [(a 2 − b 2 ) sin(bx + c) − 2 ab cos(bx + c)] + k πx − x 2
πx + x 2
(a 2 + b 2 )2 (c) (d)
2 2
x . e ax
" ∫ x . e ax cos(bx + c) dx = [a cos(bx + c) + b sin(bx + c)]
∫
a2 + b 2 dx
4. = [MP PET 1991]
e ax tan x + cot x
− 2 [(a 2 − b 2 ) cos(bx + c) + 2 ab sin(bx + c)] + k cos 2 x sin 2 x
(a + b 2 )2 (a) +c (b) +c
ax 4 4
"
∫a . sin(bx + c) dx =
x

(log a)2 + b 2 sin 2 x cos 2 x

(c) − +c (d) − +c
[(log a) sin(bx + c) − b cos(bx + c)] + k 4 4

∫ a . cos(bx + c)dx = (log a)

ax
∫ (e + e x log a )dx =
a log x
" x 5.
2
+b 2

[(log a) cos(bx + c) + b sin(bx + c)] + k (a) x a +1 +

ax
+c (b)
x a +1
+ a x log a + c
a cos x + b sin x log a a +1
" ∫ c cos x + d sin x dx x a +1 ax
ac + bd ad − bc (c) + +c (d) buesa ls dksbZ ugha
= x+ log| c cos x + d sin x | +k . a + 1 log a
c +d 2 2
c +d
2 2

6. ;fn f ' (x ) = x 2 + 5 vkSj f (0) = −1 , rc f (x ) =

" ∫ sin mx cos nx dx , ∫ ∫
sin mx . sin nx dx , cos mx . cos nx dx rFkk
(a) x 3 + 5x − 1 (b) x 3 + 5x + 1
∫ cos mx . sin nx dx :i ds lekdyu dks Kkr djus ds fy, fuEu
(c)
1 3
x + 5x − 1 (d)
1 3
x + 5x + 1
f=dks.kferh; xq.k/keksZa dk mi;ksx djrs gSaA 3 3
1
" sin mx . cos nx = [sin(m − n)x + sin(m + n)x ] 1 − cos 2 x
2 7. ∫ tan −1
1 + cos 2 x
dx =
1
⇒ cos mx . sin nx = [sin(m + n)x − sin(m − n)x ] (a) 2x 2 + c (b) x2 + c
2
 1146 fuf'pr lekdyu ,oa oØksa ls f?kjk {ks=Qy

Chapter

24
fuf'pr lekdyu ,oa oØksa ls f?kjk {ks=Qy
ifjHkk"kk (Definition) b c b
(3) ∫a
f (x )dx = ∫ f (x )dx + ∫ f (x )dx ,
a c
(tgk¡ a < c < b)
ekuk varjky [a, b] esa f(x) dk çfrvodyt φ (x ) gS] vFkkZr~ b c1 c2 b
d
[φ (x )] = f ( x ) rc f(x) dk fuf’pr lekdyu varjky [a, b] esa
;k ∫ f (x )dx = ∫
a a
f (x )dx + ∫
c1
f (x )dx + ..... + ∫ f (x )dx ;
cn
dx
(tgk¡ a < c1 < c 2 < ........ cn < b )
b

∫a
f (x )dx }kjk O;Dr djrs gSa vkSj [φ (b) − φ (a)] }kjk ifjHkkf"kr djrs gSa tc lekdyu esa nks ;k nks ls vf/kd vUrjky gks] rc bl xq.k/keZ
b dk mi;ksx djrs gSaA
vFkkZr~ ∫ f (x )dx = φ (b) − φ (a) ,
a
bls U;wVu yScuht lw= Hkh dgrs gSaA tc vUrjky [a, b] esa f (x ) lrr~ ugha gks] rc ;g xq.k/keZ mi;ksxh
la[;k;sa a vkSj b lekdyu dh lhek;sa dgykrh gSA ‘a’ dks fuEu lhek gksxk] D;ksafd vlrr~ fcUnqvksa ij lekdyu dks dbZ lekdyuksa esa foHkDr
rFkk ‘b’ dks mPp lhek dgrs gSaA vrajky [a, b] dks lekdyu dk ifjlj dj ldrs gSa] ftlls Qyu bu mi-varjkyksa esa lrr~ gks tkrk gSA
(range) dgrs gSaA çR;sd fuf'pr lekdyu dk vf)rh; eku gksrk gSA a a
(4) ∫0
f (x )dx = ∫ f (a − x )dx
0
: tc fuEu lhek 'kwU; gks] rc bl
çfrLFkkiu }kjk fuf'pr lekdyu dh x.kuk (Evaluation of xq.k/keZ dk mi;ksx djrs gSaA lkekU;r% bl xq.k/keZ dk mi;ksx mu
definite integral by substitution) dfBu lekdyuksa ds fy;s djrs gS] ftuds gj esa x dh txg
tc fuf’pr lekdyu esa pj ifjofrZr gksrk gS] rc u;s pj ds :i (a – x) j[kus ij dksbZ izHkko ugha iM+rk gSA
esa çfrLFkkiu dk fuEu rhu LFkkuksa ij izHkko iM+rk gS A bl xq.k/keZ dh lgk;rk ls fuEu lekdyuksa dk eku Kkr fd;k tk
(i) lekdY; esa (ii) vodyu esa] vFkkZr~ dx esa ldrk gSA
(iii) lhekvksa esa π /2 sin n x π /2 cos n x π
b
(i) ∫ 0 sin x + cos n x
n
dx = ∫0 cos x + sin n x
n
dx =
4
mnkgj.k ds fy,] ∫ f {φ (x )}φ ' (x )dx esa] ;fn ge φ (x ) = t j[krs π /2 tan xn π /2 cot n x π
∫ ∫
a
φ (b )
(ii) dx = dx =
b
1 + tan x 1 + cot n x
∫ f {φ (x )}φ ' (x )dx = ∫ f (t) dt .
n
gSa] rc 0 0 4
a φ (a ) π /2 π/ 2 π
∫
1
∫
1
(iii) dx = dx =
0 1 + tan n x 0 1 + cot n x 4
fuf'pr lekdyu ds xq.k/keZ π/ 2 sec x n π /2 cosec n x π
(Properties of definite integral) (iv) ∫ 0 sec x + cosec n x
n
dx = ∫0 cosec n x + sec n x
dx =
4
b b π/ 2 π /2
(1) ∫ f (x )dx = ∫ f (t) dt
a a
vFkkZr~ ;fn pj dks ifjofrZr dj dksbZ (v) ∫ 0
f (sin 2 x ) sin xdx = ∫ 0
f (sin 2 x ) cos xdx
vU; pj j[krs gSa] rks fuf’pr lekdyu ds eku ij dksbZ izHkko ugha π /2 π /2
iM+rk gSA (vi) ∫ 0
f (sin x )dx = ∫0
f (cos x )dx
b a π /4 π
(2) ∫ a ∫
f(x)dx = − f(x)dx
b
vFkkZr~ fuf’pr lekdyu dh lhekvksa esa (vii) ∫ 0
log(1 + tan x )dx =
8
log 2
ikjLifjd ifjorZu (Interchange) djus ij lekdyu dk fpUg ifjofrZr π /2 π /2 −π π
∫ ∫
1
gks tkrk gSA (viii) log sin xdx = log cos xdx = log 2 = log
0 0 2 2 2
 fuf'pr lekdyu ,oa oØksa ls f?kjk {ks=Qy 1147
π /2 a sin x + b cos x π /2 a sec x + b cosec x 1 ⎛r⎞
(ix) ∫ 0 sin x + cos x
dx = ∫
0 sec x + cosec x
dx Js.kh dks ∑ n f ⎜⎝ n ⎟⎠ ds :i esa fy[k ldrs gSaA Σ ds LFkku ij
π /2 a tan x + b cot x π
∫ ] ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ ds LFkku ij dx, ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ ds LFkku ij x j[krs gSa rFkk r ds
1 r
=
0 tan x + cot x
dx = (a + b)
4 ∫ ⎝n⎠ ⎝n⎠
a a
(5) ∫ −a ∫
f (x ) dx = [ f (x ) + f (− x )] dx
0
U;wure ,oa vf/kdre ekuksa dks lim ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ esa j[kdj fuEu o mPp lhek;sa
r
n →∞⎝ n⎠
fo'ks"k fLFkfr esa : 1
⎧ a Kkr djrs gSaA vr% lhek dk ;ksx = ∫ f (x ) dx .
∫−a f (x ) dx = ⎨⎪ ∫0 0 , ;fn f (x ) fo" ke Qyu gks ;k f (− x ) = − f (x )
a ⎪2 f (x ) dx , ;fn f ( x ) le Qyu gks ;k f (− x ) = f ( x ) 0

⎩ xkek Qyu (Gamma function)

lkekU;r% bl xq.k/keZ dk mi;ksx rc djrs gSa] tc lekdY;] x dk
∞
le ;k fo"ke Qyu gksA
2a a a ∫ x n −1e − x dx , n > 0 dks xkek Qyu dgrs gSa rFkk bls Γn ls
∫ ∫ ∫
0
(6) f ( x )dx = f ( x )dx + f (2 a − x ) dx çnf'kZr djrs gSaA ;fn m vkSj n v_.kkRed iw.kkZad gksa] rc
0 0 0
fo'ks"k fLFkfr esa % ⎛ m +1 ⎞ ⎛ n +1 ⎞
Γ⎜ ⎟ Γ⎜ ⎟
π /2
⎧0 , ;fn f (2 a − x ) = − f (x ) ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎪ ∫ sin x cos xdx = tgk¡ Γ(n) xkek Qyu
m n
2a ,
∫0
f ( x ) dx = ⎨ a
∫
⎪⎩2 0 f (x ) dx , ;fn f (2 a − x ) = f ( x )
0 ⎛m +n+2⎞
2 Γ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
lkekU;r% ;g xq.k/keZ mPp lhek dks vk/kk djus ds fy, mi;ksx dgykrk gS tks fd fuEu xq.k/keZ larq"V djrk gS
fd;k tkrk gSA
b b vFkkZr~ Γ (1) = 1 rFkk Γ(1 / 2) = π
Γ(n + 1) = n Γ(n) = n!
(7) ∫ a
f (x ) dx = ∫
a
f (a + b − x )dx .
xkek Qyu ds LFkku ij fuEu lw= dk mi;ksx dj ldrs gSa]
a 1 a π/ 2
(8) ∫ 0
x f ( x )dx =
2
a ∫ 0
f (x )dx , ;fn f (a − x ) = f (x ) .
∫
0
sin m x cos n xdx
(9) ;fn f (x ) ,d vkorhZ Qyu gS] ftldk vkorZukad T gS] rc (m − 1)(m − 3).....( 2 ;k 1)(n − 1)(n − 3).....( 2 ;k 1)
=
nT T
(m + n)(m + n − 2)....( 2 ;k 1)
∫0 f ( x )dx = n ∫0 f (x )dx
bl ckr dk fo'ks"k /;ku j[ks fd tc m vkSj n nksuksa le gksa] rc
fo'ks"k fLFkfr;k¡% ;fn f (x ) ,d vkorhZ Qyu gS ftldk vkorZukad
lw= esa (π/2) dk xq.kk djrs gSa A
a + nT T
T gS] rc ∫ a
f (x ) dx = n ∫
0
f (x ) dx , tgk¡ n ∈ I
fuf'pr lekdyu ds fy, leku;u lw=k
nT T
(a) ;fn a = 0, ∫0 ∫0 f (x ) dx = n f (x )dx tgk¡ n ∈ I (Reduction formulae for definite integration)
a+T T ∞ b
(b) ;fn n = 1, ∫
f (x ) dx = ∫ f (x ) dx .
0 0
(1) ∫
0
e − ax sin bxdx =
a2 + b 2
nT T
(10) ∫ f (x ) dx = (n − m ) ∫ f (x ) dx , tgk¡ n, m ∈ I .
∞ a
mT 0
(2) ∫ 0
e − ax cos bxdx =
a2 + b 2
b + nT b
(11) ∫ f (x ) dx = ∫ f (x ) dx , tgk¡ n ∈ I . ∞ n!
a + nT
2k
a (3) ∫ 0
e − ax x n dx =
an + 1
(12) ∫ (x − [ x ]) dx = k , tgk¡ k iw.kkZad gS] pw¡fd x − [x ] ,d vkorhZ
0
Qyu gS ftldk vkorZukad 1 gSA okyh lw=k (Walli's formula)
(13) ;fn f (x ) ,d vkorhZ Qyu gS] ftldk vkorZukad T gks] rc π /2 π /2

∫
a+T
f (x ) , a ls Lora= gSA ∫0
sin n xdx = ∫ 0
cos n xdx
a
b 1 ⎧n − 1 n − 3 n − 5 2
(14) ∫ a
f (x ) dx = (b − a) ∫ 0
f ((b − a) x + a) dx . ⎪ .
=⎨ n n−2 n−4
. ...... ,
3
tc n fo" ke gS
n −1 n − 3 n − 5 3 1 π
⎪ . . ....... . . , tc n le gS
Jsf.k;ksa ds ;ksxQy }kjk lekdyu ⎩ n n−2 n−4 4 2 2
(Summation of series by integration) π /2 (m − 1)(m − 3).....( n − 1)(n − 3)....
n ∫0 sin m x cos n dx =
(m + n)(m + n − 2)...( 2 ;k 1)
,
∫ f (x )dx = lim h∑ f (a + rh) , tgk¡ nh = b − a
b
ge Tkkurs gSa] fd
a n →∞
r =1 [;fn m, n nksuksa /kukRed fo"ke iw.kkZad gSa ;k ,d /kukRed fo"ke iw.kkZad gS]
1
vc a = 0, b = 1 j[kus ij] nh = 1 ;k h= π /2 (m − 1)(m − 3)......... ...( n − 1)(n − 3) π
n ∫0 sin m x cos n xdx =
(m + n)(m + n − 2)........ (2 ;k 1) 2
. ,
⎛r⎞
∑ f ⎜⎝ n ⎟⎠
1 1
∴ ∫ 0
f (x )dx = lim
n →∞ n [;fn m, n nksuksa /kukRed iw.kkZad gS]a
 1148 fuf'pr lekdyu ,oa oØksa ls f?kjk {ks=Qy

yScuht fu;e (Leibnitz’s rule) vlrr~ Qyuksa dk lekdyu

(1) ;fn f(x) lrr~ gS rFkk vUrjky [a, b] esa u(x) o v(x) vodyuh; (Integration of piecewise continuous functions)
d v(x ) d d
gksa] rc
dx u∫
( x )
f(t)dt = f{v(x)} {v(x)} − f {u(x)} {u(x)} .
dx dx
varjky [a, b] ds fuf'pr fcUnqvksa ij dksbZ Qyu f (x ) vlrr~ gS]
rks muds varjkyksa dks mivarjkyksa esa foHkDr dj lrr~ cuk ldrs gSaA
(2) ;fn vUrjky [a, b] esa Qyu φ (x ) vkSj ψ (x ) ifjHkkf"kr gSa rFkk
;fn varjky (a, b) esa f (x ) fcUnqvksa x 1 , x 2 , x 3 .......... x n ij vlrr~ gS]
fcUnq x ∈(a, b) ij vodyuh; gSa rFkk f (x , t) lrr~ gS] rc
d ⎡ ψ (x ) ⎤ ψ (x ) d ⎧ d ψ (x ) ⎫
rc mivarjkyksa (a, x 1 ), (x 1 , x 2 )......... ....( x n −1 , x n ), (x n , b) esa f (x )
∫
dx ⎢⎣ φ ( x )
f (x , t) dt ⎥ =
⎦ φ ( x ) ∫
dx
f (x , t) dt + ⎨
⎩ dx ⎭
⎬ f (x ,ψ (x )) dks bl çdkj ifjHkkf"kr djrs gSa] fd f (x ) çR;sd mivarjky esa lrr~
⎧ d φ (x ) ⎫ gks tk;sA f (x ) dk izR;sd mivarjky esa lekdyu Kkr djrs gaS rFkk
−⎨ ⎬ f (x , φ ( x )) .
⎩ dx ⎭ var esa mu lHkh ekuksa dks tksM+ nsrs gSaA
fuf'pr lekdyu ds dqN egRoiw.kZ ifj.kke
(Some important results of definite integral) oØksa ls f?kjk {ks=kQy
π /4
;fn I n = ∫ tan n xdx , rc I n + I n − 2
1
(1) =
0 n −1 ifjc) {ks= dk {ks=Qy (Area of bounded regions)
π /4
;fn I n = ∫
1
(2) cot n xdx , rc I n + I n − 2 = (1) oØ y = f(x), x-v{k rFkk dksfV;ksa x = a vkSj x = b ls ifjc) {ks=
0 1−n
dk {ks=Qy fuEu }kjk fn;k tkrk gS]
π /4 ( 2 )n − 2 n − 2
(3) ;fn In = ∫ sec n x dx , rc I n = + In − 2
b
{ks=Qy = ∫ y dx = ∫ f (x )dx .
b
0 n −1 n −1 a a
Y
π /4 ( 2 )n − 2 n − 2
(4) ;fn In = ∫ cosec n x dx , rc I n = + In − 2
0 n −1 n −1
y = f(x)
π /2 n −1
(5) ;fn In = ∫ sin n x dx , rc In = In − 2
0 n y dx
π /2 n −1
(6) ;fn In = ∫ n
cos x dx , rc In = In − 2 .
O x =a X
0 n x=b
π /2 (2) ;fn oØ y = f(x), x-v{k ds uhps fLFkr gS] rc oØ y = f (x ), x-
(7) ;fn In = ∫ x n sin x dx , rc In + n(n − 1)In − 2 = n(π / 2)n −1
v{k rFkk dksfV;ksa x =a rFkk x =b ls ifjc) {ks=Qy _.kkRed gksxk] vr%
0
π /2 n b
(8) ;fn In = ∫
0
x cos x dx , rc In + n(n − 1)In − 2 = (π /2)n {ks=Qy = ∫ y dx
a
.

π /2 dx 2 a+b (3) oØ x = f(y), y-v{k rFkk Hkqtksa y = c vkSj y = d ls ifjc) {ks= dk

(9) ;fn a > b > 0, rc ∫0 a + b cos x
=
a −b2 2
tan − 1
a−b {ks=Qy fuEu }kjk fn;k tkrk gS] Y
d d
(10) ;fn 0 < a < b , rc π /2 dx 1 b +a − b −a {ks=Qy = ∫ x dy = ∫ f (y)dy .
∫0 a + b cos x
=
b −a
2 2
log
b +a + b −a
c c

y=d x
π /2 a−b x = f(y)
∫0
(11) ;fn a > b > 0 , rc dx 2 −1 dy
= tan
a + b sin x a −b
2 2 a+b
y=c
(12) ;fn 0 < a < b , rc
X
π /2 dx 1 b +a + b −a O
∫0 a + b sin x
=
b 2 − a2
log
b +a − b −a
(4) ;fn oØ dk lehdj.k izkpy :i] ekuk x = f(t) rFkk y = g(t) esa
b t2
gks] rc {ks=Qy = ∫ y dx = ∫ g(t) f ' (t) dt , tgk¡ x ds a rFkk b ds laxr]
π /2 dx
∫
a t1
(13) ;fn a > b, a 2 > b 2 + c 2 , rc
0 a + b cos x + c sin x t ds eku Øe'k% t 1 rFkk t 2 gSaA
2 a−b +c
= tan −1 lefer {ks=Qy (Symmetrical area)
a −b −c
2 2 2
a2 − b 2 − c 2
π /2
;fn oØ fdlh funsZ'kh v{k ¼;k js[kk ;k ewyfcUnq½ ds lkis{k lefer
dx
(14) ;fn a > b, a 2 < b 2 + c 2 , rc ∫ 0 a + b cos x + c sin x
gks] rks ge fdlh ,d lefer Hkkx dk {ks=Qy Kkr djds mls lefer
Hkkxksa dh la[;k ls xq.kk dj vHkh"V {ks=Qy Kkr djrs gSaA
1 a − b + c − b 2 + c 2 − a2
= log nks oØksa ls f?kjk {ks=Qy (Area between two curves)
b 2 + c 2 − a2 a − b + c + b 2 + c 2 − a2
π /2
(1) tc nksuksa oØ ,d nwljs dks nks fcUnqvksa ij izfrPNsfnr djrs gSa
∫
dx
(15) ;fn a < b, a 2 < b 2 + c 2 , rc rFkk mudk mHk;fu"B {ks=Qy bu nksuksa fcUnqvksa ds e/; fLFkr gS
0 a + b cos x + c sin x
−1 b − a − c − b 2 + c2 − a2
= log .
b 2 + c 2 − a2 b − a − c + b 2 + c2 − a2
 fuf'pr lekdyu ,oa oØksa ls f?kjk {ks=Qy 1149

;fn nks oØ y 1 = f1 (x ) rFkk y 2 = f2 (x ) bl izdkj gSa]

fuEu lw= ls izkIr gksrk gS] V = ∫ π x 2 dy ¼mijksDr lw= esa x o y dks
fd f1 (x ) > f2 (x ) rFkk nksuksa oØ nks fcanqvksa A(x = a) rFkk B(x = b) ij
izfrPNsfnr djrs gSa] rc ijLij cnyus ij½A
b b (iii) ;fn x = f1 (t) rFkk y = f2 (t) ls izkIr tuu oØksa (generating
vHkh"V {ks=Qy = ∫ (y1 − y 2 ) dx = ∫ [ f1 (x ) − f2 (x )] dx . b
dks x-v{k ds ifjr% ?kqekrs gSa] rc ∫ πy ds laxr lw=
2
a a
curves) dx
Y a
t2

y = f1 (x) ∫t1
π { f2 (t)} 2 d { f1 (t)} gksxk] tgk¡ x = a o x = b ds laxr t ds eku
B
Øe'k% f1 o f2 gaSA
A (2) ifjØe.k Bksl dk oØ&i`"B %
y = f2 (x)
(i) oØ y = f (x ) , dksfV;ksa x = a, x = b rFkk x-v{k ls ifjc) {ks= dk
X
O x=a dx x=b x-v{k ds ifjr% ifjØe.k djkus ij izkIr oØ i`"B ¼/kjkry½ =
x =b
tc nks oØ ,d nwljs dks ,d fcanq ij izfrPNsfnr djrs gSa rFkk
∫
(2) 2π y ds . Y
C
nksuksa ds e/; {ks=Qy x-v{k }kjk ifjc) gS% oØksa y = f (x), 1 1
x =a
S Q
y 2
= f (x)
2
rFkk x-v{k ls f?kjs {ks= dk vHkh"V {ks=Qy B
α b A P R
= ∫
a
f1 (x )dx + ∫
α
f2 (x )dx
Y x=a x=b

X
O D N M E
y1 = f1(x) P(α , β ) (ii) oØ y = f (x ) ds pki dk y-v{k ds ifjr% ifjØe.k djkus ij
y2 = f2(x)
fufeZr Bksl dk oØ i`"B ¼/kjkry½ = 2π ∫ x ds, ¼mfpr lhekvksa ds e/;½
X 2
tgk¡ ds = 1 + ⎛⎜
O
tgk¡ P(α , β ) nksuksa oØksa dk izfrPNsn fcanq gSA dy ⎞
⎟ dx .
⎝ dx ⎠
(3) /kukRed rFkk _.kkRed {ks=Qy % {ks=Qy lnSo /kukRed fy;k
tkrk gSA ;fn {ks=Qy dk dqN Hkkx] x-v{k ds Åij rFkk dqN Hkkx x- ;fn oØ ds lehdj.k dk izkpfyd :i x = f1 (t) rFkk
(iii)
v{k ds uhps gS] rc nksuksa Hkkxksa dk {ks=Qy vyx&vyx Kkr dj] muds y = f2 (t) gS] rc bl oØ dks x-v{k ds ifjr% ifjØe.k djkus ij fufeZr
la[;kRed eku tksM+us ds ckn izkIr {ks=Qy gh vHkh"V {ks=Qy gSA Bksl dk oØ i`"B = 2π ∫
t =t2 t =t2

t = t1
yds = 2π ∫
t = t1
f 2 (t)ds
ifjØe.k Bksl dk vk;ru rFkk oØ&i`"B ⎧⎪⎛ dx ⎞ 2 ⎛ dy ⎞ 2 ⎪⎫
t2
(Volume and surface of solids of revolution) = 2π ∫t1
f2 (t) ⎨⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ dt ,
⎪⎩⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎪⎭
;fn fdlh lery oØ dks oØ ds ry esa fdlh v{k ds ifjr%
ifjØe.k djkrs gSa] rc bl izdkj izkIr Bksl dks ifjØe.k Bksl dgrs gSaA tgk¡ t1 o t 2 izkpy t ds eku gaSa] tks x = a rFkk x = b ds laxr gaaSA
oØ ds ifjeki }kjk izkIr lrg dks ifjØe.k lrg rFkk bl izdkj izkIr (3) 'kadq ds fNUud dk vk;ru rFkk i`"B {ks=Qy % ;fn r1 ,r2 o`Ùkh;
vk;ru dks ifjØe.k vk;ru dgrs gSaA fljksa dh f=T;k;sa] k o`Ùkh; fljksa ds dsUæksa ds e/; nwjh rFkk l fr;Zd
mnkgj.kkFkZ % tc ,d ledks.k f=Hkqt dk bldh ,d Hkqtk ¼tks Å¡pkbZ gS] rc
ledks.k cukrh gS ½ ds ifjr% ifjØe.k djkrs gSa] rc ,d yEc o`Ùkh; πk
(i) 'kadq ds fNUud dk vk;ru = (r12 + r1 r2 + r22 )
'kadq izkIr gksrk gSA 3
(1) ifjØe.k Bksl dk vk;ru (ii) 'kadq ds fNUud dk oØh; i`"B {ks=Qy = π (r1 + r2 ) l
(i) oØ y = f(x), dksfV;ksa x = a, x = b rFkk x-v{k ls ifjc) {ks= dk x- (iii) 'kadq ds fNUud dk lEiw.kZ i`"B {ks=Qy
v{k ls ifjr% ifjØe.k djkus ij fufeZr Bksl dk vk;ru lw= = π (r1 + r2 ) l + π r12 + πr22 .
(4) xksys ds fNUud dk vk;ru rFkk i`"B {ks=Qy % ekuk xksys ds
b
π ∫ a
y 2 dx ls izkIr gksrk gSA
fNUud dh eksVkbZ k rFkk fNUud ds o`Ùkh; fljksa dh f=T;k;sa r1 rFkk
Y
(x+δ x, y+δy)
r2 gSa] rc
Q πk
(x,y)
P (i) xksys ds fNUud dk vk;ru = (3 r12 + 3 r22 + k 2 )
A S 6
R x=b
(ii) xksys ds fNUud dk oØh; i`"B {ks=Qy = 2πak ,
x=a (tgkW a o`Ùk dh f=T;k gS)
(iii) xksys ds fNUud dk lEiw.kZ i`"B {ks=Qy = (2πak + πr12 + πr22 )
X
;fn oØ&pki
(ii)
O x =Kf (y ) NrFkkMjs[kkvks
L a y = a vkSj y = b ds chp
f?kjs {ks= dk ifjØe.k y-v{k ds ifjr% gks] rks tfur Bksl dk vk;ru V
 1150 fuf'pr lekdyu ,oa oØksa ls f?kjk {ks=Qy
1/2 1/2
b ⎛ b 2 ⎞ ⎛ b ⎞
β
rc ∫ f (x ) g( x ) dx ≤ ⎜
⎝ ∫
f ( x ) dx ⎟ ⎜ g 2 (x ) dx ⎟
⎠ ⎝ a ⎠ ∫
, (β > α ) = π .
dx a a
" ∫α ( x − α ) (β − x ) " pjksa dk ifjorZu : ;fn varjky [a, b] esa Qyu f(x) lrr~ gks
rFkk varjky [t1 , t 2 ] esa Qyu x = φ (t) lrr~ vodyuh; gksa ,oa
β π
" ∫ (x − α ) (β − x ) dx = (β − α )2 .
∫ ∫ f (ϕ(t))ϕ' (t)dt .
b t2
α 8 a = φ (t1 ), b = φ (t 2 ), rc f (x )dx =
a t1
x −a π
dx = (b − a ) .
b
" ∫ a b−x 2
Ekkuk ,d Qyu f (x ,α ) , a ≤ x ≤ b vkSj c ≤ α ≤ d ds fy,
lrr~ gS rc α ∈ [c, d ] ds fdlh eku ds fy, ;fn
f (x ) dx = f (x ) dx .
b 1 nb
" ∫ ∫
∫ ∫
b b
a n na I(α ) = f ( x ,α )dx , rc I' (α ) = f ' (x ,α )dx , tgk¡ I' (α ) , α ds lkis{k
b −c b +c
f (x + c ) dx = f (x ) dx f (x − c ) dx = f (x ) dx .
b b

∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
a a
" ;k I(α ) dk vodyt gS vkSj f ' (x ,α ) , f (x ,α ) dk x dks vpj j[krs gq,
a −c a a+c a
π dx α ds lkis{k vodyu gS A
" ∫0 1 + sin x
=2.
" Qyu f (x ) ds varjky [a, b] esa lrr~ gksus ij ;fn varjky

" ∫0
π /2 dx
sin x + cos x
= 2 log ( 2 + 1) . [a, b] esa nks Qyu f1 (x ) rFkk f2 (x ) bl izdkj Kkr dj ldsa] fd
f1 ( x ) ≤ f (x ) ≤ f2 (x ) ∀ x ∈ [a, b],
π /2
log (tan x )dx = 0 .
b b b
" ∫0
rc ∫ a
f1 (x ) dx ≤ ∫a
f (x ) dx ≤ ∫ a
f2 ( x ) dx .
" ;fn f(t) ,d le Qyu gS rc ‘a’ ds v’kwU; eku ds fy,
= , tgk¡ f (a − x ) = − f (x ) .
a dx a
" ∫ 1+e f (x ) x a

∫ ∫ f (t) dt = 0
0 2 f (t) dt vko’;d :i ls fo"ke Qyu ugha gSA ;fn
a dx π
∫
0 0
" = . gks] rc ;g fo"ke Qyu gksxk A
0
a −x
2 2 2

∫ f [(b − a) t + a]dt .
b 1

" ∫
a dx
=
π
.
" ∫a
f (x )dx = (b − a)
0
0 x 2 + a2 2a x
a πa 2 ∫ f (x ) dx
" ∫0
a 2 − x 2 dx =
4
. " lim
x →0
0
x
= f (0) .
b
" ∫ ( x − a + x − b ) dx = (b − a)2 .
b

∫
a f (x ) dx 1
" = (b − a) .
" ;fn f (t) ,d fo"ke Qyu gS] rc φ (x ) = ∫ f (t) dt ,d le Qyu
x
a f (x ) + f (a + b − x ) 2
a
" ijoy; y 2 = 4 ax rFkk x 2 = 4 by ls ifjc) {ks= dk {ks=Qy
gSA
16 ab
" ;fn f (x ) ,d le Qyu gS] rc φ (x ) = ∫ f (t) dt ,d fo"ke Qyu gSA
x
oxZ bdkbZ gksrk gSA
0 3
" varjky [a, b] esa ifjHkkf"kr çR;sd lrr~ Qyu bl varjky esa " ijoy; y 2 = 4 ax rFkk js[kk y = mx ls ifjc) {ks= dk
lekdyuh; Hkh gksxk A 2
8a
" varjky [a, b] esa ifjHkkf"kr çR;sd ,dfn"V Qyu bl varjky esa {ks=Qy oxZ bdkbZ gksrk gSA
lekdyuh; Hkh gksxk A 3m 3
" ;fn f(x) varjky [a, b]esa lrr~ Qyu gS] rc ;g c ∈ (a, b) esa bl " ijoy; y 2 = 4 ax ds ukfHkyEc ls ifjc) {ks= dk {ks=Qy
b 8 a / 3 oxZ bdkbZ gksrk gSA
2
çdkj fo|eku gksxk] fd ∫
a
f (x )dx = f (c).(b − a) .
" sin (ax) ;k cos (ax) ds ,d pki (one arch) rFkk x-v{k ls ifjc)
1 b {ks= dk {ks=Qy 2/a oxZ bdkbZ gksrk gSA
" la[;k f (c) =
(b − a) ∫a
f (x )dx , varjky [a, b] esa Qyu dk
" nh?kZo`Ùk (x 2 / a 2 ) + (y 2 / b 2 ) = 1 dk {ks=Qy πab oxZ bdkbZ gksrk
e/;eku dgykrh gSA gSA
" ;fn f, varjky [a,b] esa lrr~ gS rc x ∈ [a, b] ds fy, " oØ y = sin x , x-v{k rFkk js[kkvksa x = 0 ,oa x = 2π ls ifjc) {ks= dk
{ks=Qy 4 oxZ bdkbZ gksrk gSA
∫
x
lekdyuh; Qyu g tks g(x) = f (t)dt }kjk ifjHkkf"kr gS] varjky [a, " oØ r = f (θ ) rFkk lfn'k f=T;kvksa θ = α rFkk θ = β ls ifjc)
a
{ks= dks izkjafHkd js[kk ds ifjr% ifjØe.k djkus ij tfur Bksl dk vk;ru
b] esa vodyuh; gksxk rFkk g′(x ) = f ( x ) ∀ x ∈ [a, b ] - β
∫
2
" ;fn varjky [a, b] esa m, Qyu f(x) dk U;wure eku rFkk M, = π r 3 sin θ d θ . mijksä {ks= dks js[kk θ = π / 2 ds ifjr%
3 α
b
Qyu f(x) dk vf/kdre eku gks] rc ∫
m (b − a) ≤ f (x )dx ≤ M (b − a) .
a ifjØe.k djkus ij tfur Bksl dk vk;ru =
2
π ∫
β
r 3 cos θ d θ .
3 α
b b
" ∫ a ∫
f (x )dx ≤ | f (x ) | dx .
a

" ;fn varjky [a, b] esa Qyu f 2 (x ) rFkk g 2 (x ) lekdyuh; gksa]

 1214 vody lehdj.k

Chapter

25
vody lehdj.k
ifjHkk"kk (Definition) in (iv) : in (i) ds lehdj.k rFkk in (iii) esa izkIr n lehdj.kksa
¼ftlesa vodyt gksaxs½ dh lgk;rk ls LosPN vpjksa dk foyksiu dj tks
og lehdj.k ftlesa Lora= pj x, ijra= pj y rFkk vody xq.kkad lehdj.k izkIr gksxk] og vHkh"V vody lehdj.k gksxkA
dy d 2 y
, ,........ gksa] vody lehdj.k dgykrk gSA pjksa ds i`FkDdj.k :i esa vody lehdj.k
dx dx 2
dy dy (Variable separable type differential equation)
mnkgj.kkFkZ : (i) =1+ x +y (ii) + xy = cot x
dx dx (1) pjksa ds i`FkDdj.k :i esa vody lehdj.k % ;fn vody
⎛d y⎞
3 2
lehdj.k dk Lo:i fuEukafdr gks] f1 (x )dx = f2 (y )dy .....(i)
(iv) x 2 2 + 1 + ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ = 0
4 2
dy d y dy
(iii) ⎜ ⎟
⎜ dx 4 ⎟ − 4 dx + 4 y = 5 cos 3 x ⎝ dx ⎠ tgk¡ f1 ,oa f2 Øe’k% dsoy x ,oa y ds Qyu gSa] rks ge dgrs gSa
⎝ ⎠ dx
(1) vody lehdj.k dh dksfV : vody lehdj.k dh dksfV fd vody lehdj.k esa pj i`Fkd gSA vr% lehdj.k (i) ds lekdyu
lehdj.k esa fo|eku mPpre vodyt dh dksfV gksrh gSA mnkgj.k
Lo:i mi;ZqDr lehdj.kksa dh dksfV;k¡ Øe’k% 1,1,4 rFkk 2 gSaA
ls gy izkIr gksrk gS % ∫ f1 (x )dx = ∫ f2 (y )dy + C , tgk¡ c ,d LosPN

vody lehdj.k dh dksfV ,d /kukRed iw.kkZad la[;k gksrh gSA vpj gSA nksuksa vksj LosPN vpj fy[kus dh vko’;drk ugha gS] D;ksafd
vody lehdj.k dh dksfV Kkr djus ds fy, ;g vko’;d ugha gS fd mUgsa feykdj ,d LosPN vpj izkIr gksxkA
lehdj.k dks dj.khxr fpUgksa ls Lora= fd;k tk,A (2) pj i`FkDdj.k esa ifjorZu ;ksX; vody lehdj.k %
(2) vody lehdj.k dh ?kkr % vody lehdj.k dh ?kkr] lehdj.k (i) vody lehdj.k]tks
dy
= f (ax + by + c) ds :i esa gS] dks
esa fo|eku mPpre dksfV ds vodyt dh ?kkr gksrh gS] tcfd lHkh dx
vodyt dj.khxr fpUgksa ls Lora= gksaA nwljs 'kCnksa esa] ,d vody fuEufyf[kr çfrLFkkiu }kjk pj i`Fkd :i esa ifjofrZr fd;k tk ldrk
lehdj.k dh ?kkr lehdj.k esa fo|eku mPpre dksfV ds vodyt dh gS ax + by + c = Z
?kkr gksrh gS ;fn ;g vodytksa ds cgqin esa O;Dr fd;k x;k gksA dy dZ ⎛ dZ ⎞1 dZ
mi;qZDr vody lehdj.kksa dh ?kkr Øe’k% 1, 1, 3 rFkk 2 gSaA ∴ a+b = ;∴ ⎜ − a ⎟ = f (Z ) ⇒ = a + bf (Z ) . ;g
dx dx ⎝ dx ⎠b dx
vody lehdj.k dh lajpuk pj i`Fkd :i gSA
(Formation of differential equation) dy ax + by + c
(ii)= ds :i dk vody lehdj.k] tgk¡
oØ-fudk; ds lehdj.k ls vody lehdj.k dh jpuk ls rkRi;Z dx Ax + By + C
gS ml vody lehdj.k dks Kkr djuk ftldk gy fn;k x;k a b dy K ( Ax + By ) + c
lehdj.k gSA oØ-fudk; dks O;Dr djus okys lehdj.k esa ;fn n LosPN = = K (ekuk); ∴ =
A B dx Ax + By + C
vpj gksa rks ge bl lehdj.k dk n ckj vodyu djrs gSa] rkfd n
lehdj.k fey ldsaA Ax + By = Z j[kus ij
vody lehdj.k ds fuekZ.k dh dk;Z fof/k % dy dZ ⎡ dZ ⎤ 1 KZ + c
∴A+B = ,∴ ⎢ − A⎥ =
in (i) : fn;s x;s lehdj.k dks fy[krs gSa] ftlesa Lora= pj x , dx dx ⎣ dx ⎦B Z+C
ijra= pj y rFkk LosPN vpj gSaA dZ KZ + c
in (ii) : LosPN vpj dh la[;k Kkr djrs gSa] ekuk ;g la[;k n gSA ⇒ = A+B
dx Z +C
in (iii) : fn;s lehdj.k dk x ds lkis{k n ckj vodyu djrs gSaA
;g pj i`Fkd :i esa gS ,oa gy fd;k tk ldrk gSA
 vody lehdj.k 1215

le?kkrh; vody lehdj.k (2) lekdyu xq.kkad : ;fn lehdj.k Mdx + Ndy = 0 ;FkkrF; ugha gS
(Homogeneous differential equation) rc] x ,oa y ds fdlh Qyu ls xq.kk djus ij bls ;FkkrF; cuk;k tk
ldrk gSA bl xq.kd Qyu dks lekdyu xq.kkad dgrs gSaA
(1) le?kkrh; vody lehdj.k : Qyu f(x, y), n ?kkr dk le?kkrh; (3) ;FkkrF; vody lehdj.k dks gy djus dh dk;Zfof/k
Qyu dgykrk gSa ;fn f (λx , λy ) = λ f (x , y ) . n
in (i) : fn;s x;s lehdj.k dh Mdx + Ndy = 0 ls rqyuk dj] M
mnkgj.kkFkZ % f ( x , y ) = x − y + 3 xy
2
,d f}?kkr dk le?kkrh;
2 ∂M ∂N
rFkk N dk eku izkIr djrs gSaA blds i'pkr~ rFkk dk eku
∂y ∂x
Qyu gS] D;ksafd f (λ x , λ y ) = λ x − λ y + 3 λx . λy = λ2 f (x , y )
2 2 2 2
∂M ∂N
Kkr djrs gSa] ;fn = , rks fn;k x;k lehdj.k ;FkkrF; gksxkA
n ?kkr ds ,d le?kkrh; Qyu f(x, y) dks ges’kk fuEukafdr :i esa ∂y ∂x
⎛x⎞
fy[kk tk ldrk gS f (x , y ) = x n f ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ vFkok f (x , y ) = y n f ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ;fn in (ii) : y dks vpj ekurs gq, x ds lkis{k M dk lekdyu djrs gSaA
y
⎝x⎠ ⎝y⎠ in (iii) : x dks vpj ekurs gq, y ds lkis{k N dk lekdyu djrs gSa
izFke dksfV ,oa izFke ?kkr dk vody lehdj.k fuEukafdr :i esa O;Dr rFkk mu inksa dks gVk nsrs gSa tks M ds lekdyu ls izkIr gksrs gSaA
gks
dy
=
f (x , y )
, tgk¡ f(x, y) ,oa g(x, y) leku ?kkr ds le?kkrh; Qyu in (iv) : (ii) ,oa (iii) esa izkIr inksa dks tksM+us ds ckn bls ,d LosPN
dx g( x , y ) vpj ds cjkcj djus ij gesa vHkh"V gy izkIr gksrk gSA
gSa] rks bls le?kkrh; vody lehdj.k dgrs gSA bl izdkj ds nwljs 'kCnksa esa] ,d ;FkkrF; vody lehdj.k dk gy
lehdj.kksa dk izfrLFkkiu y = vx }kjk pj i`Fkd :i esa ifjofrZr dj
fd;k tk ldrk gSA fn, x;s vody lehdj.k dks bl çdkj fy[k ∫ Mdx + ∫ Ndy = c gSA
y dsk fu;r ekurs gq, dsoy os in ftuessaa x ugha gS
dy x n f (y / x ) f (y / x ) ⎛y⎞
ldrs gSa % = n = = F⎜ ⎟ .
dx x g(y / x ) g(y / x ) ⎝x⎠ ijh{k.k }kjk gy (Solution by inspection)
dy dv ;fn vody lehjd.k dks fuEukafdr Lo:i esa fy[kk tk ldrk gS
;fn y = vx , rks =v+x .
dx dx f ( f1 (x , y ))d ( f1 (x , y )) + φ ( f2 (x , y ))d ( f2 (x , y )) + ...... = 0 ,
rks izR;sd in
⇒ v+x
dv
= F(v) ⇒
dv
=
dx dks vklkuh ls vyx&vyx lekdfyr fd;k tk ldrk gSA blds fy,
dx F(v) − v x fuEufyf[kr ifj.kkeksa dks ;kn j[ksa %
(i) d(x + y) = dx + dy (ii) d(xy) = xdy + ydx
1 dx
lekdyu djus ij] ∫ dv = ∫ + C ,tgk¡ C lekdyu dk ⎛ x ⎞ ydx − xdy ⎛ y ⎞ xdy − ydx
F(v) − v x (iii) d ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = (iv) d ⎜ ⎟ =
y ⎝y⎠ y2 ⎝x⎠ x2
LosPN vpj gS lekdyu ds i'pkr~ iw.kZ gy esa v ds LFkku ij
x ⎛ x 2 ⎞ 2 xydx − x 2 dy ⎛ y 2 ⎞ 2 xydy − y 2 dx
(v) d ⎜⎜ ⎟=
⎟ (vi) d ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ =
izfrLFkkfir djrs gSaA ⎝ y ⎠ y2 ⎝ x ⎠ x2
(2) le?kkrh; :i esa ifjorZu ;ksX; lehdj.k % izFke dksfV o izFke ⎛ x2 ⎞ 2 xy 2 dx − 2 x 2 ydy
?kkr dk vody lehdj.k] ftldk Lo:i fuEukafdr gS % (vii) d ⎜ 2 ⎟=
⎜y ⎟ y4
⎝ ⎠
dy a x + b1 y + c1 a b
= 1 , tgk¡ 1 ≠ 1 .....(i) ⎛ y2 ⎞ 2 x 2 ydy − 2 xy 2 dx
dx a2 x + b 2 y + c 2 a2 b2 (viii) d ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟=
⎟
⎝x ⎠ x4
;g vle?kkrh; lehdj.k gS] ftls le?kkrh; Lo:i esa ifjofrZr
⎛ x ⎞ ydx − xdy ⎛ y ⎞ xdy − ydx
fd;k tk ldrk gSA ekuk x = X + h, y = Y + k tgk¡ h rFkk k vpj gSaA (ix) d ⎜⎜ tan −1 ⎟⎟ = (x) d ⎜ tan −1 ⎟ =
⎝ y ⎠ x2 + y2 ⎝ x⎠ x2 + y2
;FkkrF; vody lehdj.k (Exact differential equation) xdy + ydx ⎛ ⎛ x ⎞ ⎞ ydx − xdy
(xi) d[ln(xy )] = (xii) d ⎜ ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎟ =
⎜ ⎟
(1) ;FkkrF; (Exact) vody lehdj.k : ;fn M rFkk N, x ,oa y ds xy ⎝ ⎝ y ⎠⎠ xy
Qyu gksa rks lehdj.k Mdx + Ndy = 0 dks ;FkkrF; (exact) dgasxs] tc x ⎡1 ⎤ xdx + ydy
,oa y esa ,d Qyu f(x, y) bl izdkj fo|eku gS] fd (xiii) d ⎢ ln(x 2 + y 2 )⎥ =
⎣ 2 ⎦ x2 + y2
∂f ∂f
d[f(x, y)] = Mdx + Ndy vFkkZr~ dx + dy = Mdx + Ndy ⎡ ⎛ y ⎞⎤ xdy − ydx ⎛ 1 ⎞ xdy + ydx
∂x ∂y (xiv) d ⎢ln⎜ ⎟⎥ = (xv) d ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ =
⎣ ⎝ x ⎠⎦ xy ⎝ xy ⎠ x 2y 2
∂f
tgk¡] = f(x, y) dk x ds lkis{k vkaf’kd vodyt ⎛ ex ⎞ ye x dx − e x dy ⎛ ey ⎞ xe y dy − e y dx
∂x (xvi) d ⎜⎜ ⎟= (xvii) d ⎜⎜ ⎟=
⎟ y2 ⎟ x2
(y dks fu;r ekurs gq,) ⎝ y ⎠ ⎝ x ⎠
∂f (xviii) d (x m y n ) = x m −1 y n −1 (mydx + nxdy )
= f(x, y) dk y ds lkis{k vkaf’kd vodyt (x dks fu;r ekurs gq,)
∂y xdx + y dy
(xix) d ⎛⎜ x 2 + y 2 ⎞⎟ =
vody lehdj.k Mdx + Ndy = 0 ds ;FkkrF; vody lehdj.k gksus ⎝ ⎠ x2 + y2
∂M ∂N
ds fy, vko’;d ,oa i;kZIr izfrcU/k = gSA vFkkZr~ y ds lkis{k ⎛1 x + y ⎞ x dy − y dx d [ f (x , y )]1 −n f ′(x , y )
∂y ∂x (xx) d ⎜⎜ log ⎟⎟ = (xxi) =
M(x, y) dk vkaf’kd vodyt= x ds lkis{k N(x, y) dk vkaf’kd vodyt ⎝2 x −y⎠ x −y
2 2
1−n ( f (x , y ))n

jSf[kd vody lehdj.k (Linear differential equation)

 1216 vody lehdj.k

(1) jSf[kd rFkk vjSf[kd vody lehdj.k dy dv

y − n +1 = v j[kus ij] (−n + 1)y −n =
dx dx
jSf[kd vody lehdj.k dks
1 dv dv
d ny d n −1 y d n−2y dy ⇒ + Pv = Q ⇒ + (1 − n)Pv = (1 − n)Q ,
Po n
+ P1 n −1 + P2 n − 2 + ... + Pn −1 + Pn y = Q ds inksa esa − n + 1 dx dx
dx dx dx dx
tks ,d jSf[kd vody lehdj.k gSA
fu:fir fd;k tkrk gS] tgk¡ P0 , P1 , P2 , ..., Pn −1 , Pn ,oa Q ;k rks fu;rkad
fVIi.kh : ;fn n = 1 , rc lehdj.k (i) ds pj] i`FkDdj.k ;ksX; gSa
gSa ;k Lora= pj x ds Qyu gSaA rFkk ;g vklkuh ls pj i`FkDdj.k fof/k }kjk lekdfyr fd;k tk
vr% ;fn fdlh vody lehdj.k dks cgqin ds :i esa O;Dr fd;s ldrk gSA
tkus ij] blesa vodyt rFkk ijra= pj izFke ?kkr esa gksa] ,oa budk dy
xq.kuQy ughaa gks rFkk buds xq.kkad fu;rkad gks ;k Lora= pj ds Qyu (5) + P φ (y) = Q ψ (y) :i dk vody lehdj.k
dx
gksa] rks ;g lehdj.k jSf[kd vody lehdj.k dgykrk gS vU;Fkk bls
vjSf[kd vody lehdj.k dgrs gSaA tgk¡ P ,oa Q dsoy x ds Qyu gSa ;k vpj gSaA
1 dy φ (y )
mi;qZDr ifjHkk"kk ls ;g fu"d"kZ fudyrk gS fd ,d vody ψ(y) ls Hkkx nsus ij + P=Q
lehdj.k vjSf[kd vody lehdj.k gksxk] ;fn (i) lehdj.k dh ?kkr ψ (y ) dx ψ (y )
,d ls vf/kd gksA (ii) fdlh Hkh vody xq.kkad dh ?kkr ,d ls vf/kd φ (y ) d ⎧ φ (y ) ⎫ dv
gksA (iii) ijra= pj dh ?kkr ,d ls vf/kd gksA (iv) ijra= pj rFkk ekuk =v, ⎨ ⎬=
ψ (y ) dx ⎩ψ (y ) ⎭ dx
vody xq.kkad dk xq.kuQy fo|eku gksA
dv 1 dy
(2) izFke dksfV dk jSf[kd vody lehdj.k : izFke dksfV ds jSf[kd ;k =k⋅ , tgk¡ k fu;rkad gS
dx ψ (y ) dx
vody lehdj.k dk O;kid Lo:i gS %
dv
dy + kP v = kQ tks fd jSf[kd vody lehdj.k gSA
+ Py = Q .....(i) dx
dx
tgk¡ P ,oa Q , x ds Qyu gSa ;k fu;rkad gSaA vody lehdj.k ds vuqiz;ksx
dy dy dy (Application of differential equation)
mnkgj.kLo:i, + xy = x 3 , x + 2 y = x 3 , + 2 y = sin x
dx dx dx vody lehdj.k dh thou ds iz;ksfxd {ks= esa dkQh mi;ksfxrk
bR;kfn jSf[kd vody lehdj.k gSaA bl izdkj ds vody lehdj.k dks gSA bldk mi;ksx HkkSfrd fu;eksa rFkk jkf’k;ksa dks ifjHkkf"kr djus ds
gy djus ds fy, bUgsa ,d in ls xq.kk djuk gksrk gS] ftls lekdyu fy, gksrk gSA bldk HkkSfrdh] jlk;u 'kkL=] vfHk;kaf=dh bR;kfn esa
xq.kkad (I.F) dgrs gSaA dkQh mi;ksx gksrk gSA
lehdj.k (i) ds nksuksa vksj e ∫ dqN egRoiw.kZ mi;ksfxrk ds {ks= gSa :
Pdx
ls xq.kk djus ij]
(i) ifjorZu dh nj (ii) T;kferh; leL;k;sa ] bR;kfn
d ⎪⎧ ∫ Pdx ⎫⎪
e∫ + Py ⎟ = Q e ∫ ∫ Pdx
Pdx ⎛dy ⎞ Pdx
⎜ ⇒ ⎨y e ⎬=Qe
⎝ dx ⎠ dx ⎪⎩ ⎪⎭ fofo/k vody lehdj.k
(Miscellaneous differential equation)
nksuksa i{kksa dk x ds lkis{k lekdyu djus ij]
f}rh; dksfV dk vody lehdj.k %
y e∫ = Q e∫
∫
Pdx Pdx
+C ……..(ii) d 2y
= f (x ) .....(i)
dx 2
tks fd vHkh"V gy gS] tgk¡ C lekdyu dk fu;rkad gSA e ∫
Pdx
dks d ⎛ dy ⎞
lekdyu xq.kkad (I.F) dgrs gSa lehdj.k (ii) dks la{ksi esa fuEu izdkj lehdj.k (i) ls] ⎜ ⎟ = f (x )
dx ⎝ dx ⎠
fy[kk tk ldrk gS y.(I.F.) = ∫ Q.(I.F.) dx + c ⎛ dy ⎞
⇒ d ⎜ ⎟ = f (x )dx
dx ⎝ dx ⎠
(3) jSf[kd vody lehdj.k + Rx = S dks gy djus dh
∫
dy dy
lekdyu djus ij] = f (x )dx + c1
dx dx
dk;Zfof/k % fn, x;s lehdj.k dks + Rx = S ds :i esa fy[kdj R
dy dy
vFkkZr = F(x ) + c1 ……..(ii)
,oa S dk eku Kkr djrs gSaA dx
(4) jSf[kd vody lehdj.k esa ifjorZu&;ksX; lehdj.k tgk¡] F(x ) = ∫ f (x )dx
¼cjukSyh&vody lehdj.k½ %
dy lehdj.k (ii) ls] dy = F(x )dx + c1dx
vody lehdj.k + Py = Qy n ......(i)
dx lekdyu djus ij] y = ∫ F(x )dx + c1 x + c2
tgk¡ P ,oa Q fu;rkad gSa ;k dsoy x ds Qyu gSa rFkk n ,d
∴ y = H (x ) + c1 x + c 2
fu;rkad gS ftldk eku 'kwU; ;k ,d ugha gSA lehdj.k (i) dks y n ls
Hkkx nsdj] rFkk y −n +1 = v j[kdj jSf[kd :i eas ifjofrZr fd;k tk tgk¡ H (x ) = ∫ F(x )dx rFkk c1 ,oa c 2 LosPN vpj gSaA
ldrk gS]
dy
lehdj.k (i) dks y n ls Hkkx nsus ij] y −n + Py −n +1 = Q
dx
 1254 fLFkfr foKku

Chapter – 26
Statics

;fn ifj.kkeh R ] cy Q ds lkFk θ1 dks.k cukrk gS] rc

çLrkouk (Introduction)
⎛ P sin α ⎞
fLFkfr foKku ;kaf=dh dh og 'kk[kk gS] ftlesa mu cyksa ds ijLij θ1 = tan −1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ -
⎝ Q + P cos α ⎠
lEcU/kksa dk v/;;u fd;k tkrk gS tks fdlh fi.M vFkok fi.M fudk;
ij fØ;k dj mls fojkekoLFkk eas j[krs gSaA fLFkfr I : ;fn P = Q,
æO; : æO; og gS] ftls ge bfUæ;ksa }kjk eglwl dj ldrs gSa vkSj ∴ R = 2 P cos(α / 2) rFkk tan θ = tan(α / 2) ;k θ = α/2
tks cy mRiUu djrk gS ;k cy }kjk çHkkfor gksrk gSA fLFkfr II : ;fn α = 90 vFkkZr~ nksuksa cy yEcor~ gSa
o

cy : cy og cká dkjd gS] tks fdlh fi.M dh fLFkfr esa ifjorZu Q

djrk gS ;k ifjorZu djus dk ç;kl djrk gSA cy dks O;Dr djus ds ∴ R = P 2 + Q 2 rFkk tan θ =
P
fy, pkj ckras vko’;d gaaS] æO;eku] fn’kk] vkHkkl] dk;Zdkjh fcUnqA cy
,d lfn'k jkf'k gSA fLFkfr III : ;fn α = 0 o vFkkZr~ nksuksa cy ,d gh fn'kk esa dk;Zjr~ gSa
Hkkj : fdlh oLrq dk Hkkj og cy gS] ftlls og i`Foh ds dsUæ dh ∴ Rmax = P + Q B C
vksj vkdf"kZr gksrh gSA ;fn fiaM dk æO;eku m rFkk xq:Roh; Roj.k g Q R
gks] rc fiaM dk Hkkj W = mg . θ1
ruko rFkk ç.kksn : tc fdlh Mksjh ls dksbZ Hkkj larqfyr fd;k tkrk α
θ α
gS ;k yVdk;k tkrk gS] rc Mksjh ds vuqfn’k ,d f[kapko cy dk;Z
O P A D
djrk gS ;g cy ruko dgykrk gSA blh çdkj] ;fn fdlh NM+ dks
fLFkfr IV : ;fn α = 180 o vFkkZr~ nksuksa cy foijhr fn'kk esa dk;Zjr~ gSa
ladqfpr fd;k tkrk gS] rc ,d cy mRiUu gksrk gSA ;g cy iz.kksn
dgykrk gSA ∴ Rmin = P − Q
fØ;k rFkk çfrfØ;k : tc ,d fiaM fdlh nwljs fiaM ds lEidZ esa • nks cyksa dk ifj.kkeh cM+s cy ds lehi gksrk gSA
vkrk gS rc fØ;k ds lEidZ fcanq ij cjkcj rFkk foijhr cy dk;Z djrs • nks leku ifjek.k P ds cy ftuds e/; dks.k α gS] dk ifj.kkeh
gSa bl çdkj ds cyksa dks fØ;k rFkk çfrfØ;k dgrs gSaA α
2P cos gksrk gS rFkk ;g ifj.kkeh nksuksa cyksa ds e/; dks.k dks
cyksa dk lekUrj prqHkqZt dk fu;e 2
(Parallelogram law of forces)
lef}Hkkftr djrk gSA
• ;fn α dks.k ij dk;Zjr~ nks cyksa P rFkk Q dk ifj.kkeh R, P dh
;fn ,d fcUnq ij yxs nks cy ifjek.k ,oa fn’kk esa fdlh lekUrj Q sin α
prqHkqZt ds 'kh"kZ ls [khaph xbZ nks Hkqtkvksa ls fu#fir gksa rks mudk fn'kk ls θ dks.k cukrk gS] rc sin θ = rFkk
R
ifj.kkeh cy ifjek.k ,oa fn’kk esa ml 'kh"kZ ls [khaps x;s fod.kZ ls P + Q cos α
fu:fir gksxkA cos θ = .
R
ekuk fcUnq O ij yxs cy P vkSj Q ifjek.k ,oa fn’kk esa lekUrj
prqHkqZt dh Hkqtkvksa OA vkSj OB ls fu:fir gksrs gaS vkSj ∠AOB = α , rc • ;fn α dks.k ij dk;Zjr~ nks cyksa P rFkk Q dk ifj.kkeh R, Q dh
budk ifj.kkeh cy R ifjek.k ,oa fn’kk esa lekUrj prqHkqZt ds fod.kZ P sin α
fn'kk ls θ dks.k cukrk gS] rc sin θ = rFkk
OC }kjk fu:fir gksxkA R
;fn R, cy P ds lkFk θ dks.k cukrk gS] vFkkZr~ ∠COA = θ rc Q + P sin α
cos θ = .
Q. sin α R
R 2 = P 2 + Q 2 + 2 PQ cos α rFkk tan θ = .
P + Q cos α
 nks fn'kkvksa esa fdlh cy ds ?kVd % cy R ds] bldh fØ;k js[kk ls α ;fn fdlh fcUnq ij dk;Zjr~ rhu leryh; cy larqyu esa gksa] rks
vkSj β dks.k ¼foijhr fn’kkvksa esa½ cukus okyh fn’kkvksa esa ?kVd Øe’k% muesa ls çR;sd cy dk ifjek.k 'ks"k nks cyksa ds chp ds dks.k dh T;k
fuEu gSa] (sine) ds lekuqikrh gksrk gSA
OC . sin β R sin β ;fn P, Q , R cy gS rFkk α , β , γ Øe’k% Q rFkk R, R rFkk P, P rFkk
F1 = =
sin( α + β ) sin( α + β ) Q ds e/; dks.k gksa rc larqyu dh fLFkfr esa] P
R
β
P Q R
OC . sin α R. sin α = =
rFkk F2 = = . sin α sin β sin γ γ α
sin(α + β ) sin(α + β )
bl çes; dk foykse Hkh lR; gSA
B Q
C lekUrj cy (Parallel forces)
R
F2 (1) lefn'k lekUrj cy : nks lekUrj cy lefn’k lekUrj cy gksrs
β gSa] tc nksuksa cy ,d gh fn’kk esa dk;Zjr~ gksaA
α
O A nks lekUrj lefn’k cyksa P rFkk Q dk ifj.kkeh cy R ifjek.k esa
F1
cyksa P rFkk Q ds ifjek.kksa ds ;ksx ds cjkcj gksrk gS rFkk ifj.kkeh R dh
λ- μ çes; % fcUnq
O ij OA vkSj OB fn'kkvksa esa dk;Zjr~ nks cyksa]
fn’kk cyksa P rFkk Q dh fn’kk gksrh gSA Q
P R
ftuds ifjek.k Øe'k% λ.OA vkSj μ.OB gSa] ds ifj.kkeh dk ifjek.k
(λ + µ)OC gksrk gS vkSj ;g OC fn'kk esa yxrk gS tgk¡ C, AB ij fLFkr
fcUnq gS vkSj λ.CA = µ.CB .
A
A C B
C
λ OA
ifj.kkeh R ml fcUnq ij dk;Z djrk gS] tks P rFkk Q dks feykus
okyh js[kk dks Q : P esa vUr%foHkkftr djrk gSA
(2) vlefn'k ¼foijhrfn'k½ lekUrj cy : nks lekUrj cy vlefn’k
O B
lekUrj cy gksrs gSa] ;fn nksuksa cy foijhr fn’kk esa dk;Zjr~ gksaA
μ OB
;fn nks vlefn’k lekUrj cy P rFkk Q Øe'k% fcUnqvksa A rFkk B
cyksa dk f=kHkqt fu;e (Triangle law of force) ij dk;Zjr gksa ,oa P dk ifjek.k Q ls vf/kd gS (P > Q), rc budk
;fn fdlh fcUnq ij dk;Zjr~ rhu cyksa ds ifjek.k rFkk fn'kk;s ifj.kkeh R, P dh fn’kk esa fcUnq C ij dk;Z djrk gSA rc R = P − Q ,
fdlh f=Hkqt dh Hkqtkvksa }kjk çnf'kZr gksa] rc os lkE;koLFkk esa gksx
a sA P.CA = Q.CB . P
R
;gk¡ AB = P, BC = Q, CA = R B
A R
A
C
P R Q bl fLFkfr esa fcUnq C, BA dks cyksa ds QO;qRØe vuqikrksa esa ckár%
P Q P −Q R
foHkkftr djrk gS] = = = .
P CB CA CB − CA AB
B Q C
vk?kw.kZ (Moment)
f=Hkqt ABC esa, AB + BC + CA = 0 ⇒ P + Q + R = 0
vr% cy P,Q rFkk R lkE;koLFkk esa gaSA fdlh fn, gq;s cy dk fdlh fcUnq O ds lkis{k vk?kw.kZ dk ifjek.k
foykse: ;fn fdlh fcUnq ij dk;Zjr rhu cy lkE;koLFkk esa gSa] rc os ml cy vkSj fn, gq, fcUnq ls cy dh fØ;k js[kk ij yEc ds xq.kuQy
ds cjkcj gksrk gSaA O
ifjek.k rFkk fn'kk esa f=Hkqt dh Hkqtkvksa }kjk çnf'kZr fd;s tk ldrs gSaA
cyksa dk cgqHkqt fu;e (Polygon law of forces)
p
;fn fdlh fcUnq ij dk;Zjr~ ,d ls vf/kd cyksa ds ifjek.k rFkk
F
fn'kk esa fdlh cgqHkqt dh Hkqtkvksa }kjk çnf'kZr gksa] rc os lkE;koLFkk esa A B
gksaxsA A3 M
P4 P3
;fn ,d cy F fdlh n`<+ fi.M ds fcUnq A ij js[kk AB ds vuqfn'k
dk;Zjr~ gS rFkk AB ls fLFkj fcUnq O dh yEcor~ nwjh OM (= P) gks] rc
A4 A2 fcUnq O ds ifjr% cy F dk vk?kw.kZ
P5 ⎡1 ⎤
P2 = F. P = AB × OM = 2 ⎢ ( AB × OM )⎥ = 2 ( ΔAOB {ks=Qy)
⎣2 ⎦
A P1 A1
ykWeh dh çes; (Lami's theorem)
vk?kw.kZ dk S.I. ek=d U;wVu ehVj (N-m) gSA
(1) vk?kw.kZ dk fpUg : fdlh cy dk fn;s x;s fcUnq ds lkis{k vk?kw.kZ
/kukRed ml voLFkk esa dgk tkrk gS tcfd mldh ml fcUnq ds ifjr%
 1256 fLFkfr foKku
?kqekus dh ço`fÙk okekorZ (Anti-clockwise) gSA ;fn ?kqekus dh ço`fÙk lds] rc os ,d cy;qXe ds lerqY; gksaxs] ftldk vk?kw.kZ f=Hkqt ds
nf{k.kkorZ (Clockwise) gS] rks vk?kw.kZ _.kkRed gksrk gSA {ks=Qy dk nqxquk gksrk gSA
F2 ekuk cy P , Q rFkk R Øe'k% AE, CA rFkk AB ds vuqfn'k gSa] tks A
ij dk;Zjr~ rhu laxkeh cy gSa rFkk bu cyksa ds ifjek.k rFkk fn'kk
f=Hkqt ABC dh Hkqtkvksa BC, CA rFkk AB }kjk fu#fir gksrs gSaA vr%
f=Hkqt fu;e ls] ;s cy lkE;koLFkk esa dgs tkrs gSaA
O A P
D E
F1 P
(2) osjhxukWu dh çes; cyksa ds lery esa fLFkr
(Varignon’s theorem):
R Q
fdlh fcUnq ds lkis{k cyksa ds vk?kw.kksZa dk chtxf.krh; ;ksx] mlh fcUnq
ds lkis{k muds ifj.kkeh ds vk?kw.kZ ds cjkcj gksrk gSsA
y fdlh fcUnq ds ifjr% nks cyksa ds vk?kw.kksZa dk chtxf.krh; B L P C
;ksx] buds ifj.kkeh dh fØ;kjs[kk ij 'kwU; gksrk gSA
'ks"k nks cy P rFkk Q tks Øe'k% AD rFkk BC ds vuqfn'k gSa] ,d
y foykser% ;fn nks leryh; cyksa ¼tks fd larqyu esa ugh gS½]
cy;qXe cukrs gSa] ftldk vk?kw.kZ gS] m = P. AL = BC . AL
ds vk?kw.kksZa dk chtxf.krh; ;ksx] ry esa fLFkr fdlh fcanq ds lkis{k 'kwU;
1 ⎛1 ⎞
gks] rc mudk ifj.kkeh mlh fcUnq ls xqtjrk gSA Q (BC . AL ) = 2⎜ f«kHkqqt ABC dk {ks«kQy ⎟
2 ⎝2 ⎠
y ;fn dksbZ fiaM] ftldk ,d fcanq fLFkj gS ij nks cy
∴ vk?kw.kZ = BC.AL = 2 (ΔABC dk {ks=Qy)
fØ;k’khy gSa rFkk fiaM fojkekoLFkk esa gS] rc fLFkj fcanq ds ifjr% nksuksa
cyksa dk vk?kw.kZ cjkcj rFkk foijhr gksrk gSA leryh; cyksa dh lkE;koLFkk
(Equilibrium of coplanar forces)
cy;qXe (Couples)
(1) ;fn rhu cy] ,d n`<+ fi.M dks lkE;koLFkk esa j[krs gSa] rc os
;fn ifjek.k esa leku] lekUrj ,oa vlefn'k nks cy fofHkUu leryh; gksaxsA
fcUnqvksa ij yxs gksa] rks ml ;qXe dks cy;qXe dgrs gSaA (2) ;fn fdlh ry esa ,d n`<+ fi.M ij dk;Zjr~ rhu cy bls
mnkgj.kkFkZ : ?kM+h esa pkch nsus esa] ispdl ?kqekus esa] dEikl }kjk o`Ùk lkE;koLFkk esa j[krs gSa] rc os laxkeh ;k lekUrj gksaxsA
dh jpuk djus esa vkfnA P
(3) tc rhu ls vf/kd cy ,d n`<+ fi.M dks larqyu esa j[krs gSa]
rc ;g vko';d ugha gS fd os ,d fcUnq ij feysaA cyksa dk fudk;
A p
B lkE;koLFkk esa gksxk] ;fn fi.M esa u rks js[kh; xfr gks rFkk u gh ?kw.khZ
xfr gksA vFkkZr~ X = 0, Y = 0, G = 0 ;k R = 0, G = 0.
(4) ;fn ,d n`<+ fi.M leryh; cyksa ds fudk; ds vUrxZr
P
larqyu esa gS] tks fd ,d fcUnqxkeh ugha gSa] rks fdUgha nks ijLij yEc
(1) cy;qXe dh Hkqtk : cy;qXe dk fuekZ.k djus okys cyksa dh fØ;k
js[kkvksa dh fn'kk esa cyksa ds fo;ksftr Hkkxksa ds chth; ;ksx vyx-vyx
js[kkvksa ds e/; yEcor~ nwjh cy;qXe dh Hkqtk dgykrh gSA 'kwU; gksaxs rFkk cyksa ds ry esa mifLFkr fdlh Hkh fcUnq ds ifjr% lHkh
(2) cy;qXe dk vk?kw.kZ : fdlh cy;qXe dk vk?kw.kZ] ifjek.k esa cy;qXe cyksa ds vk?kw.kksZa dk chth; ;ksx Hkh 'kwU; gksxkA
cukus okys cyksa esa ls ,d cy vkSj nksuksa cyksa dh fØ;k js[kkvksa ds chp (5) ;fn ,d n`<+ fi.M leryh; cyksa ds fudk; ds vUrxZr
dh yEcor~ nwjh ds xq.kuQy ds cjkcj gksrk gSA larqyukoLFkk esa gS] rc rhu vlajs[kh; fcUnqvksa esa ls çR;sd ds ifjr%
(3) cy;qXe ds vk?kw.kZ dks /kukRed dgrs gSa] ;fn cy;qXe dh ço`fÙk cyksa ds vk?kw.kksZa dk chtxf.krh; ;ksx 'kwU; gksxkA
okekorZ (Anticlockwise) ?kqekus dh gksrh gSA ;fn bldh ço`fÙk nf{k.kkorZ (6) f=dks.kferh; çes; (m–n izes;) : ekuk ΔABC ds vk/kkj BC ij P
(Clock wise) ?kqekus dh gS] rks vk?kw.kZ _.kkRed gksrk gSA dksbZ ,slk fcUnq gS fd A
cy;qXe dk vk?kw.kZ = cy × cy;qXe dh Hkqtk = P.p BP : CP = m : n.
;fn ∠BAP = α , ∠CAP = β vkSj α
. β
P P
∠APC = θ ] rc
θ
(i) (m + n) cot θ = m cot α − n cot β C
B B m P n
A B A (ii) (m + n) cot θ = n cot B − m cot C

/kukRed cy;qXe _.kkRed cy;qXe ?k"kZ.k (Friction)

P P
ifjHkk"kk : oLrqvksa dk og xq.k ftlds dkj.k nks :{k (Rough) fi.Mksa
• ,d cy;qXe ,dy cy }kjk larqfyr ugha gks ldrk fdUrq
foijhr fpUgksa ds nks cyksa }kjk bls larqfyr dj ldrs gSaA ds lEidZ fcUnq ij ,d xfr fojks/kh cy Lor% mRiUu gks tkrk gS tks
fd ,d fiaM dks nwljs fiaM ij fQlyus ls jksdus dh ço`fÙk j[krk gS]
cy;qXe dk f=Hkqt çes; (Triangle theorem of couples) ?k"kZ.k dgykrk gS vkSj ml cy dks ?k"kZ.k cy dgrs gaSA
R
;fn fdlh fi.M ij dk;Zjr~ rhu cyksa dks ifjek.k] fn'kk rFkk
fØ;k js[kk esa fdlh f=Hkqt dh Hkqtkvksa }kjk Øe ls fu#fir fd;k tk
F P

W
 (1) ?k"kZ.k ,d Lo% O;ofLFkr (Self-adjusting) s % ekuk ,d W Hkkj dk
Hkkjh fi.M gS] tks fpdus {kSfrt ry ij j[kk gqvk gS rFkk bls ,d ?k"kZ.k xq.kkad (Coefficient of friction)
{kSfrt cy P }kjk [khapk tkrk gSA P ds ,d fuf’pr eku rd fi.M xfr tc ,d #{k fi.M] nwljs #{k fi.M ds Åij fQlyus dh voLFkk
ugha djrk gSA ry dh vfHkyac çfrfØ;k R rFkk fi.M dk Hkkj W esa gksrk gS] rks bl le; yxus okyk ?k"kZ.k] lhekar ?k"kZ.k dgykrk gS
Å/okZ/kj dk;Z djrs gSa rFkk {kSfrt cy ij çHkko ugha Mkyrs gSaA vkSj ;g vfHkyEc çfrfØ;k ls ,d vpj vuqikr esa gksrk gSA bl vpj
?k"kZ.k cy F {kSfrt fn’kk esa dk;Z djrk gS] tks P dks larqfyr djrk gS vuqikr dks ?k"kZ.k xq.kkad (coefficient of friction) dgrs gSaA ftls μ ls
rFkk fiaM dks xfr djus ls jksdrk gSA çnf'kZr djrs gSaA
tSls-tSls P dk eku c<+krs gSa] F dk eku c<+rk gS tks fd P dks vf/kdre ?k" kZ.k cy F
lUrqfyr djrk gSA bl çdkj ,d fLFkfr ,slh vkrh gS fd P dk eku vr% μ = tan λ = ⇒ µ = ⇒ F = µR,
vfHkyEc çfrfØ;k R
FkksM+k lk Hkh vf/kd gksus ij fiaM xfr dj ldrk gS bl fLFkfr esa F dk
eku vf/kd gksrk gS rFkk P ds cjkcj gksrk gS blds i’pkr~ P dk eku tgk¡ F lhekUr ?k"kZ.k rFkk R vfHkyEc çfrfØ;k gSA
c<+kus ij F dk eku ughaa c<+rk gS vkSj fiaM xfr çkjEHk dj nsrk gSA μ dk eku fi.Mksa ds inkFkZ dh çd`fr ij fuHkZj djrk gSA μ dk eku
;g çnf’kZr djrk gS fd ?k"kZ.k ,d Lo%O;ofLFkr cy gS] vFkkZr~ lnSo 0 ls 1 ds e/; gksrk gSA bldk eku iw.kZr% ?k"kZ.kjfgr fi.M ds fy;s
mRiUu gksus okyk ?k"kZ.k fu;r ugha gS] fdUrq 'kwU; ls ,d fuf’pr 'kwU; gksrk gSA
vf/kdre eku rd c<+rk gSA • ?k"kZ.k 'kadq (Cone of friction) : ,d 'kadq ftldk 'kh"kZ nks #{k
(2) LFkSfrd ?k"kZ.k : tc ,d fi.M dks nwljs fi.M ij pykus dk fi.Mksa ds lEidZ fcUnq ij] v{k vfHkyEc çfrfØ;k ds vuqfn'k rFkk
ç;kl fd;k tkrk gS vkSj igyk fi.M pyus dh fLFkfr esa ugha gks] rks v/kZ'kh"kZ dks.k] ?k"kZ.k dks.k ds cjkcj gS] ?k"kZ.k 'kadq dgykrk gSA
bl fLFkfr esa ?k"kZ.k dks LFkSfrd ?k"kZ.k dgrs gSaA
N
(3) lhekUr ?k"kZ.k : tc ,d fi.M dks nwljs fi.M ij pykus dk
ç;kl fd;k tkrk gS vkSj igyk fi.M Bhd pyus dks rS;kj gksrk gS] rks
bl fLFkfr dks lhekUr lUrqyu dh fLFkfr dgrs gSaA lhekUr lUrqyu dh
fLFkfr esa dk;Z djus okys ?k"kZ.k dks lhekUr ?k"kZ.k dgrs gSaA lhekUr
R
?k"kZ.k dk eku vf/kdre gksrk gSA
λ
(4) xfrd ?k"kZ.k : tc ,d fi.M nwljs fi.M ds Åij pyrk gS] rks
nksuksa fi.Mksa ds lEidZ ryksa ds e/; dk;Z djus okys ?k"kZ.k dks xfrd
?k"kZ.k dgrs gSaA xfrd ?k"kZ.k dk eku lnSo lhekUr ?k"kZ.k ls de gksrk O F
gSA xfrd ?k"kZ.k nks çdkj dk gksrk gS vFkkZr~ lihZ (Sliding) ?k"kZ.k rFkk urlery ij lhekUr lUrqyukoLFkk
csYyu (Rolling) ?k"kZ.kA (Limiting equilibrium on an inclined plane)
(5) ?k"kZ.k ds fu;e ekuk W Hkkj dk fi.M ,d urlery] ftldk {kSfrt ls >qdko
(i)?k"kZ.k lnSo xfr dk fojks/k djrk gS] rFkk bldh fn’kk lnSo α gS] ij lhekUr lUrqyu dh voLFkk esa gSA
fi.M dh xfr dh fn’kk ds foijhr gksrh gSA
ekuk R vfHkyEc çfrfØ;k gS rFkk urlery ij dk;Zjr~ lhekUr
(ii) ?k"kZ.k dk ifjek.k lEidZ ryksa dh çd`fr ij fuHkZj djrk gSA
?k"kZ.k μ R gSA
(iii) ?k"kZ.k lEidZ ryksa ds {ks=Qy ;k vkd`fr ij fuHkZj ugha djrk
gS ;fn vfHkyEc çfrfØ;k fu;r gksA vr% fi.M rhu cyksa R , μ R rFkk W ds v/khu lhekUr lUrqyu
(iv) lhekUr ?k"kZ.k dk eku fs , vfHkyEc çfrfØ;k R ds lekuqikrh
dh voLFkk esa gksxkA
gksrk gS] vFkkZr~ fs ∝ R . cyksa dks ry ds vuqfn'k rFkk ry ds yEcor~ fo;ksftr djus
ij] µR = W sin α rFkk R = W cos α R
μR
fs = μ s . R ; μ s = fs / R , tgk¡ μ s ,d fu;rkad gS] ftls LFkSfrd
?k"kZ.k xq.kkad dgrs gSaA µR W sin α A
⇒ = ⇒ µ = tan α α
R cos α
fk W
xfrd ?k"kZ.k ds fy;s µk = ,tgk¡ μk
xfrd ?k"kZ.k xq.kkad gSA ⇒ tan λ = tan α ⇒ α = λ α
R
O
(6) ?k"kZ.k dks.k : lhekUr ?k"kZ.k vkSj vfHkyEc çfrfØ;k dk ifj.kkeh] vr%] ;fn ,d fi.M urlery ij Lo;a ds Hkkj ds dkj.k Bhd
vfHkyEc çfrfØ;k ls tks dks.k cukrk gS] mls ?k"kZ.k dks.k dgrs gSa rFkk fQlyus dh voLFkk esa gks] rc ry dk >qdko ?k"kZ.k dks.k ds cjkcj
bls lkekU;r% λ ls iznf'kZr djrs gSaA gksrk gSA
bl çdkj α dk lhekUr eku λ gS] tcfd ?k"kZ.k cy f vf/kdre (1) #{k urlery ij fi.M ds Åij dh vksj xfr ds fy;s vko';d
eku xzg.k djrk gSA U;wure cy : ekuk W Hkkj dk ,d fi.M fcUnq A ij gS] {kSfrt ls #{k
vf/kdre ?k" kZ.k cy R urlery dk >qdko α gS rFkk ?k"kZ.k dks.k λ gSA ekuk ry ls θ dks.k
tan λ = S
vfHkyEc çfrfØ;k ij dk;Zjr~ cy P fi.M dks urlery ij Åij dh vksj xfr djkus ds
pwf¡ d R rFkk μ R ,S ds ?kVd gSa fy;s vko';d gSA
sin(α + λ )
vr% S cos λ = R, S sinλ = μR λ P =W , {Q µ = tan λ}
cos(θ − λ )
oxZ djds tksM+us ij] P
F=μR R
S = R 1+μ 2
rFkk tan λ = μ ] θ
A
tgk¡ μ ?k"kZ.k xq.kkad gSA μR α
vr% ?k"kZ.k xq.kkad dk eku ?k"kZ.k dks.k dh Li’kZT;k ds cjkcj gksrk gSA W
α
O
 1258 fLFkfr foKku
ekuk G lEiw.kZ fiaM dk xq:Ro dsUæ gSA rc fiaM dk lEiw.kZ Hkkj
Li"Vr% tc cos(θ − λ ) vf/kdre gS] rc cy P U;wure gksxk vFkkZr~ (w1 + w 2 ) , fcanq G ij dk;Z djrk gSA
tc cos(θ − λ ) = 1 vFkkZr~ θ − λ = 0 ;k θ = λ . vr% P dk U;wure G1G2 dks feykus ij; fcanq G, G1 G 2 ij fLFkr gksxkA
eku W sin(α + λ ) gSA ekuk G1G2 ij dksbZ fLFkj fcUnq O gS rFkk OG1 = x1 , OG 2 = x 2
(2) #{k urlery ij uhps dh vksj xfr ds fy;s vko';d U;wure rFkk OG = x .
cy : ekuk W Hkkj dk ,d fi.M fcUnq A ij gS] {kSfrt ls #{k urlery O ds ifjr% vk?kw.kZ ysus ij] (w1 + w 2 )x = w1 x 1 + w 2 x 2
dk >qdko α gS rFkk ?k"kZ.k dks.k λ gSA ekuk ry ls θ dks.k ij dk;Zjr~ w1 x 1 + w 2 x 2
;k x = .
cy P fi.M dks urlery ij uhps dh vksj xfr djkus ds fy, w1 + w 2 O G
G1 G2
vko';d gSA
W sin(λ − α )
P= , [Q µ = tan λ ] (2) 'ks"k Hkkx dk xq:Ro dsUæ (Centre of gravity of the remainder) :
cos(θ − λ )
P ekuk lEiw.kZ fiaM dk Hkkj w gSA ekuk fiaM ls w1 Hkkj dk ,d Hkkx B bl
R θ
çdkj vyx fd;k tkrk gS fd w − w1 Hkkj dk Hkkx A 'ks"k jg tkrk gSA
A ekuk lEiw.kZ fiaM dk xq:RodsUæ G rFkk vyx fd;s x;s Hkkx B dk
μR α xq:RodsUæ G1 gSA ekuk 'ks"k Hkkx A dk xq:Ro dsUæ G gS rFkk G1G2 ij
2

W ,d fcanq O gS] ftls ewyfcUnq ekuk x;k gSA

α
Li"Vr%] tc cos(Oθ − λ )
vf/kdre gS] rc cy P U;wure gksxk vFkkZr~ ekuk OG1 = x1 , OG = x , OG 2 = x 2 .
tc cos (θ − λ ) = 1 vFkkZr~ θ = λ . vr% P dk U;wure eku O ds ifjr% vk?kZw.k ysus ij] (w − w1 )x 2 + w1 x 1 = wx
W sin(λ − α ) gSA wx − w1 x1
;k x2 = .
;fn α = λ , rc urlery ij j[kk fi.M lhekar larqyu dh w − w1 O G2 G G1

voLFkk esa gS vkSj bldh izo`fÙk uhps dh vksj fQlyus dh gSA

;fn α < λ , rc ur lery ij j[ks W Hkkj ds fi.M dks uhps dh dqN fo'ks"k fLFkfr;ksa es fiaMksa ds xq:Ro dsUæ dh fLFkfr;k¡ (Position
vksj xfr djkus ds fy, vko';d U;wure cy W sin(λ − α ) gksrk gSA
of centre of gravity in some special cases)
;fn α = λ, α > λ ;k α < λ rc urlery ij j[ks W Hkkj ds
fi.M dks Åij dh vksj xfr djkus ds fy, vko';d U;wure cy (1) ,dleku NM+ dk xq:Ro dsUæ: bldk xq:Ro NM+ ds e/; fcUnq ij
W sin(α + λ ) gksrk gSA fLFkr gksrk gSA
;fn α > λ, rc urlery ij j[kk fi.M] vius Hkkj vkSj vfHkyEc (2) lekUrj prqZHkqt dk xq:Ro dsUæ: bldk xq:Ro dsUæ] fod.kksZa ds
çfrfØ;k ds v/khu uhps dks fQlysxkA çfrPNsn fcUnq ij fLFkr gksrk gSA
(3) f=Hkqth; leiVy dk xq:Ro dsUæ : f=Hkqt dk xq:Ro dsUæ
xq:Ro dsUæ (Centre of gravity ) ekf/;dkvksa dk çfrPNsn fcanq vFkkZr~ dsUæd gksrk gSA
xq#Ro dsUæ og fcUnq gksrk gS ftl ij fdlh fi.M ;k fudk; dk (4) ,d leprq"Qyd dk xq:RodsUæ] mlds 'kh"kZ dks lEeq[k Qyd
lEiw.kZ Hkkj dsfUær gksrk gSA fdlh Hkh fudk; ;k fiaM dk ,d vkSj ds dsaæ ls feykus okyh js[kk ij fLFkr gksrk gS] rFkk bl js[kk dks 3 : 1 esa
dsoy ,d xq:Ro dsUæ gksrk gSA Y A (x , y ) foHkkftr djrk gSA
n n n

A2(x2, y2) (5) yEc o`Ùkh; 'kadq dk xq:Ro dsUæ mlds v{k ij vk/kkj ds dsaæ
h
G(x, y) ls dh nwjh ij gksrk gS rFkk bls 3 : 1 esa foHkkftr djrk gSA
4
A1(x1, y1)
(6) [kks[kys yEc o`Ùkh; 'kadq dk xq:Ro dsaæ mlds v{k ij vk/kkj
O X h
;fn w1 , w 2 ,...., wn Hkkj ds
d.k Øe’k% fcUnqvksa ds dsUæ ls dh nwjh ij gksrk gS rFkk bls 2 : 1 esa foHkkftr djrk gSA
3
A1 (x1 , y1 ), A2 ( x 2 , y 2 ), ........, An (x n , yn ) ij j[ks gksa] rks muds (7) [kks[kys v/kZxksyk)Z dk xq:Ro dsaæ lefer f=T;k ij] dsaæ ls
xq:RodsUæ G ds funsZ’kkad ( x , y ) fuEu }kjk Kkr gksrs gSa a
nwjh ij ¼tgk¡ a xksyk)Z dh f=T;k gS½ gksrk gSA
∑ ∑
2
w1 x 1 w1 y1
x = , y = . 3a
∑w 1 ∑w 1
(8) v/kZxksyk)Z dk xq:Ro dsUæ lefer f=T;k ij] dsUæ ls
8
nwjh ij
¼tgk¡ a xksyk)Z dh f=T;k gS½ gksrk gSA
la;qDr fiaM rFkk 'ks"k Hkkx dk xq:Ro dsUæ (9) o`Ùkh; pki dk xq:Ro dsaæ lefn’k f=T;k ij] dsUæ ls
(Centre of gravity of a compound body and remainder) a sin α
nwjh ij gksrk gS tgk¡ a o`Ùk dh f=T;k vkSj 2α o`Ùkh; pki ds
α
(1) la;qDr fiaM dk xq:Ro dsUæ (Centre of gravity of a compound }kjk dsUæ ij cuk dks.k ¼jsfM;u esa½ gSA
body) : ekuk fdlh fiaM ds nks Hkkxksa ds xq:Ro dsUæ G1 o G2 gaS rFkk
buds Hkkj Øe’k% w1 o w 2 gSaA
 (10) o`Ùk[k.M dk xq:Ro dsUæ lefer f=T;k ij] dsUæ ls vuqfn’k dk;Z djrk gSA
2 a sin α
. dh nwjh ij gksrk gS] tgk¡ a o`Ùk dh f=T;k vkSj 2 α o`Ùkh; " f=Hkqt ΔABC dh Hkqtkvksa BC, CA rFkk AB ds vuqfn’k rhu cy P,
3 α
[k.M ds }kjk dsUæ ij cuk dks.k ¼jsfM;u esa½ gSA Q rFkk R dk;Zjr~ gSa] rc budk ifj.kkeh
(11) v/kZo`Ùkkdkj pki dk xq:Ro dsUæ lefer f=T;k ij] dsUæ ls (i) var% dsUæ ls gksdj xqtjrk gS] ;fn P + Q + R = 0
2a (ii) ifjdsUæ ls gksdj xqtjrk gS] ;fn
dh nwjh ij gksrk gS] tgk¡ a o`Ùk dh f=T;k gSA
π
P cos A + Q cos B + R cos C = 0
(iii) yEcdsUæ ls gksdj xqtjrk gS] ;fn
P sec A + Q sec B + R sec C = 0
(iv) dsUæd ls gksdj xqtjrk gS] ;fn
P cosec A + Q cosec B + R cosec C = 0
P Q R
" tc ,d NM+ AB ftldk ,d fljk B fpdus ry ij gS] ;k = = .
a b c
fojkekoLFkk esa j[kh gS rc lEidZ fcanq ij ry ds vfHkyEc ds
" ;fn rhu lefn’k cy P, Q, R Øe’k% fdlh f=Hkqt ABC ds 'kh"kksaZ
vuqfn’k çfrfØ;k gksrh gSA C
A A, B, C ij dk;Zjr~ gSa] rc budk ifj.kkeh
P Q R
(i) ΔABC ds var%dsUæ ij dk;Zjr~ gksxk] ;fn = =
R a b c
(ii) ΔABC ds ifjdsUæ ij dk;Zjr~ gksxk] ;fn
P Q R
= =
B sin 2 A sin 2 B sin 2 C
" fdlh fpduh [kw¡Vh (peg) ij j[kh ,d NM+ fojkekoLFkk esa gks] (iii) ΔABC ds yEcdsUæ ij dk;Zjr~ gksxk ;fn
rc lEidZ fcUnq ij çfrfØ;k] NM+ ds yEcor~ gksrh gSA
P Q R
R = =
tan A tan B tan C
(iv) ΔABC ds dsUæd ij dk;Zjr~ gksxk] ;fn P = Q = R.
C
vk?kw.kZ ?kw.kZu dh ço`fÙk dks fu/kkZfjr djrk gSA vk?kw.kZ ds vf/kd
A B gksus ij ?kw.kZu xfr dh izo`fÙt vf/kd gksrh gSA
" ;fn fdlh fiaM dk ,d fcanq nwljs fiaM dh lrg ds lEidZ esa " {kSfrt ry ij U;wure cy : W Hkkj ds fdlh fi.M dks ,d #{k
gS] rc lEidZ fcanq ij çfrfØ;k lrg ds yEcor~ gksrh gSA urlery ds Åij xfr djkus ds fy, vko';d U;wure cy
mnkgj.kkFkZ Hkwfe rFkk nhokj ds lEidZ esa j[kh lh<+h dh lkE;koLFkk
¼nhokj rFkk Hkwfe nksuksa fpdus gSa½A W sin λ gksrk gSA
B " ekuk w Hkkj ds fi.M dk xq#RodsUnz x nwjh ij gSA ;fn fi.M ls
R
vyx gq;s w , w , w Hkkjksa ds Hkkxksa ds xq#RodsUnz Øe'k% x , x , x nwfj;ksa
1 2 3 1 2 3

ij gSa] rc fi.M ds 'ks"k cps Hkkx dk xq#Ro dsUæ

S
wx − w1 x1 − w 2 x 2 − w 3 x 3
x4 = nwjh ij gksxkA
w − w1 − w 2 − w 3
C
A
" tc ,d NM+ fdlh [kks[kys xksys ds Hkhrj iw.kZr% fojkekoLFkk esa
gks] rc NM+ ds fljksa ij çfrfØ;k,¡ bu fcUnqvksa ij vfHkyEcksa ds
vuqfn’k rFkk [kks[kys xksys ds dsUæ ls gksdj xqtjrh gSA

R
S

A
" fdlh Mksjh esa ruko cy iw.kZr% ,d leku gksrk gSA tc nks
Mksfj;ksa dks ,d lkFk ck¡/kk tkrk gS] rc nksuksa Hkkxksa esa ruko cy fHké-
fHké gksrk gSA
" tc ,d Hkkj W fdlh Mksjh }kjk yVdk;k tkrk gS rc Mksjh esa
ruko yVdk;s x;s Hkkj ds cjkcj gksrk gS] vFkkZr~ T = W .
" fdlh Mksjh dk ruko fiaM ls nwj vilkjh fn’kk esa rFkk Mksjh ds
 Xkfr foKku 1295

Chapter – 27
Dyanamics

çLrkouk (Introduction) ekuk ,d d.k fLFkj fcUnq O ls pyuk izkjEHk djrk gS rFkk ljy
js[kk OX ds vuqfn'k t le; esa nwjh OP = x r; djrk gSA ;fn d.k δt
xfr foKku ;kaf=dh dh og 'kk[kk gS ftlds vUrxZr d.kksa vFkok δx
fi.Mksa dh xR;kRed voLFkk dk v/;;u fd;k tkrk gSA le; esa PQ = δx nwjh vksj r; djrk gS] rc , δt le; esa d.k dk
δt
(1) foLFkkiu % fdlh xfr'khy fcUnq ds fLFkfr ifjorZu dks ml vkSlr osx dgykrh gSA
fcUnq dk foLFkkiu dgrs gSaA fdlh xfr'khy fcUnq dk foLFkkiu Kkr δx
O X
djus ds fy;s gesa xfr'khy fcUnq dh nksuksa fLFkfr;ksa dks feykus okyh x P Q
js[kk dh yEckbZ rFkk fn'kk Kkr gksuk pkfg,A bl çdkj foLFkkiu esa fdlh le; t ij d.k dk rkR{kf.kd osx ¼lk/kkj.kr% osx½
ifjek.k rFkk fn'kk nksuksa gksrs gSa] vFkkZr~ ;g ,d lfn'k jkf'k gSA δx dx
lim = = v dgykrk gSA
(2) pky % fLFkfr ifjorZu dh og nj ftlds }kjk dksbZ xfr'khy δt → 0 δ t dt
fcUnq vius iFk ij pyrk gS] d.k dh pky dgykrh gSA fdlh xfr'khy t le; esa vkSlr osx] çkjfEHkd rFkk vafre osx dk ek/; gksrk gSA
d.k ;k fiaM dh pky ls xfr dh fn'kk ds ckjs esa dksbZ tkudkjh izkIr
(2) Roj.k % fdlh xfr'khy d.k ds osx esa ifjorZu dh nj Roj.k
ugha gksrh gSa vr% ;g vfn'k jkf'k gSA M.K.S. vFkok S.I. i)fr esa] pky
dh bdkbZ ehVj izfr lsd.M (m/s) gSA dgykrh gSA ;g ,d lfn'k jkf'k gSA
vkSlr pky % fn;s x;s le;kUrjky esa xfr'khy d.k dh vkSlr pky] fdlh xfr'khy fcUnq dk t le; i'pkr~ x nwjh ij Roj.k fuEu
izdkj ifjHkkf"kr djrs gSaA
r; dh x;h nwjh dk le;kUrjky ls vuqikr gksrh gSA
;fn dksbZ d.k] t le;kUrjky esa s nwjh r; djrk gS] rc vkSlr v 2 − v1 dv d 2 x dv
f= ⇒f= = 2 = v.
s t dt dt dx
spky =
t M.K.S. ;k S.I. i)fr esa] Roj.k dh bdkbZ ehVj/lsd.M gSA2

vkSlr pky] fn;s x;s vUrjky esa fdlh d.k dh lEiw.kZ xfr dh ;fn osx v esa o`f) gks jgh gks] rc a > 0 rFkk ;fn osx v esa deh
pky dk vkSlr crkrh gSA gks jgh gks] rc a < 0 A _.kkRed Roj.k eanu dgykrk gSA
rkR{kf.kd pky : fdlh xfr'khy d.k dh rkR{kf.kd pky ;k pky] Li"Vr% eanu dk vfHkizk; osx esa deh gksuk gSA
blds iFk ¼ljy ;k oؽ ds vuqfn'k nwjh ds ifjorZu dh nj }kjk
ifjHkkf"kr dh tkrh gSA osxksa ds ifj.kkeh rFkk ?kVd
(Resultant and components of velocities)
;fn t le; esa d.k }kjk blds iFk ds vuqfn'k r; dh x;h nwjh
s gks] rc (1) osxksa ds ifj.kkeh % fdlh d.k ds nks osxksa dk ifj.kkeh lekUrj
ds ds prqHkqZt fu;e }kjk Kkr djrs gSaA
rkR{kf.kd pky = ;k t le; ij pky = osxksa ds lekUrj prqHkqZt dk fu;e : ;fn ,d fcUnq ij ,d lkFk
dt dt
fdlh le;kUrjky ds fy;s vkSlr pky ifjHkkf"kr gS rFkk fdlh dk;Zjr nks osx] fdlh lekUrj prqZHkqt ds ,d 'kh"kZ ls gksdj tkus okyh
fo'ks"k {k.k ij rkR{kf.kd pky ifjHkkf"kr gSA nks vklUu Hkqtkvksa ds }kjk ifjek.k ,oa fn'kk esa fu#fir gksrs gSa] rks
budk ifj.kkeh osx ifjek.k ,oa fn'kk esa bl 'kh"kZ ls gksdj tkus okys
osx rFkk Roj.k (Velocity and acceleration) fod.kZ ds }kjk fu#fir gksxkA
ekuk ,d fcUnq ij ,d lkFk yxus okys nks osx u rFkk v ifjek.k
(1) osx % fdlh xfr'khy fcUnq ds foLFkkiu dh nj dks ml xfr'khy ,oa fn'kk esa lekUrj prqHkqZt OACB dh Hkqtkvksa OA rFkk OB }kjk
fcUnq dk osx dgrs gSaA osx ,d lfn'k jkf'k gSA
fu#fir gks] rks budk ifj.kkeh osx R ifjek.k ,oa fn'kk esa O ls gksdj
tkus okys fod.kZ OC ds }kjk fu#fir gksxkA
B C

v R
;fn nks fiaM A rFkk B Øe'k% osx VA rFkk VB ls ¼tks ijLij α
α u
θ dks.k ij gS½ xfr dj jgs gSa] rc V AB = VA2 + VB2 − 2 VA VB cos α
O A
;fn B ds lkis{k A dk vkisf{kd osx] B ds osx dh fn'kk ls θ dks.k
;fn ∠AOB = α rFkk ∠AOC = θ gS, rc bu osxksa ds ifj.kkeh
VA sin α
osx dk ifjek.k R = u 2 + v 2 + 2uv cos α gS rFkk ifj.kkeh osx dh cukrk gS] rc tan θ =
VB − VA cos α
fn'kk] u dh fn'kk ls θ dks.k bl izdkj cukrh gS fd fLFkfr I : tc d.k A rFkk B Øe'k% u rFkk v osx ls ,d nwljs ds
v sin α lekUrj ,d gh fn'kk eas xfr dj jgs gSaA ;gk¡ α = 0 , rc
tan θ = .
u + v cos α VAB = (u − v) , A dh fn'kk esa rFkk VBA = (v − u) , B dh fn'kk esa gksxkA
fLFkfr I : tc α = 0 , rc R max = u + v VA = u
A
fLFkfr II : tc α = π , rc R min =| u − v |
B VB = v
fLFkfr III : tc α = π / 2 , vFkkZr~ u rFkk v ijLij ledks.k ij gSa] fLFkfr II : tc d.k A rFkk B Øe'k% u rFkk v osx ls ,d nwljs ds
lekUrj foijhr fn'kk esa xfr dj jgs gSaA
rc R = u 2 + v 2 rFkk θ = tan −1 ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟
v
⎝u⎠ ;gk¡ α = π , rc VAB = (u + v) , A dh fn'kk esa
α α VBA = (v + u) , B dh fn'kk esa
fLFkfr IV : tc u = v , rc R = 2u cos rFkk θ = .
2 2 A VA = u
ifj.kkeh osx }kjk] v dh fn'kk ls cuk;k x;k dks.k B VB = v
−1 ⎛ u sin α ⎞
= tan ⎜ ⎟. A dk okLrfod osx = B ds lkis{k A dk vkisf{kd osx rFkk B ds
⎝ v + u cos α ⎠
okLrfod osx dk ifj.kkeh
;fn ifj.kkeh osx] u dh fn'kk ls θ dks.k cukrk gS] rc vFkkZr~ V A = V AB + V B , [pw¡fd V AB = V A − V B ].
v sin α u + v cos α
sin θ =
R
rFkk cos θ =
R
. vpj Roj.k ds v/khu lejs[kh; xfr
(Rectilinear motion with uniform acceleration)
(2) nh xbZ nks fn'kkvksa esa osxksa ds ?kVd % ;fn osx V ds ?kVd nks nh
ekuk ,d fcUnq ;k d.k çkjfEHkd osx u ls ,d ljy js[kk esa ,d
xbZ fn'kkvksa ls α rFkk β dks.k cukrs gSa rc osxksa ds lekUrj prqHkqZt leku Roj.k f ls xfreku gSA ;fn t le; i'pkr~ vfUre osx v gS rFkk
fu;e ls V ds vHkh"V ?kVdksa dks AX rFkk AY ds vuqfn'k Øe'k% AB rFkk bl {k.k ij çkjfEHkd fcUnq ls d.k dh nwjh s gS] rc xfr ds lehdj.k gS,a
AC (= BD) }kjk çnf'kZr djrs gSaA s
AB BD AD t=0 t
bl çdkj] = =
sin ADB sin BAD sin ABD X
Y
osx = u P
1 2
(i) v = u + ft (ii) s = ut + ft (iii) v 2 = u 2 + 2 fs
C D 2
β
(iv) t osa lsd.M esa d.k }kjk pyh x;h nwjh % fdlh d.k ;k fi.M
V 1
}kjk t osa lsd.M esa pyh x;h nwjh sn = u + f (2n − 1) .
β π–(α+β) 2
α xq#Rok/khu xfr (Motion under gravity)
A B X
AB BD AD tc fdlh fi.M dks Å/okZ/kj Åij ;k uhps dh vksj ç{ksfir fd;k
vFkkZr~ = =
sin β sin α sin(α + β ) tkrk gS] rks ml ij xq:Ro ds dkj.k xq:Roh; Roj.k (g) dk;Z djrk gSA
i`Foh ij fdlh ,d LFkku ij g dk eku fu;r jgrk gS] fdUrq LFkku
sin β sin α
∴ AB = AD. rFkk BD = AD. ifjofrZr gksus ij g dk eku ifjofrZr gksrk gSA
sin(α + β ) sin(α + β )
g dk eku M.K.S. i)fr esa 9.8 [email protected] , C.G.S. i)fr esa 981 2

vr%] α rFkk β dks.k dh fn'kk esa osx V ds ?kVd Øe'k% [email protected] rFkk F.P.S. i)fr esa 32 [email protected] gksrk gSA
2 2

V sin β V sin α (1) Å/okZ/kj js[kk esa uhps dh vksj xfr % ;fn fdlh fi.M dks i`Foh
rFkk gSaA
sin(α + β ) sin(α + β ) dh lrg ls h Å¡pkbZ ls] u osx ls Qsadk tkrk gS rFkk t le; i’pkr~
1 2
vkisf{kd osx (Relative velocity) fi.M dk osx v gks tkrk gS] rc v = u + g t , h = ut + gt ,
2
ekuk A rFkk B nks xfr'khy fi.M gSaA B ds lkis{k A dk vkisf{kd 1
v 2 = u 2 + 2 gh , st = u + g (2 t − 1) .
osx og osx gS] tks B ls A dh xfr dk voyksdu djus ij izrhr gksrk 2
gSA B ds lkis{k A dk vkisf{kd osx] B ds lkis{k A dk osx Hkh dgykrk
gSA bls V AB ls çnf'kZr djrs gSa rFkk V AB = V A − V B .

→ → →
VA VAB VB

→
VB
 Xkfr foKku 1297

;fn fdlh fi.M dks fojkekoLFkk ls Å/okZ/kj uhps dh vksj Qsadk xfr ds fu;e (Laws of motion)
1
tkrk gS] rc v = gt , h = gt 2 , v 2 = 2 gh (Q u = 0 ) .
2 (1) U;wVu ds xfr ds fu;e %
(2) Å/okZ/kj js[kk esa Åij dh vksj xfr % bl fLFkfr esa _.kkRed (i) çFke fu;e % dksbZ fi.M viuh fojkekoLFkk vFkok xR;koLFkk esa
xq:Roh; Roj.k vFkkZr~ (– g) dk;Z djrk gS gh jgrk gS] tc rd fd ml ij dksbZ cká cy vkjksfir u fd;k tk,A
(ii) f}rh; fu;e % laosx ifjorZu dh nj vkjksfir cy ds
1 2
v = u − gt , h = ut − gt lekuqikrh gksrh gS rFkk mldh fn’kk vkjksfir cy dh fn’kk esa gksrh gSA
2
d dv
1 (mv ) ∝ F ⇒ m ∝F
v 2 = u 2 − 2 gh , s t = u − g (2 t − 1) dt dt
2
dv
(3) egRoiw.kZ fu"d"kZ % m = kF
dt
vf/kdre Å¡pkbZ % vf/kdre fcUnq ij vafre osx 'kwU; gksrk gSA
(i) F = mf , (k = 1 dsfy;s)
ekuk vf/kdre Å¡pkbZ H gS rc v 2 = u 2 − 2 gh ls] 0 = u 2 − 2 gH cy = æO;eku × Roj.k
u2 cy dh S.I. bdkbZ U;wVu rFkk C.G.S. bdkbZ MkbZu gksrh gSA 1
∴ vf/kdre Å¡pkbZ H = .
2g U;wVu = 1 fdxzk [email protected] , 1 Mkbu = 1 xzke [email protected]
2 2

vf/kdre Å¡pkbZ rd tkus esa yxk le; % ekuk vf/kdre

(ii) vr% 1 U;wVu = 10 Mkbu
5

Å¡pkbZ rd igq¡pus esa yxk le; T gSA rc v = u − gt ls] 0 = u − gT (iii) r`rh; fu;e % çR;sd fØ;k ds cjkcj vkSj foijhr çfrfØ;k
u gksrh gSA
vFkkZr~ T = .
g fØ;k rFkk çfrfØ;k ,d gh fi.M ij ;k fi.M ds ,d gh Hkkx ij
,d lkFk fØ;kjr~ ugha gksrh gSA
nh xbZ Å¡pkbZ rd tkus esa yxk le;: ekuk nh xbZ Å¡pkbZ h
(iii)
rd fdlh fi.M dks igq¡pus esa yxk le; t gS] rc (2) Hkkj % fdlh fi.M dk Hkkj og cy gS] ftlls i`Foh ml fi.M
1 2 dks vius dsUnz dh vksj vkdf"kZr djrh gSA
h = ut − gt ⇒ gt 2 − 2ut + 2 h = 0 .
2 m æO;eku ds fdlh fi.M ds fy;s Hkkj W fuEu çdkj fn;k tkrk
A gS] W = mg (U;wVu ds xfr ds fu;e ls)
ekuk m 1 rFkk m 2 æO;eku ds nks fi.Mksa ds Hkkj i`Foh ij Øe'k%
P W1 m 1
t2 W1 rFkk W2 gSa rc W1 = m 1 g rFkk W2 = m 2 g ⇒ =
W2 m 2
t1 h
u 1 xzke Hkkj = g Mkbu = 981 Mkbu
O
1 fdxzk Hkkj = g U;wVu = 9.81 U;wVu
(3) laosx % fdlh fi.M ds æO;eku (m) vkSj osx (v) ds xq.kuQy dks
u − u 2 − 2 gh u + u 2 − 2 gh fi.M dk laosx dgrs gSaA
vr% t1 = rFkk t 2 =
g g vr% laosx = æO;eku × osx = m × v
Li"Vr% t1 rFkk t 2 okLrfod gSa] ;fn u 2 ≥ 2 gh . laosx dh bdkbZ [email protected] ;k [email protected] gksrh gSA
(4) vkosx % fdlh fn;s x;s le;kUrjky esa cy dk vkosx cy rFkk
u
;fn u 2 = 2 gh , rc t1 = t 2 = , tks fd vf/kdre Å¡pkbZ rd le;kUrjky ds xq.kuQy ds cjkcj gksrk gSA fdlh fn;s x;s le;karjky
g t esa cy F dk vkosx fuEu izdkj fn;k tkrk gSA
igq¡pus esa yxk le; gSA vr% u 2 > 2 gh , t1 (< t 2 ) og le; gS] tks cy dk vkosx = cy × le;kUrjky = m.v.
fi.M dks Åij tkus esa vFkkZr~ O ls P rd tkus esa yxrk gS rFkk cM+k
eku t 2 og le; gS] tks fi.M dks vf/kdre Å¡pkbZ rd igq¡pdj okil xqCckjs ;k fy¶V esa fdlh fi.M dh xfr
fn;s x;s fcUnq rd vkus esa yxrk gS vFkkZr~ ;g O ls A rFkk iqu% A ls P (Motion of a body released from a balloon or a lift)
rd vkus esa yxk le; gSA
(1) tc fy¶V ,dleku Roj.k f [email protected] ls Åij dh vksj
(iv) mì;u dky: ;g fdlh fi.M dks vf/kdre Å¡pkbZ rd igq¡pdj tk jgh gS rFkk t lsd.M ds i'pkr~ bl fy¶V ls ,d fi.M fxjk;k
iqu% çkjfEHkd fcUnq rd vkus esa yxk le; gSA tkrk gS] rc bl le; ij fuEu fLFkfr;k¡ gksaxh %
tc d.k çkajfHkd fcUnq ij ykSVrk gS] h = 0 (i) fi.M dk çkjafHkd osx fy¶V ds osx ds leku rFkk mlh fn'kk esa
1 2 1 2u gksrk gS] vr% fi.M dk osx ft [email protected] gSA
∴ h = ut − gt ls] 0 = ut − gt 2 ;k t = 0 ;k
2 2 g (ii) fy¶V ds lkis{k fi.M dk çkjfEHkd osx = fi.M dk osx – fy¶V
dk osx = ft – ft = 0
tc fi.M xfr izkjaHk djrk gS] rc t = 0 rFkk tc fi.M vf/kdre
Å¡pkbZ rd igq¡pdj çkjafHkd fcUnq ij okil ykSVrk gS] rc (iii) fi.M dk Roj.k = g [email protected] , uhps dh vksjA
2

2u 2u (iv) fy¶V ds lkis{k fi.M dk Roj.k = fi.M dk Roj.k – fy¶V dk

t= ] ∴ mì;u dky = . Roj.k = g – (– f) = f + g, uhps dh vksjA
g g
 (2) tc fy¶V ,dleku Roj.k f [email protected] ls Åij dh vksj
2
f
vr% O;fDr dk vkHkklh Hkkj] okLrfod Hkkj dk xquk de gSA
tk jgh gS rFkk t le; i'pkr~ bl fy¶V ls ,d fi.M v [email protected] g
ds osx ls Å/okZ/kj Åij dh vksj Qsadk tkrk gS] rc bl le; ij fuEu R
fLFkfr;k¡ gksaxh % ckyw
(i) fi.M dk çkjfEHkd osx = v + fy¶V dk osx = v + ft, Åij dh
vksj mg
(ii) fy¶V ds lkis{k fi.M dk çkjfEHkd osx = fi.M dk osx – fy¶V fdlh fxjrs gq;s fi.M dks jksdus ds fy;s çHkkoh cy = F − mg
dk osx = (v + ft) – ft = v [email protected]
(iii) fy¶V ds lkis{k fi.M dk Roj.k = (f + g) [email protected] , 2
;fn jsr (sand) esa fxjrs gq, m æO;eku ds fi.M ds fy;s jsr dk
Å/okZ/kj uhps dh vksjA çfrjks/k R gS] rc çHkkoh cy = R − mg .
(3) tc fy¶V ,dleku Roj.k f [email protected] ls uhps dh vksj
,d Mksjh ls c¡/ks nks fi.Mksa dh xfr
tk jgh gS rFkk t le; i'pkr~ blls ,d fi.M fxjk;k tkrk gS rc bl
le; ij fuEu fLFkfr;k¡ gksaxh % (Motion of two particles connected by a string)
(i) fi.M dk osx = fy¶V dk osx = ft [email protected], uhps dh vksj (1) tc nksuksa fiaM Å/okZ/kj yVds gq, gSa % ;fn m 1 vkSj
(ii) fy¶V ds lkis{k fi.M dk Roj.k = fi.M dk Roj.k – fy¶V dk
m2 æO;eku (m 1 > m 2 ) ds nks fiaM ,d Hkkjghu vforkU; Mksjh ds fljksa
Roj.k = (g − f ) [email protected] , uhps dh vksjA
2

ls ca/ksa gSa] tks fd ,d gYdh fLFkj fpduh f?kjuh ds Åij ls gksdj

fdlh xfreku {kSfrt ry ;k fy¶V ij j[ks fi.M dk tkrh gS rc m 1 > m 2 æO;eku dk fiaM uhps dh vksj xfr djsxk vkSj
vkHkklh Hkkj (Apparent weight of a body resting on a mldk
moving horizontal plane or a lift) (m1 − m 2 )g
Roj.k f =
ekuk f Roj.k ls xfr dj jgh fy¶V ij m æO;eku dk ,d fi.M m1 + m 2 f
f
j[kk gS rFkk R vfHkyEc izfrfØ;k gS] rc 2 m 1m 2 g T
Mksjh esa ruko T =
(1) tc fy¶V Å/okZ/kjr% Åij dh vksj xfr dj jgh gS % Åij dh m1 + m 2 T
vksj çHkkoh cy = ,d gh fn'kk esa ckg~; cyksa dk ;ksx ¼;g ruko iwjh jLlh esa ,d leku gksxk½
⇒ mf = R − Mg ⇒ R = m ( f + g)
4 m 1m 2 m2g m1g
Li"Vr%] ry ij fi.M }kjk mRiUu nckc R, fi.M ds okLrfod Hkkj f?kjuh ij nckc = 2T = .g
m1 + m 2
mg ls vf/kd gSA bl nckc dks fi.M dk vkHkklh Hkkj Hkh dgrs gSaA
;fn m æO;eku dk ,d O;fDr Å/okZ/kj Åij dh vksj f Roj.k ls (2) ,d fiaM fpduh {kSfrt est ds Åij gS % m 1 vkSj m 2 æO;eku
xfr dj jgh fy¶V ij [kM+k gS] rc ds nks fiaM ,d gYdh vforkU; Mksjh ls c¡/ks gSaA Mksjh ,d fpduh {kSfrt
R = m (g + f ) R
est ds fdukjs ij yxh gYdh fLFkj fpduh f?kjuh ds Åij ls gksdj
tkrh gSA m 1 æO;eku Lora=rk iwoZd Å/okZ/kj yVd jgk gS vkSj æO;eku
⎛ f⎞
⇒ R = mg ⎜⎜ 1 + ⎟⎟ m 2 fpduh est ij j[kk gSA
⎝ g⎠ f
⎛ f ⎞ m 1 æO;eku dk fiaM Å/okZ/kj uhps dh vksj xfr djsxk vkSj
⇒ R = (O;fDr dk Hkkj) ⎜⎜1 + ⎟⎟ æO;eku m 2 dks f?kjuh dh vksj [khapsxk] rc fudk; dk
⎝ g⎠
f mg m1 g
⇒ R = O;fDr dk Hkkj + (O;fDr dk Hkkj) Roj.k f =
g m1 + m 2
f
vr% O;fDr dk vkHkklh Hkkj] O;fDr ds okLrfod Hkkj dk xquk
g f
vf/kd gSA T T
(2) tc fy¶V Å/okZ/kjr% uhps dh vksj xfr dj jgh gS % f T
uhps dh vksj çHkkoh cy = ,d gh fn'kk esa dk;Zjr cyksa dk R;ksx T
⇒ mf = mg − R
m1g m2g
⇒ R = m (g − f ) Mksjh esa ruko T =
m 1m 2 g
m1 + m 2
Li"Vr%] ry ij fi.M }kjk mRiUu nckc] f
fi.M ds okLrfod Hkkj ls de gSA 2 m 1m 2 g
f?kjuh ij nckc = T 2 =
;fn m æO;eku dk ,d O;fDr Å/okZ/kj mg m1 + m 2
uhps dh vksj f Roj.k ls xfr dj jgh fy¶V ij [kM+k gS] rc nckc (3) tc ,d fiaM ,d fpdus urlery ds Åij gS % æO;eku dk m1
⎛ f⎞ ,d fiaM] ,d vforkU; Mksjh ds ,d fljs ij c¡/kk gS vkSj Å/okZ/kj
R = m (g − f ) = mg ⎜⎜ 1 − ⎟⎟ yVdk gqvk gSA Mksjh lery ds f’k[kj ij yxh ,d Hkkjghu fLFkj
⎝ g ⎠
fpduh f?kjuh ij ls tkrh gqbZ dks.k α ij >qds fpdus urlery ij
f j[ks ,d æO;eku m 2 ls nwljs fljs ij c¡/kh gqbZ gSA
⇒ R = O;fDr dk Hkkj – (O;fDr dk Hkkj)
g
 Xkfr foKku 1299

;fn æO;eku m 1 Å/okZ/kj uhps dh vksj xfr djrk gS ¼tcfd ;k m 1v1 + m 2 v 2 = m 1u1 − m 2u 2
m 1 g > m 2 g sin α ) rks fudk; ds fy, u 1
m 1
v 1
u2
m2 v
2

m − m 2 sin α fLFkfr III : ;fn nks fi.Mksa dh xfr dh fn'kk fuEu fp=kuqlkj gS] rc
Roj.k f= 1 g
m1 + m 2 (a) v1 − (−v 2 ) = −e[−u1 − (−u 2 )] ;k v1 + v 2 = −e (u 2 − u1 )
f T rFkk (b) m 1 v1 + m 2 (−v 2 ) = m 1 (−u1 ) + m 2 (−u 2 )
f
;k m 1v1 − m 2 v 2 = −(m 1u1 + m 2 u 2 )
T u m v
1 1 1
u 2
m2
v
2

m2g sinα A B
m2g m1g
α (6) nks fpdus (Smooth) xksykas dk lh/kk
la?kê % ekuk m 1 , (Direct)
m2 æO;eku ds nks fpdus xksys] muds dsaæks dks feykus okyh js[kk dh
m 1 m 2 (1 + sin α ) fn’kk esa osxksa u1 , u 2 ( u1 > u 2 ) ls pyrs gq, la?kê djrs gSaA ;fn la?kê
Mksjh esa ruko T = g
m1 + m 2
ds ckn buds osx dsaæks dks feykus okyh js[kk dh fn’kk esa Øe’k% v1
2 m 1 m 2 g(1 + sin α )3 / 2 vkSj v 2 gks tkrs gSa vkSj e mudk çR;kuu xq.kkad gks] rks laosx laj{k.k ds
f?kjuh ij nckc = {2(1 + sin α )}T = u1
m1 + m 2 fu;e ls]
u2
çR;kLFk fi.Mksa dk la?kê (Impact of elastic bodies)

(1) çR;kLFkrk % ;fn fdlh fi.M dks nck;k ;k ladqfpr fd;k tk m1 m2

lds vkSj ladqpu ds i’pkr~ fiaM viuh iwokZoLFkk esa vk tk, rc fi.M
ds bl xq.k dks çR;kLFkrk dgrs gSaA çR;kLFkrk çnf'kZr djus okys fi.Mksa
dks çR;kLFk fi.M dgrs gSaA
v2
(2) laosx laj{k.k dk fu;e % fdlh fudk; dk la?kê ds Bhd igys
rFkk la?kê ds Bhd i’pkr~ laosx fu;r jgrk gSA v1

xf.krh; :i esa] m 1 .u1 + m 2 .u 2 = m 1 .v1 + m 2 .v 2 m 1 v 1 + m 2 v 2 = m 1 u1 + m 2 u 2 …..(i)

tgk¡, m 1 = çFke fiaM dk æO;eku rFkk U;wVu ds ç;ksxkRed fu;e ls]
u1 = çFke fiaM dk çkjfEHkd osx v 2 − v1 = e[u1 − u 2 ] …..(ii)

v1 = çFke fiaM dk vfUre osx lehdj.k (ii) dks m 2 ls xq.kk djds lehdj.k (i) ls ?kVkus ij]
m 2 , u 2 , v 2 = f}rh; fiaM ds fy, laxr eku (m 1 + m 2 )v1 = (m 1 − em 2 )u1 + m 2 u 2 (1 + e )

(3) çR;kuu xq.kkad (Coefficient of restitution): ;g fuf’pr vuqikr (m 1 − em 2 )u1 + m 2 u 2 (1 + e )

∴ v1 = …..(iii)
gksrk gS] ftls e ls çnf’kZr djrs gSaA e dk eku 0 ls 1 dh lhek esa gksrk m1 + m 2
gSA e dk eku fi.Mksa ds inkFkksZa dh izd`fr ij fuHkZj djrk gS rFkk fi.Mksa (7) nks xksyksa dk fr;Zd (Oblique) la?kê : ekuk m 1 æO;eku dk ,d
ds æO;eku ls Lora= gksrk gSA ;fn fi.M iw.kZr% çR;kLFk gS] rc e = 1
fpduk xksyk m 2 æO;eku ds nwljs fpdus xksys ls la?kê djrk gSA ekuk
rFkk ;fn fi.M vçR;kLFk gS] rc e = 0 .
nksuksa xksyksa ds la?kê ls Bhd igys osx u1 , u 2 xksyksa ds dsUæksa dks
(4) la?kê % tc nks fi.M ijLij Vdjkrs gSa] rc ;g fi.Mksa dk la?kê
dgykrk gSA ;g nks izdkj dk gksrk gS] çR;{k ¼lh/kk½ rFkk fr;ZdA feykus okyh js[kk ls Øe’k% dks.k α , β cukrs gSaA ekuk la?kê ds Bhd
ckn esa muds osx v1 , v 2 gaS] tks fd dsaækss dks feykus okyh js[kk ls
(5) U;wVu dk ç;ksxkRed la?kê dk fu;e % U;wVu ds bl fu;e ds
vuqlkj tc nks izR;kLFk fiaM+ksa dk la?kê gksrk gS] rc mHk;fu"B vfHkyEc Øe’k% dks.k θ , φ cukrs gSaA
ds vuqfn'k la?kê ds Bhd i'pkr~ vkisf{kd osx rFkk la?kê ds Bhd iwoZ pw¡fd xksys fpdus gSa vr% dsUæksa dks feykus okyh js[kk O1 O 2 ds
vkisf{kd osx esa ,d vpj vuqikr gksrk gSA nksukas fLFkfr;ksa esa la?kê dh yEc fn’kk esa] xksyksa ds osxksa ds fo;ksftr Hkkx Vdjkus ls igys rFkk ckn
fn'kk foijhr gksrh gSA esa vifjofrZr jgsaxsA
;fn mHk;fu"B vfHkyEc ds vuqfn'k Li'kZ fcUnq ij] la?kê ds igys
nks fi.Mksa ds osx u1 o u 2 rFkk la?kê ds i'pkr~ mlh fn'kk esa osx v1 u1 u2
o v 2 gSa] rc v1 − v 2 = −e (u1 − u 2 ) α m1 β m2
O θ O′ φ
fLFkfr I : ;fn nks fi.M fuEu fp=kuqlkj xfr djrs gSa] rc
(a) v1 − v 2 = −e (u1 − u 2 ) rFkk (b) m 1v1 + m 2 v 2 = m 1u1 + m 2 u 2 v2
u1 m1 v1 u2 m2 v2 v1
v1 sin θ = u1 sin α …..(i)
A B
fLFkfr II : ;fn la?kê ds iwoZ rFkk la?kê ds i'pkr~ nks fi.Mksa dh v 2 sin φ = u 2 sin β …..(ii)
xfr dh fn'kk fuEu fp=kuqlkj gS] rc çR;{k la?kê ds fu;e ls] xksyksa ds dsUæksa dks feykus okyh js[kk O1 O 2 ds vuqfn’k U;wVu ds
(a) v1 − v 2 = −e[u1 − (−u 2 )] ;k v 1 − v 2 = −e (u 1 + u 2 )
fu;e ls] N
rFkk (b) m 1v1 + m 2 v 2 = m 1u1 + m 2 (−u 2 ) v
u

α θ

O m

c
 ⎛ u 2 sin α cos α u 2 sin 2 α ⎞
⎜ , ⎟ gksaxsA
v 2 cos φ − v1 cos θ = −e (u 2 cos β − u1 cos α ) ⎜ g 2g ⎟
…..(iii) ⎝ ⎠
iqu% xksys ds dsUæksa dks feykus okyh js[kk O1 O 2 ds vuqfn’k laosx
ukfHkyEc thok dh yackbZ = (2u 2 cos 2 α ) / g
laj{k.k ds fu;e ls]
∴ m 1v1 cos θ + m 2 v 2 cos φ = m 1u1 cos α + m 2 u 2 cos β …..(iv) ⎛ u 2 sin 2α − u 2 cos 2α ⎞
ukfHk ds funsZ’kkad = ⎜⎜ , ⎟.
⎟
leh- (i), (ii), (iii) o (iv) dk mi;ksx djds vKkr jkf’k;ksa ds eku ⎝ 2g 2g ⎠
Kkr dj ldrs gSaA
(1) ç{ksI; xfr ls lacaf/kr egRoiw.kZ ifj.kke % ekuk ,d fi.M OX ls
(8) fpdus xksys dk fpdus fLFkj lery ij la?kê % ekuk m æO;eku
α dks.k dh fn'kk esa u osx ls ç{ksfir gksrk gSA ekuk t le; i'pkr~ fi.M
dk ,d xfreku fpduk xksyk u osx ls] Å/okZ/kj ls α dks.k cukrs gq;s
fcUnq P(x , y ) ij gS rFkk OX ls θ dks.k cukrs gq;s osx v gSA
,d fpdus fLFkj {kSfrt ry ij O fcUnq ij la?kê djrk gS vkSj ekuk
la?kê ds ckn xksyk v osx ls Å/okZ/kj ls θ dks.k cukus okyh fn’kk esa 2u sin α
(i) mM~M;u dky (Time of flight ) T =
pyrk gSA g
Q xksyk vkSj lery nksuksa fpdus gaS] vr% {kSfrt ry dh lekUrj (ii) {kSfrtlery ij ijkl (Horizontal range), R = (u 2 sin 2α ) / g
fn’kk esa osx esa dksbZ ifjorZu ugha gksxkA = ¼osx dk {kSfrt ?kVd × osx dk Å/okZ/kj ?kVd½/g
∴ v sin θ = u sin α …..(i)
u2 π
{kSfrt lery ij yEc ds vuqfn’k] U;wVu ds fu;e ls] egRre {kSfrt ijkl = , tcfd = .
g 4
Vdjkus ds ckn vyx gksus dk vkisf{kd osx = Vdjkus ds igys ikl
vkus dk vkisf{kd osx u 2 sin 2 α
(iii) egÙke Å¡pkbZ H =
2g
∴ v cos θ − 0 = eu cos α v cos θ = eu cos α ….(ii)
u sin α
lehdj.k (ii) dks (i) ls Hkkx nsus ij] cot θ = e cot α egÙke Å¡pkbZ rd igq¡pus dk le; =
g
fo'ks"k fLFkfr % ;fn α = 0 rc (i) ls] v sin θ = 0 ⇒ sin θ = 0 (iv) ekuk t le; ij fdlh d.k dh fLFkfr P(x,y) gS] rc
Q v ≠ 0 , ∴θ = 0 rFkk (ii) ls] v = eu 1 2
x = (u cos α )t, y = (u sin α )t − gt -
;fn ,d fpduk xksyk ,d fpdus fLFkj lery ij vfHkyEcor~ 2
la?kê djrk gS rks ;g la?kê ds ckn vfHkyEc ds vuqfn'k la?kê ds osx dx
ds e xquk osx ls foijhr fn’kk esa okil ykSVsxkA (v) t le; ij {kSfrt osx = = u cos α
dt
vFkkZr la?kê ds ckn okil ykSVus dk osx = e (la?kê ls igys dk osx) dy
fpdus xksys dk fpdus fLFkj {kSfrt lery ij la?kê dk dqy t le; ij Å/okZ/kj osx = = u sin α − gt
dt
le; ,oa r; dh xbZ dqy nwjh : ;fn ,d fpduk xksyk h Å¡pkbZ ls (vi) t le; ckn osx o fn’kk % ;fn Qsadus ds t le; ckn] fiaM
fxjdj ,d fpdus fLFkj {kSfrt lery ij la?kê djrk gS] vkSj e {kSfrt ls θ dks.k cukrs gq;s osx V ls py jgk gS rks
çR;kuu xq.kkad gS] rc xksys dk mNyuk cUn gksus rd dk dqy le;
u sin α − gt ⎞
1+e ⎛ 2h ⎞ V = u 2 − 2ugt sin α + g 2 t 2 vkSj tan θ = ⎛⎜ ⎟.
= . ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ rFkk xksys dk mNyuk can gksus rd blds }kjk pyh ⎝ u cos α ⎠
1−e ⎝ g ⎠ (vii) ;fn ,d fiaM {kSfrt ls α dks.k cukrs gq;s osx u ls Qsadk
1+e 2
x;k gS] rks ;g u /(g sin α ) le; ckn viuh ç{ksI; fn’kk ds yEc fn’kk
dqy nwjh = h.
1 − e2 esa pysxkA
(viii) Å¡pkbZ ij osx o fn’kk % ;fn h Å¡pkbZ ij fiaM dk osx
ç{ksI; xfr (Projectile motion) V , {kSfrt ls θ dks.k cukrh gqbZ fn’kk esa gS] rks
tc fdlh fi.M dks Å/okZ/kj ls fHkUu vU; fn’kk esa u osx ls] ⎡ u 2 sin 2 α − 2 gh ⎤
{kSfrt ls α dks.k cukrs gq, Qsadk tkrk gS rc og ijoy;kdkj iFk V = u 2 − 2 gh vkSj θ = tan −1 ⎢ ⎥.
cukrs gq, xfr djrk gS] Qsads tkus okys fi.M dks ç{ksI; dgrs gSa rFkk ⎢ u cos α ⎥
⎣ ⎦
fi.M }kjk cuk, x, oØ iFk dks ç{ksI; iFk dgrs gSaA (ix) ,d gh {kSfrt ijkl ds fy;s] nks ç{ksI; dks.k α vkSj
ç{ksI; dk iFk ,d ijoy; gksrk gS vkSj bl iFk dk lehdj.k
(90 o − α ) gksrsgSaA
fuEu gS
(x) ç{ksI; ds iFk ds çR;sd fcUnq ij osx dk {kSfrt ?kVd u cos θ
gx 2
y = x tan α − gksrk gSA
2u cos 2 α
2
(xi) ç{ksI; iFk ds mPpre fcUnq ij] ç{ksI; dk osx {kSfrt fn’kk esa
bl ijoy;kdkj iFk ds fy;s] 'kh"kZ ds funsZ’kkad gksrk gS vkSj ;g u cos α ds cjkcj gksrk gSA
Y
v sin θ
v mPpre fcUnq ij osx dk Å/okZ/kj ?kVd = 0
u
θ
v cosθ

α
O X
L B
 Xkfr foKku 1301

(xii) ,d gh Å¡pkbZ ds fy;s nks le; gksrs gSaA tgk¡ θ , F o d ds e/; dks.k gSA
;fn h Å¡pkbZ rd tkus esa fiaM t le; ysrk gS rks (2) 'kfä (Power)% fdlh fiaM ds dk;Z djus dh nj dks fiaM dh
1 2
h = (u sin α ).y − gt vkSj t1 vkSj t 2 nks vHkh"V le; gSa rks 'kfä dgrs gSaA
2
t 1 + t 2 = (2u sin α ) / g 1 okV = 10 7
[email protected] = 1 [email protected],
1 1 v’o’kfä (H.P.) = 746 okV-
t1 t 2 = 2h / g vFkkZr~ h = gt 1 t 2
2 (3) ÅtkZ (Energy) : fdlh fiaM ds dk;Z djus dh {kerk dks mldh
(2) fdlh ur lery ij ijkl rFkk mM~M;u dky % ÅtkZ dgrs gSaA
Y u (i) xfrt ÅtkZ : fdlh fiaM dh xfrt ÅtkZ og gS] tks mlesa
mldh xfr ds dkj.k gksrh gSA ;fn m æO;eku ds fiaM dk osx v gks] rks
1
bldh xfrt ÅtkZ (K.E.) = mv 2 -
2
R A (ii) fLFkfrt ÅtkZ : fdlh fiaM dh fLFkfrt ÅtkZ mldh fLFkfr ds
α (R cos β,R sin β)
β dkj.k] mlds dk;Z djus dh {kerk gksrh gSA
ekuk OX rFkkO OY funsZ'kkad v{k gSa rFkk {kSfrtXv{k OX ls β dks.k {kSfrt lery ls h Å¡pkbZ ij] m æO;eku ds fiaM ds fy,
ij ,d urlery OA gSA ekuk fcUnq O ls {kSfrt v{k OX ls α dks.k fLFkfrt ÅtkZ (P.E. ) = mgh .
cukrs gq;s ,d fi.M çkjafHkd osx u ls ç{ksfir fd;k tkrk gS rc ç{ksI;
gx 2
iFk dk lehdj.k gS] y = x tan α − .
2u cos 2 α
2

(i) ur lery ij Åij dh fn’kk esa ijkl

2u 2 cos α sin(α − β )
R=
g cos 2 β
u2
ur lery ij Åij dh fn’kk esa egÙke ijkl = , " ;fn osx V ds ?kVd ijLij yEcor~ gSa] rc β = 90 o − α bl
g(1 + sin β )
π çdkj V ds ?kVd] AX ds vuqfn'k V cos α rFkk AY ds vuqfn'k
tgk¡ 2α − β =
2 V sin α gSaA
(ii) ur lery ij Åij dh fn’kk esa mM~M;u dky
2u sin(α − β ) " ;fn ,d d.k ljy js[kk esa çkjafHkd osx u [email protected] rFkk
T = vpj Roj.k f ehVj/lsd.M2 ls xfr dj jgk gS] rc t lsd.M esa pyh
g cos β
(iii) ur lery ij uhps dh fn’kk esa ijkl x;h nwjh fuEu çdkj nh tkrh gS
2u 2 cos α sin(α + β )
= 1 2 1 1 ⎛u +v ⎞
g cos 2 β s = ut + ft = [2ut + ft 2 ] = [u + (u + ft)] t = ⎜ ⎟ . t,
2 2 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
u2
(iv) ur lery ij uhps dh fn’kk esa egÙke ijkl = , tgk¡ v = u + ft
g(1 − sin β )
π
tgk¡ 2α + β = . u +v
2 = (vkSlr osx) × t , {vkSlr osx = }
2
(v) ur lery ij uhps dh fn’kk esa mM~M;u dky
2u sin(α + β ) " ;fn dksbZ ry Å/okZ/kj Åij dh vksj eanu g ls xfr djrk gS]
=
g cos β vFkkZr~ f = − g , rc R = m ( f + g) ls, R = 0 . vr% bl fLFkfr esa ry
(vi) fiaM ds ur lery ds yEcor~ fn’kk esa Vdjkus dh n’kk esa ij fi.M dk nckc 'kwU; gksrk gSA
çfrcU/k gS] cot β = 2 tan(α − β ) .
" ;fn ry xq#Ro ds v/khu Lora=kiwoZd uhps dh vksj Roj.k g ls
dk;Z] 'kfä vkSj ÅtkZ (Work, Power and Energy) xfr djrk gS] rc R = m (g − f ) ls, R = 0 . vr% bl fLFkfr esa ry
(1) dk;Z (Work) : ;fn fdlh fiaM ij ,d cy yxk;k tkrk gS vkSj ij fi.M dk nckc 'kwU; gksrk gSA
og cy fiaM dks ,d LFkku ls nwljs LFkku rd foLFkkfir djrk gS] rks
cy dk;Z djrk gqvk dgk tkrk gSA dk;Z vfn’k jkf’k gSA
fd;k x;k dk;Z = cy × cy dh fn’kk esa foLFkkiu
r r
W = F.d d

W = F d cos θ θ
A F
 çkf;drk 1341

Chapter

28
çkf;drk
çLrkouk (Introduction) (3) fu%'ks"k fLFkfr;ksa dh la[;k (Exhaustive number of cases):
fdlh ;n`PN;k iz;ksx esa lHkh lEHko ifj.kkeksa dh la[;k fu% 'ks"k fLFkfr
izkf;drk fl)kUr esa ge ?kVukvksa ds gksus dh laHkkoukvksa dk la[;k dgykrh gSA
vkafdd v/;;u djrs gSaA
(4) vuqdwy fLFkfr;ksa dh la[;k (Favourable number of cases) :
izkf;drk fl)kUr dk vuqiz;ksx fofHkUu {ks=ksa esa gksrk gS rFkk fdlh iz;ksx esa fdlh ?kVuk ds fy, vuqdwy fLFkfr;ksa dh la[;k mu
fl)kUr dk yphykiu fofHkUu vko';drkvksa ds fy, lgk;rk iznku ljy ?kVukvksa dh dqy la[;k gS] ftuesa ls fdlh ,d ds ?kfVr gksus ls
djrk gSA vHkh"V ?kVuk dk gksuk le>k tkrk gSA
fofHkUu inksa dh ifjHkk"kk;sa (Definitions of various terms) (5) ijLij viothZ rFkk fu%'ks"k ?kVuk fudk; : ekuk fdlh ;n`PN;k
(1) çfrn'kZ lef"V (Sample space) : fdlh iz;ksx ¼;n`PN;k ijh{k.k½ iz;ksx ls lEcfU/kr izfrn'kZ lef"V S gSA ekuk A1, A2, …..An, S ds
ds lHkh lEHkkfor ifj.kkeksa ds leqPp; dks izfrn'kZ lef"V dgrs gSaA bls mileqPp; bl izdkj gSa fd
lkekU;r;k S }kjk O;Dr djrs gSa rFkk iz;ksx dk izR;sd ifj.kke izfrn'kZ (i) Ai ∩ A j = φ , i ≠ j ds fy, rFkk (ii) A1 ∪ A 2 ∪ .... ∪ A n = S
fcUnq dgykrk gSA
(2) ?kVuk (Event) : izfrn'kZ lef"V ds fdlh mileqPp; dks ?kVuk rc ?kVuk;sa A1 , A 2 , ....., A n ijLij viothZ rFkk fu%'ks"k ?kVuk fudk;
dgrs gSaA cukrs gSAa
(i) ljy ?kVuk (Simple event) : og ?kVuk ftlesa dsoy ,d gh ;fn E 1 , E 2 , ....., E n fdlh ;n`PN;k iz;ksx ls lEcfU/kr ljy
izfrn'kZ fcUnq gks] lk/kkj.k vFkok ljy ?kVuk dgykrh gSA ?kVuk;sa gSa] rks
(ii) la;qDr ?kVuk (Compound events) : nks ;k nks ls vf/kd
ljy ?kVukvksa dks ,d lkFk feykdj ,d la;qDr ?kVuk ;k fo?kVuh; (i) E i ∩ E j = φ , i ≠ j ds fy, rFkk (ii) E1 ∪ E 2 ∪ .... ∪ En = S
çkIr gksrh gSaA vr% fdlh ;n`PN;k iz;ksx ls lEcfU/kr ljy ?kVukvksa dk laxzg
(iii) lelEHkkoh ?kVuk;sa (Equally likely events) : ;fn nks ;k loZFkk ijLij viothZ rFkk fu%'ks"k ?kVuk-fudk; cukrk gSaA
vf/kd ?kVukvksa esa ls izR;sd ds ?kfVr gksus dh lEHkkouk leku gS] rks
,slh ?kVuk;sa lelEHkkoh ?kVuk;sa dgykrh gSaA . bl fudk; ds fy, ,
P( A1 ∪ A 2 ....... ∪ An ) = P( A1 ) + P( A 2 ) + ..... + P( An ) = 1 .
(iv) ijLij viothZ ?kVuk;sa ;k lg-viotZd ?kVuk;sa (Mutually
exclusive or disjoint events : ?kVuk;sa ijLij viothZ ;k lg-
viotZd dgykrh gSa] ;fn buesa ls dksbZ ,d ?kVuk ?kfVr gks] rks 'ks"k çkf;drk dh fpjlEer ifjHkk"kk
?kVuk;sa ?kfVr ugha gks ldrha gSaA (Classical definition of probability)
(v) ijLij vuviothZ ?kVuk;sa : os ?kVuk;sa tks ijLij viothZ ugha ;fn fdlh ?kVuk A ds fy, n fu%'ks"k] ijLij viothZ rFkk
gSa] ijLij vuviothZ ?kVuk;sa dgykrh gSsaA leizkf;d fLFkfr;k¡ gksa ftuesa m fLFkfr;k¡ mlds vuqdwy gksa] rks ?kVuk A
(vi) Lora= ?kVuk;sa (Independent events) : ?kVuk;sa Lora= dh izkf;drk gS
dgykrh gSa ;fn fdlh ?kVuk ds gksus ;k u gksus dk izHkko nwljh
?kVukvksa ds gksus ;k u gksus ij u iM+rk gksA m A dh vuqdwy fLFkfr; ksa dh la[; k
P( A) = =
(vii) ijra= ¼vkfJr½ ?kVuk;sa (Dependent events) : nks ;k vf/kd n dqy ifj.kkeksa dh la[; k
?kVuk;sa ijra= gksaxh ;fn fdlh ?kVuk ds ?kfVr gksus ls vU; ?kVuk;sa ;g Li"V gS fd 0 ≤ m ≤ n. ;fn fdlh ?kVuk dk gksuk fuf'pr]
vkaf'kd ;k iw.kZr% izHkkfor gksaA gks] rks m = n, vr% P(A) = 1.
 1342 çkf;drk
;fn A dk ?kfVr gksuk vlEHko gks] rks m = 0 vr% rc P(A) = 0 (2) tc ?kVuk;sa ijLij viothZ gksa (When events are mutually
vr% ge dg ldrs gSa fd izR;sd ?kVuk ds fy, 0 ≤ P(A) ≤ 1. exclusive) : ;fn A rFkk B nks ijLij viothZ ?kVuk;sa gSa] rks
iqu% ;fn A ?kVuk A ds ?kfVr u gksus dks O;Dr djs] rks mi;qZDr n( A ∩ B) = 0 ⇒ P( A ∩ B) = 0
n−m m
m, n dh fLFkfr esa P( A ) = =1 − = 1 − P( A) ∴ P ( A ∪ B ) = P ( A ) + P ( B) .
n n
∴ P ( A ) + P( A ) = 1 .
fdUgha rhu ?kVukvksa A, B, C tks ijLij viothZ gSa] ds fy,
ladsru (Notations) : nks ?kVukvksa A ,oa B ds fy,] P( A ∩ B) = P(B ∩ C ) = P(C ∩ A) = P( A ∩ B ∩ C ) = 0;

(i) A′ ;k A ;k AC , A ds iwjd ;k ?kfVr u gksus dks O;Dr djrk gSA ∴ P( A ∪ B ∪ C ) = P( A) + P(B) + P(C ) .
(ii) A ∪ B, A rFkk B esa ls de ls de ,d ds ?kfVr gksus dks O;Dr dbZ ijLij viothZ ?kVukvksa esa ls fdlh ,d ds ?kfVr gksus dh
djrk gSA izkf;drk mu lHkh ?kVukvksa dh izkf;drkvksa ds ;ksx ds cjkcj gksrh gS
(iii) A ∩ B, A rFkk B ds ,d lkFk ?kfVr gksus dks O;Dr djrk gSA vFkkZr~ ;fn A1 , A 2 ..... A n ijLij viothZ ?kVuk;sa gksa] rks
(iv) A′ ∩ B′, A rFkk B nksuksa ds ?kfVr ugha gksus dks O;Dr djrk gSA
P( A1 + A 2 + ... + A n ) = P( A1 ) + P( A 2 ) + ..... + P( A n )
(v) A ⊆ B O;Dr djrk gS fd A ds ?kfVr gksus ij B Hkh ?kfVr gksxkA
Øep; rFkk lap; ij vk/kkfjr iz'u vFkkZr~ P(∑ A i ) = ∑ P( A i ) .
(Problems based on permutation and combination) (3) tc ?kVuk;sa Lora= gksa (When events are independent) : ;fn
(1) Øep; ;k O;oLFkk ij vk/kkfjr ç'u (Problems based on A rFkk B nks Lora= ?kVuk;sa gSa] rks P( A ∩ B) = P( A).P(B)
permutation or arrangement) : Øep; ;k O;oLFkk ij vk/kkfjr
n! ∴ P( A ∪ B) = P( A) + P(B) − P( A).P(B) .
ç'uksa ds gy esa n Pr = dk ç;ksx djrs gSaA
(n − r)! (4) dqN egRoiw.kZ izes; (Some other theorems)
n! (i) ekuk A rFkk B fdlh ;n`PN;k iz;ksx ls lEcfU/kr nks ?kVuk;sa gSa]
(2) lap; ij vk/kkfjr iz'uksa ds gy esa n
Cr = dk iz;ksx
r!(n − r)!
rc (a) P( A ∩ B) = P(B) − P( A ∩ B)
djrs gSaA
(b) P( A ∩ B ) = P( A) − P( A ∩ B)
fdlh ?kVuk ds vuqdwy o izfrdwy la;ksxkuqikr
(Odds in favour and odds against an event)
;fn B ⊂ A, rc
fdlh iz;ksx ds ifj.kkeLo:i ?kVuk E ds vuqdwy ifjfLFkfr;k¡ 'a' (a) P( A ∩ B ) = P( A) − P(B) (b) P(B) ≤ P( A)
,oa izfrdwy ifjfLFkfr;k¡ 'b' gksa] rks blh izdkj ;fn A ⊂ B, rks
?kVuk E ds vuqdwy la;ksxkuqikr (a) P( A ∩ B) = P(B) − P( A) (b) P( A) ≤ P(B)
vuqdwy ifjfLFkfr; k¡ a a /(a + b) P(E) A rFkk B esa ls fdlh Hkh ?kVuk ds ?kfVr u gksus dh izkf;drk
= = = = .
izfrdwy ifjfLFkfr; k¡ b b /(a + b) P(E )
P( A ∩ B ) = P( A ∪ B) = 1 − P( A ∪ B) .
blh izdkj E ds izfrdwy la;ksxkuqikr
(ii) ;ksx'khy izes; dk O;kihdj.k (Generalization of the
izfrdwy ifjfLFkfr; k¡ b P( E )
= = = . addition theorem) : ;fn A1 , A 2 ,....., A n fdlh ;n`PN;k vfHkiz;ksx ls
vuqdwy ifjfLFkfr; k¡ a P( E)
lEcfU/kr ?kVuk;sa gksa] rks,
izkf;drk dk ;ksx'khy izes; (Addition theorem on probability) ⎛ n ⎞ n n n

ladsr (Notations) : P⎜ Ai ⎟ =
⎜ U ⎟ ∑ P ( A ) − ∑ P( A
i i ∩ Aj) + ∑ P( A i ∩ A j ∩ Ak ) +
⎝ i=1 ⎠ i =1 i, j =1 i, j, k =1
P( A + B) ;k P( A ∪ B) = A ;k B ds ?kfVr gksus dh izkf;drk i≠ j i≠ j ≠ k

= A ;k B ;k nksuksa ds ?kfVr gksus dh izkf;drk ... + (−1)n −1 P( A1 ∩ A 2 ∩ ..... ∩ A n ) .

= A rFkk B esa ls de ls de ,d ds ?kfVr gksus dh izkf;drk ;fn lHkh ?kVuk;sa A i (i = 1, 2 ..., n) ijLij viothZ gksa] rks
P(AB) ;k P(A∩B)
⎛ n ⎞ n
= A rFkk B ds ,d lkFk ?kfVr gksus dh izkf;drk P ⎜ Ai ⎟ =
⎜ U⎟ ∑ P( A ) i
(1) tc ?kVuk;sa ijLij viothZ u gksa (When events are not ⎝ i=1 ⎠ i=1

mutually exclusive) : ;fn A rFkk B nks ?kVuk;sa gSa] tks ijLij viothZ vFkkZr~ P( A1 ∪ A 2 ∪ .... ∪ A n ) = P( A1 ) + P( A 2 ) + .... + P( A n )
ugha gSa] rks P( A ∪ B) = P( A) + P(B) − P( A ∩ B)
(iii) cwyh dh vlfedk (Booley’s inequality) : ;fn
;k P( A + B) = P( A) + P(B) − P( AB ) .
A1 , A 2 , .... An fdlh ;n`PN;k vfHkiz;ksx ls lEcfU/kr n ?kVuk;sa gSa] rks
fdUgh rhu ?kVukvksa A, B, C ds fy,
P( A ∪ B ∪ C ) = P( A) + P(B) + P(C ) − P( A ∩ B) ⎛ n ⎞ n ⎛ n ⎞ n

− P(B ∩ C ) − P(C ∩ A) + P( A ∩ B ∩ C )
(a) P ⎜ A i ⎟ ≥
⎜ I ⎟ ∑ P( A ) − (n − 1)
i (b) P ⎜ A i ⎟ ≤
⎜ U ⎟ ∑ P( A )i
⎝ i=1 ⎠ i=1 ⎝ i=1 ⎠ i=1

;k P( A + B + C ) = P( A) + P(B) + P(C ) − P( AB ) ;s ifj.kke xf.krh; vkxeu ds fl)kUr }kjk izekf.kr fd;s tk

− P(BC ) − P(CA ) + P( ABC ) ldrs gSaA
 çkf;drk 1343

çfrcU/kh izkf;drk (Conditional probability) (2) n Lora= ?kVukvksa esa ls de ls de ,d dh izkf;drk : ;fn n
Lora= ?kVukvksa A1 , A 2 , A 3 , ........, A n dh izkf;drk;sa Øe'k%
ekuk A rFkk B fdlh ;kn`fPNd vfHkiz;ksx ls lEcfU/kr nks ?kVuk;sa p1 , p 2 , p 3 , ........, p n gksa] rks
gSa] rc A dh izkf;drk] tcfd B ?kfVr gks pqdh gks rFkk
(i) muesa ls fdlh Hkh ?kVuk ds u gksus dh izkf;drk
P(B) ≠0, B ds lkis{k A dh izfrcU/kh izkf;drk dgykrh gS] ftls
P(A/B) }kjk O;Dr djrs gSaA = P( A1 ∩ A 2 ∩ A 3 ...... ∩ A n ) = P( A1 ).P( A 2 ) . P( A3 )..... P( An )
vr% P(A/B) = A dh izkf;drk] tcfd B ?kfVr gks pqdh gS = (1 − p1 )(1 − p 2 )(1 − p 3 )....(1 − pn )
P( A ∩ B) n( A ∩ B) (ii) muesa ls de ls de ,d ds ?kfVr gksus dh izkf;drk
= = .
P ( B) n(B) = P( A1 ∪ A2 ∪ A3 .... ∪ An ) = 1 − P( A1 )P( A2 )P( A3 ).... P( An )
blh izdkj, P(B/A) = B dh izkf;drk] tcfd A ?kfVr gks pqdh gS = 1 − (1 − p1 )(1 − p 2 )(1 − p 3 )...(1 − pn )
P( A ∩ B) n( A ∩ B) (iii) dsoy izFke ?kVuk ds gksus rFkk vU; ds u gksus dh izkf;drk
= = .
P( A) n( A) = P( A1 )P( A 2 )P( A 3 )..... P( A n ) = p 1 (1 − p 2 )(1 − p 3 ).......( 1 − p n )
dHkh-dHkh P(A/B) }kjk A ds ?kfVr gksus dh izkf;drk] tc B ?kfVr iw.kZ izkf;drk dk izes; rFkk cs dk fu;e
gks] dks O;Dr djrs gSaA blhizdkj P(B/A) }kjk B ds ?kfVr gksus dh
(Total probability and Baye’s rule)
izkf;drk] tc A ?kfVr gks] dks O;Dr djrs gSaA
(1) çkf;drk dk xq.ku çes; (Multiplication theorem on (1) iw.kZ izkf;drk dk fu;e ekuk
(The law of total probability) :
probability) fdlh ;kn`fPNd vfHkiz;ksx ls lEcfU/kr izfrn'kZ lef"V S gS rFkk ekuk
(i);fn A rFkk B fdlh ;kn`fPNd vfHkiz;ksx ls lEcfU/kr nks E1 , E 2 , ..... E n ijLij viothZ rFkk fu%'ks"k (exhaustive) n ?kVuk;sa gSaA
?kVuk;sa gSa] rc P( A ∩ B) = P( A) . P(B / A) , ;fn P(A)≠0 ;k ;fn A ,d ?kVuk gS] tks E1 ;k E2 ;k …. ;k En ds ?kfVr gksus ij
P( A ∩ B) = P(B) . P( A / B) , ;fn P(B) ≠ 0
?kfVr gksrh gS] rc
(ii) xq.ku izes; dk izlkj (Extension of multiplication
P( A) = P(E1 ) P( A / E1 ) + P( E 2 ) P( A / E 2 ) + ... + P(E n ) P( A / E n )
theorem) : ;fn A1 , A 2 , ...., A n fdlh ;kn`fPNd vfHkiz;ksx ls
lEcfU/kr n ?kVuk;sa gSa] rc (2) cs dk fu;e (Baye’s rule) : ekuk S izfrn'kZ lef"V gS rFkk
n
⎛A ⎞ ⎛ A3 ⎞
P( A1 ∩ A 2 ∩ A 3 ∩ .... ∩ A n ) = P( A1 )P ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ P ⎜⎜
⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝ 1
A A ∩ A 2 ⎠
⎟
⎟
E1 , E 2 , ..... E n , n ijLij viothZ ?kVuk;sa bl izdkj gSa fd UE
i=1
i =S

.... P( A n / A1 ∩ A 2 ∩ ... ∩ A n −1 ) , rFkk P(E i ) > 0 (i = 1, 2, ……, n ds fy,)A Ei bR;kfn ds lUnHkZ esa ;g
tgk¡ P( Ai / A1 ∩ A 2 ∩ ... ∩ A i−1 ) , Ai dh izfrcU/kh izkf;drk dks dgk tk ldrk gS fd ;s fdlh vfHkiz;ksx ds ifj.kkeksa ds dkj.k gSaA
n'kkZrk gS] tcfd ?kVuk;sa A1 , A 2 , ....., A i−1 ?kfVr gks pqdh gksaA izkf;drk;sa P(Ei), i = 1, 2, ….., n bR;kfn iwoZ izkf;drk;sa dgykrh gSaA
(iii) Lora= ?kVukvksa ds fy, xq.ku izes; (Multiplication ekuk fd vfHkiz;ksx dk ,d ifj.kke ?kVuk A gS] tgk¡ P(A) > 0. gesa bl
theorems for independent events) : ;fn A rFkk B fdlh ;kn`fPNd ckr dh izf;drk Kkr djuh gS fd ?kVuk A ds ?kfVr gksus ds dkj.k Ei gS]
vfHkiz;ksx ls lEcfU/kr nks Lora= ?kVuk;sa gksa] rks vFkkZr~ gesa izfrcfU/kr izkf;drk P(Ei / A) Kkr djuk gSA ;s izkf;drk;sa
P ( A ∩ B) = P ( A ) . P (B )
vFkkZr~ nks Lora= ?kVukvksa ds ,d lkFk ?kfVr
i'p izkf;drk;sa dgykrh gS]a tks cs ds fu;e }kjk ifjHkkf"kr gSAa
gksus dh izkf;drk mudh izkf;drkvksa ds xq.kuQy ds cjkcj gSA xq.ku-
P(E i ).P( A / E i )
izes; ls ge ikrs gSa] P( A ∩ B) = P( A) . P(B / A) . P ( E i / A) = n
.
pw¡fd A rFkk B Lora= ?kVuk;sa gSa] vr% P(B / A) = P(B) . blfy, ∑ k =1
P( E k ) P( A / E k )
P ( A ∩ B) = P( A) . P(B) .
f}in caVu (Binomial distribution)
(iv) Lora= ?kVukvksa ds fy, xq.ku-izes; dk foLrkj (Extension of
multiplication theorem for independent events) : ;fn
(1) çkf;drk dh T;kferh; fof/k (Geometrical method for
A1 , A 2 , ...., An fdlh ;kn`fPNd vfHkiz;ksx ls lEcfU/kr n Lora= ?kVuk;sa probability) : tc izfrn'kZ lef"V esa izfrn'kZ fcUnqvksa dh la[;k vuUr
gSa] rc P( A1 ∩ A 2 ∩ A 3 ∩ ... ∩ A n ) = P( A1 )P( A 2 )... P( A n ) . gks rc izkf;drk dh fpjlEer ifjHkk"kk mi;ksxh ugha gksrh gSA
mnkgj.kr;k ;fn gesa bl ckr dh izkf;drk Kkr djuh gS fd vUrjky
xq.ku izes; ls] ge ikrs gSa
[1, 6] esa ;n`PN;k pquk x;k ,d fcUnq vUrjky [1, 2] ;k [5, 6] esa
P( A1 ∩ A 2 ∩ A 3 ∩ ... ∩ A n ) = P( A1 )P( A 2 / A1 )
fo|eku gS] rks ge izkf;drk dh fpjlEer ifjHkk"kk dk mi;ksx ugha dj
P( A 3 / A1 ∩ A 2 )... P( A n / A1 ∩ A 2 ∩ ... ∩ A n −1 ) ldrsA bl voLFkk esa ge izkf;drk dks fuEu izdkj ls ifjHkkf"kr djrs
pw¡fd A1 , A 2 , ...., A n −1 , A n Lora= ?kVuk;sa gSa] A ds {ks«k dh eki
gSa : P{x ∈ A} = ,
vr% P( A 2 / A1 ) = P( A 2 ), P( A 3 / A1 ∩ A 2 ) = P( A 3 ), ...., izfrn' kZ lef" V S dh eki
P( A n / A1 ∩ A 2 ∩ ... ∩ A n −1 ) = P( A n ) tgk¡ eki S ds ,d foeh;] f}-foeh; ;k f=-foeh; {ks= gksus ds
vuqlkj yEckbZ] {ks=Qy ;k vk;ru dks O;Dr djrk gSA
blfy,, P( A1 ∩ A2 ∩ ... ∩ An ) = P( A1 )P( A2 ).... P( An ) .
 1344 çkf;drk
(2) çkf;drk caVu (Probability distribution) : ekuk S ,d (c) ?kVuk ds vf/kd ls vf/kd r ckj ?kfVr gksus dh izkf;drk
izfrn'kZ lef"V gSA ;kn`fPNd pj X, leqPp; S ls R ¼okLrfod la[;kvksa r

dk leqPp;½ esa ,d Qyu gSA P(0 ≤ X ≤ r) = q n + n C 1 q n −1 p + ... + n C r q n −r p r = ∑p

X =0
X
q n− X

mnkgj.k ds fy,] ,d tksM+s ik¡ls dks Qsads tkus ij izfrn'kZ lef"V ;fn fdlh ?kVuk ds ,d iz;kl esa ?kfVr gksus dh izkf;drk p gS]
{11, 12, L, 16 rc ?kVuk ds r iz;kl esa yxkrkj ?kfVr gksus dh izkf;drk p r gksxhA
21, 22, L, 26 ;fn fdlh vfHkiz;ksx esa n iz;kl gksa rFkk vfHkiz;ksx N ckj nksgjk;k x;k
S =
M M O M gks] rks 0, 1, 2, …, n lQyrkvksa dh vko`fÙk;k¡ fuEu gksaxh
61, 62, L, 66 } N . P( X = 0), N . P( X = 1), N . P( X = 2), ...., N . P( X = n) .
ekuk X ik¡ls ds Åijh Qyd ij vafdr la[;kvksa dk ;ksx gSA rc f}in caVu dk ek/; rFkk izlj.k (Mean and variance of the
X (12 ) = 3, X (43 ) = 7 , bR;kfn ,oa {X = 7} ?kVuk {61, 52, 43, 34, 25, binomial distribution) : f}in
izkf;drk caVu gS
16} gSA lk/kkj.kr;k X izfrn'kZ lef"V S esa ifjHkkf"kr ,d ;kn`fPNd pj X 0 1 2 .......... n
gS rFkk r ,d okLrfod la[;k gS] rc {X = r} ,d ?kVuk gSA ;fn P( X ) n n
C0 q p 0 n
C1 q n −1
p n
C2q n−2
p 2 ........ n C n q 0 p n
;kn`fPNd pj X ds n vyx-vyx eku x 1 , x 2 , ...., x n gksa] rks n n
{ X = x 1 } , { X = x 2 }, ...., { X = x n } ijLij viothZ rFkk fu%'ks"k bl caVu dk ek/; ∑ X p = ∑ X.
i=1
i i
X =1
n
C X q n − X p X = np gSA
?kVuk;sa gSaA
X = x1 X = x3
f}in izkf;drk caVu dk izlj.k σ 2 = npq rFkk ekud fopyu
X = x2
σ = (npq ) gSA

X = x4 cgqinh; izlkj dk mi;ksx (Use of multinomial expansion) :

X = xn ;fn fdlh ik¡ls ds m Qyd gksa] ftl ij la[;k;sa 1, 2, 3, ….m vafdr
vc pw¡fd ( X = x i ) ,d ?kVuk gS] ge P( X = x i ) ij fopkj dj ldrs gksa rFkk ,sls n ik¡ls ,d lkFk Qsads tk,¡] rc Åijh Qydksa ij iznf'kZr
(x + x 2 + x 3 + .... + x m )n
gSaA ;fn P( X = x i ) = Pi (1 ≤ i ≤ n) , rc la[;k fudk; la[;kvksa dk ;ksx p gksus dh izkf;drk ds
mn
⎛ x1 x2 L xn ⎞ foLrkj esa x p ds xq.kkad }kjk nh tkrh gSA
⎜⎜ ⎟
⎝ p1 p2 L p n ⎟⎠
(4) ikW;lu caVu ekuk X ,d ;n`PN;k
(Poisson's distribution) :
dks ;kn`fPNd pj X dk izkf;drk caVu dgrs gSaA ;kn`fPNd pj X pj gS] tks 0, 1, 2,... eku bl çdkj xzg.k djrk gS] fd X dk çkf;drk Qyu]
n
λ x e −λ
dh lEHkkouk ¼ek/;½ dks fuEu izdkj ifjHkkf"kr djrs gSa E( X ) = ∑ p i x i f ( x ) = P( X = x ) = , x = 0,1,2,.... }kjk çkIr gksrk gSA tgk¡ λ ,d
x!
i=1
/kukRed vpj gSA ;g caVu ikWblu caVu dgykrk gSA
rFkk X ds izlj.k dks fuEu }kjk ifjHkkf"kr djrs gSa
n n
var( X ) = ∑ p (x
i=1
i i − E( X )) 2 = ∑p x
i=1
i
2
i − (E( X ))2 .

(3) f}in izkf;drk caVu (Binomial probability distribution) :

;kn`fPNd pj X ftldk eku 0, 1, 2, …, n gks ldrk gS] f}in caVu dk
vuqlj.k djrk gS] ;fn izkf;drk caVu Qyu fuEu }kjk ifjHkkf"kr gks]
P( X = r) = n C r p r q n −r , r = 0, 1, 2, ....., n " Lora= ?kVuk;sa loZFkk vyx&vyx iz;ksaxksa ls lEcfU/kr gksrh gSa]
tgk¡ p, q > 0, bl izdkj gSa fd p + q = 1 tcfd ijLij viothZ ?kVuk;sa ,d gh iz;ksx ls lEcfU/kr gksrh gSaA
ladsr X ~ B(n, p) lk/kkj.k rFkk ;kn`fPNd pj X ds ¼izkpy n ,oa " Lora= ?kVuk;sa ,d lkFk ?kfVr gks ldrh gSa] tcfd ijLij
p esa½ f}in caVu ds vuqlj.k dks O;Dr djrk gSA viothZ ?kVuk;sa ,d lkFk ?kfVr ugha gks ldrhaA
ge ns[krs gSa
" Lora= ?kVuk;sa 'kCn *vkSj* ls lEcfU/kr gksrh gSa] fdUrq ijLij
P( X = 0) + P( X = 1) + ... + P( X = n) =
viothZ ?kVuk;sa 'kCn *;k* ls lEcfU/kr gksrh gSaA
n
C 0 p 0 q n − 0 + n C 1 p 1 q n −1 + ... + n C n p n q n −n = (q + p ) n = 1 n = 1 .
" n flDdksa dsk ,d lkFk ;k ,d flDds dks n ckj mNkyus ij
vc izfrn'kZ lef"V (dqy izdkj) = 2n.
(a) ?kVuk ds Bhd r ckj ?kfVr gksus dh izkf;drk " n ikalksa
dks ,d lkFk ;k ,d ikals dks n ckj Qsadus ij izfrn'kZ
n −r
P ( X = r) = C r q n
p .r
lef"V (dqy izdkj) = 6n.
(b) ?kVuk ds de ls de r ckj ?kfVr gksus dh izkf;drk
" n1 ikalksa rFkk n2 flDdksa dks ,d lkFk Qsadus ij izfrn’kZ lef"V
n
P( X ≥ r) = n C r q n −r p r + ... + p n = ∑
X =r
n
C X p X q n− X ¼dqy çdkj½ = 6 n1 × 2n2
" n i=ksa rFkk fyQkQksa ls lEcfU/kr izkf;drk : ;fn n fyQkQksa ds
 çkf;drk 1345
laxr n i=ksa dks fyQkQksa esa ;n`PN;k j[kk tk;s] rks
1
(i) lHkh i=ksa ds mi;qDr fyQkQsa esa j[ks tkus dh izkf;drk = .
n!

(ii) lHkh i=ksa ds mi;qDr fyQkQsa esa ugha gksus dh izkf;drk fofHkUu inksa dh ifjHkk"kk
1
=1− .
n! 1. nks flôksa dks Qsadk x;kA A og ?kVuk gS ftlesa igyk flôk
vxkM+h fn[kkrk gS rFkk B og ?kVuk gS ftlesa nwljk flôk
(iii) fdlh Hkh i= ds mi;qDr fyQkQsa esa u gksus dh izkf;drk fiNkM+h n’kkZrk gSA A rFkk B ?kVuk;sa fuEu çdkj dh gS
1 1 1 1 [MP PET 1989]
= − + − ... + (−1)n .
2! 3! 4 ! n! (a) ijLij viothZ (b) ijrU=
(c) Lora= rFkk ijLij viothZ (d) buesa ls dksbZ ugha
(iv) dsoy r i=ksa ds mi;qDr fyQkQs esa gksus dh izkf;drk
2. ;fn P ( A1 ∪ A2 ) = 1 − P( A1c ) P( A2c ) tgk¡ c iwjd ds fy;s gS]
1 ⎡1 1 1 1 ⎤ rc ?kVuk,¡ A1 rFkk A 2 gSa
= ⎢ − + − ..... + (−1)n − r ⎥
[MP PET 1989]
r! ⎣ 2! 3! 4 ! (n − r)! ⎦
(a) ijLij viothZ (b) Lora=
" ;fn fdlh ?kVuk ds vuqdwy la;ksxkuqikr a : b gksa] rks blds (c) leçkf;d (d) buesa ls dksbZ ugha

?kfVr gksus dh izkf;drk

a
rFkk blds ?kfVr u gksus dh 3. nks ikals ,d lkFk mNkys tkrs gSaA ;fn ?kVuk,¡ A rFkk B fuEu
a+b çdkj ifjHkkf"kr gks A = igys ikals ij le la[;k] B = nwljs
b ikals ij fo"ke la[;k] rks ?kVuk,¡ A rFkk B gSa [IIT 1979]
izkf;drk gksrh gSA (a) ijLij viothZ
a+b
(b) ijLij viothZ rFkk LorU=
" ;fn fdlh ?kVuk ds izfrdwy la;ksxkuqikr a : b gksa] rks blds
(c) ijrU=
b
?kfVr gksus dh izkf;drk rFkk ?kfVr u gksus dh izkf;drk (d) buesa ls dksbZ ugha
a+b
4. 52 iÙkksa dh ,d xM~Mh esa ls ,d iÙkk fudyk tkrk gSA ;fn
a
gksrh gSA A =iÙkk bZV dk gS] B = iÙkk bôk gS ,oa A ∩ B = iÙkk bZV dk
a+b
bôk gS ] rks ?kVuk;sa A o B gSa
" Ekkuk A, B, rFkk C rhu LosPN ?kVuk;sa gSa] rks (a) LorU= (b) ijLij viothZ
?kVukvksa dk ekSf[kd fooj.k rqY; leqPp; lS)kfUrd ladsr (c) ijrU= (d) lelEHkkoh

(i) dsoy A ?kfVr gks 5. ;fn A o B nks Lora= ?kVuk,¡ gSa] rks A o B gksaxh
(i) A ∩ B ∩ C
(a) LorU= ughaa (b) LorU=
(ii) A rFkk B, fadUrq C ughaa (ii) A ∩ B ∩ C (c) ijLij viothZ (d) buesa ls dksbZ ugha
?kfVr gks 6. A, B, C rhu ijLij Lora= ?kVuk;sa gSaA S 1 rFkk S 2 nks dFkuksa dks
(iii) rhuksa ?kVuk;sa ?kfVr gksa (iii) A ∩ B ∩ C ns[kus ij
(iv) de ls de ,d ?kfVr gks (iv) A ∪ B ∪ C S 1 : A rFkk B ∪ C LorU= gSa

(v) de ls de nks ?kfVr gks (v) ( A ∩ B) ∪ (B ∩ C ) ∪ ( A ∩ C )

S2 : A rFkk B ∩ C LorU= gSa
rc [IIT 1994]
(vi) dsoy ,d ?kfVr gks (vi) ( A ∩ B ∩ C ) ∪ ( A ∩ B ∩ C ) (a) S 1rFkk S 2 nksuksa lR; gSa
∪ ( A ∩ B ∩ C) ∪ ( A ∩ B ∩ C) (b) dsoy S 1 lR; gS

(vii) A, B rFkk C esa ls dsoy (vii) ( A ∩ B ∩ C ) ∪ ( A ∩ B ∩ C) (c) dsoy S 2 lR; gS

nks ?kfVr gksa (d) u rks S 1 uk gh S 2 lR; gS
∪ ( A ∩ B ∩ C) ∪ ( A ∩ B ∩ C)
2 1 5
7. ;fn P( A) = , P (B ) = rFkk P( A ∪ B) = rc ?kVuk;sa A
(viii) dksbZ ?kfVr u gks (viii) A ∩ B ∩ C = A ∪ B ∪ C 3 2 6
rFkk B gSa [Kerala (Engg.) 2002]
(ix) nks ls vf/kd ?kfVr u gks (ix) ( A ∩ B) ∪ (B ∩ C) ∪ ( A ∩ C)
(a) ijLij viothZ
−( A ∩ B ∩ C ) (b) LorU= gksus ds lkFk ijLij fu%’ks"kh Hkh
(x) A rFkk B esa dsoy ,d gh (x) ( A ∩ B ) ∪ ( A ∩ B) (c) LorU=
?kfVr gks (d) dsoy A ij vkfJr
 1406 dsUæh; ço`fÙk ds eki

Chapter

29
dsUæh; ço`fÙk ds eki
çLrkouk (Introduction)
(ii) y?kq fof/k : lekUrj ek/; (x ) = A +
∑ f ( x − A)
∑f
lkaf[;dh esa pj Js.kh ds forj.k xq.k ,oa dsUæh; eku dks crkus
okyh Js.kh dks lkaf[;dh Js.kh dk dsUæh; eki dgrs gSaA tgk¡ A = dfYir ek/;, f = ckjEckjrk rFkk x – A = çR;sd in dk
fuEufyf[kr ik¡p ekiksa dks dsUæh; ço`fÙk dh eki dgrs gSaA dfYir ek/; ls fopyu
(1) lekUrj ek/; (2) xq.kksÙkj ek/; (3) gjkRed ek/;
(4) ekf/;dk (5) cgqyd (3) lekUrj ek/; ds xq.k
(i) lekUrj ek/; ls fdlh lewg ds ekuksa ds fopyuksa dk
lekUrj ek/; (Arithmetic mean)
chtxf.krh; ;ksx 'kwU; gksrk gSA ;fn x i / fi tgk¡ i = 1, 2, …,n ckjEckjrk
lekUrj ek/; lcls egRoiw.kZ xf.krh; ek/; gSA n
“gksjsllsfjLV” (Horase secrist) ds vuqlkj, “lekUrj ek/; pj dk caVu gS] rc ∑ f (x − x ) = 0
i i tgk¡ x caVu dk ek/; gSA
og eku gS tks fn;s gq;s inksa ds ;ksxQy esa inksa dh la[;k ls Hkkx nsus i =1

ij çkIr gksrk gSA” (ii) lekUrj ek/; ds ifjr% lewg ds ekuksa ds fopyuksa ds oxksZa dk
(1) tc vk¡dM+s voxhZd`r gSa ;ksx U;wure gksrk gSA
(i) çR;{k fof/k : ;fn pj x ds n eku x1 , x 2 , x 3 , ......, x n gSa] rc
la;ksftr Js.kh dk ek/; : ;fn ni, (i = 1, 2, ....., k ) vkdkj dh
(iii)
lekUrj ek/; x fuEu izdkj çkIr gksrk gSA
k-vo;oksa dh Js.kh ds ek/; Øe'k% x i , (i = 1, 2, ...., k ) gksa] rks ?kVd Js.kh
Js.kh dk ;ksx
x = , ds vo;oksa dks feykus ij la;ksftr Js.kh dk ek/; x fuEu lw= ls izkIr
inksa dh la[;k
gksrk gSA
x 1 + x 2 + x 3 + .... + x n 1
n
vFkkZr~ x = = ∑x n1 x 1 + n 2 x 2 + .... + nk x k
n n

∑n x ∑n
i
n n i =1 x = = .
n1 + n 2 + .... + nk
i i i
i =1 i =1
∑d
(ii) y?kq fof/k : lekUrj ek/; (x ) = A + ,
n
tgk¡, A = dfYir ek/;] xq.kksÙkj ek/; (Geometric mean)
d = dfYir ek/; ls fopyu = x − A , tgk¡ x çR;sd in
dk eku gSA ;fn fdlh pj x ds n eku x1 , x 2 , x 3 , ......, x n gSa] ftuesa dksbZ Hkh
Σd = fopyuksa dk ;ksx rFkk n = inksa dh la[;k gSA 'kwU; ugha gS] rc xq.kksÙkj ek/; fuEu çdkj çkIr gksrk gS
(2) tc vk¡dM+s oxhZd`r gksa G.M. = (x 1 . x 2 . x 3 ...... x n )1 / n
(i) çR;{k fof/k : ;fn nh xbZ Js.kh ds in x1 , x 2 , ...., x n rFkk laxr
1
ckjEckjrk f1 , f2 , .... fn gS] rc ⇒ log(G.M.) = (log x 1 + log x 2 + ..... + log x n ) .
n
n

f1 x 1 + f2 x 2 + .... + fn x n
∑ fx
i =1
i i ckjEckjrk caVu dh fLFkfr esa] ;fn fdlh pj x ds n ekuksa
lekUrj ek/; x = = . x 1 , x 2 , ....., x n dh ckjEckjrk;sa Øe'k% f1 , f2 , ....., fn gSa] rc xq.kksÙkj
f1 + f2 + .... + fn n

∑f
i =1
i ek/; (G.M.) = (x1f1 . x 2f2 ..... x nfn )1 / N , tgk¡ N = f1 + f2 + ..... + fn .
 dsUæh; ço`fÙk ds eki 1407

gjkRed ek/; (Harmonic mean) Q1 fuEu prqFkZd, Q 2 ekf/;dk rFkk Q 3 mPp prqFkZd dgykrk gSA
(2) fuEu prqFkZd (Lower quartile) %
n inksa x 1 , x 2 , ......, x n dk gjkRed ek/;
n +1⎞
H.M. =
n
.
(i) vlrr~ Js.kh ds fy;s : Q1 = ⎛⎜ ⎟ ok¡ in dk vkdkj
1 1 1 ⎝ 4 ⎠
+ + ..... +
x1 x 2 xn ⎛N ⎞
⎜ − C⎟
;fn ckjEckjrk caVu Øe'k% f1 , f2 , f3 , ......, fn gSa] rc (ii) lrr~ Js.kh ds fy;s : Q1 = l + ⎝ 4 ⎠ ×i
f1 + f2 + f3 + ..... + fn f
H.M. = (3) mPp prqFkZd (Upper quartile) :
⎛ f1 f f ⎞
⎜ + 2 + ..... + n ⎟
⎜x x n ⎟⎠ ⎡ 3(n + 1) ⎤
⎝ 1 x2 (i) vlrr~ Js.kh ds fy;s : Q3 = ⎢ ⎥ osa in dk vkdkj
⎣ 4 ⎦
ekf/;dk (Median)
⎛ 3N ⎞
fdlh lewg ;k Js.kh ds lHkh inksa dks muds eku ds vuqlkj vkjksgh ⎜ − C⎟
;k vojksgh Øeksa esa j[kus ij çkIr e/; in dk eku ekf/;dk dgykrk gSA (ii) lrr~ Js.kh : Q 3 = l + ⎝ 4 ⎠ ×i
ekf/;dk Js.kh dks bl çdkj nks Hkkxksa esa foHkkftr djrh gS fd f
buesa ls ,d Hkkx ds inksa dk eku e/; in ds eku ls de rFkk nwljss (4) n'ked (Decile) : n'ked] dqy ckjEckjrk N dks 10 cjkcj Hkkxksa esa
Hkkx ds inksa dk eku e/; in ds eku ls vf/kd gksrk gSA foHkkftr djrk gSA
(1) ekf/;dk dh x.kuk (Calculation of median) : N×j
−C
(i) voxhZd`r vk¡dM+ksa ;k Js.kh ls ekf/;dk Kkr djuk : loZçFke D j = l + 10 × i [j = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
vk¡dM+ks dks vkjksgh ;k vojksgh Øe esa O;ofLFkr djrs gSaA ekuk çs{k.kksa f
dh la[;k n gSA N
−C
n +1⎞
;fn n fo"ke gS] rc ekf/;dk = ⎛⎜ ⎟ ok¡ in dk eku ;fn j = 5, rc D5 = l + 2
f
× i . vr% D5 dks ekf/;dk Hkh dgrs gSaA
⎝ 2 ⎠
;fn n le gS] rc ekf/;dk (5) 'kred (Percentile) : 'kred] dqy ckjEckjrk N dks 100 cjkcj
1 ⎡⎛ n ⎞ ⎤ Hkkxksa esa foHkkftr djrk gSA
eku + ⎛⎜ + 1 ⎞⎟ ok¡ in dk eku ⎥
n
= ⎢⎜ ⎟ ok¡ in dk N ×k
2 ⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝2 ⎠ ⎦ −C
(ii) vlrr~ ;k fHkUu Js.kh : loZçFke vkjksgh ;k vojksgh Øe esa Pk = l + 100 ×i; tgk¡ k = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,.......,99.
f
O;ofLFkr pjksa dh lap;h ckjEckjrk Kkr djrs gSa] rRi'pkr~ fuEu çdkj
ls ekf/;dk Kkr djrs gSaA cgqyd (Mode)
n +1⎞ fdlh lrr~ Js.kh ds fy;s] lkaf[;dh; vk¡dM+ksa esa ftl in dh
ekf/;dk = ⎛⎜ ⎟ ok¡ çs{k.k] tgk¡ n lap;h ckjEckjrk gSA ckjEckjrk vf/kdre gks] og in cgqyd dgykrk gSA
⎝ 2 ⎠
(iii) oxhZd`r vk¡dM+ksa ;k Js.kh ls ekf/;dk Kkr djuk ⎡ f1 − f0 ⎤
cgqyd = l1 + ⎢ ⎥×i
(a) vkjksgh Øe esa Js.kh ds fy;s % ⎣ 1 − f0 − f2 ⎦
2 f
⎛N ⎞ tgk¡, l1 = cgqyd oxZ dh fuEu lhek
⎜ − C⎟
ekf/;dk = l + ⎝ 2 ⎠ ×i f1 = cgqyd oxZ dh ckjEckjrk
f f0 = cgqyd oxZ ds iwoZ oxZ dh ckjEckjrk
tgk¡ l = ekf/;dk oxZ dh fuEu lhek f2 = cgqyd oxZ ls vxys oxZ dh ckjEckjrk
f = ekf/;dk oxZ dh ckjEckjrk
N = leLr ckjEckjrkvksa dk ;ksx i = cgqyd oxZ dk vkdkj
i = ekf/;dk oxZ dh pkSM+kbZ (width) lefer caVu (Symmetric distribution)
C = ekf/;dk oxZ ls iwoZ rd dh lHkh ckjEckjrkvksa dk ;ksx ;fn ek/;] cgqyd rFkk ekf/;dk ds eku lEikrh gksa] rc ;g
lefefr] lefer caVu dgykrh gSA
⎛ N ⎞
⎜ −C ⎟ lefer caVu esa ckjEckjrk oØ ds dsUæh; fcUnq ds nksuksa vksj
(b) vojksgh Øe esa Js.kh ds fy;s % ekf/;dk = u − ⎜ 2 ⎟×i , ckjEckjrk;sa lefer #i ls forfjr gksrh gSA
⎜ f ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
n
tgk¡ u = ekf/;dk oxZ dh mPp lhek] N = ∑ fi
i =1
ek/; = ekf/;dk = cgqyd
ekf/;dk fdlh caVu dks nks cjkcj Hkkxksa esa foHkkftr djrh gS] blh
çdkj prqFkZd (quartiles), iaped (quantiles), n'ked (deciles) rFkk
'kred (percentiles) fdlh caVu dks Øe'k% 4, 5, 10 RkFkk 100 Hkkxksa esa ek/; ek/;
foHkkftr djrs gSaA j ok¡ prqFkZd fuEu izdkj ls Kkr djrs gSaA ekf/;dkcgqyd cgqyd ekf/;dk
⎛ N ⎞ ,d caVu tks fd lefer ugha gS] fo"ke forj.k dgykrk gSA
⎜ j −C⎟ fdlh nqcZy vlefer caVu ds fy;s ek/;] ekf/;dk rFkk cgqyd esa
Qj = l + ⎜ 4 ⎟ i; j = 1, 2, 3 .
⎜ f ⎟ izk;% fuEu lEcU/k izkIr gksrk gSA
⎜ ⎟ ek/; – cgqyd = 3(ek/; – ekf/;dk) ⇒ cgqyd = 3 ekf/;dk – 2 ek/;
⎝ ⎠
 1408 dsUæh; ço`fÙk ds eki

ikbZ rkfydk ;k ikbZ fp=k (Pie chart or Pie diagram) vc bu fopyuksa dks laxr ckjEckjrkvksa ls xq.kk djrs gS] rFkk
xq.kuQy f.dM Kkr djus ds i'pkr~ bu xq.kuQyksa dk ;ksx ∑ f dM
ikbZ fp= esa ,d o`Ùk dks laxr rkfydk esa vo;oksa dh la[;k ds Kkr djrs gSaA var esa fuEu lw= dk mi;skx djrs gSa] ek/;
cjkcj [k.Mksa esa foHkkftr fd;k tkrk gSA lEiw.kZ fp= ikbZ (pie) ds ∑ f | x − M | ∑ f dM
leku izrhr gksrk gS rFkk blds ?kVd] ikbZ (Pie) ls dkVs x;s [k.M ds fopyu = = , tgk¡] n = Σf.
n n
:i esa izrhr gksrs gSaA
(3) ekud fopyu (Standard deviation) : pj ds
fofHkUu ekuksa ds vius
ikbZ fp= esa izR;sd in dk ,d {ks= gksrk gS] ftldk {ks=Qy] in
ds eku ds vuqlkj dqy {ks=Qy dk ,d fuf'pr izfr'kr gksrk gSA ;fn lekUrj ek/; ls fopyuksa ds oxksZa ds lekUrj ek/; dk oxZewy ekud
dqy inksa dk eku N rFkk fdlh fo'ks"k in ls lEcfU/kr in dk eku n1 fopyu dgykrk gSA bls lk/kkj.kr;k xzhd v{kj σ ¼flxek½ ls iznf'kZr
djrs gSaA
gS] rc bl in ds fy;s [k.M dk {ks=Qy = ⎛⎜
n1 ⎞ (i) ekud fopyu xq.kkad : fdUgha nks ckjEckjrk caVuksa ds fo{ksi.kksa
⎟ × 360 ° , (pw¡fd iw.kZ
⎝N⎠ dh rqyuk djus ds fy;s ekud fopyu ds lkisf{kd eki dh x.kuk dh
o`Ùkh; pki }kjk dsUæ ij vUrfjr dks.k 360° gksrk gSA½ tkrh gS] tks fd ekud fopyu xq.kkad dgykrh gSA ekud fopyu
σ
fo{ksi.k dh eki (Measure of dispersion) xq.kkad =
x
, tgk¡ x lekUrj ek/; gSA
fo{ksi.k og xq.k gS] tks fdlh Js.kh ds inksa dk ek/; ds ifjr% (ii) voxhZd`r vk¡dM+ksa ls ekud fopyu Kkr djuk
fc[kjko ;k çdhZ.ku (scatter) crkrk gSA
∑(x − x )2
eq[;r% pkj izdkj ds fo{ksi.k gSa σ =
(1) ifjlj (Range) N
(2) ek/; fopyu (Mean deviation) tgk¡, x =Js.kh dk lekUrj ek/;] N = dqy ckjEckjrk ¼vko`fÙk½
(3) ekud fopyu (Standard deviation) (iii) voxhZd`r fdUrq lkj.khc) vk¡dM+ks ls fopyu Kkr djuk
(4) oxZ fopyu (Square deviation) ∑ fi (x i − x )2
(1) ifjlj (Range) : fdlh pj ds vf/kdre rFkk U;wure ekuksa ds σ =
N
vUrj dks ifjlj dgrs gSaA ifjlj = X – X max min
tgk¡, x = Js.kh dk vkafdd ek/;
x − x min x i = oxZ varjky dk e/; eku
ifjlj xq.kkad = max .
x max + x min ds laxr ckjEckjrk
fi = x i
tgk¡ X rFkk X Øe'k% pj ds vf/kdre rFkk U;wure eku gSA
max min
N = Σf = dqy ckjEckjrk
ifjlj] dsUæh; ço`fÙk dh eki ugha gSA ifjlj dk mi;ksx eq[;r% y?kq fof/k :
mRiknu dh xq.koÙkk ls lEcfU/kr lkaf[;dh; Js.kh esa gksrk gSA
2 2
(i) vUr%prqFkZd ifjlj (Inter-quartile range) : prqFkZd og ifjek.k ∑ fd 2 ⎛ ∑ fd ⎞ ∑d2 ⎛ ∑d ⎞
(a) σ = −⎜ ⎟ (b) σ = −⎜ ⎟
gS] tks caVu dks pkj cjkcj Hkkxksa esa foHkkftr djrk gSA vUr% prqFkZd N ⎝ N ⎠ N ⎝ N ⎠
ifjlj] r`rh; rFkk izFke prqFkZdksa dk vUrj gksrk gSA tgk¡, d = x – A = dfYir ek/; A ls fopyu
vUr%prqFkZd ifjlj = Q3 − Q1 f = in dh ckjEckjrk, N = Σf = ckjEckjrkvksa dk ;ksx
tgk¡ Q = izFke prqFkZd ;k fuEu prqFkZd rFkk Q = r`rh; prqFkZd ;k
1 3 (4) oxZ fopyu (Square deviation)
mPp prqFkZd (i) oxZ ek/; ewy fopyu (Root mean square deviation)
(ii) 'kred ifjlj : ;g fuEu lw= }kjk Kkr fd;k tk ldrk gS n

∑ f ( x − A)
'kred ifjlj = P90 − P10 1
S = i i
2
tgk¡] A LosPN pj rFkk S oxZ ek/;
tgk¡ P = 90 ok¡ çfr'kd rFkk P = 10 ok¡ izfr'kd N i =1
90 10

'kred ifjlj] ifjlj rFkk vUr% prqFkZd ifjlj dh rqyuk esa fopyu gSA
vf/kd Js"B ifj.kke nsrk gSA (ii) ekud fopyu rFkk oxZ ek/; ewy fopyu ds e/; lEcU/k : ;fn σ
(iii) prqFkZd fopyu ;k v)Z vUr%prqFkZd ifjlj (Quartile deviation ekud fopyu rFkk S oxZ ek/; ewy fopyu gS] rc S 2 = σ 2 + d 2 .
or Semi inter-quartile range) : ;g r`rh; rFkk çFke prqFkZdksa ds varj dk
Li"Vr%, S 2 U;wure gksxk tc d = 0 vFkkZr~ x = A
Q3 − Q1
vk/kk gksrk gS] vFkkZr~ Q.D. = rFkk prqFkZd fopyu xq.kkad vr%] ;fn ek/; ls fopyu fy;s x;s gaS rc oxZ ek/; fopyu rFkk
2 ifj.kker% oxZ ek/; ewy fopyu U;wure gksxkA
Q3 − Q1
=
Q3 + Q1
. çlj.k (Variance)

tgk¡] Q = r`rh; ;k mPp prqFkZd rFkk Q = izFke ;k fuEu prqFkZd ekud fopyu ds oxZ dks izlj.k dgrs gSaA
(1) ekud fopyu xq.kkad ,oa izlj.k : ekud fopyu xq.kkad ekud
3 1

(2) ek/; fopyu (Mean deviation) : ek/;] ekf/;dk ;k cgqyd ls

fopyuksa (lHkh dks /kukRed ysus ij) dk vkafdd vkSlr ek/; fopyu fopyu ,oa ek/; dk vuqikr gSA vr% ekud fopyu xq.kkad = σ / x
dgykrk gSA σ
izlj.k xq.kkad = ekud fopyu xq.kkad × 100 = × 100
∑| x − M | x
(i) tc vk¡dMs+ voxhZd`r gks : ek/; fopyu = (2) la;qDr Js.kh dk izlj.k
n
tgk¡] |x – M| = pj dk ek/; (ek/;] ekf/;dk fopyu ;k cgqyd) ls σ2 =
1
[n1 (σ 12 + d 12 ) + n 2 (σ 22 + d 22 )]
dk ekikad rFkk n = inksa dh la[;kA n1 + n 2
(ii) lrr~ Js.kh ds fy;s ek/; fopyu : loZizFke ml ek/; dks Kkr n1 x 1 + n 2 x 1
djrs gSa] ftlls fopyu Kkr djuk gSA rRi'pkr~ izR;sd pj dk bl tg¡k, d 1 = x 1 − x , d 2 = x 2 − x , ,oa x =
n1 + n 2
ek/; M ls fopyu dM = | x − M | Kkr djrs gSaA
 dsUæh; ço`fÙk ds eki 1409

fo"kerk (Skewness) vf/kd mi;ksxh gSA

• ;fn fdlh in dk vkdkj (eku) 'kwU; ;k _.kkRed gksa] rc
fo"kerk] lefefr esa deh dh eki gSA bls γ 1 ls çnf'kZr djrs gSa
xq.kksÙkj ek/; dh x.kuk ugha dh tk ldrh gSA
∑(x i − μ )3 " gjkRed ek/; ls lEcfU/kr fcUnq
γ1 =
{∑(x i − μ 2 )}3 / 2 • ;g Js.kh ds lHkh inksa ij vk/kkfjr gSA
;fn caVu fo"keh; gS] rks • ;g nj] vuqikrksa rFkk le; bR;kfn ls lEcfU/kr leL;kvksa
(i) ek/; ≠ ekf/;dk ≠ cgqyd ds fy, vf/kd mi;ksxh gSA
(ii) prqFkZd ekf/;dk ls cjkcj nwjh ij ugha gksrs gSaA
• lekUrj ek/; ≥ xq.kksÙkj ek/; ≥ gjkRed ek/; rFkk (xq.kksÙkj
(iii) ckjackjrk oØ esa ,d vksj] nwljs vksj dh vis{kk vf/kd f[kapko ek/;) = (lekUrj ek/;) (gjkRed ek/;)
2

(Stretch) gksrk gSA

" ekf/;dk ls lEcfU/kr fcUnq
(1) caVu (Distribution)%
• ;g ,d fufnZ"V vkSlr gS] ftldk mi;ksx xq.kkRed vk¡dM+ks
caVu rhu izdkj ds gksrs gSa
tSls cqf)ekuh] le`f)] bZekunkjh vkfn esa vklkuh ls fd;k tk ldrk gSA
(i) lkekU; caVu (Normal distribution) : tc γ 1 = 0 , rc caVu]
lkekU; caVu dgykrk gSA • chtxf.krh; fpUgksa dks NksM+us ij] ekf/;dk ls inksa ds fopyuksa
bl fLFkfr es]a ek/; = ekf/;dk = cgqyd dk ;ksx] fdlh vU; fcUnq ls fopyuksa ds ;ksx ls de gksrk gSA
(ii) /kukRed fo"keh; caVu (Positively skewed distribution) : tc " lekUrj ek/; cM+s ekuksa ds fy, mi;ksxh gksrk gS] tc fd
γ 1 > 0 , rc caVu /kukRed fo"keh; caVu dgykrk gSA xq.kksÙkj ek/; rFkk gjkRed ek/; NksVs ekuksa ds fy, mi;ksxh gksrs gSaA
bl fLFkfr es]a ek/; > ekf/;dk > cgqyd " cgqyd ls lEcfU/kr fcUnq
(iii) _.kkRed fo"keh; caVu (Negative skewed distribution) : tc • ;g lHkh izs{k.kksa ij vk/kkfjr ugha gSA
γ 1 < 0 , rc caVu _.kkRed fo"keh; caVu dgykrk gSA • ;g vko’;d ugha gS fd fdlh forj.k dk cgqyd vf}rh;
bl fLFkfr es]a ek/; < ekf/;dk < cgqyd gSA
(2) fo"kerk dk vuqekiu (Measures of skewness) : • vU; vkSlrksa dh rqyuk esa cgqyd] çs{k.kksa esa ifjorZu ls
(i) fo"kerk dk fuj{ksi vuqekiu lokZf/kd ifjofrZr gksrk gSA
(a) S k = M − M d • ;g ml fLFkfr esa mi;ksxh ugha gSa] tc inksa dh lkisf{kd
(b) S k = M − M o egRrk ij fopkj fd;k tkrk gSA
(c) S k = Q3 + Q1 − 2 M d ek/; ls ek/; fopyu
" fo{ksi.k dk ek/; xq.kkad =
tgk¡, M = ekf/;dk, M o = cgqyd, M = ek/; gSA ek/;
d

nks Jsf.k;ksa dh rqyuk ds fy;s fo"kerk dk fujis{k vuqekiu mi;ksxh ekf/;dk ls ek/; fopyu
" fo{ksi.k dk ekf/;dk xq.kkad =
ugha gS] vr% fo"kerk dk ifj{ksi vuqekiu iz;qDr djrs gSa] D;ksafd ;s 'kq) ekf/;dk
la[;k;sa gksrh gSaA cgqyd ls ek/; fopyu
(ii) fo"kerk dk ifj{ksi vuqekiu " fo{ksi.k dk cgqyd xq.kkad =
cgqyd
(a) fo"kerk dk dkyZ fi;Zlu xq.kkad (The karl pearson's coefficient of
M − Mo (M − M d ) " prqFkZad fopyu Js.kh ds pje ekuksa }kjk U;wure çHkkfor gksrk gSA
skewness) : S k = =3 ,−3 ≤ S k ≤ 3
σ σ " ek/; fopyu Js.kh ds lHkh inksa ij vk/kkfjr gksrk gSA ;g
(b) fo"kerk dk ckWyst xq.kkad (Bowley's coefficient of skewness) : ifjlj (range) vkSj prqFkZad fopyu (quartile deviation) dh rqyuk esa
Q + Q1 − 2 M d vf/kd lgh ifj.kke nsrk gSA
Sk = 3
Q 3 − Q1 " ef/;dk ls ek/; fopyu] fdlh vU; ek/; ls ek/; fopyu dh
(c) fo"kerk dk dSys xq.kkad (Kelly's coefficient of skewness) :
rqyuk esa de gksrk gSA
P + P90 − 2 M d D + D9 − 2 M d " ekud fopyu ifjlj vFkkZr~ çlj.k (ifjlj) . 2

S k = 10 = 1
P90 − P10 D9 − D1 " fo{ksi.k dh ekiksa ds e/; isz{k.kkRed lEcU/k
• ek/; fopyu = 4 / 5 (ekud fopyu)
• v)Z var% prqFkZd ifjlj = 2 / 3 (ekud fopyu)
5
" v)Z vUr% prqFkZd ifjlj = (ek/; fopyu).
6
" lefer forj.k ds fy, fuEufyf[kr {sk=h; lEcU/k gksrs gSa
" lekUrj ek/; ls lEcfU/kr fcUnq X ± σ , 68.27% oLrq,¡ tks bl ijkl (range) esa gSaA
• lekUrj ek/;] vU; ek/;ksa dh rqyuk esa vf/kd mi;ksxh gsA X ± 2σ , 95.45% oLrq,¡ tks bl ijkl (range) esa gSaA
• lekUrj ek/; lHkh çs{k.kksa ij vk/kkfjr gSA
X ± 3σ , 99.74% oLrq,¡ tks bl ijkl (range) esa gSaA
• ;fn çs{k.kksa ds eku cM+s gS] rc og rqyukRed :i ls vf/kd
lgh rFkk fo'oluh; ifj.kke nsrk gSA n2 − 1
" izFke n izkd`r la[;kvksa dk ekud fopyu = .
" xq.kksÙkj ek/; ls lEcfU/kr fcUnq 12
• ;g Js.kh ds lHkh inksa ij vk/kkfjr gSA
• ;g ?kkrkadksa] vkSlr vuqikrksa rFkk izfr'kr bR;kfn ds fy,
 lglEcU/k ,oa lekJ;.k 1425

Chapter

30
lglEcU/k ,oa lekJ;.k
lgçlj.k ewy fcUnq ds ifjorZu ls Lora= gksrk gS] fdUrq iSekus ds
lglEcU/k ifjorZu ls çHkkfor gksrk gSA
,d pj o f}pj caVu (Univariate and bivariate distribution) lglEcU/k (Correlation)
;fn ;g fl) fd;k tk pqdk gks] fd ,d cM+h la[;k esa nks pj nks pjksa esa bl izdkj dk lEcU/k fd ,d esa ifjorZu gksus ls nwljs esa
lnSo ,d gh ;k foijhr fn'kkvksa esa ?kVus ;k c<+us dh ço`fÙk j[krs gSa /kukRed ;k _.kkRed ifjorZu gksrk gks] lglEcU/k dgykrk gSA
vkSj ;g ekuk tk;sa fd ,sls lEcU/k dk vfLrRo gS] rc ;g lEcU/k gh (1) lglEcU/k ds izdkj (Type of Correlation)
lglEcU/k dgykrk gSA
(i) iw.kZ lglEcU/k (Perfect correlation) : ;fn nks pj bl izdkj ls
(1) ,dpj caVu (Univariate distribution) : ,slk caVu ftlesa dsoy fopj.k djrs gksa fd mudk vuqikr ges’kk fu;r jgs rks bl izdkj dk
,d pj gksrk gSA tSls & fdlh d{kk ds Nk=ksa dh Å¡pkbZ;k¡A lglEcU/k iw.kZ lglEcU/k dgykrk gSA
(2) f}pj caVu (Bivariate distribution) : ,slk caVu ftlesa nks fofoä (ii) /kukRed ;k izR;{k lglEcU/k(Positive or direct correlation) : ;fn
pj gksa] f}pj caVu dgykrk gSA tSls& ,d d{kk ds fo|kfFkZ;ksa dh ,d pj esa o`f) ;k âkl ds lkis{k nwljs pj eaas Hkh o`f) ;k âkl gks] rks
Å¡pkbZ;k¡ rFkk otuA lglEcU/k /kukRed dgykrk gSA
(3) f}pj ckjEckjrk caVu (Bivariate frequency distribution) : ekuk x o (iii) _.kkRed ;k vizR;{k lglEcU/k (Negative or indirect
y nks pj gSa tks Øe’k% x 1 , x 2 ..... x n o y 1 , y 2 ....... y n , tgk¡ correlation) : ;fn ,d pj esa o`f) ;k âkl ds lkis{k nwljs pj esa âkl
1 ≤ i ≤ n, 1 ≤ j ≤ n , eku xzg.k djrs gSaA ;fn dksbZ fuf’pr ;qXe fij ckj ;k o`f) gks rks bls _.kkRed lglEcU/k dgrs gSaA
vk;k gS rks ge dgrs gSa fd bldh ckjEckjrk fij gS] rc og Qyu tks (2) dkyZ fi;lZu dk lglEcU/k xq.kkad (Karl pearson's coefficient of
correlation)
;qXeksa (x i , y j ) dh ckjEckjrkvksa fij dks n’kkZrk gS] f}pj ckjEckjrk caVu dkyZ fi;lZu us pjksa x rFkk y ds e/; lglEcU/k xq.kkad r(x , y ) dh
dgykrk gSA x.kuk djus ds fy, fuEufyf[kr lw= fn;kA
lg çlj.k (Covariance) r( x , y ) =
Cov (x , y )
;k
Cov (x , y )
Var(x ) Var(y ) σ xσ y
ekuk (x i, y i ); i = 1,2,....., n ,d f}pj caVu gSA rc nks pj x o y
tks Øe'k% x 1 , x 2 ,....., x n o y 1 , y 2 ,....., y n eku xzg.k djrs gSa] ds chp ⎛ n ⎞ ⎛ n ⎞⎛ n ⎞
esa lg&izlj.k fuEu izdkj ls ifjHkkf"kr gksrk gSA
n⎜
⎜ ∑
⎝ i =1
x iy i ⎟ − ⎜
⎟ ⎜ ∑xi ⎟⎜
⎟⎜
yi ⎟
⎠ ⎝ i =1 ⎠ ⎝ i =1 ⎠
⎟ ∑
r( x , y ) =
2 2
⎛ n ⎞ ⎛ n ⎞
n

∑ (x
1 n n
Cov (x , y ) =
n i=1
i − x )(y i − y ) n ∑
i =1
xi − ⎜
2
⎜ ∑ xi ⎟
⎝ i =1 ⎠
⎟
n ∑
i =1
yi − ⎜
2
⎜ ∑ yi ⎟
⎝ i =1 ⎠
⎟
n n

∑ ∑x ∑(x − x ) (y − y ) ∑ dxdy
1 1
;k Cov (x , y ) = (x i y i − x y ) , tgk¡ x= i rFkk r (x , y ) = =
n n
i=1 i=1 ∑(x − x ) 2
∑(y − y ) 2
∑ dx 2 ∑ dy 2
n

∑y
1
y= i Øe'k% x rFkk y pjksa ds ek/; gSaA tgk¡ x , y, x o y vius lkekU; vFkksZa esa gaS
n i=1
rFkk dx = ( x − x ), dx 2 = ( x − x ) 2 , dy = (y − y ) o dy 2 = (y − y ) 2
 1426 lglEcU/k ,oa lekJ;.k
(3) ifjekftZr lw= (Modified formula) ;fn r < 0 , vFkkZr~ ;fn ,d pj dh jSad vf/kd gS] rc nwljs dh
jSad de gksxh ;k ;fn ,d pj dh jSad de gS] rc nwljs dh jSad vf/kd
∑ dx .∑ dy
∑ dxdy − n
gksxhA mnkgj.kkFkZ % ;fn nks xq.k Njgjkiu rFkk le`f) gSa] rc r < 0
vFkkZr~ /kuoku O;fDr Njgjs ugha gksrsA
r=
⎧
⎪ (∑ dx ) ⎫⎪ ⎧⎪
2
(∑ dy ) 2 ⎫
⎪
;fn r = −1 , (iw.kZr% _.kkRed lglEcU/k) vFkkZr~ ;fn ,d O;fDr
∑ dx
⎨
⎪
2
−
n
⎬ ⎨∑ dy
⎪⎪
2
−
n
⎬
⎪
fdlh pj dh mPpre jSad j[krk gS rc nwljs pj esa bldh jSad U;wure
⎩ ⎭⎩ ⎭ gksxhA bl fLFkfr esa n O;fDr;ksa ds lewg esa nks pjksa dh jSad (1, n),
(2, n − 1),....., (n, 1) gksxhA
Cov (x , y) Cov (x , y)
tgk¡ dx = x − x ; dy = y − y ,oa rxy = = ;fn r = 0 , vFkkZr~ nks pjksa (xq.kks)a ds e/; lglEcU/k dk vHkko gSA
σ xσ y Var(x ).Var(y)
(4) in fopyu fof/k (Step deviation method) : ekuk x i rFkk yi ds
vuqeku dh çkekf.kd rFkk laHkkfor =kqfV
(Standard and probable error)
dfYir ek/; Øe'k% A rFkk B gSa] rc
(1) vuqeku dh çkekf.kd =qfV : fujhf{kr ekuksa ls vuqekfur ekuksa dk
∑ ∑ ∑
1
uivi − ui vi fopyu izkekf.kd =qfV dgykrk gSA bls fuEu izdkj ifjHkkf"kr djrs gSaA
r(x , y ) = n
(∑ u ) ∑ v (∑ v )
⎧
⎪ ∑ (y − y p)
2⎫
⎪
∑
1 2 1 2
ui2 − i
2
i − i Sy = ⎨ ⎬
n n ⎪⎩ n ⎪⎭
tgk¡ ui = x i − A ] vi = yi − B tgk¡ y okLrfod eku rFkk vuqekfur eku gSA lglEcU/k xq.kkad
yp

jSad lglEcU/k (Rank correlation) ds lEcU/k esa ;g fuEu izdkj nh tkrh gSA
ekuk fdlh lewg ds n O;fDr;ksa ds nks xq.k A rFkk B dks Js"Brk ds (i) x dh x.kuk esa izkekf.kd =qfV S x = σ x 1 − r 2
vk/kkj ij Øe ls O;ofLFkr fd;k x;k gSA nksuksa xq.kksa dh Jsf.k;k¡ fHkUu (ii) y dh x.kuk esa izkekf.kd =qfV S y = σ y 1 − r 2
fHkUu gksaxhA
(2) çkekf.kd rFkk laHkkfor =qfV esa laca/k : ;fn n çs{k.kksa ds fy, lg
mnkgj.kkFkZ : ;fn ge cqf)eRrk rFkk lqnajrk ds e/; lEcU/k ds
1 − r2
ckjs esa fopkj djsa] rc ;g vko';d ugha gS] fd lqnaj O;fDr] cqf)eku lEcU/k xq.kkad r gSa] rc çkekf.kd =qfV S.E. (r) = rFkk laHkkfor
Hkh gksaA n
⎛ ⎞
∑d 1−r ⎟ 2
=qfV P.E. (r) = 0.6745 (S.E.) = 0.6745 ⎜⎜
2
6
jSad lglEcU/k (Rank correlation) : ρ = 1 − tks fd jSad ⎟
⎝ n ⎠
n(n 2 − 1)
çkekf.kd rFkk laHkkfor =qfV dk mi;ksx lglEcU/k xq.kkad dk eku
lglEcU/k xq.kkad ds fy;s Lih;jesu dk lw= gSA
Kkr djus ds fy, djrs gSaA
tgk¡ ∑ d 2 = nks jSadksa ds vUrj ds oxksZa dk ;ksxQy o n ;qXeksa dh (i) ;fn r < P. E.(r) , rc dksbZ Hkh lglEcU/k ugha gksxkA
la[;k gSA (ii) ;fn r > 6 P. E.(r) , rc fuf'pr :i ls lglEcU/k dk vfLrRo
ge tkurs gSa fd gksxkA
fdlh f}pj caVu ds fy;s lglEcU/k xq.kkad dk oxZ “fu/kkZj.k
∑ d = ∑ (x
i i − yi) = ∑x − ∑y i i = n(x ) − n(y ) = 0 , (Q x = y ) xq.kkad” (coefficient of determination) dgykrk gSA
;fn d ds lHkh eku 'kwU; gSa] rc r = 1 ¼vf/kdre eku½, tks fd ;g lekJ;.k
çnf'kZr djrk gS fd pjksa ds e/; iw.kZ jSad lglEcU/k gSA
;fn x i ds dqN eku leku gaSa] rc jSad lglEcU/k fuEu lw= ds
js[kh; lekJ;.k (Linear regression)
}kjk çkIr gksrk gS ;fn çdh.kZu vkjs[k ij nks pjksa x rFkk y ds e/; lEcU/k gks] rc
çdh.kZu vkjs[k ds fcUnq de ;k vf/kd ,d oØ ds ifjr% ladsfUær
⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤ gksaxsA blh oØ dks lekJ;.k oØ dgrs gSaA
6 ⎢∑ d 2 + ⎜ ⎟ (m 3 − m )⎥
r =1 −
⎣ ⎝ 12 ⎠ ⎦ lekJ;.k js[kk % tc oØ ,d ljy js[kk gksrh gS] rks ;g lekJ;.k
n(n − 1)
2 dh js[kk dgykrh gS vkSj bl lekJ;.k dks jSf[kd lekJ;.k dgrs gSaA
tgk¡ m, x i ds iqujko`fÙk okys ekuksa dh la[;k gSA lekJ;.k js[kk dk lehdj.k (Equations of lines of regression)
/kukRed rFkk _.kkREkd jSad lglEcU/k xq.kkad % ekuk r jSad lglEcU/k (1) y dh x ij lekJ;.k js[kk : ;fn x dk eku Kkr gks rks y dk eku
xq.kkad gSA fuEu izdkj ls izkIr fd;k tk ldrk gS
;fn r > 0 , vFkkZr~ ;fn ,d pj dh jSad vf/kd gS] rc nwljs pj Cov (x , y ) σy
y−y= (x − x ) ;k y − y = r (x − x )
dh jSad Hkh vf/kd gksxh ;k ;fn ,d pj dh jSad de gS] rc nwljs pj σ x2 σx
dh jSad Hkh de gksxhA mnkgj.kkFkZ % ;fn O;fDr;ksa ds nks pj Hkkj rFkk (2) x dh y ij lekJ;.k js[kk : y ds fn;s gq, eku ds fy, x dk
Å¡pkbZ gS] rc r > 0 dk vfHkçk; gS] fd yEcs O;fDr;ksa dk Hkkj Hkh eku fuEu izdkj ls Kkr fd;k tk ldrk gS
vf/kd gksxkA Cov (x , y ) σx
;fn r = 1 , rc bldk vfHkizk; ;g gS fd nksuksa pjksa ds e/; iw.kZ x−x= (y − y ) ;k x − x = r (y − y )
σ y2 σy
lglEcU/k gS vFkkZr~ izR;sd O;fDr nksuksa pjksa dh leku Js.kh çkIr djrk
gSA bl fLFkfr esa jSad (1, 1), (2, 2),....., (n, n) gksxhA (3) lekJ;.k xq.kkad (Regression coefficient)
 lglEcU/k ,oa lekJ;.k 1427

rσ y Cov (x , y )
(i) y dk x ij lekJ;.k xq.kkad b yx = =
σx σ x
2

rσ x Cov (x , y )
(ii) x dk y ij lekJ;.k xq.kkad b xy = =
σy σy2 " lglEcU/k (r) ,d fo'kq) la[;k gS vr% bldk dksbZ ek=d ugha gksrk gSA
" lglEcU/k xq.kkad] ewyfcUnq rFkk iSekus esa ifjorZu ls Lora=
lekJ;.k js[kkvksa ds e/; dks.k gksrk gSA
(Angle between two lines of regression) " ;fn nks pj jSf[kd lEcU/k x + y = K }kjk lEcfU/kr gksa] rc
nks lekJ;.k js[kkvksa ds lehdj.k fuEu çdkj gSa % x, y ds e/; iw.kZr% vçR;{k lglEcU/k gksxkA ;gk¡ r = −1 .
y − y = b yx (x − x ) rFkk x − x = b xy (y − y ) σ x2 − σ y2
" ;fn x rFkk y nks Lora= pj gSa] rc ρ (x + y, x − y) = .
;gk¡] m 1 = y dh x ij lekJ;.k js[kk dh ço.krk σ x2 + σ y2
σy " ;fn lekJ;.k js[kk;sa y = ax + b rFkk x = cy + d gksa] rks
= b yx = r.
σx bc + d ad + b
x= o y= gksxkA
σy 1 − ac 1 − ac
1
m2 = x dh y ij lekJ;.k js[kk dh ço.krk = = 1
b xy r. σ x " ;fn b , b rFkk r ≥ 0 , rc (b xy + b yx ) ≥ r rFkk ;fn
yx xy

2
σy rσ y 1
− b , b rFkk r ≤ 0 , rc (b xy + b yx ) ≤ r .
m − m1 rσ x σx xy yx

2
∴ tan θ = ± 2 =±
1 + m 1m 2 rσ y σ y " lglEcU/k] pjksa ds e/; lEcU/k dh eki djrk gS tcfd lekJ;.k]
1+ .
σ x rσ x pjksa ds e/; lEcU/k ds dkj.k vkSj çHkko dh eki djrk gSA
" ;fn y dh x ij lekJ;.k js[kk] X-v{k dh /kukRed fn'kk ls α
(σ y − r 2σ y )σ x (1 − r 2 )σ x σ y
=± =± . dks.k cukrh gS] rc tan α = byx
rσ x2 + rσ y2 r(σ x2 + σ y2 )
" ;fn x dh y ij lekJ;.k js[kk X-v{k dh /kukRed fn'kk ls β
;gk¡] /kukRed fpUg U;wudks.k nsrk gS] D;ksafd r2 ≤ 1 rFkk dks.k cukrh gS] rc cot β = b xy .
σ x , σ y /kukRed gSA
1 − r 2 σ xσ y
∴ tan θ = . 2 .....(i)
r σ x + σ y2
;fn r = 0 , rc (i) ls tan θ = ∞ ;k θ = π / 2 vFkkZr~ nksuksa
lekJ;.k js[kk;sa yEcor~ gSaA
;fn r = ±1 , tan θ = 0 vFkkZr~ θ = 0 , pw¡fd θ U;wudks.k gS vFkkZr~ lglEcU/k
nksuksa js[kk;sa lEikrh gSaA 1. ;fn Var (x) = 8.25, Var (y) = 33.96 rFkk Cov (x, y) = 10.2, rks
lekJ;.k xq.kkadksa b rFkk
xy
b yx
ls lEcfU/kr egRoiw.kZ fcUnq % lglEcU/k xq.kkad gksxk
(1) r = b yx .b xy , vFkkZr~ lekJ;.k xq.kkadksa dk xq.kksÙkj ek/; (a) 0.89 (b) – 0.98
(c) 0.61 (d) – 0.16
lglEcU/k xq.kkad gksrk gSA 2. ewy fcUnq dks ifjofrZr djus ij lglEcU/k xq.kkad gksxk
(2) ;fn b yx > 1 , rks b xy < 1 vFkkZr~ ;fn ,d lekJ;.k xq.kkad dk (a) 'kwU; (b) ifjofrZr
eku bdkbZ ls vf/kd gS rks nwljs lekJ;.k xq.kkad dk eku bdkbZ ls de gksxkA (c) vifjofrZr jgsxk (d) buesa ls dksbZ ugha
(3) ;fn pjksa ds chp iw.kZ lglEcU/k ugha gS] rks lekJ;.k js[kk;sa 3. ;fn r lglEcU/k xq.kkad gks] rks [MP PET 1995]
(a) r ≥ 1 (b) r ≤ 1
(x , y ) ij izfrPNsn djrh gSaA
(c) | r | ≤ 1 (d) | r | ≥ 1
(4) b yx , y dh x ij lekJ;.k js[kk dh izo.krk ¼<ky½ dgykrh 4. ;fn r lglEcU/k xq.kkad gks rFkk Y = a + bX , rks | r | =
1 (a) a/b (b) b/a
gSA blh izdkj ,x dh y ij lekJ;.k js[kk dh ço.krk dgykrh gSA
b xy (c) 1 (d) buesa
ls dksbZ ugha
5. fo|kfFkZ;ksa vkSj v/;kidksa dh Å¡pkb;ksa ¼bap esa½ ds e/; dkyZ
(5) b yx + b xy > 2 b yx b xy vFkkZr~ lekJ;.k xq.kkadksa dk
= 2r fi;Zlu dk lglEcU/k xq.kkad fuEu vkadM+ksa ds fy, gS
lekUrj ek/;] lglEcU/k xq.kkad ls vf/kd gksrk gSA v/;kidksa dh Å¡pkb;k¡ x : 66 67 68 69 70
(6) lekJ;.k xq.kkad ewy fcUnq ds ifjorZu ls Lora= gS ysfdu fo|kfFkZ;ksa dh Å¡pkb;k¡ y : 68 66 69 72 70
iSekus ls ughaA [MP PET 1993]
σy 2 1
(a) (b) 2
(7) lekJ;.k js[kkvksa dh izo.krkvksa dk xq.kuQyu gksrk gSA 2
σx2
1
(8) ;fn nksuksa lekJ;.k js[kk;sa lEikrh gksa rks lglEcU/k iw.kZ js[kh; gksxkA (c) − (d) 0
2
(9) ;fn b yx o b xy nksuksa /kukRed gSa] rks r /kukRed gksxk ,oa
nksuksa _.kkRed gSa] rks r _.kkRed gksxkA
 vkafdd fof/k;k¡ 1439

Chapter

31
s
çLrkouk (Introduction) la[;kvksa ds Vªads'ku ds dkj.k Vªads'ku rFkk =qfV (Truncation and
error due to truncation of numbers)
oS'ysf"kd fof/k;ksa dh lhfer lhekvksa ds dkj.k oSKkfud rFkk
vfHk;ark xzkQh; rFkk vkafdd fof/k;ksa dk mi;ksx djrs gSaA xzkQh; fdlh la[;k ds vfrfjDr vad] tks vuko';d gSa] dks iw.kkZadu fd;s
fof/k;k¡] ;|fi vklku gksrh gSa] fdarq ifj.kke esa ;FkkFkZrk de jgrh gSA fcuk NksM+uk Vªads'ku (truncation) dgykrk gSA
vkafdd fof/k;k¡ vf/kd ;FkkFkZ rFkk 'kq) eku çnku djrh gSaA vakfdd eku X rFkk Vªads'ku eku X ds e/; vUrj Vªads'ku =qfV (E)
1

dgykrk gSA E = X − X 1
lkFkZd vad rFkk iw.kk±du la[;k;sa Vaªds'ku ds dkj.k vf/kdre =qfV la[;k esa ls gVk;s x;s vafre vad
(Significant digits and rounding off of numbers) ds LFkkuh; eku ls vf/kd ughaa gksrh gSA
(1) lkFkZd vad % fdlh la[;k ds lkFkZd vad fuEufyf[kr fu;ekaas ds la[;kvksa dh vkisf{kd rFkk izfr'kr =kqfV
}kjk Kkr gksrs gSa % (Relative and percentage errors of numbers)

(i) lHkh v'kwU; vad lkFkZd gksrs gSaA fdlh la[;k ds fujis{k eku X rFkk blds lfUudV eku X, (tks fd 1

iw.kkZadu ;k Vªads'ku ds mijkUr izkIr gksrk gS) ds e/; vUrj fujis{k =qfV
(ii) nks v'kwU; vadksa ds e/; lHkh 'kwU; vad lkFkZd vad gksrs gSaA X − X1 ΔX
(absolute error) dgykrk gSA vkisf{kd =qfV E R = = .
(iii) ;fn fdlh la[;k esa n'keyo ds LFkku ds i'pkr~ v'kwU; vad X X
;k 'kwU;ksa ds vuqØe gksa] rc lHkh 'kwU; lkFkZd vad dgykrs gSaA ΔX
;g ,d foek jfgr jkf'k gSA çfr'kr =qfV ( E p ) = × 100 .
X
(iv) fdlh v'kwU; l¡[;k esa iwoZ ds lHkh 'kwU; vlkFkZd vad gksrs gSaA
chtxf.krh; rFkk vchtxf.krh; lehdj.k
(2) la[;kvksa dk iw.kkZadu djuk % ;fn ,d la[;k n lkFkZd vadksa rd (Algebraic and transcendental equation)
iw.kkZafdr dh tkrh gS] rc fuEu fu;eksa dk ikyu djrs gSaA
;fn f(x), ,d n ?kkr dk chtxf.krh; Qyu ;k cgqin gks rc]
(i) n osa vad ds nk;sa vksj ds lHkh vad gVkrs gSaA f(x)= a 0 x n + a1 x n −1 + a 2 x n − 2 + ..... + a n −1 x + a n , (a 0 ≠ 0) ,oa
(ii) ;fn (n+1)ok¡ vad 5 ls vf/kd gS ;k v'kwU; vad ls iwoZ dk 5 gS] f (x ) = 0 ds #i esa O;Dr fd;k tkrk gS] rc bls chtxf.krh;
rc n osa vad dks 1 ls c<+krs gaSA ;fn (n+1)ok¡ vad 5 ls de gS] rc vad lehdj.k ;k cgqinh; lehdj.k dgrs gSaA
vifjofrZr jgrk gSA
tSls ax 2 + bx + c = 0 bR;kfnA
(iii) ;fn (n+1) ok¡ vad 5 gS rFkk blds vkxs 'kwU; ;k dbZ 'kwU; gS ;fn f (x ) vchtxf.krh; Qyuksa tSls pj?kkarkdh] y?kqx.kdh; o
rc n osa vad dks 1 ls c<+krs gSa] ;fn ;g fo"ke gS rFkk vifjofrZr j[krs f=dks.kferh; Qyuksa dk la;kstu gks] rks f (x ) = 0 ,d vchth;
gS] ;fn ;g le gSA
lehdj.k dgykrk gSA tSls ae x + b sin x = 0 ; a log x + bx = 3
;fn fdlh la[;k dks fu;ekuqlkj iw.kkZafdr djrs gSa] rc iw.kkZadu ds bR;kfnA
dkj.k vf/kdre =qfV la[;k esa ls gVk;s x;s vafre vad ds LFkkuh; eku
ds vk/ks ls vf/kd ugha gksrh gSA lehdj.k ds okLrfod ewyksa dh fLFkfr
(Location of real roots of an equation)
fdlh la[;k ds vkafdd eku X rFkk blds iw.kkZadu eku X dk
vUrj iw.kkZadu =qfV E dgykrk gS rFkk E = X − X 1 .
1
lehdj.k ds okLrfod ewy dh fLFkfr dk vFkZ gS] xzkQh; ;k vU;
rjhds ls ewy dk lfUudV eku Kkr djukA
 1440 vkafdd fof/k;k¡
(1) ys[kkfp=h; fof/k (Graphical Method) : f (x ) = 0 dks Y
A[x0, f(x0)]
f1 (x ) = f2 (x ) ds #i esa fy[krs gSa rFkk Qyuksa y = f1 (x ) rFkk
y = f 2 (x ) ds ys[kkfp=ksa (graphs) dh jpuk djrs gSaA
bu nksuksa ys[kkfp=ksa (graphs) ds çfrPNsn fcUnqvksa ds Hkqt f (x ) = 0 x3 x2 x1
O x0 X
ds okLrfod ewy gSaA p(x)

Y B[x1, f(x1)]
fcUnqvksa A[ x 0 , f (x 0 )] rFkk B[ x 1 , f (x 1 )] dks feykus okyh js[kk dk
y=f2(x) y=f1(x)
P lehdj.k gS
f (x 1 ) − f (x 0 )
y − f (x 0 ) = (x − x 0 ) …..(i)
x1 − x 0
X′ O X
dk
f1(x) = f2(x) vlR; fLFkfr fof/k esa x 2 og fcUnq gksxk] tgk¡ fcUnqvksa dks feykus
Y′ okLrfod ewy okyh thok x-v{k dks fcUnq x 2 ij dkVrh gSA
(2) fLFkfr çes; (Location Theorem) : ;fn f (x ) ] lao`r vUrjky [a, b]
esa lrr~ gS rFkk f (a) rFkk f(b) foijhr fpUgksa ds gSa x1 − x 0
vr% x 2 = x 0 − f (x 0 ) …..(ii)
f (x 1 ) − f (x 2 )
Y
y = f(x) tks fd ewy dk lfUudV eku gSA ;fn f (x 0 ) rFkk f (x 2 ) foijhr
dk
f(x) = 0
fpUg ds gSa] rc ewy x 0 rFkk x 2 ds e/; fLFkr gksaxsA vr% (ii) esa x 1
f(a) okLrfod ewy
dks x 2 ls izfrLFkkfir djus ij] vxyk lfUudV eku x 3 izkIr gksrk
X′ O X gSA ;g fØ;k vHkh"V ;FkkFkZrk izkIr gksus rd nksgjkrs gSaA
a b
f(b) dk;Z fof/k : (i) f (x 0 ) o f (x 1 ) dh x.kuk dhft, ;fn ;s foijhr
vFkkZr~ f(a).f(b) < 0, rcY′ lehdj.k f(x) = 0 dk de ls de ,d ewy a fpUgksa ds gSa rks ewy x 0 o x 1 ds chp gksxkA
rFkk b ds e/; vo'; gksxkA
(ii) mi;qZä lw= ls x Kkr dhft,A 2

chth; rFkk vchth; lehdj.kksa ds gy (iii) vc ;fn f ( x 2 ) = 0 rks x 2 vHkh"V ewy gSA
(Solution of algebraic and transcendental equations) (iv) ;fn f (x 2 ) _.kkRed gS rks ewy (x 2 , x 1 ) esa gksxkA
chth; rFkk vchth; lehdj.kksa dks gy djus dh vusd vkafdd (v) ;fn f ( x 2 ) /kukRed gS rks ewy (x 0 , x 2 ) esa gksxkA
fof/k;k¡ gSA lehdj.k ds ewy Kkr djus ds i'pkr~ ge Øfed #i ls
vHkh"V 'kq)rk rd lfUudV eku Kkr dj ldrs gSaA (vi)bls rc rd nksgjkvksa tc rd fd vHkh"V ;FkkFkZrk izkIr ugha
(1) Øfed foHkktu fof/k (Sucessive bisection method) : Øfed foHkktu gks tkrh A
fof/k }kjk lehdj.k f (x ) = 0 ds a rFkk b ds e/; ewy Kkr djrs gSaA (3) U;wVu-jS¶lu fof/k : ekuk lehdj.k f (x ) = 0 dk lfUudV ewy
;fn f(x), a rFkk b ds e/; lrr~ gS rFkk f(a) o f(b) nksuksa foijhr fpUgksa ds x 0 gSA ;fn ;FkkFkZ ewy x 1 = x 0 + h gS] rc f (x 1 ) = 0
gaS] vFkkZr~ f(a).f(b)< 0, rc x dk de ls de ,d ,slk ewy vo'; gksrk gS]
∴ Vsyj Js.kh }kjk f (x 0 + h) dk izlkj djus ij]
ftldk eku a rFkk b ds e/; gksA ekuk f(a) _.kkRed rFkk f(b) /kukRed
1 1 h2
gS] rc ewy x 1 = (a + b) dk çFke lfUudV eku x 1 = (a + b) f (x 0 ) + hf ' (x 0 ) + f ' ' (x 0 ) + ....... = 0
2 2 2!
gksrk gSA pw¡fd h dk eku de gS] h 2 rFkk h dh mPp ?kkrksa dks NksM+us ij,
dk;Z fof/k : (i) f (a), f (b) Kkr dhft,A f (x 0 )
a+b
f ( x 0 ) + hf ' (x 0 ) = 0 ;k h = − .....(i)
(ii) ekuk f(a) _.kkRed rFkk f(b) /kukRed gSa] rks x1 = f ' (x 0 )
2
f (x 0 )
(iii) ;fn f (x 1 ) = 0 rks x 1 vHkh"V ewy gS vU;Fkk f (x 1 ) _.kkRed gSa] ∴ ewy dk lfUudV eku x 1 = x 0 − , {(i) ls}
f ' (x 0 )
rks ewy (x 1 , b) esa gksxk vkSj ;fn f (x 1 ) /kukRed gS rks (a, x 1 ) esa gksxkA
blh izdkj x 1 ls izkjEHk djus ij vksj vf/kd lfUudV eku
(iv) bl fØ;k dks rc rd nksgjkrs gSa] tc rd vHkh"V ;FkkFkZrk
izkIr ugha gksrhA x 2 = x1 −
f (x 1 )
; lkekU;r% x n +1 = x n −
f (x n )
(2) vlR; ¼feF;k½ fLFkfr ;k jsxqyk&QkYlh fof/k (Method of False f ' (x 1 ) f ' (x n )
position or Regula-falsi method) : ;g f (x ) = 0 ds okLrfod ewy Kkr ;g lw= U;wVu-jS¶lu lw= ;k U;wVu-bVjs'ku lw= dgykrk gSA
djus dh lcls iqjkuh fof/k gS rFkk foHkktu fof/k ls dkQh lekurk
dk;Z fof/k : (i) | f (a)|, | f (b)| Kkr dhft;sA ;fn | f (a)| <| f (b)| rks
j[krh gSA ;gk¡ nks fcUnq x 0 rFkk x 1 bl izdkj pqurs gSa] fd f (x 0 )
a = x 0 vU;Fkk b = x 0 yhft,A
rFkk f (x 1 ) foijhr fpUg ds gSa vFkkZr~ y = f (x ) dk xzkQ bu fcUnqvksa
ds e/; x-v{k dks dkVrk gSaA ;g çnf'kZr djrk gS] fd ewy x 0 rFkk f (x 0 )
(ii) x 1 = x 0 − Kkr dhft,A
f ' (x 0 )
x 1 ds e/; fLFkr gS] ifj.kker% f (x 0 ) f (x 1 ) < 0 .
 vkafdd fof/k;k¡ 1441

(iii) x 1 vHkh"V ewy gS ;fn f (x 1 ) = 0 b x 0 + nh h

(iv) okLrfod ewy ds lfUudV ewy Kkr djus ds fy, bl izfØ;k
∫ a
f (x )dx = ∫ x0
ydx =
3
[(y 0 + y n ) + 4 (y1 + y 3 + y 5 + .... + y n −1 )

dks nksgjkrs gSaA +2(y 2 + y 4 + ... + y n − 2 )]

T;kferh; O;k[;k : ekuk lehdj.k f (x ) = 0 ds ewy α ds lehi
= (nks Øfed dksfV;ksa ds e/; nwjh dk ,d frgkbZ) × [(pje dksfV;ksa
fcUnq x 0 gS] rc A 0 [ x 0 , f (x 0 )] ij Li'kZ js[kk dk lehdj.k gS] dk ;ksx) + 4(fo"ke dksfV;ksa dk ;ksx) + 2(le dksfV;ksa dk ;ksx)]
y − f (x 0 ) = f ' (x 0 )(x − x 0 ) .
bl lw= dks flEilu dk ,d frgkbZ fu;e dgrs gSaA flEilu ds
f (x 0 ) fu;e dks ykxw djus ds fy;s vUrjky [a, b] dks n cjkcj Hkkxksa esa ckWVrs
;g x-v{k dks x1 = x 0 − ij dkVrk gSA
f ' (x 0 ) gSa] tgk¡ n dksbZ le /kukRed iw.kkZad gSA
Y
A[x0, f(x0)] flEilu fu;e] leyEc fu;e dh rqyuk esa vf/kd 'kq) ifj.kke
y= f(x) nsrk gSA NksVs varjky vf/kd 'kq) ifj.kke nsrs gSaA
A1
A2
x2 x1 X
O
tks fd ewy α dk izFαke lfUudVu gSA ;fn oØ ij x 1 ds laxr
fcUnq A1 gS] rc A1 ij Li'kZ js[kk x-v{k dks x 2 ij dkVrh gSA x 2 , " Vªads'ku esa /kukRed la[;k dk vakfdd eku de gks tkrk gS
α ds lehi gS] vr% ;g ewy dk f}rh; lfUudVu gSA bl fof/k dks rFkk _.kkRed la[;k dk vkafdd eku c<++ tkrk gSA
nksgjkrs gq;s α ds lehi 'kh?kzrk ls igq¡prs gSA vr% oØ dk x-v{k rFkk
fcUnq A0 ds e/; Hkkx] oØ dh A0 ij Li'kZ js[kk ls çfrLFkkfir gksrk gSA " ;fn fdlh la[;k dk n'keyo ds ,d gh LFkku rd iw.kkZadu
rFkk Vªads'ku fd;k tk;s] rc Vªads'ku =qfV dk eku iw.kkZadu =qfV ls
vkafdd lekdyu (Numerical integration) vf/kd gksrk gSA
tc lekdY; f(x) dk] Lora= pj x ds laxr vkafdd ekuksa dk lewg " iw.kkZadu =qfV /kukRed ;k _.kkRed gks ldrh gS] fdarq Vªads'ku
fn;k x;k gS] rc fuf'pr lekdyu ds eku dh x.kuk dh fof/k vkafdd =qfV /kukRed la[;kvksa ds fy;s /kukRed rFkk _.kkRed la[;kvksa ds
lekdyu dgykrh gSA fy;s _.kkRed gksrh gSA
b
;fn I = ∫ y .dx , rc dksfV;ksa x = a, x = b rFkk x –v{k ds e/; " ;fn fdlh la[;k dks n'keyo ds n vadksa rd iw.kkZafdr fd;k
a
oØ y = f (x ) ds v/khu {ks= dk {ks=Qy I ls iznf'kZr gksrk gSA tkrk gS] rc | E R | < 0 .5 × 10 −n +1
(1) leyEc fu;e (Trapezoidal rule) : ekuk dksbZ Qyu y = f (x ) tks " ;fn fdlh la[;k dk n'keyo ds n LFkkuksa rd Vaªds'ku
vrajky [a, b] esa ifjHkkf"kr gS] dks n-mivrajkyksa esa bl izdkj ck¡Vk tkrk (truncation) fd;k tkrk gS] rc | E R | < 10 −n +1 .
b −a
gS fd =h-
n " ;fn f(x), vUrjky [a, b] esa vlrr~ gks] rks Øfed f}Hkktu fof/k
tgk¡ h = mivrajky dh pkSM+kbZ] vr% x 0 = a, x 1 = x 0 + h ] ewyksa ds xyr eku ns ldrh gSA
x 2 = x 0 + 2 h.......... x n = x 0 + nh = b
" ;fn f(x), vUrjky [a, b] esa vlrr~ gks ;k a rFkk b ds ekuksa esa
buds laxr f(x) ds eku Øe’k% y 0 , y1 , y 2 ......... y n gSaA varj vf/kd u gks] rks vlR; fLFkfr fof/k ewyksa ds xyr eku ns
b x 0 + nh ldrh gSA
∴ ∫ a
f ( x ) dx = ∫ x0
y dx
" ;fn f′(x) dk eku Kkr djuk dfBu gks ;k vHkh"V ewy ds
=
h
[y 0 + yn + 2(y1 + y 2 + .......... ..... + yn −1 )] , bl fu;e dks lehi f′(x) dk eku 'kwU; gks tk,] rks U;wVu&js¶lu fof/k mi;ksxh
2 ugh gS bl fLFkfr esa jsxqyk QkWYlh fof/k dk mi;ksx djuk pkfg,A
leyac fu;e dgrs gSaA
bl fu;e dk T;kferh; egRo ;g gS] fd oØ y = f (x ) fcUnqvksa " ;fn çkjafHkd eku vHkh"V ewy ds lehi gks] rks U;wVu&js¶lu
(x 0 , y 0 ) rFkk (x 1 , y1 ) ; (x 1 , y1 ) rFkk (x 2 , y 2 ) ; (x n −1 , y n −1 ) rFkk fof/k Øfed foHkktu rFkk vlR; fof/k dh rqyuk esa 'kh?kz ifj.kke
(x n , y n ) dks feykus okyh n ljy js[kkvksa }kjk izfrLFkkfir gksrk gSA oØ nsrh gSA
y = f (x ) dksfV;ksa x = x 0 , x = x n rFkk x-v{k ls f?kjk {ks=Qy] n " ;fn çkjafHkd eku a vHkh"V ewy ds lehi u gks] rks
leyEc prqZHkqtksa ds {ks=Qyksa ds ;ksx ds lfUudVr% lerqY; gSA U;wVu&js¶lu fof/k xyr ifj.kke ns ldrh gSA
(2) flEilu dk ,d frgkbZ fu;e (Simpson's one third rule) : ;fn
dksbZ Qyu y = f (x ) , vrajky [a, b ] esa ifjHkkf"kr gS] tks fd n
mivrajkyksa (n le gS) esa ckWVk tkrk gS vkSj izR;sd mivrajky dh pkSM+kbZ
h gS] rks b – a = nh
 jSf[kd çØeu 1453

Chapter

32
jSf[kd çØeu
jSf[kd çØeu dh leL;k,¡ vHkh"V /;s; izkIr djus ds fy;s lhfer
lk/kuksa dk n{krk;qDr iz;ksx djus ls lEcfU/kr gksrh gSaA ;gk¡ nks pjksa esa dk;Z fof/k :
jSf[kd çØeu dh leL;kvksa dh vk/kkjHkwr ladYiukvksa] buds vuqiz;ksx] vlfedk ds xzkQ dh jpuk fuEu izdkj ls dh tkrh gS :
ykHk] lhekvksa] xf.krh; #ikUrj.k rFkk gy dh xzkQh; fof/k dk v/;;u
(i) ax + by < c rFkk ax + by > c dks lehdj.k ax + by = c ds
djrs gSaA
:i esa fy[krs gSaA
jSf[kd vlfedk (Linear Inequations) (ii) ax + by = c ds gyksa ds fy;s rkfydk cukrs gSaA
(1) jSf[kd vlfedkvksa dk xzkQ (iii) vc] bu fcUnqvksa dh lgk;rk ls ,d js[kk [khaprs gSa] tks fd
(i) ,d pj esa jSf[kd vlfedk : ax + b > 0, ax + b < 0, js[kk ax + by = c dk xzkQ gksrh gSA
cy + d > 0 bR;kfn] ;g ,d pj esa jSf[kd vlfedk;sa dgykrh gSaA bu (iv) ;fn vlfedk ( > ;k <) gS, rc bl js[kk ij fLFkr fcUnqvksa dks
vlfedkvksa dk xzkQ fuEu gS% Y b ugha ysrs gSa rFkk fcUnqvksa ls fpfUgr js[kk ;k vlrr~ js[kk [khaprs gSaA
x=−
a (v) ;g js[kk (> ;k ≤) gS] rc bl js[kk ij fLFkr fcUnqvksa dks ysrs gSa
rFkk xgjh] Li"V rFkk lrr~ js[kk [khaprs gSaA
a>0
(vi) ;g js[kk] XOY ry dks nks {ks=ksa esa foHkDr djrh gSA vlfedk
X′
O
X dks lUrq"V djus okyk {ks= fuEu izdkj Kkr djrs gS:a
ax+b>0 (a) ,d LosPN fcUnq ysrs gSa tks fd fdlh Hkh {ks= esa gks ldrk gSA
ax+b<0
(b) ;fn ;g nh xbZ vlfedk dks lUrq"V djrk gS] rc vHkh"V {ks=
og {ks= gksxk] ftlesa LosPN fcUnq fLFkr gSA
ax + b > 0 rFkk ax +Yb′ < 0 dk xzkQ xy-ry dks js[kk
(c) ;fn ;g LosPN fcUnq vlfedk dks lUrq"V ugha djrk gS] rc
b
x = − (tksfd y-v{k ds lekUrj gS) }kjk nks v)Z-ryksa esa foHkkftr dj LosPN fcUnq ds nwljh vksj dk {ks= vHkh"V {ks= gksxkA
a
izkIr djrs gSaA blh izdkj ls] cy + d > 0 rFkk cy + d < 0 dk xzkQ (d) vHkh"V {ks= esa js[kk;sa [khaprs gSa ;k bls Nk;kafdr djrs gSaA
izkIr djrs gSaA Y (2) nks pjksa esa ;qxir~ jSf[kd vlfedk;sa % ;qxir~ jSf[kd lehdj.kksa ds
fudk; dk gy leqPp; f}foeh; ry esa mu lHkh fcUnqvksa dk leqPp;
cy+d>0
c>0 d gksrk gS] tks fd vlfedkvksa dks lUrq"V djrh gSaA vr% gy leqPp; Kkr
y=− djus ds fy;s ry dk mHk;fu"B {ks= Kkr djrs gaSA ;fn nh x;h
c
X′ X
vlfedkvksa ds gyksa dk mHk;fu"B {ks= ugha gS] rc gy leqPp;] fjDr
cy+d<0
leqPp; gksrk gSA
(3) lqlaxr {ks= (Feasible region) : nks lehdj.kksa ds xzkQ }kjk ifjc)
Y′ : bu
{ks= dks lqlaxr {ks= dgrs gSaA lqlaxr {ks= ds lHkh fcUnqvksa ds funsZa'kkad
(ii) nks pjksa esa jSf[kd vlfedk vlfedkvksa dk lkekU; #i vlehdj.k fudk; ds gy dk fuekZ.k djrs gSaA fdlh jSf[kd çØeu
ax + by > c, ax + by < c gksrk gSA ;fn dksbZ Øfer ;qXe (x 1 , y 1 ) leL;k dk lqlaxr gy dsoy izFke prqFkkZa'k esa gksrk gSA ;fn lqlaxr
vlfedkvksa dks lUrq"V djrk gS] rc ;g vlfedk dk gy dgykrk gSA {ks= fjDr gS] rc leL;k dk dksbZ gy ugha gksrk gSA
bu vlfedkvksa dk xzkQ fuEukuqlkj gS] (c > 0 ds fy;s) :
Y
jSf[kd çØeu ij vk/kkfjr in
ax+by=c
ax+by<c
X′ X
ax+by>c

Y′
 1454 jSf[kd çØeu
(Terms of linear programming) (Graphical solution of two variable linear programming problem)
jSf[kd çØeu og çfØ;k gS tks O;olk; esa dqN fuf'pr izfrcU/kksa fdlh jSf[kd çØeu leL;k dks gy djus dh nks xzkQh; fof/k;k¡ gSa :
ds vUrxZr izkIr gksus okys ifj.kkeksa ds vuqdwyre (Optimal) eku çnku (1) pje fcUnq fof/k rFkk (2) le-ykHk ;k leykxr fof/k
djrh gSA (1) pje fcUnq fof/k
(1) mís'; Qyu (Objective function) : ,slk js[kh; Qyu ftldk dk;Z fof/k :
vuqdwyre gy izkIr fd;k tk ldrk gS] mís’; Qyu dgykrk gSA (i) loZizFke leL;k dk O;ojks/k (Constraints) vkSj oLrqfu"B Qyu
(2) izfrcU/k ;k O;ojks/k (Constraints or Restrictions) : fdlh jsf[kd (mís';) (Objective function) ds #i esa lw=.k dhft;sA
dk;Z&;kstuk leL;k (LPP) ds izfrcU/kksa dks fu:fir djus okys (ii) lHkh vlfedkvksa (Inequations) dks lehdj.k (equation) eku
vlehdj.kksa dks izfrcU/k ;k O;ojks/k dgrs gSA yhft;sA
(iii) lHkh lfedkvksa vkSj _.ksÙkj O;ojks/kksa dk xzkQ cukb;sA gesa vc
(3) ewy pj (Basic variables) : m × n vfofp= (Non-singular) vkO;wg
mruh gh js[kk,¡ izkIr gksaxh ftruh fd lfedkvksa (Equation) vkSj
ds LrEHkksa ls lEcfU/kr m pj tks 'kwU; ls fHké gks ldrs gSa] ewy pj vlfedkvksa (Inequatons) dh la[;k,¡ gSaA
dgykrs gSaA (iv) bl izdkj [khaph x;h js[kkvksa ls ifjc) lqlaxr (Feasible)
(4) ewy gy (Basic solution) : ,d gy ftlesa m pjksa ls lEcfU/kr lfn’k cgqHkqt izkIr gks tk;sxkA cgqHkqt dh Hkqtk,¡ lHkh O;ojks/kksa (Constraints)
js[kh; gSa vkSj 'ks"k (n – m) pj 'kwU; gksa],d ewy gy dgykrk gSA ,d ewy gy dks lUrq"V djsaxhA
fMtujsV ewy dgykrk gS] ;fn de ls de ,d ewy pj 'kwU; gksA (v) bl lqlaxr cgqHkqt ds izR;sd 'kh"kZ ds funsZ'kkad çkIr dhft;sA
(5) _.ksÙkj izfrcU/k (Non-negative constraints) : js[kh; dk;Z ;kstuk (vi) lqlaxr (Feaisble) cgqHkqt ds izR;sd 'kh"kZ ds funsZ'kkadksa dks
leL;k ds mís’; Qyu esa iz;qä pj lnSo 'kwU; ;k /kukRed gksrs gSaA oLrqfu"B Qyu (mís'; Qyu) (Objective function) P esa izfrLFkkfir
bu izfrcU/kksa dks n’kkZus okyh vlfedkvksa dks _.ksÙkj izfrcU/k dgrs gSaA dhft, vkSj nsf[k, fd vf/kdre ykHk ;k U;wure O;; fdl 'kh"kZ ij gSA
(6) lqlaxr gy (Feasible solution) : fdlh js[kh; dk;Z ;kstuk dh ;gk¡ ml izes; dk iz;ksx gks tkrk gS fd lqlaxr (Feasible) mRry
leL;k esa pjksa ds ekuksa dk ,slk leqPp; tks leL;k ds lHkh O;ojks/kksa cgqHkqt(Convex polygon) dk dksbZ ,d 'kh"kZ vuqdwyre (Opimization) fcUnq
dks larq"V djrk gks] leL;k dk lqlaxr gy dgykrk gSA gksxkA
(vii) ;fn ,slk fcUnq Kkr djuk laHko u gksa] ftl ij lqlaxr gy
(7) vuqdwyre gy (Optimal solution) : ,d lqlaxr gy] ftlds fy,
Kkr fd;k tk lds] rc leL;k dk gy vifjc) gksrk gSA
mís’; Qyu egRre vFkok U;wure gks] vuqdwyre gy dgykrk gSA
(viii) ;fn lqlaxr {ks= fjDr gS] rc leL;k dk dksbZ gy ugha
(8) leykHkh; js[kk (Iso–profit line) : fdlh js[kh; dk;Z&;kstuk gksxkA
leL;k ds lqlaxr gy dks n’kkZus okys T;kferh; {ks= ds vUnj [khaph (ix) ewyfcUnq ds lehi mís'; Qyu dk eku U;wure rFkk ewyfcUnq
x;h ,slh js[kk ftl ij fLFkr izR;sd fcUnq ij mís’; Qyu dk eku ls nwj mís'; Qyu dk eku vf/kdre gksxkA
vpj gks] leykHkh; js[kk dgykrh gSA (2) leykHkh; ;k leykxr fof/k : bl fof/k ds fofHkUu in
tc mís'; Qyu dks U;wure djuk gks] rks ,slh js[kk;sa leykxr fuEukuqlkj gS :
js[kk;sa (Isocost lines) dgykrh gS (i) jSf[kd çØeu leL;k dk lqlaxr {ks= Kkr djrs gSaA
(9) voeq[k ¼mÙky½ leqPp; (Convex set) : js[kh; dk;Z&;kstuk dh (ii) Z dks ,d vpj eku Z nsrs gS rFkk mís'; Qyu ds laxr js[kk
vf/kdrj leL;kvksa esa lqlaxr gy leqPp; izFke prqFkkZa’k esa ,d cgqHkqt
1

[khaprs gSA
gksrk gSA ;g cgqHkqt mÙky vFkok voeq[k gksrk gSA bldk vFkZ ;g gS (iii) Z dks nwljk vpj eku Z nsrs gS rFkk mís'; Qyu ds laxr js[kk
fd ;fn cgqHkqt esa dksbZ nks fcUnq ysdj ,d js[kk[k.M [khaps rks og
2

[khaprs gSaA
js[kk[k.M iw.kZr% cgqHkqt ds vUrxZr gksuk pkfg,A (iv) ;fn Z 1 < Z 2 , (Z 1 > Z 2 ) , rc vf/kdrehdj.k (U;wurehdj.k)
A A dh fLFkfr esa Z ds laxr js[kk P Q , Z ds laxr js[kk P Q ds lekUrj rc
1 1 1 2 2 2

rd xfr djrh gS] tc rd fd lqlaxr {ks= dk nwjLFk fcUnq bl js[kk

B B }kjk Li'kZ u gks tk;sA fcUnq ds funsZa'kkad mís'; Qyu dk vf/kdre
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (U;wure) eku iznku djrs gSaA
fp= (i) o (ii) mÙky gS rFkk (iii) o (iv) mÙky ugha gSA (v) bl fof/k }kjk vf/kd la[;k esa mifLFkr lfedkvksa ;k vlfedkvksa
jSf[kd çØeu dh leL;k dk xf.krh; #ikUrj.k ;k lw=k.k ls lEcfU/kr leL;k;sa vklkuh ls gy dh tk ldrh gSaA
(vi) vifjc) {ks= dh fLFkfr esa] ;k rks b"Vre gy (optimal
(Mathematical formulation of a linear programming problem)
solution) izkIr gksrk gS ;k vifjc) gy izkIr gksrk gSA vifjc) gyksa dks
nks pjksa ds jSf[kd çØeu dh leL;k dk xf.krh; lw=.k djus ds b"Vre gy ds #i esa ugha ysrs gSaA okLrfod txr dh leL;kvksa esa]
fy;s fuEu fcUnq mi;ksxh gSaA vifjfer ykHk ;k vifjfer gkfu laHko ugha gSA
(1) fn;s gq, pjksa ds jSf[kd Qyu ds #i esa oLrqfu"B Qyu (mís';-
Qyu) (Objective function) dks Kkr dhft,A ljy lqlaxr {ks=k ds fy;s fcuk xzkQ [khaps 'kh"kZ izkIr djuk (To
(2) lHkh O;ojks/kksa (Constraints) dk jSf[kd lehdj.kksa ;k vlfedkvksa find the vertices of simple feasible region without drawing a
graph)
ds :i esa mYys[k dhft,A
(3) fn;s gq, O;ojks/kksa dks lUrq"V djus okys pjksa ds ekuksa ds lHkh (1) ifjc) {ks= : vlfedkvksa ax + by ≤ m
rFkk cx + dy ≤ n ls
leqPp;ksa dks xf.krh; fof/k ls Kkr dhft,A izFke prqFkkZa'k esa f?kjk {ks= ifjc) {ks= dgykrk gSA ;g f=Hkqt ;k
(4) pjksa ds ekuksa ds ml fo'ks"k leqPp; dks Nk¡fV;s ftlls vHkh"V prqZHkqt ds #i dk gksrk gSA bu vlfedkvksa dks lehdj.k esa ifjofrZr
oLrqfu"B Qyu (mís'; Qyu) izkIr gks tk;sA tSls] U;wure mRiknu djrs gSa] rc x = 0 rFkk y = 0 j[kdj gy çkIr djrs gSaA
O;; ;k vf/kdre ykHkA lehdj.k dks gy dj] ftlesa ifjc) {ks= ds 'kh"kZ gks ldrs gSa] gy
jSf[kd çØeu leL;k ds fy;s xzkQh; fof/k Kkr djrs gSaA
 jSf[kd çØeu 1455

mís'; Qyu dk vf/kdre eku lhfer {ks= ds fdlh ,d 'kh"kZ ij (a) nks lEHkkO; {ks=
fLFkr gksrk gSA (b) vuUr lEHkkO; {ks=
(2) vifjc) {ks= : vlfedkvksa ax + by ≥ m rFkk cx + dy ≥ n ls (c) dksbZ lEHkkO; {ks= ugha
izFke prqFkkZa'k esa f?kjk {ks= vifjc) {ks= dgykrk gSA (d) buesa ls dksbZ ugha
vlfedkvksa dks lehdj.k esa ifjofrZr djrs gSa rFkk x = 0 o y = 0
2. fuEu esa ls dkSu lk vlfedkvksa 2 x + 3 y ≤ 6 , 5 x + 3 y ≤ 15
ds fy;s gy djrs gSaA bl izdkj lqlaxr {ks= ds 'kh"kZ izkIr djrs gSaA
rFkk x , y ≥ 0 ds ifjc) /kukRed {ks= dk 'kh"kZ ugha gS
mís'; Qyu dk U;wure eku vifjc) {ks= ds ,d 'kh"kZ ij fLFkr
gksrk gS fdUrq vf/kdre eku dk dksbZ vfLrRo ugha gksrk gSA (a) (0, 2) (b) (0, 0)
(c) (3, 0) (d) buesa ls dksbZ ugha
jSf[kd çØeu leL;k ds ykHk rFkk lhek;sa (Advantages and
3. O;ojks/kksa ds e/;orhZ gyksa dks fdl esa j[kdj ijh{k.k djuk
limitations of L.P.P.)
pkfg,
(1) ykHk : jSf[kd çØeu leL;k dk mi;ksx vf/kdre fuxZr-fuos'k (a) mÌs’; Qyu (b) O;ojks/k
(output) ds fy;s mRiknu ykxr dks U;wure djus esa djrs gSaA la{ksi esa]
(c) ijh{k.k vko’;d ugha (d) buesa ls dksbZ ugha
jSf[kd çØeu leL;k ds mi;ksx ls dksbZ çca/kd lhfer lk/kuksa dk
n{krkiwoZd iz;ksx dj vHkh"V /;s; çkIr djrk gS rFkk U;wure ykxr ij 4. ,d js[kh; çØeu leL;k ds O;ojks/kksa
vf/kdre ykHk çkIr dj ldrk gSA x 1 + 2 x 2 ≤ 2000 , x 1 + x 2 ≤ 1500 , x 2 ≤ 600 rFkk x 1 , x 2 ≥ 0
(2) lhek;sa : (i) jSf[kd çØeu dk mi;ksx dsoy rHkh dj ldrs gSa] ds fy, fuEu esa ls dkSulk fcUnq /kukRed ifjc) {ks= esa fLFkr
tc mís'; Qyu rFkk lHkh O;ojks/kksa dks jSf[kd [email protected] ugha gS
ds #i esa O;Dr dj ldsaA (a) (1000, 0) (b) (0, 500)
(ii) jSf[kd çØeu rduhd dsoy rHkh gy nsrh gS] tc leL;k ls (c) (2, 0) (d) (2000, 0)
lEcfU/kr lHkh vo;o la[;kRed #i esa gksaA 5. ,d ewy gy ukWu&fMtujsV dgykrk gS] ;fn
(iii) mís'; Qyu rFkk O;ojks/kksa ds xq.kkad fuf'pr gksa rFkk v/;;u (a) lHkh ewy pj 'kwU; gksa
ds nkSjku vifjofrZr jguk pkfg;sA (b) dksbZ Hkh ewy pj 'kwU; u gks
(iv) jSf[kd çØeu rduhd fHkUukRed eku ns ldrh gS] tks dbZ
(c) de ls de ,d ewy pj 'kwU; gks
leL;kvksa esa mi;ksxh ugha gksrs gSaA
(d) buesa ls dksbZ ugha
6. ;fn 4 çkpyksa dks vuqdwyre (optimized) djus ds fy, miyC/k
O;ojks/kksa dh la[;k 3 gks] rks
(a) mÌs’; Qyu vuqdwy (optimize) fd;k tk ldrk gS
(b) O;ojks/kksa dh la[;k de gS
" jSf[kd çØeu dh dqN leL;kvksa esa] O;ojks/k vlaxr gksrs gSa] (c) gy] ç’u ij fuHkZj djrk gS
vFkkZr~ ,sls fdlh fcUnq dk vfLrRo ugha gksrk tks fd lHkh O;ojks/kksa (d) buesa ls dksbZ ugha
dks lUrq"V djrk gSA bl izdkj dh jSf[kd çØeu leL;kvksa ds gyksa
dks vlaxr gy (infeasible solution) dgk tkrk gSA 7. çfrcU/kksa x + 2 y ≥ 11, 3 x + 4 y ≤ 30 , 2 x + 5 y ≤ 30 , x ≥ 0,
" ;fn js[kh; çØeu leL;k esa js[kh; çfrcU/k ifjofrZr dj fn;s y ≥ 0 ds gy leqPp; esa fufgr fcUnq gS [MP PET 1993]
tk,] rks ç’u dks iqu% gy djuk gksxkA (a) (2, 3) (b) (3, 2)
" mís’; Qyu dk vuqdwyre eku lqlaxr {ks= ds dksus okys (c) (3, 4) (d) (4, 3)
fcanqvksa ij çkIr gksrk gSA 8. x≤2 rFkk y ≥ 2 dk xzkQ fLFkr gS
" ;fn fdlh js[kh; çØeu leL;k ds nks vuqdwyre gy gSa] rks
(a) çFke o f}rh; prqFkkZa’k esa
fQj mlds vuUr vuwdwyre gy gksaxsA
" ;fn dksbZ ,slk fcUnq fu’fpr djuk laHko u gks] tgk¡ leL;k dk
(b) f}rh; o r`rh; prqFkkZa’k esa
vuqdy w re gy gks] rks leL;k dk gy vifjc) gksrk gSA (c) çFke o r`rh; prqFkkZa’k esa
" mís’; Qyu dk vf/kdre eku] ifjc) {ks= ds fdlh ,d 'kh"kZ (d) r`rh; o prqFkZ prqFkkZa’k esa
ij gksrk gSA

jSf[kd çØeu
1. mÌs’; Qyu z = x 1 + x 2 ds O;ojks/kksa
x 1 + x 2 ≤ 1, 3 x 1 + x 2 ≥ 3 rFkk x 1 , x 2 ≥ 0 ds fy, gksaxs
 lewg fl)kUr 1469

Chapter
lewg
fl)kUr
çLrkouk (Introduction)
(iv) çfrykse dk vfLrRo : lHkh a ∈ G ds fy, ∃ b ∈ G bl
,d vfjDr leqPp; tks fd f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k ij ifjHkkf"kr gS
çdkj gS fd a ∗ b = e = b ∗ a
chtxf.krh; lajpuk dgykrk gS] ;fn f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k fuf’pr
vfHkx`fgfr;ksa dks larq"V djsAa bl v/;k; esa ge dqN ewyHkwr ;gk¡ b ∈ G dks G esa ‘a’ dk çfrykse dgk tkrk gS ,oa bls b = a −1
chtxf.krh; lajpukvksa dh ppkZ djsaxs tSls] lewg ,oa milewgA fy[krs gSaA
v/kZlewg (Semi-group) rc a ∗ a −1 = e = a −1 ∗ a .
vcsfy;u (Abelian) lewg ;k Øe fofues; lewg : ekuk (G, ∗) ,d
,d vfjDr leqPp; G f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k ∗ ds lkFk v/kZlewg dgk
lewg gSA ;fn a ∗ b = b ∗ a , lHkh a, b ∈ G ds fy, rks G vcsfy;u lewg
tkrk gS] ;fn
;k Øe fofues; lewg dgykrk gSA
(i) a, b ∈ G ⇒ a ∗ b ∈ G (laojd fu;e)
(ii) ∀ a, b, c ∈ G, a ∗ (b ∗ c) = (a ∗ b) ∗ c (lkgp;Z fu;e)
ifjfer lewg : lewg (G, ∗) dks ifjfer lewg dgrs gSa ;fn G ,d
ifjfer leqPp; gSA
• f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k ∗ esa laojd fu;e lnSo larq"V gksrk gSA
vifjfer lewg : lewg (G, ∗) dks vifjfer lewg dgrs gSa ;fn G ,d
,dy lewg (Monoid) vifjfer leqPp; gSA
chtxf.krh; lajpuk (G, ∗) , ,d vfjDr leqPp; G ,oa f}vk/kkjh lewg dh dksfV : ekuk (G, ∗) ,d ifjfer lewg gS rks lewg G ds
lafØ;k ∗ tks fd G ij ifjHkkf"kr gks ,dy lewg dgykrh gS ;fn fuEu vo;oksa dh la[;k dks lewg dh dksfV dgrs gSaA bls O(G) }kjk fu:fir
vfHkx`ghfr;ksa dks larq"V djsa : djrs gSaA
(1) lkgp;Z fu;e % f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k ∗, G ij lkgp;Z gksxk vFkkZr~ lewg ds xq.k/keZ :
(a ∗ b ) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c) , ∀ a, b, c ∈ G. (i) lewg (G, ∗) dk rRled vo;o vf}rh; gksrk gSA
(2) rRled dk vfLrRo % ,d vo;o e ∈ G bl çdkj vfLrRo (ii) lewg (G, ∗) ds lHkh vo;oksa ds çfrykse vf}rh; gksrs gSaA
j[krk gS fd a ∗ e = a = e ∗ a , ∀ a ∈ G . f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k * ds fy;s]
(iii) e −1 = e .
vo;o e dks G dk rRled vo;o dgrs gSaA
(iv) fujlu fu;e %
nwljs 'kCnksa esa ,d v/kZlewg ,dy lewg gksxk] ;fn ;g rRled
vo;o j[krk gSA ekuk (G, ∗) ,d lewg gS] rks lHkh a, b, c ∈ G ds fy,
a ∗ b = a ∗ c ⇒ b = c (ck;k¡ fujlu fu;e)
lewg (Group)
b ∗ a = c ∗ a ⇒ b = c (nk;k¡ fujlu fu;e)
,d vfjDr leqPp; G f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k ∗ ds lkFk lewg dgykrk
gS] ;fn (i) a, b ∈ G ⇒ a ∗ b ∈ G , (laojd fu;e) (v) ekuk (G, ∗) ,d lewg gS ,oa a ∈ G rks (a −1 ) −1 = a .
(ii) lHkh a, b, c ∈ G ds fy, (vi) ekuk (G, ∗) ,d lewg gS ,oa a, b ∈ G rks
(a ∗ b ) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c) , (lkgp;Z fu;e) (a ∗ b ) −1 = b −1 ∗ a −1 .
(iii) rRled dk vfLrRo : lHkh a ∈ G ds fy, ∃ e ∈ G bl (vii) ekuk (G, ∗) ,d lewg gS] rc fdlh a, b ∈ G ds fy,
çdkj gS fd a ∗ e = e ∗ a = a a ∗ x = b ,oa y ∗ a = b dk G esa vf}rh; gy gksxkA
;gk¡ e ∈ G ,d rRled vo;o gSA
 1470 lewg fl)kUr
(viii) ,d ifjfer v/kZlewg ,d lewg gksxk ;fn vkSj dsoy ;fn R (v) ifjfer lewg ftldh dksfV n gS] ;fn n dksfV ds vo;o dks
esa fujlu fu;e ykxw gksA j[krk gS rks pØh; lewg gksxkA
(ix) ;fn ,d lewg (G, ∗) bl çdkj gS] fd a 2 = a ; ∀ a ∈ G , rks G (vi) çR;sd vifjfer pØh; lewg ds dsoy nks tud (generator)
vcsfy;u lewg gksxkA gksrs gSaA
(x) ;fn (G, ∗) ,d lewg bl çdkj gS fd (vii) ;fn G, n dksfV dk ifjfer pØh; lewg gS] tks fd vo;o a
}kjk tfur gS] rc G ds vU; tud a s ds :i esa gksaxs tgk¡ s, n dk lg
(a ∗ b )2 = (a ∗ a) ∗ (b ∗ b ) = a 2 ∗ b 2 ; ∀ a, b ∈ G , rks G vcsfy;u lewg
vHkkT; gS ,oa n ls de gSA
gksxk] [vFkkZr~ (ab)2 = a 2 b 2 ] .
(xi) lHkh lewg ftudh dksfV 5 vFkok 5 ls de gksa] vcsfy;u lewg lewg dk milewg (Subgroup of a group)
dgykrs gaSaA ekuk ∗ ij G dksbZ lewg gS rFkk H ≤ G . ;fn (H , ∗) Hkh ,d lewg
(xii) lewg ds vo;o dh dksfV : ekuk (G, ∗) ,d lewg gS ,oa a ∈ G , gks] rc H, G dk milewg gksxk] ftls ge H ≤ G fy[ksaxsA
rks a dks ifjfer dksfV dgk tk ldrk gS tcfd dksbZ n bl çdkj gS
fd a n = e . ;fn n U;wure /kukRed iw.kkZad gS rFkk a n = e , rc lewg dk mfpr milewg (Proper subgroup of a group)
O(a) = n. ekuk H ≤ G . ;fn H ≠ G, rc H dks G dk mfpr milewg dgsaxsA
vr% a = e ⇒ O (a) ≤ n
n

pw¡fd e 1 = e , ∴ O(e ) = 1 [Q e dk U;wure /kukRed ?kkr 1 gS]

iqu% ;fn O(a) = 1, rc a1 = e ⇒ a = e
vr% lewg esa rRled vo;o gh ,d ,slk vo;o gksxk ftldh
dksfV 1 gksxhA
(xiii) ifjfer lewg ds çR;sd vo;o dh dksfV lewg dh dksfV ls lewg fl)kUr
de ;k cjkcj gksxhA
⎧⎡ x − x⎤ ⎫
(xiv) O (a) = O (a −1 ). 1. vkO;wgksa dk leqPp; S = ⎪⎨⎢ ⎪
⎥ : x ∈ R, x ≠ 0 ⎬ vkO;wg
⎪⎩⎣− x x ⎦ ⎪⎭
esa dksbZ vo;o gS] rks O(x −1 ax ) = O (a).
(xv) ;fn a lewg (G, ∗) xq.ku ds vUrZxr f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k ij vk/kkfjr lewg cukrk gS]
(xvi) ekuk (G, ∗) ,d lewg gS ,oa a ∈ G dksbZ vo;o gS rc rks bldk rRled vo;o gksxk [EAMCET 1993, 2000]
⎡ 1 1⎤
a ∗ a ∗ a ∗ ...... ∗ a = a n . ⎢ 2 − 2⎥ ⎡ 2 −2 ⎤
iqu%] ;fn e lewg G esa rRled vo;o gS] rks ge fy[k ldrs gSa (a) ⎢ 1 1 ⎥
(b) ⎢ ⎥
⎢− ⎥ ⎣− 2 2 ⎦
e = a 0 ,oa a n = a −1 * a −1 * ........ * a −1 ⎣ 2 2 ⎦
n − xq.ku[k.Mksa rd ⎡ 1 −1⎤ ⎡−1 1 ⎤
(c) ⎢ ⎥ (d) ⎢ ⎥
(xvii) ;fn lewg (G, ∗) ds fdlh vo;o a dh dksfV n gS ,oa ⎣− 1 1 ⎦ ⎣ 1 − 1⎦
2. ;fn lewg G ds çR;sd vo;o Loa; ds çfrykse gSa] rks G gS
rRled vo;o e gS rks a m = e ⇔ n , m dk foHkktd gSA [Karnataka CET 1993]
(xviii) ;fn lewg G ds fdlh vo;o dh dksfV n gS ,oa p, n dk lg (a) ifjfer vifjfer(b)
(c) pØh; vcsfy;u(d)
vHkkT; iw.kkZad gS] rks O (a p ) = n.
3. lewg (G, ∗) dk ,d mileqPp; H lewg gksxk] ;fn vkSj dsoy
n ;fn
(xix) ;fn lewg G ds fdlh vo;o dh dksfV n gS] rc O (a ) = ,
s [Karnataka CET 1993]
d
(a) a, b ∈ H ⇒ a ∗ b ∈ H (b) a ∈ H ⇒ a −1 ∈ H
tgk¡ d, n ,oa s dk egÙke mHk;fu"B foHkktd gksxkA
(c) a, b ∈ H ⇒ a ∗ b −1 ∈ H (d) H rRled vo;o j[krk gS
pØh; lewg (Cyclic group) 4. fdlh lewg esa fo"ke milewgksa dh la[;k gS
[Karnataka CET 1994]
dksbZ lewg (G, ∗) pØh; lewg dgykrk gS ;fn dksbZ vo;o a ∈ G (a) 2
bl çdkj gks fd G ds çR;sd vo;o dks a ds ?kkrkadh :i esa O;Dr (b) 3
fd;k tk ldsA (c) fn;s x;s lewg ij fuHkZj djrh gS
(d) 1
vo;o a ∈ G dks G dk tud (Generator) dgk tkrk gSA bls
G = < a > fy[krs gSaA 5. fdlh lewg (G, ∗) es]a G ds fdlh a ds fy,] a 2 = e tgk¡ e
pØh; lewg dk xq.k/keZ % rRled vo;o gS] rc [Karnataka CET 1991]

(i)lHkh pØh; lewg vcsfy;u gksaxs ysfdu lHkh vcsfy;u lewg (a) a= e (b) a = a −1
pØh; ugha gksaxsA (c) a=e (d) buesa ls
dksbZ ugha
6. lewg G = {2, 4 , 6, 8}
esa] 10 ds xq.kukRed ekikad (Multiplication
(ii) ;fn a pØh; lewg G dk tud (Generator) gS] rc a −1 Hkh G
modulo) ds vUrZxr rRled vo;o gS
dk tud gksxkA [EAMCET 1994]
(iii) lHkh vHkkT; dksfV ds lewg pØh; gksrs gSaA (a) 6 (b) 8
(iv) pØh; lewg dh dksfV = blds tud (Generator) dh dksfV (c) 4 (d) 2
 xf.krh; rdZ’kkL= ,oa cwyh; chtxf.kr 1477

Chapter

34
xf.krh; rdZ'kkL= ,oa cwyh; chtxf.kr
mnkgj.kLo:i] dFku ‘lw;Z flrkjk gS’ dks p }kjk fu:fir fd;k tk
xf.krh; rdZ'kkL= ldrk gS ,oa ge fy[ksaxs
çLrkouk (Introduction) p : lw;Z flrkjk gS
çkjEHk esa rdZ’kkL= dh mRifÙk xzhl esa gqbZ FkhA e/;dky esa vjLrq blh çdkj ge dFku dks O;Dr dj ldrs gSa
dh rdZ ls lacaf/kr /kkj.kkvksa dh iqu% [kkst gqbZA rdZ dh vfHkxzghr lksp 14 – 5 = – 2
loZçFke tktZ cqy }kjk nh xbZA blesa xf.kr ls lacaf/kr fopkj dks ifjek.kd (Quantifiers)% ladsr ∀ (lHkh ds fy,) ,oa ∃ (,slk
dHkh&dHkh cqfy;u rdZ Hkh dgk tkrk gSA bls xf.krh; rdZ vFkok vfLrRo j[krk gS) dks ifjek.kd (Quantifiers) dgrs gSaA
lkadsfrd rdZ Hkh dgrs gSaA nwljs 'kCnksa esa ;g ,d ladsr gS ftldk ç;ksx 'kCnksa ds lewg ds
'kCndks"k ds vuqlkj ‘rdZ’ dks “dkj.kksa dk foKku” dgk tkrk gSA ;g fy, gksrk gSA
mi;qDr fopkjksa dh tkudkjh ,oa fo’ys"k.k gSA rdZ 'kkL= esa ge vius ladsr ∀ ,oa ∃ dks vfLrRo ifjek.kd(Existential quantifiers)dgrs
fopkjksa vFkok oDrO;ksa dks fdlh Hkk"kk ds okD; ds :i esa O;Dr djrs gSaA ifjek.kd ds lkFk [kqyk okD; lnSo dFku gksrk gSA
gSaA fuEu çdkj ds okD;ksa dks ge çfrfnu ç;ksx esa ykrs gSaA ifjek.kd dFku % ftl dFku esa ifjek.kd (Quantifiers) dk ç;ksx
(1) fu’p;kRed okD; (2) vkns’kkRed okD;
gks og ifjek.kd dFku (Quantified statement) dgykrk gSA
x 2 > 0 .∀x ∈ R ,d ifjek.kd dFku gS] bldk lR;rk eku T gSA
(3) foLekfncks/kd okD; (4) ç’uokpd okD;
bl v/;k; esa ge fof’k"V çdkj ds okD;ksa dh ppkZ djsaxs ftls dFku dh lR;rk ,oa feF;k tk¡p esa osu vkjs[k dk ç;ksx (Use of
“dFku” dgk tkrk gSA venn diagrams in checking truth and falsity of statements)

dFku (Statements or propositions) bl [k.M esa ge ppkZ djsaxs fd fdl çdkj dFku dh lR;rk ;k
feF;k esa osu vkjs[k dk ç;ksx gksrk gSA ekuk fd dFku “lHkh f’k{kd
dFku : dFku ,d fu’p;kRed (;k vfu’p;kRed) okD; gS tks fd cqf)eku gS” dks ysrs gSaA ekuk fd ;g dFku lR; gSA mijksDr dFku dh
lR; vFkok vlR; gksxk fdUrq nksuksa ugha gksaxsA lR; dFku dks mi;qDr lR;rk dks fu:fir djus ds fy, ge fuEu leqPp; ifjHkkf"kr djrs gSaA
dFku dgk tkrk gSA ;fn dFku vlR; gS rks vuqi;qDr dFku dgykrk gSA U = lHkh ekuoksa dk leqPp; gS
[kqyk dFku : vfu’p;kRed okD; pjksa ds lek;ksftr dj [kqyk dFku S = lHkh cqf)ekuksa dk leqPp;
gS ;fn pjksa dks fuf’pr ekuksa ls ifjofrZr gksus ij ;g dFku cu tk,A ,oa T = lHkh f’k{kdksa dk leqPp;
Li"Vr%, S ⊂ U ,oa T ⊂ U
lR;rk leqPp; : [kqyk dFku esa pjksa ds mu lHkh ekuksa dk leqPp;] mijksDr dFku ds vuqlkj T ⊂ S vr% mijksDr dFku dh lR;rk
ftuds fy, ;g lR; dFku gS] [kqyk dFku dk lR;rk leqPp; dgykrk dks osu vkjs[k }kjk fuEu çdkj fu:fir fd;k tk ldrk gSA
gSA U
lR; eku : fdlh dFku dh lR;rk vFkok feF;k lR; eku dgykrk S
gSA T

;fn dFku lR; gS rc ge dgrs gSa fd mldk lR; eku ‘lR;’ ;k x

‘T’ gSA nwljh rjQ feF;k dFku dk lR; eku ‘vlR;’ ;k ‘F’ gSA
rfdZd pj : rdZ ds v/¸;u esa dFku dks NksVs v{kjksa p, q, r, s. ls
O;Dr djrs gaSA bu v{kjksa dks rfdZd pj dgrs gSaA
vc ge ysrs gSa dFku “dqN cqf)eku gS tks fd f’k{kd gS”A osu
vkjs[k esa lk{; gS fd x cqf)eku gS tks fd f’k{kd ugha gSA vr% mijksDr
 1478 xf.krh; rdZ’kkL= ,oa cwyh; chtxf.kr
dFku ‘vlR;’ gS ,oa lR; eku “F” gSA vr% ge vU; dFkuksa dk Hkh (3) fu"ks/k (Negation) : dFku p dks euk djus dks fu"ks/k dgrs gSaA ;g
ijh{k.k dj ldrs gSa tks fd lR; vFkok vlR; gS ,oa fn;s x;s dFku ~p }kjk O;Dr fd;k tkrk gSA
ls lacaf/kr gSA fdlh dFku dh fu"ks/k “;g çdj.k ugha .....” ;k “;g vlR; gS
dFku ds çdkj (Types of statements) fd.......” p ds igys vFkok laHko gks rks “ugha” ds ç;ksx }kjk rS;kj dh
tkrh gSA
xf.krh; rdZ esa ge dFku dks nks çdkj ls O;Dr djrs gSa] “lkekU; • fu"ks/k dks la;kstd dgk tkrk gS ;|fi ;g nks ;k mlls T;knk
dFku” ,oa “la;qDr dFku” tks fd fuEu :i ls ifjHkkf"kr gSA dFkuksa dks ugha tksM+rk gS] lp esa dgk tk, rks ;g flQZ dFku dks
(1) lkekU; dFku : og dFku ftldk lR; eku fdlh Hkh :i ls :ikarfjr djrk gSA
vU; dFku ij vk/kkfjr u gks] lkekU; dFku dgykrk gSA (4) çfrcaf/kr dFku (Conditional statement): dksbZ nks dFku “;fn.. rc”
vU; :i ls og dFku tks fd lkekU; dFku ds VqdM+ksa ds :i esa }kjk la;ksftr dj la;qDr dFku dk fuekZ.k djs] çfrcaf/kr dFku
O;Dr u fd;k tk lds vFkkZr~ tks fd lkekU; dFkuksa ls u cuk gksA dgykrk gSA
(2) la;qDr dFku : ;fn dFku nks vFkok T;knk lkekU; dFkuksa dk ;fn p ,oa q nks dFku çfrcaf/kr gSa “;fn p rc q” }kjk rc bl
la;kstu gks] rks bls la;qDr dFku dgrs gSaA çfrca/k dks ge O;Dr djrs gSaA
lR;rk rkfydk (Truth tables) " p ⇒ q " ;k " p → q " .
çfrca/k esa " p ⇒ q " , p iwoZ in (Antecedent) ,oa q ij in
rkfydk tks fd la;qDr dFku S(p, q, r,..) ds lR;rk ekuks ds chp
laca/k çnf’kZr djsa ,oa bu midFkuksa p, q, r, .....bR;kfn ds lR; ekuksa dks (Consequent) gSA
dFku S dh lR;rk rkfydk dgrs gSaA çfrcaf/kr dFku dh lR;rk rkfydk
p q p⇒q
lR;rk rkfydk dh lajpuk % la;qDr dFku dh lR;rk rkfydk dh
T T T
lajpuk esa loZçFke ge iafDr;ksa ,oa LraHkks okyh ,d rkfydk dk fuekZ.k
T F F
djrs gSaA çkjfEHkd LraHk ds 'kh"kZ ij ge midFkuksa ds pjksa dks O;Dr F T T
djrs gSa ,oa vafre LraHk esa la;qDr dFku dh lR;rk ekuksa dks fy[krs gSaA F F T
ge midFkuksa ds lR;rk ekuksa ds vk/kkj ij ge la;qDr dFkuksa dh
lR;rk eku j[krs gSaA ;fn la;qDr dFku nks lkekU; dFkuksa ls cuk gks (5) f}çfrcaf/kr dFku (Biconditional statement): dksbZ dFku f}çfrcaf/kr
rc lR;rk rkfydk esa iafDr;ksa dh la[;k 2 2 gksxha ,oa ;fn ;g rhu dFku dgykrk gS ;fn ;g nks çfrcaf/kr dFkuksa dk la;kstu gksA
vr% ;fn p ,oa q nks dFku gS rc la;qDr dFku p ⇒ q ,oa q ⇒ p
lkekU; dFkuksa ls cuk gks rc iafDr;ksa dh la[;k 2 3 gksxhA lkekU;r%
;fn la;qDr dFku n lkekU; dFkuksa ls cuk gks rks bldh lR;rk f}çfrcaf/kr dFku dgyk,xk ,oa p ⇔ q }kjk fu:fir fd;k tk,xkA
rkfydk esa 2 n iafDr;k¡ gksaxhA vr% p ⇔ q : ( p ⇒ q) ∧ (q ⇒ p)
f}çfrcaf/kr dFku dh lR;rk rkfydk : pw¡fd p ⇔ q , p ⇒ q ,oa
ewyHkwr rkfdZd la;kstd vFkok rkfdZd ladjd q ⇒ p dk la;kstu gS vr% gekjs ikl p ⇔ q ds fy, fuEu lR;rk
(Basic logical connectives or logical operators) rkfydk gSA
og 'kCn vFkok okD; [kaM tks lkekU; dFkuksa dks tksM+s rkfdZd p q p⇒q q⇒p p ⇔ q = ( p ⇒ q) ∧ (q ⇒ p )
la;kstd vFkok okD; la;kstd vFkok la;kstd vFkok rkfdZd ladjd T T T T T
dgykrk gSA T F F T F
fuEu rkfydk esa ge dqN laHko la;kstdksa] muds ladsr ,oa la;qDr F T T F F
F F T T T
dFkuksa dh ço`fÙk dks O;Dr dj jgs gSaA
la;kstd ladsr mu la;kstdksa }kjk cuus okys rkfdZd lerqY;rk (Logical equivalence)
la;qDr dFkuksa dh ço`fÙk
∧
rkfdZd lerqY; dFku % nks la;qDr dFku S 1 ( p, q, r,...) ,oa
,oa la;kstu
∨
dks rkfdZd lerqY; vFkok lerqY; dgk tkrk gS ;fn
S 2 ( p, q, r...)
;k oSdfYid
;fn....rc ⇒ ;k → çfrcaf/kr mudh lR;rk rkfydk lHkh rkfdZd laHkkoukvksa ds fy, leku gksA
;fn dFku S 1 ( p, q, r,...) ,oa S 2 ( p, q, r...) rkfdZd lerqY; gS rks
;fn vkSj ⇔ ;k ↔ f}çfrcaf/kr
dsoy ;fn ge fy[krs gSa S 1 ( p, q, r,...) ≡ S 2 ( p, q, r...)
ugha ~ ;k ┓ udkjkRedrk mijksDr ifjHkk"kkvksa ls nksuksa dFku S 1 ,oa S 2 rkfdZd lerqY; gS
(1) la;kstu (Conjuction) % dksbZ nks lkekU; dFkuksa dks ;fn “vkSj” ;fn nksuksa dh lR;rk rkfydk leku gS] vFkkZr~ vafre iafDr ds vo;o
}kjk la;ksftr dj la;qDr dFku cuk;k tk, mls okLrfod dFkuksa dk leku gSA
la;kstu dgk tkrk gSA la;qDr dFkuksa dh udkjkRedrk
lkadsfrd :i ls p ,oa q nks lkekU; dFku gSa] rc p ∧ q dks “p ,oa (Negation of compound statements)
q” i<+k tk,xk rFkk ;g p ,oa q ds la;kstu dks fu:fir djsxkA ge lkekU; dFku dh udkjkRedrk i<+ pqds gSaA la;qDr dFku dh
(2) fo;kstu ;k oSdfYid (Disjunction or Alternation): dksbZ nks dFkuksa udkjkRedrk ftlesa conjunction oSdfYid] çfrcaf/kr ,oa lerqY;rk
dks “;k” }kjk la;ksftr dj la;qDr dFku cuk;k tk, rks okLrfod dFkuksa bR;kfn gks vklku ugha gSA vr% la;qDr dFkuksa dh udkjkRedrk dh vkxs
dk oSdfYid dFku dgyk,xkA ppkZ djrs gSaA
lkadsfrd :i ls ;fn p ,oa q nks dFku gS rc p ∨ q dks “ p ;k q” (i) la;kstu dh udkjkRedrk :
i<+k tk,xk ,oa bls p ,oa q dk oSdfYid dgsaxsA ;fn p ,oa q nks dFku gSa] rc ~ ( p ∧ q) ≡ (~ p ∨ ~ q)
(ii) oSdfYid dh udkjkRedrk :
 xf.krh; rdZ’kkL= ,oa cwyh; chtxf.kr 1479

;fn p ,oa q nks dFku gSa] rc ~ ( p ∨ q) ≡ (~ p ∧ ~ q) }Srrk (Duality)

(iii) çfrcaf/kr dh udkjkRedrk :
;fn p ,oa q nks dFku gSa] rc ~ ( p ⇒ q) ≡ ( p ∧ ~ q) ifjHkk"kk : nks la;qDr dFku S 1 ,oa S 2 dks ,d&nwljs dh }Srrk dgk
(iv) f}çfrcaf/kr dh udkjkRedrk :
tk,xk ;fn ,d nwljs ls ∧ dks ∨ ls ,oa ∨ dks ∧ ls ifjofrZr dj
çkIr dh tk,A
;fn p ,oa q nks dFku gSa] rc ~ ( p ⇒ q) ≡ ( p ∧ ~ q)
• la;kstd ∧ ,oa ∨ dks ,d nwljs dk ;qXe Hkh dgk tkrk gSA
~ ( p ⇔ q) = ( p ∧ ~ q ) ∨ (q ∧ ~ p )
• ;fn la;qDr dFku fof’k"V pj t (fujFkZd iqufjfä) ,oa c (erHksn)
iqufjfä ,oa O;k?kkr (Tautologies and Contradictions) dks lek;ksftr djrk gS rc blds ;qXe dks çkIr djus ds fy, t dks c ls
ekuk p, q, r,.... dFku gS rc dksbZ dFku p, q, r ,.... ,oa rkfdZd ,oa c dks t ls ifjofrZr dj lkFk gh lkFk ∧ dks ∨ ls ,oa ∨ dks ∧ ls
la;kstd ∧,∨, ~, ⇒, ⇔ ds feyu ls O;Dr dh tk, vkn’kZ dFku vFkok ifjofrZr djrs gSaA
Øfer lw= dgykrk gSA • ekuk S ( p, q ) la;qDr dFku gS tks fd nks midFku dks j[krk gS
mngkj.kLo:i ,oa S * (p, q) bldk ;qXe gS] rc
(i) p ∨ q
(i) ~ S ( p, q) ≡ S * (~ p, ~ q )
(ii) p ⇒ q
(iii) (( p ∧ q) ∨ r) ⇒ (s ∧ ~ s) (ii) ~ S * ( p, q ) ≡ S (~ p, ~ q )
(iv) ( p ⇒ q ) ⇔ (~ q ⇒~ p ) bR;kfn • mijksDr ifj.kke dks ifjfer midFku ds la;qDr dFku ij
vkn’kZ dFku gSaA foLrkj dj ldrs gSa vr% ;fn S ( p1 , p 2 ,.... pn ) la;qDr dFku gS tks fd
vr% ge fuEu :i ls vkn’kZ dFku dks ifjHkkf"kr dj ldrs gSaA n midFku j[krk gS ,oa S * ( p1 p 2 ,...., pn ) bldk ;qXe gS] rc
vkn’kZ dFku : la;qDr dFku rkfdZd la;kstd dh iqufjfä ds lkFk
vkn’kZ dFku vFkok mfpr Øfer lw= dgykrk gSA (i) ~ S ( p1 , p 2 ,...., pn ) ≡ S * (~ p1 , ~ p 2 ,...., ~ pn )
iqufjfä : vkn’kZ dFku iqufjfä dgykrk gS ;fn ;g lnSo lR; gks (ii) ~ S * ( p1 , p 2 ,...., pn ) ≡ S (~ p1 , ~ p 2 ,...., ~ pn )
;|fi le;ksftr dFku dqN Hkh gksA
iqufjfä mfpr vkn’kZ rkfdZd dFku dk çes; dgykrk gSA iqufjfä
lR;rk rkfydk ds vafre LraHk esa flQZ T j[krk gSA
cwyh; chtxf.kr
O;k?kkr % vkn’kZ dFku O;k?kkr dgykrk gS ;fn ;g lnSo vlR; çLrkouk (Introduction)
gks pkgs la;ksftr dFku dqN Hkh gksA
cwyh; chtxf.kr og vkStkj gS ftldh enn ls xf.krh; rdZ’kkL=
lR;rk rkfydk ds vafre LraHk esa lHkh F gks rks O;k?kkr dgyk,xkA
(tks fd vaxzst xf.krK tktZ cqy }kjk nh xbZ Fkh) dk v/¸;u ,oa
• iqufjfä dh udkjkRedrk O;k?kkr ,oa mldk foijhr Hkh gksxkA fo’ys"k.k djrs gSaA 1854 bZ- esa tktZ cqy us ,d fdrkc fy[kh “fopkjksa ds
dFkuksa dk chtxf.kr (Algebra of statements) fu;e dk ijh{k.k” ftlesa 'kCnksa dh txg ladsrksa dk ç;ksx fd;kA blh
chtxf.kr dk ijh{k.k vc cwyh; chtxf.kr dgykrk gSA
iwoZ [k.M esa ge ns[k pqds gSa fd dFku cgqr lkjs egRoiw.kZ ifj.kkeksa
dks larq"V djrk gSA ge mu ifj.kkeksa dks dFku ds chtxf.kr ds fu;e ifjHkk"kk : vfjDr leqPp; B nks lafØ;k ‘∨’ ,oa ‘∧’ ds lkFk cwyh;
ds :i esa O;Dr dj ldrs gSA chtxf.kr dgykrs gSa ;fn fuEu vfHkxzfgr larq"V gks :
fuEu dFku ds dqN chtxf.kr fu;e fn, x, gS (i) ∀ x , y ∈ B
(i) oxZle fu;e : fdlh dFku p ds fy, (a) x ∨ y ∈ B (∨ ds fy, laojd xq.k/keZ)
(a) p ∨ p ≡ p (b) p ∧ p ≡ p (b) x ∧ y ∈ B (∧ ds fy, laojd xq.k/keZ)
(ii) Øe fofues; fu;e : fdUgha dFku p ,oa q ds fy, (ii) ∀ x , y ∈ B
(a) p ∨ q ≡ q ∨ p (b) p ∧ p ≡ q ∧ p
(a) x ∨ y = y ∨ x (∨ ds fy, Øe fofues; fu;e)
(iii) lkgp;Z fu;e : fdUgha rhu dFku p, q, r ds fy,
(a) ( p ∨ q ) ∨ r ≡ p ∨ (q ∨ r) (b) ( p ∧ q ) ∧ r ≡ p ∧ (q ∧ r) (b) x ∧ y = y ∧ x (∧ds fy, Øe fofues; fu;e)
(iv) forj.k fu;e : fdUgha rhu dFku p, q, r ds fy, (iii) B esa x, y ,oa z ds fy,
(a) p ∧ ( p ∨ q ) ≡ ( p ∧ q ) ∨ (q ∧ r) (a) (x ∨ y ) ∨ z = x ∨ (y ∨ z ) (∨ dk lkgp;Z fu;e)
(b) p ∨ ( p ∧ q ) ≡ ( p ∨ q ) ∧ (q ∨ r) (b) (x ∧ y ) ∧ z = x ∧ (y ∧ z ) (∧ dk lkgp;Z fu;e)
(v) Mh ekxZu fu;e : ;fn p ,oa q nks dFku gS] rc (iv) B esa x, y ,oa z ds fy,
(a) ~ ( p ∧ q) ≡ (~ p ) ∨ (~ q ) (b) ~ ( p ∨ q ) ≡~ p ∧ ~ q (a) x ∨ (y ∧ z ) = (x ∨ y ) ∧ (x ∨ z ) (∧
ij ∨ dk caVu fu;e)
(b) x ∧ (y ∨ z ) = ( x ∧ y ) ∨ ( x ∧ z ) (∨ ij ∧ dk caVu fu;e)
(vi) rRled fu;e : ;fn t ,oa c Øe’k% iqufjfä ,oa O;k?kkr O;Dr
djrs gSa] rc fdlh dFku p ds fy, (v) B esa vo;o 0 ,oa 1 bl çdkj vfLrRo j[krk gS fd lHkh x ∈ B
(a) p ∧ t ≡ p (b) p ∨ c ≡ p (c) p ∨ t ≡ t (d) p ∧ c ≡ c ds fy,
(a) x ∨ 0 = x (∨ ds fy, 0 rRled gS)
(vii) iwjd fu;e : fdlh dFku p ds fy,
(b) x ∧ 1 = x (∧ ds fy, 1 rRled gS)
(a) p ∨ ~ p = t (b) p ∧ ~ p = c (c) ~ t = c (d) ~ c = t
(vi) lHkh x ∈ B ds fy, dksbZ vo;o x′ vfLrRo j[krk gS ftls x
tgk¡ t ,oa c Øe’k% iqufjfä ,oa O;k?kkr O;Dr djrs gSaA dk iwjd dgrs gSa] bl çdkj gS fd
(viii) çfrifjofrZr fu;e (Law of contrapostive) : fdlh dFku p ,oa q (a) x ∨ x ' = 1 (b) x ∧ x ' = 0 (iwjd fu;e)
ds fy, p ⇒ q ≡ ~ q ⇒ ~ p }Srrk dk fl)kar (Principle of Duality)
(ix) varoZyuh; fu;e : fdlh dFku p ds fy, ~ (~ p) ≡ p cwyh; chtxf.kr B esa fdlh dFku ds ;qXe dFku lafØ;k ∨ ,oa ∧ ds
:ikarj.k 0 ,oa 1 ds :ikarj.k ls çkIr gksrk gSA
 1480 xf.krh; rdZ’kkL= ,oa cwyh; chtxf.kr
cwyh; chtxf.kr esa 'kwU; vo;o 0 ,oa bdkbZ vo;o 1 vf}rh; gksrs gSaA
ekuk fd B cwyh; chtxf.kr gS] rc B esa fdlh x ,oa y ds fy,
(a) x ∨ x = x (a′) x ∧ x = x
(b) x ∨ 1 = 1 (b′) x ∧ 0 = 0 ;fn nks fLop fdlh ifjiFk esa bl çdkj gksa fd nksuks ,d lkFk
(c) x ∨ (x ∧ y ) = x (c′) x ∧ (x ∨ y ) = x [kqyk (can) gks] ge mUgsa leku v{kjksa }kjk O;Dr djsaxsA iqu% ;fn nks
(d) 0 ′ = 1 (d′) 1′ = 0 fLop bl çdkj gks fd [kqyk vkSj flQZ ;fn nwljk can gks] ge mls a ,oa
(e) (x ′)′ = x a′ }kjk n’kkZrs gSaA
(f) (x ∨ y )′ = x ′ ∧ y ′ (f′) (x ∧ y )′ = x ′ ∨ y ′ can fLop ;k tc ;g [kqyk gks dk eku 1 ,oa tc ;g [kqyk fLop
egRoiw.kZ fcUnq : ;k tc ;g can gks dk eku 0 gksxkA
• (i) (a) ,oa (b) esa lafØ;k + ,oa B ij f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k;sa gSaA [kqyk fLop r çfrfp= esa fuEu :i ls n’kkZ;k x;k gS :
• dHkh&dHkh ge cwyh; chtxf.kr dks fu:fir djrs gSa r
S1 S2
(B, ‘∨’, ‘∧’, ‘′’, 0, 1) }kjk bl N% Hkkxksa dks ukekafdr djrs gSa leqPp; B,
f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k ‘∨’ ,oa ‘∧’ iwjd lafØ;k ‘′’ ,oa nks fof’k"V vo;o 0 ,oa can fLop r çfrfp= esa fuEu :i ls n’kkZ;k x;k gS :
1bl fof’k"V dks dgrs gSa 'kwU; ,oa bdkbZA fQj Hkh Kkr jgs fd ladsr 0
r
,oa 1 fuf’pr :i ls la[;k 0 ,oa 1 dks fu:fir ugha djrs gSaA S1 S2
• leqPp; S ds lHkh rkfdZd dFku ds fy, lafØ;k + ,oa . Øe’k% ∨ fLop ifjiFk ij cwyh; lafØ;k;sa
,oa ∧ ds fy, ç;ksx gksrs gSaA iqufjfä ,oa O;k?kkr 1 ,oa 0 ds fy, ,oa (i) cwyh; xq.ku : J`a[kyk esa nks fLop r ,oa s cwyh; xq.ku lafØ;k
lafØ;k ‘~’ ‘′’ ds fy, ç;ksx gksrs gSaA djrs gSaA
r s
• P(A) ds fy, leqPp; A ds lHkh mileqPp; dk leqPp; S1 S2
lafØ;k ∪ ,oa ∩ Øe’k% ‘∨’ ,oa ‘∧’ ds fy, ç;ksx gksrs gSaA A ,oa φ
Li"Vr% fo|qr S 1 ls S 2 rd çokfgr ugha gks ldrh gS tc rd
Øe’k% 1 ,oa 0 ds ç;ksx gksrs gSa ,oa iwjd ‘′’ ds fy, ç;ksx gksrs gSaA
,d ;k nks r, s [kqys gks] ;g rHkh çokfgr gksxh tc nksuksa can gksA
cwyh; Qyu (Boolean functions)
r s r∧ s
dksbZ O;atd x ∧ x ' , a ∧ b ' , [a ∧ (b ∨ c' )] ∨ (a'∧b ' ∧ c) bl çdkj
1 1 1
gS tks fd ∨ ,oa ∧ ds cqfy;u chtxf.kr ds ifjfer vo;oksa ds lap;
1 0 0
ls cuk gS cqfy;u Qyu dgykrk gSA
0 1 0
ekuk B = {a, b, c,....} vpj }kjk cqfy;u chtxf.kr gS ;kfu fd
0 0 0
dksbZz ladsr 0 ,oa 1 tks fd B ds fof’k"V vo;oksa dks fu:fir djrk gSA
pj dk eryc gS fd ladsr tks B ds lkisf{kd vo;o dks O;Dr djsA ;g lafØ;k pkj çdj.kksa esa ls dsoy ,d ds fy, lR; gS vFkkZr~
;fn O;atd esa x ′ ∨ (y ∧ z ) ge ∨ dks + ls ,oa ∧ dks • ls cny nas tc nksuksa fLop can gksA
rks ge ikrs gSa x ′ + y.z ;gk¡ x ′ ,oa y ∧ z dks ,dinh; ,oa iw.kZ O;atd (ii) cwyh; ;ksx : ;ksx lafØ;k ds çdj.k esa nksuksa fLop lekUrj esa
x ′ ∨ (y ∧ z ) dk cgqinh; dgrs gSaA gksaxs tks fd fuEu çdkj n’kkZ;k x;k gSA
r
fLop ,oa fo|qr ifjiFk (Switching circuits)
cwyh; chtxf.kr dk ,d egRoiw.kZ O;ogkfjd vuqç;ksx fLop S1 S2
fudk; esa gksrk gSA ;g nks fLFkj ;qfDr dks la;ksftr djrk gSA lcls
vklku laHko mnkgj.k bl ;qfDr dk lk/kkj.k [kqyk&can fLop gSA
fLop dk gekjk vFkZ gS “fo|qr ifjiFk” esa gS tks fd fo|qr dks ;g ifjiFk n’kkZrk gS fd fo|qrs rc çokfgr gksxh tc ,d ;k nksuksa
çokfgr vFkok ugha çokfgr gksus nsrk gSA fLop esa can ,oa [kqyh voLFkk fLop can gksaA ;g rc çokfgr ugha gksxh tc nksuksa fLop [kqys gksaA
gksrh gSA çFke çdj.k esa fo|qr çokfgr gksrh gS tcfd nwljs çdj.k esa r s r∨s
fo|qr çokfgr ugha gksrh gSA
1 1 1
lkadsfrd :i ls a, b, c, p, q, r, x , y, z ,..... bR;kfn fo|qr ifjiFk esa
1 0 1
fLop dks n’kkZrs gSaA
0 1 1
ifjiFk dk la;kstu% eq[; :i ls fLop ,d nwljs ls nks çdkj ls tqM+s
0 0 0
gksrs gSaA (i) Js.kh Øe (ii) lekUrj Øe
(i) Js.kh Øe % nks fLop a ,oa b ‘J`a[kyk esa’ tqM+sa gksa ;fn fo|qr çokfgr ;g lafØ;k pkjksa çdj.k esa ls dsoy ,d ds fy, lR; ugha gksxhA
rHkh gks tc nksuksa can voLFkk esa gksa ,oa muesa ,d Hkh [kqyk gks rks fo|qr vFkkZr~ tc nksuksa r ,oa s [kqys gksaA
çokfgr u gksA fuEu çfrfp= bl çdkj dh ifjiFk dks n’kkZrs gSaA
(iii) la;ksftr lafØ;k ds lkFk fo|qr ifjiFk :
a b (a) ifjiFk n’kkZrk gS : r∧ (s ∨ q)
(ii) lekUrj Øe : nks fLop a ,oa b ‘lekUrj’ esa tqM+s gkas ;fn dksbZ ,d s
Hkh can gks rks fo|qr çokfgr gks ,oa ;fn nksuksa [kqys gksa rks fo|qr çokfgr
ugha gksxhA fuEu çfrfp= bl çdkj dh ifjiFk dks n’kkZrs gSaA r
S1 S2
a
q

b
 xf.krh; rdZ’kkL= ,oa cwyh; chtxf.kr 1481

(b) ifjiFk n’kkZrk gS : r ∨ (s ∧ q) ;g fuEu fp= }kjk n’kkZ;k x;k gSA

r x 1
OR x∨x
x 2
1 2

S1 S2 vkxe fuxZe
s q x1 x2 x1 ∨ x 2
(c) ifjiFk n’kkZrk gS : (r ∨ s) ∧ (r ∨ q)
1 1 1
r r
1 0 1
S1 S2 0 1 1
s q 0 0 0
(d) ifjiFk n’kkZrk gS : (r ∨ s) q (u ∨ v ∨ w)
r r (3) NOT : ;g cwyh; Qyu ifjHkkf"kr gS
S1 q v S2 f (x ) = x ′, x ∈ {0, 1}
s w ;g fuEu fp= }kjk n’kkZ;k x;k gS :
ifjiFk dh ljyrk
ifjiFk dh ljyrk dk lkekU;r% vFkZ U;wure my>k gqvk ifjiFk
U;wure ewY; ds lkFk loksZÙke ifj.kkeA ;g fofHkUu dkj.kksa }kjk gks x NOT x′
ldrk gS tSls fd midj.kksa ds ewY;] fLopksa dh fLFkfr ,oa la[;k] inkFkZ
ds çdkj bR;kfnA gekjs fy, ifjiFk dh ljyrk dk vFkZ gS U;wure
fLopksa dh la[;k tks fd ge cwyh; chtxf.kr fofHkUu xq.k/keZ ls çkIr
djrs gSaA mnkgj.kLo#i ifjiFk (a ∧ b) ∨ (a ∧ c) ysrs gSaA vkxe fuxZe
;g fu:fir dh xbZ gSA x x′
a b 1 0
0 1

la;ksftr ifjiFk :
a c
pw¡fd (a ∧ b) ∨ (a ∧ c) = a ∧ (b ∨ c) x 1

∴ ifjiFk dks ljyre fd;k tk ldrk gSA AND

x s
OR NOT
b
2

x 3

a mijksDr fp= esa mRltZd çR;sd la;ksftr x 1 , x 2 ,oa x 3 ds fy,

vf}rh; :i ls ifjHkkf"kr gSA bl çdkj ds ifjiFk dks la;ksftr ifjiFk
c dgrs gSaA
rkfdZd xsV~l (Logic gates) x 1

AND NOT s
(1) AND : ;g cwyh; Qyu ifjHkkf"kr gksrk gS x 3

f ( x 1 , x 2 ) = x 1 ∧ x 2 ; x 1 , x 2 ∈ {0, 1}
;g fuEu fp= }kjk n’kkZ;k x;k gSA mijksDr fp= esa ;fn x 1 = 1, x 2 = 0 gks rc AND xsV ls 1 ,oa 0
x vanj vk;sxk ,oa AND xsV ls ‘0’ ckgj tk,xkA ;g NOT xsV ls vanj
1
AND x ∧x
x 2
1 2
vk;sxk ,oa ckgj s = 1 tk,xk fdUrq fp= crkrk gS fd x 2 = s vFkkZr~
0 = 1 tks fd erHksn gSA
vkxe fuxZe
x1 x2 x1 ∧ x 2 ∴mRltZd vf}rh; :i ls ifjHkkf"kr ugha gSA bl çdkj ds ifjiFk

1 1 1
la;ksftr ifjiFk ugha gSA
1 0 0 nks la;ksftr ifjiFk : ;fn fdlh ifjiFk esa x 1 , x 2 ,...... x n vanj
0 1 0 tk, ,oa ,d mRltZu gks rks bl çdkj ds ifjiFk dks nks la;ksftr
0 0 0 ifjiFk dgrs gSa] ;fn ifjiFk ds vanj ,oa ckgj vkus okys vo;o leku
(2) OR : ;g cwyh; ifjHkkf"kr gksrk gSA gksaA vFkkZr~ ;fn vkxe rFkk fuxZe rkfydk leku gksxhA
f ( x 1 , x 2 ) = x 1 ∨ x 2 ; x 1 , x 2 ∈ {0, 1}
 Group Theory 1487

Chapter

35
lax.kuk rFkk f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k;sa
,d dEI;wVj djksM+ksa x.kukvksa dks dqN gh le; esa dj ldrk gSA
lax.kuk
;g vadxf.krh;] rkfdZd lafØ;kvksa rFkk x.kukvksa dks vklkuh ls dj
çLrkouk (Introduction) ldrk gSA
dEI;wVj (lax.kd) ,d cgqmi;ksxh bysDVªkWfud e'khu gS] tks cgqr
rhoz xfr ls cgqr lh lwpukvksa dh izfØ;k (processing) dj ldrh gSA

Magnetic
Printer Tape
Memory

Display Device Output

Unit
ALU

Memory
Magnetic
Disk
Memory
Input Control Unit
Unit

Punched Magnetic
Consoles Drum
Cards Or
Punched Memory
Terminals
paper
Tape
fdlh dEI;wVj esa ikWp izeq[k ?kVd gksrs gS:a (2) Lej.k bdkbZ (Memory unit)
(1) vUr%fuos'k bdkbZ (Input unit) (3) fu;a=.k bdkbZ (Control unit)
Block Diagram of a General Purpose Computer
 lax.kuk rFkk f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k;sa 1491

(4) vkafdd rFkk rkfdZd bdkbZ (Arithmetic-logical unit) ,d ,yxksfjFke ik¡p egRoiw.kZ xq.k j[krk gSA
(5) fuxZr fuos'k bdkbZ (Output unit) (1) lhferrk (Finiteness) (2) fuf'prrk (Definiteness)
(1) var% fuos'k bdkbZ (Input unit) : buiqV bdkbZ esa mi;ksx djus okyk] (3) iw.kZrk (Completeness) (4) var%fuos'k (Input) rFkk
fufnZ"V fl)kUrksa rFkk lwpukvksa dks dEI;wVj esa lapkfjr djrk gSA (5) fuxZr fuos'k (Output)
(2) Lej.k bdkbZ (Memory unit) : Lej.k bdkbZ lwpukvksa] fufnZ"V fl)kUrksa
(1) lhferrk (Finiteness) : ,d ,yxksfjFke fuf'pr inksa dh la[;k ds
rFkk ek/;fed ifj.kkeksa dks lafpr djrh gSA ;g bu lafpr lwpukvksa dks mijkUr lekIr gksuk pkfg,A
vko';drk iM+us ij dEI;wVj dh vU; bdkbZ;ksa dks iznku djrh gSA
(2) fuf'prrk (Definiteness) : ,yxksfjFke dk izR;sd in mfpr :i
(3) fu;a=.k bdkbZ (Control unit) : fu;a=.k bdkbZ bysDVªkWfud lans'kksa
dks dEI;wVj ds vU; ?kVdksa esa Hkstdj dEI;wVj ds leLr fØ;kdykiksa ls ifjHkkf"kr gksuk pkfg, vFkkZr~ Øe ;k fu;e Li"V vFkZ dk rFkk n`<+
dks fu;af=r djrh gSA gksuk pkfg,A
(4) vkafdd rFkk rkfdZd bdkbZ (Arithmetic Logical Units (ALU)) : ALU (3) iw.kZrk (Completeness) : Øe ;k fu;e iw.kZ gksuk pkfg,] ftlls
og bdkbZ gS] tgk¡ vadh; rFkk rkfdZd (mnkgj.kkFkZ <,>) x.kuk;sa dh tkrh ,yxksfjFke lHkh fof'k"V izdkj dh leL;kvksa dks gy djus ;ksX; gksA
gSA fu;a=.k bdkbZ (Control unit) rFkk ALU dks ,d lkFk dsaæh; izfØ;k (4) vUr%fuos'k (Input) : ,yxksfjFke esa fuf'pr vUr%fuos'k gksuk pkfg,A
bdkbZ [Central Processing Unit (CPU)] dgrs gSaA (5) fuxZr fuos'k (Output) : ,yxksfjFke dk ,d fuf'pr fuxZr fuos'k
(5) fuxZr fuos'k bdkbZ (Output unit) : ;g bdkbZ lafpr ifj.kkeksa dks (Output) gksuk pkfg,] ftldk var%fuos'k (Input) ls fof'k"V lEcU/k gksA
Lej.k bdkbZ (Memory unit) ls xzg.k djrh gS] ftlls mi;ksx djus ,yxksfjFke ds fy, mldh n{krk vfr egRoiw.kZ gSA dqN
okyk bu lwpukvksa dks le> ldsa rFkk vHkh"V izk:i esa izkIr dj ldasA ,yxksfjFke nwljksa dh rqyuk esa vf/kd n{k gksrs gSa] D;ksafd izksxzke ds fay,
,d dEI;wVj] ,d ls vf/kd var% fuos'k rFkk fuxZr fuos'k bdkbZ;kW muds de inksa ;k de eseksjh dh vko';drk gksrh gSA vr% dEI;wVj ij
(Input and output units) j[k ldrk gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ% eqæd (Printer) rFkk leL;k gy djrs le; ;s vf/kd larks"ktud rFkk ferO;;h fl) gksrs
çn'kZd (Display screen) nks fofHkUu fuxZr fuos'k bdkbZ;k¡ (Output units) gSaA vr% ifj.kkeh dk;ksZa esa bu lHkh fcanqvksa ij fopkj djrs gSaA
gS] tks ,d gh dEI;wVj ls tqM+h gksrh gSA
,yxksfjFke dk fuekZ.k (Development of an algorithm)
eseksjh (Memory) ,yxksfjFke ds fuekZ.k esa vuqØe] p;u rFkk bVjs'ku ;k iqujko`fÙk
dEI;wVj dh dk;Ziz.kkyh dks le>us ds fy, bldh esu eseksjh dh egRoiw.kZ Hkwfedk gS
(main memory) ds ckjs esa tkuuk mi;ksxh gSA mi;ksx djus okys dh
(1) vuqØe (Sequence) : ekuk a rFkk b ds fn;s x;s ekuksa ds fy,
n`f"V ls esu eseksjh dks fp=kuqlkj dbZ foHkkxksa (Compartments or
locations) dk ,d lewg le> ldrs gSaA izR;sd foHkkx (Compartment) O;atd a 3 + 4 ab + b 2 dk eku Kkr djuk gSA blds fy, ,yxksfjFke
dks ,d vad fn;k tkrk gS] tks bldk irk (Address) dgykrk gS rFkk 0 (vFkkZr~ fØ;kfof/k) esa fuEu in gksrs gSa
ls izkjEHk gksrk gS fp= (ii) 1. Get the value of a
0 1 2 2. Get the value of b
3 4
3. Calculate a 3 , call it S
4. Calculate 4 ab , call it T

fig. (i) Main memory as a collection of compartments (locations) 5. Calculate b 2 , call it V

0 1 2
6. Find the sum S + T + V , call it M
7. Write the value of M as answer.

Steps of an algorithm to evaluate

a 3 + 4 ab + b 2 , given the values of a, b
fig. (ii) Bits in a memory location
foHkkxksa (Compartments) dh dqy la[;k dks eseksjh dk vkdkj dgrs bl ,yxksfjFke esa ,d ds i'pkr~ ,d in vkrs gSa rFkk ;g cgqr vklku
gSaA eseksjh dk izR;sd foHkkx (tks ALU esa Hkh ntZ gS) dbZ mifoHkkxksa dks fof/k gSa bl ,yxksfjFke esa inksa dk fuf'pr vuqØe gksrk gS( vFkkZr~
j[krk gS (fig. (ii)) izR;sd mifoHkkx (Sub-compartment) ;k rks 0 ;k 1 dks (i) ,d le; esa ,yxksfjFke dk dsoy ,d in ysrs gSaA
lafpr dj ldrk gSA dEI;wVj ds Hkhrj lafpr dksbZ Hkh lwpuk 0 ;k 1 ds (ii) ,yxksfjFke dk izR;sd in ,d vkSj dsoy ,d ckj ysrs gSA fdlh
:i esa gksrh gSA vad 0 ;k 1 f}vk/kkjh vad (Binary numbers) dgykrs gSa] Hkh in dh u rks iqujko`fÙk djrs gSa vkSj u gh fdlh in dks NksM+rs gSA
ftUgsa la{ksi esa fcV~l (bits) dgrs gSa tks ‘binary’ 'kCn ls b rFkk ‘digit’ (iii) ,yxksfjFke ds inksa dks mlh Øe esa ysrs gSa] ftl Øe esa fy[kh
'kCn ls i, t ysdj curk gSA blh izdkj] nk'kfed vad (Decimal digit) dks xbZ gSA
dit rFkk "kksMf'kd vad (Hexadecimal digit) dks hit dgrs gSaA og vad
i)fr ftlesa dsoy nks vad ç;qDr gksrs gSa] f}vk/kkjh vad iz.kkyh (iv) ,yxksfjFke ds vafre in dh lekfIr] ,yxksfjFke dh lekfIr
dgykrh gSA dEI;wVj] x.kuk djus ds fy, f}vk/kkjh vad iz.kkyh dk dks iznf'kZr djrh gSA
mi;ksx djrs gSaA
;gkW ge ,d fuf'pr ifjikVh dk vuqlj.k djrs gSSA (i) vuqØe ds
,yxksfjFke (Algorithms)
Øfed in] Øfed iafDr esa gksuk pkfg,A (ii) inksa dks vuko';d :i ls
,d ,yxksfjFke fu;eksa ds lhfer leqPp; dks ifjHkkf"kr djrk gS] vafdr ugha djuk pkfg,A
tks fof'k"V leL;kvksa dks gy djus ds fy, lafØ;kvksa dk vuqØe nsrk
gSA nwljs 'kCnksa esa] ,yxksfjFke (Algorithm) leL;k dks gy djus dh fof/k (2) p;u izR;sd leL;k dks gy djus ds fy, dsoy
(Selection) :
gSA vuqØe i;kZIr ugha gSA x ds iw.kkZad eku ds fy, lehdj.k m + nx = r
 1492 lax.kuk rFkk f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k;sa
(tgk¡ m, n, r iw.kkZad gS) ij fopkj djrs gSaA rc ge chtxf.krh; fu;eksa mijksDr ,yxksfjFke esa p;u dks fof'k"V 'kCnksa ‘If, ‘then’, ‘else’ }kjk
dk mi;ksx dj x = (r − m ) ÷ n, n ≠ 0 Kkr djrs gSaA ge ,d O;Dr djrs gSaA ;g /;ku j[kuk pkfg, fd rhuksa fof'k"V 'kCn (,d
,yxksfjFke cukrs gSa] tks dsoy dqN inksa rd dk;Z djsa vFkkZr~ ,d lseh ckj) feydj ,d in iw.kZ djrs gSaA bUgsa fy[kus dk Hkh ,d fo'ks"k
,yxksfjFke cukrs gSaA rjhdk gksrk gS] tc rd in iw.kZ ugha gks tkrk] rc rd 'kCn ‘If’ ds uhps
dqN ugha fy[krs gSa] bls bUMsuVs'ku (indentation) dgrs gSaA 'kCn ‘then’
Semi-algorithm (mijksDr leL;k ds fy,) :
rFkk ‘else’ 'kCn ‘If’ ds lkis{k ,d gh bUMsuVs'ku (indentation) esa vkrs gSaA
Step 1: m, r rFkk n ds eku izkIr djksA
(3) bVjs'ku ;k iqujko`fÙk ,yxksfjFke esa
(Iteration or Repetition) :
Step 2: r eas ls m dks ?kVkvks ekuk ;g varj b gSA leL;k dks gy djrs le; dqN inksa dh iqujko`fÙk gksrh gSA ;g bVjs'ku
Step 3: b dks n ls Hkkx nks] ;g ifj.kke x ds eku ds :i esa Print ;k iqujko`fÙk dgykrh gSA
gksrk gSA vc ge ,d leL;k ij fopkj djrs gS] ftlesa gesa ,d vHkkT; la[;k
mnkgj.kkFkZ : ekuk m = 9, n = 5 rFkk r = 24 bl fLFkfr esa dk eku Kkr djuk gS] tks fn;s x;s iw.kkZad ls Bhd vf/kd gSA bl leL;k
dks gy djus ds fy, fuEu ,yxksfjFke dk mi;ksx djrs gSaA
9 + 5 x = 24 . nwljs in esa 24 − 9 = b vFkkZr~ b = 15 rFkk rhljs
Consider the given integer
b 15
in esa = = 3 , vr% x = 3 gksrk gSA ⎧add 1 to it
n 5 ⎪
⎨test new number for primen ess
mijksDr inksa esa nks nks"k gSA izFke] ;fn n = 0 rc m = r rFkk x S ⎪if it is prime,
⎩
dksbZ Hkh iw.kkZad eku xzg.k dj ldrk gS ;k m ≠ r rFkk dksbZ gy laHko then write it down and stop
ugha gS vFkkZr~ dksbZ iw.kkZad x ugha gS tks fn;s x;s lehdj.k dks larq"V ⎧else add 1 to it
djrk gSA f}rh;] ;fn b dks n ls foHkkftr djus ij v'kwU; 'ks"kQy ⎪
S ⎨test new number for primen ess
izkIr gks] rc x dk dksbZ iw.kkZad eku fn;s x;s lehdj.k dks larq"V ugha ⎪if it is prime,
⎩
djsxkA vr% ,yxksfjFke bl izdkj dk gksuk pkfg, tks bl izdkj dh then write it down and stop
fLFkfr;ksa dk fujkdj.k dj ldsA
⎧else add 1 to it
fufEufyf[kr ,yxksfjFke ls lHkh laHko fLFkfr;ksa dk lek/kku gks tkrk gSA ⎪
S ⎨test new number for primen ess
⎪if .......
Step 1 : Get the values of m, n and r ⎩

Step 2 : If n = 0 and m = r
Algorithm for finding a prime number
then go to step 7 greater then a given positive integer
else go to step 3
mijksDr izfØ;k esa ge fuEu inksa dks ns[krs gSaA
Step 3 : If n = 0 and m ≠ r
then go to step 6 “add 1 to it
else go to step 4 test new number for primeness
Step 4 : Subtract m from r, call this difference b if it is prime
then write it down and stop ”
(i.e., b = r−m )
Step 5: Divide b by n; ftudh iqujko`fÙk rc rd gksrh gS] tc rd fd ge vHkkT; la[;k
If there is a remainder izkIr dj mls Print ugha dj ysrsA ;fn bl vuqØe dks (ftlesa ifj.kke
then go to step 6 Hkh 'kkfey gS) S ls iznf'kZr djrs gS, rc S dh iqujko`fÙk ifj.kke ds print
b gksus rd gksrh jgrh gSA bls rduhdh :i ls bVjs'ku ;k iqujko`fÙk
else print the value of , which is the required value of x.
n dgrs gSaA
Step 6: Print ‘No integer satisfies this equation’. Stop pw¡fd ge ;g ugha tkurs fd S dh iqujko`fÙk fdruh ckj gksxh]
D;ksafd ;g fn;s x, /kukRed iw.kkZad ij fuHkZj djrh gSA bl leL;k ds
Algorithm to solve an equation of the form m +
nx = r, where m, n, r, x are integers fujkdj.k ds fy;s ,yxksfjFke esa bVjs'ku dks ,d u;s izdkj ls fy[krs gSaA
Consider the given number
mijksDr ,yxksfjFke ls ge vko';drk ds vuq:i inksa dk p;u repeat
add 1 to it
dj ldrs gSa tks fd m, n rFkk r (ifj.kker% b dk eku) ds ekuksa ij fuHkZj until the new number is prime
djrk gSA write the new number

,yxksfjFke dh ;gh ;ksX;rk p;u dgykrh gSA p;u dh {kerk ;g

Or
gS] fd ;g ,yxksfjFke dk fØ;kU;o;u djus okys dks leL;k ds vuq:i
Consider the given number
fofHkUu iFkksa dk vuqlj.k djus dh vuqefr nsrh gSA add 1 to it
while the new number is not prime
do add 1 to it
write the new number

Two different ways of writing iteration

occuring in fig.
 lax.kuk rFkk f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k;sa 1493

fØ;kfUor gksrk gSA tcfd 'while-do' jpuk (construct) esa izfrcU/k dh

tkWp izkjEHk esa djrs gSaA
(3) While-do-jpuk (construct) : ;g 'repeat-until' jpuk (construct)
dk oSdfYid gSA bldk lkekU; :i ftldk funsZ'kksa dh iqujko`fÙk esa Hkh
feF;k&Hkk"kk (Pseudo language) mi;ksx gksrk gSA

euq";ksa }kjk cksyus rFkk fy[kus ds fy, mi;ksx gksus okyh Hkk"kk dks while condition
izkd`frd Hkk"kk dgrs gSaA izkd`frd Hkk"kk fo"kerk fy;s gq, gksrh gSA do T

dEI;wVj ,d e'khu gS] vr% mls funsZ'k nsrs le; dksbZ fo"kerk ugha
gksuh pkfg,A dEI;wVj ls lEcU/k LFkkfir djus okyh Hkk"kk dks dk;Zdkjh tgk¡ T funsZ'kksa dk vuqØe gSA tc bl jpuk (construct) dks
Hkk"kk (programming languages) dgrs gSA fØ;kfUor djrs gSa] loZizFke izfrcU/k dk eku Kkr djrs gSaA ;fn
,yxksfjFke fy[kus ds fy, ge Le`fr lgk;d pjksa tSlsa izfrcU/k lR; gS] rc funsZ'kksa dk vuqØe T fØ;kfUor gksrk gS rFkk iqu%
assignment, symbol ← fuekZ.kdkjh 'kCnksa If-then-else, Repeat-until, izfrcU/k dk eku Kkr djrs gSaA ;fn izfrcU/k vlR; gS] rc ,yxksfjFke
While-Do rFkk vU; fuekZ.kdkjh 'kCn For dk mi;ksx djrs gSa A ges a ds T ds ckn ds Hkkx dk fØ;kUo;u gksrk gSA
bu funsZ'kksa dh ,yxksfjFke esa buiqV nsus ds lkFk lkFk vkmViqV ls bl izdkj izfrcU/k dh tkWp ckj ckj rc rd djrs gSa tc rd ;g
vfHkxqf.kr ifj.kke izkIr djus ds fy, Hkh vko';drk gksrh gSA ;g vlR; u gks tk;sA T ds izR;sd fØ;kUo;u esa ,yxksfjFke ds dqN pj
lHkh ,yxksfjFke dks iznf'kZr djus ds fy, Hkk"kk dk fuekZ.k djrs gSaA vk tkrs gS rFkk Li"Vr% dqN iqujko`fÙk;ksa ds i'pkr~ izfrcU/k vlR; gks
;g Hkk"kk ,d vPNh dk;Zdkjh Hkk"kk (programming language) ds lHkh tkrk gSaA ;g 'while-do-construct', ds fØ;kUo;u dks iw.kZ djrk gS rFkk T
xq.k j[krh gSA bls gh feF;k-Hkk"kk (Pseudo-language) dgrs gSaA ds i'pkr~ vkus okys Hkkx dk fØ;kUo;u ykxw djrk gSA
feF;k Hkk"kk fuekZ.k (Pseudo language constructs) (4) For jpuk (construct): tc ge ;g tkurs gS] fd ,yxksfjFke ds
fdlh Hkkx dk fdruh ckj fØ;kUo;u gksrk gS] rc ge 'For construct' dk
(1) If-then-else jpuk (construct) : bl jpuk (construct) ds lkekU;
:i esa ge fØ;kvksa dk p;u djrs gSaA tc dksbZ funsZ'k bl construct dks mi;ksx djrs gSa ftldk lkekU; :i gSa
fØ;kfUor djrk gS] rc og izfrcU/k Kkr djrs gSa ftlds vUrZxr Step 1 For identifier = initial value to test value by increment Do S.
;k Step 2 fØ;kfUor gksA bl construct ds fy;s 'kCnksa, For, To, By rFkk Do fjtoZ (reserve)
words gSA izkjfEHkd eku og vkjfEHkd eku nsrk gS] tks identifier xzg.k
If condition djrk gS tcfd S fØ;kfUor gksrk gSA izR;sd fØ;kUo;u ds ckn eku
then step 1
else step 2
c<+kdj identifier dk eku c<+krs gSA S dk fØ;kUo;u yxkrkj rc rd
gksrk gS] tc rd identifier dk eku ijh{k.k eku ls vf/kd u gks tk;sA
;fn izfrcU/k lR; gS] rc step 1 dk fØ;kUo;u gksxk vU;Fkk (vFkkZr~ vkjs[k fp= ¼,yxksfjFke dk çn'kZu½
;fn izfrcU/k lR; ugha gS) step 2 dk fØ;kUo;u gksxkA (Flow charts (Presentation of algorithm))
bl jpuk (construct) dh ,d fo'ks"k fLFkfr esa 'kCn else ugha gksrk fdlh ,yxksfjFke dk xzkQh; fu:i.k vkjs[k fp= dgykrk gSA ,d
gSA bl jpuk (construct) dk lkekU; :i gSaA vkjs[k fp= esa vuqØe ds mu inksa dk tks leL;k dks gy djus esa
fØ;kfUor gksrs gSa] fp=kRed rFkk O;ofLFkr fu#i.k gksrk gSA
If condition
then step ,d vkjs[k fp= (flow-chart) esa dqN ckWDl gksrs gSa] tks rhjksa ds }kjk
tqM+s gksrs gSaA izR;sd ckWDl esa dqN funsZ'k lekfgr gksrs gSaA ckWDlksa dks
tksM+us okyh js[kkvksa dk rhj buds fØ;kUo;u dh fn'kk dks iznf'kZr
Li"Vr%] tc bl :i dk mi;ksx djrs gSa rc izfrcU/k ds vlR; djrk gSA
gksus ij dksbZ fØ;k ugha gksrh rFkk step rHkh fØ;kfUor gksrk gS] tc
izfrcU/k lR; gSA nwljs 'kCnks esa fufEufyf[kr constructs Hkh lerqY; gS ckWDl fofHkUu vkdkj ds gksrs gSaA çR;sd fof'k"V vkdkj ds ckWDlksa
tks ;gh dk;Z djrk gSA eas fo'ks"k izdkj ds funsZ'k lekfgr gksrs gSaA
vkjs[k fp= ifjikVh %
If condition If condition
then step and then step vkjs[k fp= dh jpuk djrs le; fuEu ifjikVh izsf{kr gksrh gSaA
else do nothing
(i) vkjs[k dh lkekU; fn'kk ck¡;s ls nk¡;s rFkk Åij ls uhps dh vksj
(2) Repeat-until jpuk (Construct) : bl jpuk (construct) dk gksrh gSA
lkekU; :i gS (ii) Process ladsr ls dsoy ,d vkjs[k js[kk ;k izokg-js[kk fudyrh
Repeat
Part of the algorithm gSA
until condition
(iii) Decision-box esa dsoy ,d vkjs[k js[kk izos'k djrh gS rFkk de
bl jpuk (construct) dk mi;ksx rc djrs gSa tc fuf'pr ls de nks js[kk;as ckgj fudyrh gSA
fØ;kvksa dh iqujko`fÙk dh vko';drk gksrh gSA pw¡fd izfrcU/k dh tkWp
(iv) ,d vkjs[k js[kk tks Åij dh vksj tkrh gS] bVjs'ku ;k ywi dks
var esa djrs gSa vr% “Part of algorithm” lnSo de ls de ,d ckj
iw.kZ djrh gSaA
 1494 lax.kuk rFkk f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k;sa
(i) tc fdlh lafØ;k dh fu;r la[;k rd iqujko`fÙk gksrh gS] fdarq
vk/kkjHkwr lafØ;k rFkk vkjs[k fp= %
pjksa dk eku dqN Hkh gks ldrk gS] rc vkjs[k fp= dk laxr Hkkx ,d
rhu vk/kkjHkwr lafØ;k;sa gS: fu;r ywi dk fuekZ.k djrk gSA
(i) vuqØe (Sequence) (ii) p;u (Selection)
(ii) tc bVjs'ku dh la[;k] pjksa ds ekuksa ij fuHkZj djrh gS] rc
(iii) bVjs'ku (Iteration) vkjs[k fp= dk laxr Hkkx ,d pj ywi (Variable loop) dk fuekZ.k djrk
fdlh bVjs'ku ds laxr vkjs[k fp= dk p;u ;k Repeat-Until gSA bl ywi dks i'pxkeh dwn (Backward jump) Hkh dgrs gSaA
construct ;k While-Do construct ,d ywi dk fuekZ.k djrk gSA ywi nks
izdkj ds gksrs gSaA
Examples of Use
BASIC SYMBOLS

Start
Stop
TERMINAL SYMBOLS

Read New Value Write the

for X value of W
INPUT OUTPUT SYMBOLS

This flow line can This block is

be omitted entered 15
if X = Y times each
pass

COMMENT ANNOTATION SYMBOLS

If these appear on a flow chart they 1A

1A represent the same point

CONNECTOR
2 2
−C
X←Z+4 X=
B

A←B×C A

PROCESS

No Yes Is X
Flow Chart IsSymbols <=>
X=Y? Y
X<Y X>Y
DECISION X=Y
 1494 lax.kuk rFkk f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k;sa
• ?kVuk Z, Q, R rFkk C izR;sd leqPp; ds fy;s f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k gS]
la[;k i)fr (Number system) fdUrq ;g N ds fy, f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k ugha gSA
(1) n'kfed i)fr (Decimal system) : bl la[;k i)fr dk ge
• foHkktu N, Z, Q, R rFkk C esa ls fdlh Hkh leqPp; ds fy;s
nSfud thou esa mi;ksx djrs gSaA nk'kfed i)fr esa ge vadksa 0, 1, f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k ugha gSA
2,.......8, 9 dk mi;ksx djrs gSa rFkk bu 10 vadksa dh lgk;rk ls ge dksbZ
Hkh ifjes; la[;k fy[k ldrs gSaA nk'kfed i)fr] LFkkuh; eku i)fr s (Types of binary operation)
ij vk/kkfjr gS vFkkZr~ fdlh vad }kjk iznf'kZr eku la[;k esa ml vad
dh fLFkfr ij fuHkZj djrk gSA nk'kfed i)fr esa Øfed LFkkuksa ij fn;s (1) Øefofues;d f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k (Commutative binary operation) :
tkus okys eku 10 4 , 10 3 ,...... 10 0 , 10 −1 , 10 −2 ..... (ck¡;s ls nk¡;s) gksrs leqPp; S ij ,d f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k * Øefofues; gS] ;fn a * b = b * a
gSaA ∀ a, b ∈ S
mnkgj.kkFkZ : la[;k 3864. 342 dks fuEu izdkj ls fy[k ldrs gSaA leqPp; Z ds fy;s ;ksx rFkk xq.ku Øefofues;d f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k;sa
3864.342 = 3 × 10 + 8 × 10 + 6 × 10 + 4 × 10 + 3 × 10 + 4 × 10 + 2 × 10
3 2 1 0 –1 –2 –3 gS] fdUrq O;odyu (Subtract) ,d Øefofues;d f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k ugha gS]
la[;kvksa dks iznf'kZr djus ds fy, 10 vk/kkj ladsr mi;ksx fd;s pw¡fd 2 – 3 ≠ 3 – 2
tkrs gSaA 10 bl i)fr dk vk/kkj gS rFkk bl i)fr dks nl-vk/kkjh; (2) lkâp;Z f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k (Associative binary operation) : ekuk
i)fr ;k nk'kfed i)fr dgrs gSaA leqPp; S ij ,d f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k * lkâp;Z gS] ;fn ( a * b) *
(2) f}vk/kkjh la[;k i)fr (Binary number system) : og la[;k i)fr
c = a * (b * c) ∀ a, b, c ∈ S
ftlds fy, vk/kkj 2 gS] f}vk/kkjh i)fr dgykrh gSA bl i)fr esa] ;ksx rFkk xq.ku N, Z, Q, R rFkk C ds fy;s lkâp;Z f}vk/kkjh
la[;kvksa dks nks vk/kkj ladsrksa 0 ;k 1 ls iznf'kZr djrs gSaA bl i)fr esa lafØ;k;sa gS] fdUrq O;odyu (Subtract) Z, Q, R rFkk C ds fy;s lkâp;Z
f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k ugha gSA
Øfed LFkkuksa ij 2 4 , 2 3 , 2 2 , 2 1 , 2 0 , 2 −1 , 2 −2 .... vad fn;s tkrs gSa
(3) forj.k f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k (Distributive binary operation) : ekuk
tgk¡ 2 0 bdkbZ LFkku ij gksrk gSA f}vk/kkjh vadksa rFkk nk'kfed vadksa leqPp; S ij nks f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k;sa * rFkk o gS] rc
dks ,d nwljs esa ifjofrZr dj ldrs gSaA
(i) o ij ck¡;k forj.k gS] ;fn a * (b o c) = (a * b) o (a * c) ∀ a, b, c
(3) vf"Vd la[;k i)fr (Octal number system) : tSlk fd uke ls
∈ S;
Li"V gS] bl i)fr esa vk/kkj 8 (2 3 ) gksrk gSA la[;kvksa dks vkB (ii) o ij nk¡;k forj.k gS] ;fn (b o c) * a = (b * a) o (c * a) ∀ a, b, c
vk/kkjHkwr ladsrksa 0, 1, 2,......,7 dh lgk;rk ls fy[kk tkrk gSA Øfed ∈ S.
LFkkuksa ij fn;s tkus okys eku ....... 8 3 , 8 2 , 8 1 , 8 0 , 8 −1 , 8 −2 ..... gS] tgk¡ ;fn o ij ck¡;k rFkk nk¡;k forj.k * gS] rc * dks o ij forj.k dgrs
8 0 bdkbZ LFkku gSA nk'kfed la[;k i)fr dks vf"Vd la[;k i)fr esa gSaA
ifjofrZr dj ldrs gSaA mnkgj.kkFkZ : Z ij ;ksx (+) ds fy,] Z ij xq.ku (.) forj.k fu;e
(4) "kksMf'kd la[;k i)fr (Hexadecimal system) : bl i)fr esa vk/kkj dk ikyu djrk gS] pw¡fd a(b + c) = a⋅b + a⋅c rFkk (b+c)⋅ a = b ⋅ a + c ⋅ a
16 gksrk gSA la[;kvksa dks 16 ladsrksa 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, ∀ a, b, c ∈ Z
F dh lgk;rk ls fy[krs gSaA ladsr A, 10 dks iznf'kZr djrk gS (nk'kfed fdUrq xq.ku ds fay;s ;ksx forj.k fu;e dk ikyu ugha djrk gSA
i)fr esa)A blh izdkj B, C, D, E, F Øe'k% 11, 12, 13, 14 rFkk 15 dks iznf'kZr
djrk gSaA bl i)fr esa Øfed LFkkuksa ij fn;s tkus okys eku ........, rRled rFkk izfrykse vo;o (Identity and Inverse elements)
16 2 , 16 1 , 16 0 , 16 −1..... gS] tgk¡ 16 0 bdkbZ LFkku gSA
(1) rRled vo;o (Identity element) : ekuk * leqPp; S ij
f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k gSA fdlh f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k * ds fy;s ,d vo;o e ∈
f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k;sa S rRled gksxk ;fn a * e = a = e * a ∀ a ∈ S
ifjHkk"kk (Definition) Z ij ;ksx ds fy, 0 ,d rRled vo;o gS] pw¡fd
fdlh vfjDr leqPp; A ij f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k ,d Qyu gS] tks A a+0=a=0+a∀a∈Z
ds vo;oksa ds izR;sd Øfer ;qXe ls layXu gS tcfd ,d vf}rh; R ij xq.ku ds fy;s 1 rRled vo;o gS] pw¡fd 1 × a = a =
vo;o c bl izdkj ifjHkkf"kr gS fd c ∈ A, ;g xqf.kr lewg A × A ls A a×1∀a∈R
esa ,d Qyu gSA ladsr :i esa] ,d Qyu A × A → A, (2) izfrykse vo;o (Inversible element for a binary operation with
leqPp; A ij f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k dgykrh gSA identity): fdlh f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k * ds fy, leqPp; A dk vo;o a
vo;o (a, b) ∈ A × A ds izfrfcEc dks a * b ls iznf'kZr djrs gSA izfryksfed gS] ;fn ∃ b ∈ A bl izdkj gS fd
;fn leqPp; A, fdlh la;kstu ds lkis{k cUn gS] rc ge dgrs gS] fd a * b = e = b * a tgk¡ e rRled gSA
leqPp; A ij f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k * gSA
b dks a dk izfrykse dgrs gSa rFkk bls a ls iznf'kZr djrs gSaA
–1

ekuk, a ∈ N, b ∈ N ⇒ a + b ∈ N ∀ a, b ∈ N leqPp; A esa izfryksfed vo;o dks ;wfuV dgrs gSaA rRled vo;o
N ds fy, xq.ku Hkh ,d f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k gS] pw¡fd a ∈ N, lnSo izfryksfed gksrs gSa rFkk Lo;a ds O;qRØe gksrs gSaA p¡wfd e * e = e * e
b ∈ N ⇒ a × b ∈ N ∀ a, b ∈ N = e, bl izdkj e = e gSA
–1

fdUrq N ds fy, O;odyu (Subtract) ,d f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k ugha gS] la;kstu rkfydk (Composition table)
pw¡fd 3 ∈ N, 5 ∈ N fdUrq 3 – 5 = – 2 ∉ N
•;g Li"V gS] fd ;ksx rFkk xq.ku Z (iw.kkZadksa dk), Q (ifjes; la[;k fdlh ifjfer leqPp; ij f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k dks ,d rkfydk }kjk
dk), R (okLrfod la[;k dk) rFkk C (lfEeJ la[;k dk) leqPP;ksa esa ls le>k ldrs gSa] bl rkfydk dks la;kstu rkfydk dgrs gSaA
izR;sd ds fy;s f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k gSA
 lax.kuk rFkk f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k;sa 1495

ekuk S = {a1 , a2 , ....., an } ,d ifjfer leqPp; gSa rFkk S ij

f}/kkjh lafØ;k * gS] rc * ds fy;s la;kstu rkfydk dks fuEukuqlkj lax.kuk
iznf'kZr djrs gSaA
ge leqPp; S ds vo;oksa a , a , ….. ,a dks Åijh {kSfrt iafDr esa 1. ,d leL;k dk gy pjksa ds fdlh çfrcU/k ls lEcfU/kr ugha gS rFkk
u gh iqujko`fÙkd çd`fr dk gS rc vk/kkjHkwr fu;=a.k lafØ;k gS
1 2 n

fy[krs gSa rFkk blh Øe esa vo;oksa dks ck¡;h vksj ds Å/okZ/kj LrEHk esa
fy[krs gSaA (a) vuqØe.kh; (Sequential) (b) p;u (Selection)
(c) iqujko`fÙk (Repetitive) (d) buesa ls dksbZ ugha
lkj.kh % 35.1 2. dEI;wVj fØ;kfUor dj ldrk gS
(a) ,d ,yxksfjFke (An algorithm)
* a1 a2 …. ai …. aj …. an (b) ,d vkjs[k fp= (A flow-chart)
a1 a1 * a1 a1 * a2 …. a1 * ai …. a1 * aj …. a1 * an (c) ,d dk;ZØe (A program)
a2 a2 * a1 a2 * a2 …. a2 * ai …. a2 * aj …. a2 * an (d) buesa ls dksbZ ugha
M 3. ,d vk/kkjHkwr fu;a=.k lajpuk lnSo j[krk gS
ai ai * a1 ai * a2 …. ai * ai …. ai * aj …. ai * an (a) ,d ços’k rFkk nks fuxZr fcUnq
M (b) nks ços’k rFkk ,d fuxZr fcUnq
(c) ,d ços’k rFkk ,d fuxZr fcUnq
aj aj * a1 aj * a2 …. aj * ai …. aj * aj …. aj * an
(d) fdruh Hkh la[;k esa ços’k rFkk fuxZr fcUnq
M 4. dEI;wVj dk ân; rFkk raf=dk ra= gS
an an * a1 an * a2 …. an * ai …. an * aj …. an * an (a) var% fuos’k bdkbZ (Input unit)
(b) fuxZr fuos’k bdkbZ (Output unit)
la;kstu rkfydk
(c) dsUæh; çfØ;k bdkbZ (CPU)
la;kstu rkfydk ls ge fuEu ifj.kke izkIr djrs gSaA (d) Lej.k bdkbZ (Memory unit)
5. ,d ,yxksfjFke j[krk gS] de ls de
;fn rkfydk ds izR;sd vo;o leqPp; S ds vo;o gks rFkk S
(1) (a) ,d buiqV (b) ,d vkmViqV
dk izR;sd vo;o] izR;sd iafDr ;k LrEHk esa dsoy ,d ckj izrhr gks] (c) ,d vlkbuesaUV (d) buesa ls dksbZ ugha
rc lafØ;k dks f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k dgrs gSaA 6. fdlh leL;k esa vusd çdkj ds fufnZ"V fl}kUrksa dk v/;;u
djrs gSa] rc vko’;d fu;a=.k lajpuk (control structure) gS
f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k dks lqifjHkkf"kr dgrs gSa ftldk rkRi;Z ;g gS]
(a) dsoy vuqØe.kh; (Only sequential)
fd f}/kkjh lafØ;k *, S ds izR;sd vo;o ls S ds vf}rh; vo;o rd (b) dsoy p;u (Only selection)
layXu gS vFkkZr~ S, lafØ;k * ds vUrZxr ifjc) gSA (c) iqujko`fÙk lajpuk (Repetition structure)
(2) ;fn rkfydk ds vo;o fod.kZ (tks Åijh ck¡;sa dksus ls izkjEHk (d) buesa ls dksbZ ugha
gksdj uhps nk¡;s dksus ij lekIr gksrk gS) ds lkis{k lefer gS] rc 7. fu;a=.k lajpuk (control structure) IF-THEN-ELSE gS
(a) ,dy p;u (Single selection)
f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k] S ij Øefofues;d fu;e dk ikyu djrh gS] vU;Fkk (b) cgqp;u (Multiple selection)
;g S ij Øefofues; ugha gksrk gSA (c) iqujko`fÙkd ljapuk (Repetition structure)
(3) ;fn a , vo;o okyh iafDr 'kh"kZ iafDr ds lEikrh gS rFkk a (d) buesa ls dksbZ ugha
FOR-DO construct ywi dks de ls de fdruh ckj fØ;kfUor
j j

vo;o okyk LrEHk] lcls cka;h vksj ds LrEHk ds lEikrh gS] rc S ij 8.

f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k * ds fy;s a rRled vo;o gSA djrk gS
j
(a) ,d ckj (b) nks ckj
(4) ;fn çR;sd iafDr (lcls Åijh iafDr ds vfrfjDr) ;k çR;sd (c) rhu ckj (d) buesa ls dksbZ ugha
LrEHk (lcls cka;h vksj ds LrEHk ds vfrfjDr) esa rRled vo;o gS rc 9. fu;a=.k lajpuk (CASE-OF) gS
S dk çR;sd vo;o * ds lkis{k O;qRØe.kh; gksrk gSA (a) ,dy p;u (Single selection)
(b) cgqp;u (Multiple selection)
fdlh vo;o (ekuk a ) dk çfrykse Kkr djus ds fy;s a dh iafDr
j i
(c) iqujko`f+Ùk ljapuk (Repetition structure)
(;k LrEHk) ij fopkj djrs gS] rc bl iafDr (;k LrEHk) esa rRled (d) buesa ls dksbZ ugha
vo;o e dh fLFkfr Kkr djrs gSA ;fn e, a ds LrEHk (;k iafDr) esa çrhrj
10. f}vk/kkjh la[;k 10101 dk nk’kfed rqY; gS [DCE 1999]
gksrk gS] rc a rFkk a ,d nwljs ds çfrykse gksrs gSA (a) 20 (b) 21
i j
(c) 22 (d) 23
;g /;ku j[kuk pkfg;s] fd la;kstu rkfydk f}vk/kkjh lafØ;kvksa 11. (101001110)
2
dk vf"Vd rqY; gS [DCE 1994]
(a) 116 (b) 561
dh lkgpZ;rk Kkr djus esa dksbZ lgk;rk ugh djrh gSA ;g çR;sd (c) 615 (d) 516
laHko ç;klksa }kjk lR;kfir gksuk pkfg;sA 12. vf"Vd la[;k 219 dk nk’kfed rqY; gS [DCE 1999]
(a) 140 (b) 145
(c) 150 (d) 155