https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?

R=19930013813 2019-10-13T14:57:15+00:00Z

_c_ .7,_

NASA Technical Memorandum 105419 /'_ .........

_ ,-, _ _".

Technical Report Writing

Carol A. Vidoli
Lewis Research Center
Cleveland, Ohio

(N A S A- T :_-I0 5 a 1 9 ) T EC H :_:_
IC A L R E P 0 R T N 9 3- 2 3 0 0 2
T I NO
_.-.._
R .[ (i_A S A ) 2 :ij p

U n c I ;_s

.:,--.
,_3 / 8 2 01 5 7 8 3.4

I AZA
 Report Writing Aids

As an aid in outlining and drafting your report, try to answer the following questions before starting
to write:

• What are the purpose and scope of the report? Do you have something worth reporting?

• Who will read the report? What do you want your readers to learn from the report? What do they
need to know about the subject to understand your results and conclusions?

• What are the most significant results and conclusions of your work? Do these all fall within the
stated purpose of the report? What is the order of importance of the results and conclusions?

• How can the important results best be presented to the readers? Should figures and tables be used?
If so, what should these show? Should the results be presented and discussed by

1. Decreasing order of importance? (usually preferred)

2. Increasing order of importance?
3. The chronological order in which they were determined? (Consider carefully before using.)
4. Some other logical order of development?
• What is the minimum information needed to support the major results and conclusions? What
additional information do you have? Should any of this be included in the report, or will it detract
from your readers' comprehension of the major points? If any additional information should be
included, should it be in the main text or in an appendix?

After you have prepared your report draft, review it with the following questions in mind:

• Are the purpose and scope of the report clearly stated? Has the purpose been fulfilled?
• Does the Introduction give your readers the information they need to understand the results (or
tell them where to get the information)? Are your assumptions clearly defined?

• Did you say what you wanted to say? Do you mean what you said? Can your readers misinterpret
what you said?
• Will the important results be clear to your readers? Is the order of importance clear?
• Are the limitations of the conclusions clearly stated?

• Is the information presented so as to emphasize the most important results rather than the difficulty
of the work?

• Have you clearly separated facts from opinions? Can your readers easily distinguish between these?
• Are the items listed in the Authors Checklist (see inside back cover) properly completed?
Foreword

One of NASA's primary functions is the dissemination of its research results to the
aerospace community. Therefore report writing is an important duty of most engineers
and scientists at the Lewis Research Center. To do their jobs successfully, they must write
reports that are both technically correct and easy to read. But many find report writing
to be a difficult chore, particularly in making reports readable. This guide has been written
to make the chore easier.
The guide explains the fundamentals of writing and reviewing technical reports and
specifically how these fundamentals are applied to NASA reports. The intention is to briefly
state the desirable qualities of a good report and to encourage clarity in conveying thoughts
into written form.
This guide is divided into seven chapters, as follows:

(1) Technical Report Preparation: the steps involved in preparing a report, from gathering
the data to writing the rough draft
(2) Report Style: the requirements for good reports, some suggestions for improving
report writing style, and some recommended methods for presenting data clearly
(3) Report Introduction: the functions of a technical report Introduction, its content,
style, length, and relation to other parts of the report
(4) Experiment and Analysis Descriptions: the content of various report sections
commonly used to describe experimental programs, including Apparatus, Procedure,
and Analysis sections
(5) Results and Discussion: the organization of the Results and Discussion section, the
presentation of data, and the discussion of significant results
(6) Concluding and Supporting Sections: the preparation of terminal sections such as
the Conclusions or the Summary of Results; discussion of supporting sections such
as the Summary, references, and appendixes
(7) Review of Reports: the importance of reviewing and the methods used at Lewis
to review reports, with emphasis on the responsibilities of authors and reviewers at each
step; the Lewis publication "Research Publications Processing Guide" will assist authors
in submitting their reports to the Technical Information Services Division for publication.
Lewis-authored publications are available in the Lewis library. Lewis scientists and
engineers author 600 to 800 technical publications each year, and Lewis-managed contracts
and grants generate an additional 150 to 300 contractor reports annually. Our bibliographies
of Lewis Research Center technical publications list and abstract these works.

Questions on policy and procedures should be directed to Joyce C. Cieszewski, Chief of

the Editorial Branch. Copies of the guide are available from the Editorial Branch.

Richard E. Texler
Chief, Technical Information Services Division
Contents
Page
Chapter

1 Stages of Report Preparation ....................................................... 1

Gathering the Data ................................................................. 1
Analyzing and Sorting the Results,, ............................................ 1
Outlining the Report ..................................................... .......... 2
Writing the Rough Draft .. ....................................................... 3
Revising the Rough Draft ........................................................ 3
2 Report Style ........................................................................... 5
Requirements of Reports ......................................................... 5
Clarity ............................................................................. 5
Conciseness ....................................................................... 5
Continuity ........................................ . ................................ 5
Objectivity ........................................................................ 6
Writing Style .............. .......................................................... 6
Writing Naturally .... . ........................ ,.................................. 6
Guiding the Reader ............................................................. 6
Getting to the Point ............................................................. 6
Emphasizing Major Ideas .................................. .................... 6
Separating Fact From Opinion ................................................ 6
Data Presentation ................................................................... 7
Figures ............................... .. ..... ....... ,.............................. 7
Tables ................................................................................ 8
Technical Film or Videotape Supplements ................................. 8
Microfiche Supplements ........................ ................................ 8
Miscellaneous ....................................................................... 9
Computer Programs ............................................................. 9
Trade Names. .................................................................... 9
Spelling ............ ,............................................................... 9
Numerals .......................................................................... 9
Rough-Draft Typing. ........................................................... 9
3 Report Introduction .................................................................. 11
Relation to Rest of Report ....................................................... 11
Primary Functions ................................................................. 11
Statement of Subject ............................................................ 11
Statement of Purpose ........................................................... 11
Statement of Organization and Scope .................................... ... 12
Secondary Functions ............................................................... 12
Style and Length ................................................................... 12

• " ,_ __._ PRE(tlEt_iG PhGE BLANK NOT RLMED

 Page
Chapter
4 Experiment and Analysis Descriptions ........................................... 13
Format of Experiment Descriptions ............................................ 13
Apparatus Sections .............................................................. 13
Materials Section ................................................................ 13
Test Procedure Section ......................................................... 13
Format of Analysis Descriptions ................................................ 14
Symbols Section .................................................................... 14
Errors and Precision ............................................................... 14
5 Results and Discussion .............................................................. 15
Organization of Section ........................................................... 15
Presentation of Results ............................................................ 15
Discussion of Results .............................................................. 16
6 Concluding and Supporting Sections ............................................. 17
Concluding Section ................................................................ 17
Summary of Results ............................................................ 17
Conclusions ....................................................................... 17
Concluding Remarks ............................................................ 17
Summary Section ................................................................. 18
Abstract .............................................................................. 18
Title ................................................................................... 18
Appendixes .......................................................................... 18
References ........................................................................... 19
Format ............................................................................. 19
Suitability ......................................................................... 19
Report Documentation Page ..................................................... 19
7 Review of Reports .... ............................................................... 21
Steps in Review .................................................................... 21
Author Review of Rough Draft ................................................. 21
Technical Review Committee .................................................... 21
Objectives ......................................................................... 22
Reviewing Guidelines ........................................................... 22
Single Reviewer .................................................................... 22
References ............................................................................. 24
Report Writing Aids ................................................. inside front cover
Authors Checklist ...................................................... inside back cover
Chapter 1

Stages of Report Preparation

Research information has limited value unless it is collected Analyzing and Sorting the Results
and published in a usable form and presented to those who may
apply it. For these reasons never assume that your job is finished The second stage of report preparation, data analysis and
when the experimental or analytical phase has been completed, sorting, is probably the most difficult because it requires
It is also your responsibility as an engineer or scientist to show considerable mental effort to decide what you want to tell your
promptly that your results are worthwhile and that you have readers. The beginning of this stage overlaps the data-gathering
reason to believe the field will be advanced by your efforts. The stage, for data analysis should begin as the data are collected.
only way to convey these thoughts is by writing a good report. But the bulk of data analysis must be done near completion
The five major stages of report preparation are of the program. At this time reexamine the pertinent data and
(1) Gathering the data (or developing the theory) review your earlier opinions with respect to subsequent results.
(2) Analyzing and sorting the results During this data review the program conclusions should be
(3) Outlining the report drawn. This is the most important step in report preparation
(4) Writing the rough draft because the conclusions are the reason for the report and the
(5) Revising the rough draft basis for report preparation: They dictate what to include in
a report and how to organize it. Trying to organize and write
a report without knowing the conclusions is like starting an
automobile trip without knowing the destination. You will not
Gathering the Data know where you are going, and you will never know when you
get far enough to stop. Therefore choose your report destination
Report preparation begins with planning the research early by drawing and clearly defining the program conclusions
program. An orderly investigation is a requisite for an orderly before you begin to organize and write the report. This is best
report. Report planning and program planning should be done by first writing down all significant results in no particular
considered one and the same. To become a successful technical order and then sorting them so that the results pertaining to a
writer, you should develop the ability to foresee the general common factor are grouped together. Once the conclusions are
content of the report before the program begins. In most cases drawn, list them in descending order of importance.
you should be able to prepare a preliminary report outline at Selection of the data to be used in the report is another
the beginning of the program. Outlining should benefit both important part of this step. Choose only the data necessary
the report and the program, for obviously a well-prepared to help your readers reach the conclusions you are drawing.
outline requires a carefully planned program. Excessive data or data only loosely related to the conclusions
During the course of the program keep the future report in will obscure them and confuse your readers. Of course, do
mind. Maintain orderly records as the data are gathered. The not hide contradictory results. When definite contradictions
little extra time required to record the results carefully can exist, clearly alert your readers to this fact.
be of great value later. Report writing is difficult enough The next step in data analysis involves organizing the
without having to recollect misplaced or unrecorded data. selected data into illustrations for the report. Sometimes the
Write out your opinions as soon as the data are obtained, figures and tables prepared during the program can be used
Comparing these opinions with those based on hindsight will with only minor modifications. But usually these data-book
often help you to interpret the data properly, illustrations contain extraneous information. And they seldom
During the data-gathering stage consider how the data should are arranged to emphasize the significance of the data and the
be presented in the report and record the results in this manner, corresponding results. For example, although data tabulated
Any need for additional data will thus be revealed before the during a program are commonly arranged chronologically, that
program is completed, is not necessarily the best way to present the data to the reader.
New figures and tables usually must be prepared. Their organi- NASA reports typically contain a number of commonly used
zation should be carefully considered because illustrations are headings:
one of the best means of emphasizing and supporting conclusions.
After the illustrations have been prepared, write the signifi- Summary Sample Calculation
cant points about each on an attached sheet of paper. What is the Introduction Results and Discussion
figure (table) supposed to show? How were the data obtained? Symbols Summary of Results
Are there any qualifications to the figure (table)? This Theory Conclusions
information will be useful when you begin writing the report. Analysis Concluding Remarks
Before beginning to outline your report you may find one Apparatus Appendix
additional step usefulmwriting a limiting sentence. This is a Test Specimens References
single sentence that states the subject, scope, and purpose of Test Procedure
the report. It is an additional tool to help define the report's
direction and limit its scope. As an example, the following All these headings need not be used in any single report. And
limiting sentence could be written for this guide: headings may be combined. For example, Apparatus, Test
Specimens, and Test Procedure can be combined into Experi-

The Lewis Research

"Technical Center guide
Report Writing" 1 Subject mental
These Methods.
commonly used headings may be replaced with more
covering the fundamentals of orga- ") descriptive headings, particularly in program summary reports,

nizing,
technicalwriting,
reports,and reviewing NASA _ Scope where details may
generalizations. be subordinated
In these to broad
reports the more objectives
descriptive and
headings
was written to improve the writing ") provide a means of ready reference and aid clarity. Descriptive

and the overall quality of their you must exercise originality to make them brief but clear.
skills
reports.of Lewis technical authors l Purpose headings usually
The final outlinemake a report
should show more interesting
the exact to read. But
form, wording, and
Preparing a limiting sentence is not simple. It takes additional value of the headings to be used in the report. The headings,
time and effort. But it is a worthwhile exercise because it forces although brief, must serve as a reliable guide to the included
you to focus your attention on exactly what you expect the material. They should be consistent in grammatical structure
report to do. and should not contain verbs. Headings are not an integral part
of the text but are provided to assist the reader in finding
information. Therefore the paragraph below a heading should

Outlining the Report begin with a topic sentence that does not depend on the heading
for clarity.
Outlining is a necessary preliminarystep to report writing. The whole text of the report should be accounted for under
It involves the planning needed to prepare a clear report that the headings shown in your outline, except for short intro-
is logically organized, concise, and easy to read. Without an ductory or transition paragraphs included to make the presen-
outline most inexperienced authors write reports that are con- tation flow smoothly. Because a subject cannot be subdivided
fusing and difficult to follow. The outlining stage is a natural into less than two parts, an outline should have at least two
progression from the analysis and sorting stage. In the sorting subheadings under a main heading--or none. Exceptions to
stage concentration is on what results should be presented in this rule include an occasional short remark or a single example
a report. In the outlining stage attention is directed to how these put in to illustrate a method. In addition to headings the outline
results should be presented, may also contain descriptive words and key phrases to serve
Often the preliminary outline prepared at the beginning of as reminders.
the program can be used as a starting point for the report Several methods can be used to arrange the subject matter
outline. But it should be revised and expanded to emphasize that will be represented in an outline. One of the best ways
the conclusions drawn in the analysis and sorting stage. The to start is to write down all the points that you want to include
revised outline should contain descriptive headings of each without regard to their order. You can then more easily arrange
significant part of the report. This expanded outline should them in a logical order. Some authors use an index card system
show the complete scope of the report, the relation of the in which each separate item of the proposed report is tabulated
various parts of the work discussed, the amount of space to together with a paragraph describing the material that must
be given each part, the order of treatment, the places for be treated under that item. Other authors follow a similar
inclusion of illustrations, and the conclusions. Remember, the method but use full sheets of paper for each subject and give
more detailed the outline is, the more useful it will be to you. a much fuller description of the material under the subject
Each heading, subheading, subsubheading, etc., should have headings. The latter method puts you in a good position to
as much detail as you will need to trigger your thoughts when complete the report in a short time: Each subject has been so
you later write the corresponding sentences and paragraphs, fully expanded that the problem remaining is one of combining
and rewriting the information contained on the separate sheets concentrate on how you say it. Keep your readers in mind.
of paper. Others choose to do their outlining on a computer. Remember, your purpose in writing the report is to transmit
Any of these methods permit you to note thoughts that occur the information needed to support your conclusions. To make
during the course of writing one report section but that should sure your readers understand your conclusions, you must trans-
be treated in other sections. Cultivate the habit of going to mit your information clearly, logically, concisely, honestly,
the original outline to record thoughts for later consideration, and tactfully.
Another useful purpose of the outline is to indicate the
relative importance of headings. This relation can be shown
by using a numbering system. (The numbers appear in the final Revising the Rough Draft
report only when there is extensive cross-referencing.)
Headings of equal weight, or importance, must be written in The last stage of report preparation, rough-draft revision,
the same form. The order and form of the various headings is just as important as the previous stages, but it is the one
used in NASA rough drafts are most scorned by inexperienced writers. Revising a draft is
comparable to painting a house: the appearance is improved
(1) MAIN HEADING without influencing the structure. But a report's "appearance"
(2) Subheading (readability) may determine whether or not it is read.
(3) Run-in heading.re(indented on the same line as the first Before you can revise your rough draft, you must recognize
line of the paragraph) that it is not perfect. Approach it with a critical attitude. This
(4) Below run-in heading: (indented on the same line as the can best be done by setting the draft aside for a few days, or
first line of the paragraph) at least overnight. This time lag should give you a flesh
Three levels of headings should be sufficient; more may disrupt viewpoint and allow you to change to the role of a reader.
your readers' concentration. The typeface and placement of This change in roles is most important because you must try
headings will vary with the type of publication, to see what is actually written rather than what you think you
Thorough outlining will make both writing and reading the wrote.
report easier. Study your outline carefully to be certain that Successful technical writers use a wide variety of methods
each item blends into a logical plan and ordered presentation, to review and revise. One of the best involves three separate
reviews of the report:
(1) The first review is of the material in the report. In this
Writing the Rough Draft check ask yourself these questions: Are the conclusions valid?
Is sufficient information given to support the conclusions7 Is
With a logically organized outline and the necessary illustra- enough background information given to explain the results?
tions already prepared, writing the rough draft should be much Have all irrelevant ideas been deleted? Are the illustrations
easier than you thought. But do not expect to write the final pertinent and necessary?
version in the first attempt. The rough draft should be the last (2) The second review is of the mechanics and organization.
of several versions, each an improvement of the preceding one. Are the subject and purpose clearly stated? Does the report
This final version is considered a "rough" draft because it flow smoothly from topic to topic? Are the relations between
still must go through a series of technical and editorial reviews, topics clear? Is each illustration clear and properly labeled?
But it should be as polished as you can make it. From your Are all required parts of the report included?
point of view it should be ready for printing and distribution (3) The third review is of spelling and grammar, particularly
to a critical audience, punctuation and sentence structure. Is each sentence written
Try to start writing the first version of the draft immediately effectively? Are the sentences varied in length and complexity
after completing the outline while the ideas developed there to avoid monotony? Are the words specific rather than vague?
are still fresh in your mind. Write this first version as rapidly Have all unnecessary words been deleted?
as possible. Concentrate on what you want to say rather than Make sure you can truly answer yes to all of these questions
how to say it. Keep writing down the thoughts as they flow before you consider your draft finished. Do not try to make
into your mind, following your outline. Avoid going back over one review do the work of three. Trying to cover too many
what you have written until you are through writing. Then categories in one review usually results in oversights and
review this version--but only for its technical content. Are errors. Some common faults observed in rough drafts are
all of the ideas you wanted to express included? Have you (1) faulty grammar; (2) clusters of nouns and adjectives
included irrelevant ideas? Does the report organization still modifying a noun and conversely strings of prepositional
seem logical? Sometimes writing the first version will reveal phrases after a noun; (3) use of abstract nouns instead of action
some unexpected problems that require a change in the outline, verbs; (4) nonparallel construction of words, phrases, and
In the second version of the rough draft, writing style sentences in enumerations; and (5)more complicated phrasings
becomes important. With the technical content in a well- than required. Carefully review your draft to make sure you
organized form from the first version, this is the time to have avoided these common faults.
Chapter 2

Report Style
There is no satisfactory explanation of style, no gymnastics. If there is any discontinuity without proper
infallible guide to good writing, no assurance that explanation, the average reader will lay aside the report for
a person who thinks clearly will be able to write later reading. Once this happens, the chances are slight that
clearly, no key that unlocks a door, no inflexible it will ever be read. You usually have just one chance to sell
rules by which the young writer may shape his the reader on the report's objectives. And that requires a
course. He will often find himself steering by stars presentation that is logical, simple, and systematic.
that are disturbingly in motion.

As this quotation from Strunk and White (ref. 1) indicates, Conciseness

this chapter deals with an elusive but important aspect of report
writing--style. Although difficult to define, style establishes Most of your intended readers are busy. Therefore your
the readability of reports. In effect, the style of the report sells reports should be concisely written. That is, your story should
the report. If your style of writing and presentation is not be told with the fewest possible words and illustrations. Help
acceptable to your intended readers, they may not read your your readers by omitting everything irrelevant to the results
report, and conclusions. Do not be disappointed if a report that
A writing style is acquired only with diligent study and describes a lengthy program is only a few pages long: Report
practice in writing. This chapter comments on general report quality is often inversely related to report length. Your readers
requirements that must be met by any writing style. It then will be interested in your conclusions and the supporting
makes specific suggestions for developing your own writing evidence and will want to get these as quickly as possible. They
style and for preparing figures and tables, will not be particularly interested in any problems you had
in getting the results. Explaining such problems usually just
hides the important aspects of the report.
On the other hand, do not condense reports at the expense
Requirements of Reports of your readers' understanding. Give enough information to
Regardless of the specific style used to prepare technical enable them to understand clearly what you are describing and
reports, four general requirements must be met to produce why you are describing it. Include enough background infor-
good reports: clarity, conciseness, continuity, and objectivity, mation to make the context clear. Do not assume that they
will remember details of a previous report--or have even read
it. Include all details needed to understand the current report.
Clarity In short, make your reports brief but comprehensible.
The purpose of a technical report is to transmit conclusions
and their supporting evidence. To do this, your report must Continuity
convey your exact meaning to the reader. The text must be
clear and unambiguous, mathematical symbols must be fully Reports should tell a complete story as logically and
defined, and the figures and tables must be easily understood, interestingly as possible. This requires continuity between
Clarity must be met from the readers' point of view. What succeeding sentences, paragraphs, and sections and between
may be clear to you as the author may not be clear to your the written text and the figures and tables. Transitional words,
readers. Remember, you are intimately familiar with the work, phrases, sentences, or even paragraphs may be needed to lead
but they are not. You must continually reexamine your rough your readers through the story. But overusing transitions can
drafts with a reader's critical eye. Readers will not tolerate slow the pace of your narrative.
confusion. They must never become uncertain about what you Carefully choose the places at which you refer to figures
are discussing, why you are discussing it, or what your plan and tables to limit distraction. Making these references at the
of presentation is. They will rebel if forced into these mental beginning or end of a discussion is usually preferable.

5
Objectivity . Guiding the Reader

Technical reports should be objective and show restraint. To achieve clarity and continuity in a report, you must
Be hone:st with your readers. They will become suspicious if carefully direct your readers' attention throughout the report.
they detect hidden meanings or any type of subterfuge, and Many successful writers do this by using the three classic
you will then have little chance of convincing them of your principles of presentation"
conclusions. They expect you to evaluate the data honestly. (1) Tell readers what you plan to tell them (Introduction).
D¢_not tly to hide deficiencies in your research. No technical (2) Then tell them (main text).
report is better than the research on which it is based. Tell (3) Finally tell them what you told them (Summary of
your readers frankly what your assumptions were, what your Results or Conclusions).
probable errors are, and what you may not understand about
the results. State your purpose or objective clearly and follow it with a
In addition to being honest, be tactful. If you are faced with concise description of the method you will use in presenting
the problem of presenting technical results that may conflict the subsequent discussion. Then proceed with your presen-
with previous results or with the personal prejudices of some tation, making certain that it is consistent in every respect
readers, refrain from making dogmatic statements and avoid with your plan. Finally summarize your conclusions and
sounding egotistical. Your readers will be persuaded by facts, recommendations.
but they may become irritated if you attempt to impress them
with your cleverness or to claim credit for accomplishments. Getting to the Point
Write to express, not to impress. Technical reports are not mystery novels; get to the point
as directly as possible. Do not lead your readers in and out
of blind alleys before taking them to the final destination. Omit
Writing Style information that does not directly relate to the conclusions.
Remember, readers are interested primarily in conclusions and
Technical writers usually use a more formal writing style supporting evidence.
than do nontechnical writers. A degree of formality is required If you must include some information or discussion that may
because the personal style of a technical writer must be secon-
be of interest but is not directly pertinent to your conclusions,
dary to the clear and objective transmission of information, put it in an appendix. Using an appendix allows you to bring
Any injection of personality that obscures the exact meaning up points that may be of interest to some of your readers
is undesirable. But this does not mean that technical writing without distracting the reader who is interested solely in your
has to be dull and rigidly stereotyped. All writers should strive conclusions.
to make their writing enjoyable to read. Therefore attempt to
develop a writing style that is both clear and interesting.
This section includes some specific suggestions for devel- Emphasizing Major Ideas
oping and improving your writing style. For additional sug- Because the purpose of technical reports is to transmit ideas,
gcstions read some good books on technical report writing and emphasize your major ideas so that they cannot be missed.
grammar (e.g., refs. 1 to 6). To do this, clearly subordinate any supporting information to
the major ideas. The report outline is particularly useful here
Writing Naturally because it establishes the major and supporting points for each
section of the report.
Irnperative in developing a good writing style is writing Your major ideas can also be emphasized by briefly stating
naturally. Many technical reports are stilted and overly formal, them at the beginning of each section and then summarizing
examples of the "Official Style" discussed by Lanham them at the end of the section. Emphasis can also be aided
(_cf. 4). Authors usually do not speak that way, but they feel by careful use of headings.
that technical reports must be written in that style. A stilted
style is difficult to read and detracts from the contents.
To avoid a stilted style, write in a way that comes easily, Separating Fact From Opinion
using words and phrases that come naturally to you. Do not Reports should clearly differentiate between facts and
try to impress readers with your vocabulary, but be certain opinions. Many authors are remiss in doing this, overlapping
that the words you use convey your exact meaning. Your discussions of their experimental results and the conclusions
readers will be interested in what you have to say and not in they have drawn. Carefully alert your readers when fact ends
how eloquently you say it. Avoid long, complicated terms if and opinion begins.
shorter and more familiar ones are available. But be careful The statement of your opinions is the one instance where
not to use jargon because it may be misinterpreted, the use of the first person is desirable. For example, if you
 follow the presentation of some specific results with "It is figures are possible. (A large, complex figure may be
believed that ...," your readers cannot be sure if this is your reproduced on facing pages.)
opinion or a generally accepted belief. To avoid this confusion, All figures must have legends; if a figure has parts ((a), (b),
use the first-person pronoun to say, for example, "From these (c), etc.), it must have corresponding sublegends. Use similar
• results I conclude that..." wording in the legends of related figures. After you have
assembled the rough draft of the report, thumb through the
figures and tables, reading merely the title of each to make
Data Presentation certain that the format and the nomenclature are consistent.
Conditions applying to the entire figure or to a part are
Because most technical reports rely on figures and tables normally stated as part of the legend or sublegend. But when
for the presentation of data, the form and quality of the figures the same conditions apply, for example, to every graph in a
and tables are important in establishing the style and readability report, they are best stated once in the text.
of the report. Good judgment should be used in selecting both Graphs.--Graphs should be clear and simple with as few
the data to be presented and the method of presentation. Use data curves as possible. It is usually best to have no more than
only figures and tables that add to the value of your report, six types of lines or data points on a graph--four is better.
Present the data as simply and straightforwardly as possible Try to avoid interlaced or unrelated curves. As few words
so that your readers can easily grasp the significant points. (labels) as possible should be inserted directly on the figure.
Present data in the text, or in a figure, or in a table--but never Equations should be placed in the text; lengthy tabular material
in more than one way. should be presented in a separate numbered table; and
Before beginning to write the report, carefully select the data explanations and conditions should be added to the legends
to include. Most carefully prepared programs yield more data or placed in the text.
than are needed to support the conclusions. Including all your Choose coordinates that will give your readers a physical
data in the report is unnecessary. Use only data that are directly feel for the variables being presented. Clearly label what is
pertinent to your conclusions, and do not try to impress readers plotted and the units used. Whenever possible plot all parts
with how much data you have collected. Quantity is no of any one figure or related figures on scales with the same
substitute for quality in presenting technical results, increments. Label main and auxiliary scales with a word
Once you have selected the data to be included in your description of the concept or quantity, its symbol, and its unit.
report, decide how they can best be presented. Should they For example, "Axial distance, x, cm" is more immediately
be tabulated or plotted? To answer this question, consider your descriptive than "x, cm." Add auxiliary scales at the left and
readers' needs. Do they need to know exact values? If so, bottom of the figure if there are four or fewer scales. Place
tabulate your results. If relative trends are more important, additional scales at the right or top. For ease in interpolation
use graphs. Both the figures and tables should be as self- divide scales into logical, consistent increments. For example,
explanatory as possible and arranged logically to tell the main when both U.S. customary and SI units are used, each scale
points of your story without reference to the text. must stand alone. Do not simply convert the values on one
scale into the other system of units. Such a scale is useless
Figures to the reader.
The figures used in technical reports generally are of three Use the same data symbols and lines to represent the same
types--graphs, drawings, and photographs. Figures are conditions consistently throughout the graphs of your report.
numbered with Arabic numerals in the order of their mention, The following data symbols and types of lines are commonly
unless the mention is clearly incidental. In the final report they used"
are either inserted in the text near (preferably following) their
first mention or grouped together at the back. Sketches are
lettered consecutively ((a), (b), (c), etc.) if they are referred 0 [-'] /k _ f') [7 ('_ _ _) IN _)
to more than once. Under no circumstances should the
arrangement of figures or the parts of one figure be out of
sequence. Figures arranged in a group are in sequence from
top to bottom or from left to right.
Prepare figures with consideration for their appearance in
the final printed document. The size of the printed figure
including the legend (title) cannot exceed the dimensions of "--
the report image area (71/8by 9 V8in. in NASA reports). Within
these limits various sizes, proportions, and arrangements of
 Do not usethe symbols + and x on figures with grid, and them as brief and simple as possible. Otherwise your readers
avoid solid or partly solid symbols if symbols overlap. The may not bother studying the detailed columns of figures, and
curves and data points may be identified by keys or labels, you will have wasted your time in presenting the data.
Keys are preferred when several curves must be distinguished "Whenever a table, or columns within a table, can readily
or when several conditions are associated with each curve, be put into words, do it" (ref. 2).
Keys generally follow the format for tabular material and Tables are numbered in the order of their mention, in Roman
should be consistent throughout a set of figures, numerals except when a report contains 20 or more tables.
Drawings.--When you use drawings or sketches to illustrate Then Arabic numerals are used. Similar data at different
test equipment, try to keep them simple. Include only those conditions are organized into parts ((a), (b), (c), etc.) of the
features of the equipment that are essential to your readers' same table with subtitles. Numbered tables must have titles.
understanding, and avoid unnecessary detail. When more Present tabulated material in an organized manner. Like
complex drawings must be prepared by a technical illustrator, elements should read down not across. Variables are usually
confer with a graphics coordinator in the Graphics and Exhibits given in columns topped by boxheads, with the constants given
Branch while the report is in the rough-draft stage, if possible, in the first, or stub, column. Boxheads should be brief; if
to allow adequate time for the illustration to be prepared, necessary, they may be amplified by footnotes. Boxheads
Photographs.--When your research project has "jelled," usually contain a word description of a concept or quantity,
consult the Photographic and Printing Branch concerning the its symbol, and its unit, separated by commas; symbols must
best way to record the data photographically, if applicable, be defined when they are used. Arrange tabulated data in a
and to show your apparatus and research facilities to the best logical order that your readers can easily recognize. Usually
advantage. Photographs of similar objects should be sized for this arrangement is an ascending or descending order of value
compatibility. Glossy prints taken with black-and-white film for the prime parameter. The order is necessary to clarify
reproduce best. Prints that have already been screened are not trends. You can also help your readers see relations and com-
usable. The use of color in printing is discouraged because parisons of data by carefully wording the boxheads and the
it greatly increases publishing costs, stub column. Put items to be compared in adjacent columns.
Do not include a photograph of equipment which is so Generally numbers in columns are more easily compared than
elementary that a sentence would describe it. Label the most numbers in rows. Another type of table is the leaderwork table,
important features being shown. Remember, equipment that in which dissimilar data are listed in rows with leader dots
seems simple to you may be complex to readers who are not connecting each parameter with the corresponding value.
familiar with it. Limit the labeling and the field of view to Give conditions that apply to an entire table in a headnote.
the main items discussed to avoid confusing readers with Indicate footnote citations by lower-case letters (superscripts)
extraneous items. Mark up a copy of the photograph rather ordered across the table from left to right and top to bottom.
than the glossy print.
If your photographs are Polaroid prints, have negatives and Technical Film or Videotape Supplements
additional prints made before submitting them for use in a
report, for slides, etc. You are then protected in case of damage Where data can be more efficiently presented or concepts
or loss, and prints are readily available for additional uses. explained through motion pictures, consider the use of a
Include some object or scale in the photograph to help your technical film or videotape supplement to your report. For
readers judge the size of the objects shown. For photomicro-
• ! expert production assistance consult the Photographic and
graphs and electron micrographs, use a scale (e.g., 1 _m ) Printing Branch. These films and videotapes are described in
instead of stating the magnification. (The size of photographs a catalog (ref. 7) and made available on loan for nonprofit,
is often changed in reproduction, rendering the magnification noncommercial screening. Many requests are received from
meaningless.) universities, industrial firms, and Government research
organizations.
Tables
Microfiche Supplements
Tables are often included in technical reports to present data
in an exact, highly concentrated form. But because tabulated A microfiche supplement, like a technical film or videotape
data are so concentrated, many readers have difficulty grasping supplement, can make available considerably more graphic
their significance. Tables are therefore the least preferred and textual information than the basic research document.
method of transmitting results to readers and should be used Microfiche supplements are typically used for extensive sets
only when absolutely necessary. When you use tables, make of tables or figures and comprehensive bibliographies.
Miscellaneous Spelling
Computer Programs The authorities for spelling in Lewis reports are the NASA
Thesaurus (ref. 8), Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary
Reports and papers should not include computer programs. (ref. 9), and the Government Printing Office (GPO) Style
Computer programs are to be distributed by the Computer Manual (ref. 10). The GPO Style Manual is also a guide for
Software Management and Information Center (COSMIC), a punctuation, compounding words, and capitalization.
NASA facility at the University of Georgia. In order to ensure
and expedite the availability of a computer program to U.S.
users, obtain a LEW-number from the Technology Utilization Numerals
Office before submitting the publication to the Technical For ease in reading numbers of five or more digits, group
Information Services Division for processing. (Reference the them in threes from the decimal point, separated by spaces
LEW number in the report.) The TU office will prepare a Tech instead of commas. In a column of numbers add the space to
Brief and send it and the program to COSMIC. all numbers if at least one number in the column has five or
more digits to the left of the decimal point (e.g., 10 091).
Trade Names Otherwise close up four-digit numbers in columns.
Use of trade names is discouraged because NASA considers
it improper to advertise, endorse, or criticize commercial Rough-Draft Typing
products in its publications. Use generic names whenever
possible. Trade names may be used if their use is the only Most rough drafts are typed by the author or in the research
way to specify material or equipment that is necessary to branch or division office. When submitting your report to the
reproduce the results. The first appearance of a trade name Report Control office, provide the diskette and a double-spaced
in the text must be accompanied by the name of its registered hard copy. If the rough draft cannot be typed in your division,
owner (e.g., International Nickel Co., Inc., IN738). But the- Report Control will arrange for typing. Clearly mark hand-
symbol for a registered trademark, a raised ®, is not used. written material, particularly equations, so that the typist will
Those reports using trade names must include a trade name understand what is meant. For example, _- _ay mean Co
disclaimer" to you, but it means Co to the typist. Also 0.4 may be
interpreted as Cu, Cu, C_, or C_. Identify such symbols, as
Trade names or manufacturers' names are used well as handwritten Greek or unusual symbols, the first time
in this report for identification only. This usage they are used. (This advice applies equally to figures and
does not constitute an official endorsement, either slides, especially if they will not be edited.) Writing text on
expressed or implied, by the National Aeronautics every other line will also help the typist.
and Space Administration.

The disclaimer is printed on the inside front cover of a

Technical Memorandum or on the back of the title page of
a Technical Paper.
Chapter 3

Report Introduction
The importance of the Introduction in all forms of exposition is going to be considered in the report? It is necessary to define
is that it prepares the reader to receive, with the greatest and bound the subject in order to guard against misunder-
economy of effort, what the writer intends to present. Reports, standing. For example, a report dealing with the effect on
like any form of exposition, attempt to make information and combustion efficiency of a single design idea tried through
ideas clear and convincing. The Introduction permits you to six modifications in a turbojet combustor should not pose as
launch immediately into the task of relating your readers to a report on combustion, nor on turbojet combustors, nor yet
the subject matter of the report. Specifically the Introduction on the effect of turbojet combustor design on performance.
makes clear the precise subject to be considered, indicates the What the reader must know is that the report describes the
reasons for considering the subject, and lays out the organi- effect of such-and-such a design idea on the combustion
zation and scope of the report. This is where you tell the reader efficiency of a turbojet combustor--no more, no less.
what you plan to tell and why and how you will tell it.
The Introduction should focus your readers' attention on the Statement of Purpose
subject to be treated. It should enable them to approach the
A second, and equally important, function of the Introduction
body of the report naturally and intelligently, is to state clearly the reasons for discussing the particular
Your prospective readers and subject material will influence
subject. Just why was the report written? It should indicate the
both your point of view in writing the Introduction and the importance of the subject to the reader, relate the report to
amount of material you use. The union of reader and subject previous and similar work, and make clear your objective.
must be achieved with a firm, but not heavy, hand. Readers The importance of the subject will vary widely in NASA
should never be confused, unpleasantly surprised, or disap- reports. Putting the subject matter in its proper perspective
pointed with what they are told throughout the report, requires a broad knowledge both of the state of the discipline
This chapter considers the relation of the Introduction to the
(including pertinent literature) and of the readers who will use
rest of the report, describes the functions of the Introduction, the report. It also calls for finesse in writing. Some of you
and discusses its style and length, have seen your supervisors struggle with your writing to try
to introduce this matter of perspective. Most Lewis reports
Relation to Rest of Report are incremental bits of information to a field of knowledge;
all too often this information can barely stand alone. The
The Introduction makes clear how the body of the report danger here is misuse of the data through overgeneralization.
will develop. For example, it answers these questions: Were On the other hand, it is equally wrong to report factual
data produced and analyzed and the results summarized? Were information with no effort to point out such significance as
conclusions drawn? Was there an initial theoretical model? it may have in its field or related fields. There is a narrow
Or was there a subsequent analytical model? Did the data create course between overgeneralization and noncommunication.
a new understanding? Is the report only an analysis? Are The extent to which background is given depends largely
comparisons made? on the type of paper being written. Often a few key references
The style and order of thinking, or logical arrangement, in are available to tie the new work to what preceded it and
the Introduction should be consistent with those in the main to the few studies that it touches immediately and directly.
body of the report. Summary papers that establish stepping stones in the advance
of a field help relate increments to the background. The
occasional major paper that starts a new field demands a broad
Primary Functions perspective from the author in relating the new field to other

Statement of Subject fields and in relating the new field properly to aerospace.
The purpose that you express in the Introduction must be
The first function of the Introduction is to identify immedi- shaped by consideration of your readers. Why should they read
ately and unmistakably the exact subject of the report. What the report? What good will it do them?
Statement of Organization and Scope of your readers are to be fulfilled. The task is rendered fairly
easy in that the Introduction is not highly formalized. Its three
A third primary function of the Introduction is to lay out primary functions should not be reeled off in 1-2-3 order,
the organization that will be followed in the report. Just how "The subject is .., .... The purpose is .., .... The organization
is your subject going to be discussed? Give your readers a and scope are ..." Instead they should be built into a few
look at what lies ahead; furnish them an itinerary, paragraphs of expository writing in a style that will be both
Also your readers should know at the outset the scope and pleasant to read and unmistakably clear.
limitations of the work. For example, if design features for
One outstanding rule for the style of the Introduction is to
a high-performance rocket engine are to be reported, it is construct the first, or theme, sentence so that attention is deftly,
important whether the work was done in 100-, 10 000-, or decisively, and immediately focused on the precise subject to
100 000-pound thrust engines and what propellants and be treated and, if possible, on the method of approach. Again
chamber pressures were used. Describe special theories, new keep your readers' viewpoint uppermost in mind. The ease
or unusual procedures, unique equipment or ideas, anything of writing this sentence is in direct proportion to the clarity
that contributes to the uniqueness of the subject, so that your of the subject being presented. Where you have a clean-cut,
readers can orient the report to their special interests and needs.
definite accomplishment to report, the theme can be stated
easily. But if the work has wavered and wobbled and wandered
and there is scarcely a definite piece of information to be
Secondary Functions gleaned from it, the theme can be stated only with great
difficulty, if at all. These remarks about the ease or difficulty
When the place or places where the research was conducted of writing a striking first sentence apply to the entire Intro-
are not adequately designated on the title page or cover, they duction and even to the entire report. Keep that in mind as
may be designated in the Introduction (or in the Apparatus you plan and conduct your research.
section). The Introduction should mention unusual aspects of Many find the Introduction difficult to write. All these
a report, such as a film, videotape, microfiche, or computer requirements may seem to make it even more difficult. The
program supplement, a supplementary report, or an appendix best way to write it is to become familiar with the report
prepared by another author. Use of dates in the Introduction matter, plan what to put in the Introduction, and then start
is generally necessary only when a long delay in reporting is writing. Try to explain the story to be told in the report: what
encountered or where publication is in a highly competitive it is about, why it is being told, and how it will be told. Seclude
field of research and a scoop or patent is involved, yourself from interruptions and write continuously--go with
Acknowledgments may be made in the last paragraph of the the creative flow. Then criticize and revise your work. You
Introduction or as a separate section at the end of the text. may need to rewrite the Introduction and the theme sentence
NASA policy is to exclude acknowledgment of the normal several times.
assistance rendered by personnel at the Center, including Because you are writing for readers who will have some
professional consultation or help from groups or individuals reason for using your report, good background on your
not directly related to the work and supervisors and technical potential readers is obviously desirable. As you work and grow
committees whose comments and advice result from regular in a field, learn about others in the field--what they have done
work assignments. Exceptions are made only when a basic and are doing and what they have published. Also build
creative or conceptual contribution that is essential to the sufficient background about your field and related fields so
theory, analysis, or methods is made and adding the contributor that you know almost by instinct what work is needed in it
to the authorship of the report is not warranted. Those outside and what is not, what is timely and important and what is not,
Lewis who help you through unselfish motives should be what is new and what is not, and what will earn you and NASA
acknowledged, respect and appreciation and what will not.
About 200 to 300 words is the usual length of an
Introduction--a page, more or less. The length really depends
Style and Length on how much background must be given, and that depends
on the kind of report. In major papers on new ideas the
The Introduction may vary in style quite widely within Introduction may be several pages long. If considerable
certain bounds. The limits imposed are that the language be amounts of background information must be included for your
clear, direct, and accurate. Within these limits you are free readers, try moving it from the Introduction to a separate
to exercise your art. Indeed you must exercise it if the needs section of the report (e.g., entitled "Theory").
Chapter 4

Experiment and Analysis Descriptions

Most NASA reports include one or more sections imme- reference that report. In your report give the reader just enough
diately following the Introduction, or the Symbols section if information to visualize the equipment. Sometimes repro-
there is one, that describe how the research or analysis was ducing a figure that shows the equipment layout is desirable.
performed and what types of equipment and materials were Describe any important modifications to the original facility.
used. A precise record of the procedures used is vital in Instrumentation section.--Thediscussion of instrumentation
establishing the validity of the results, may be organized according to normal flow paths through the
This chapter gives the format of the experiment and analysis test facility or according to particular types of instrumentation.
descriptions as well as information on symbols, units, and Photographs or drawings of the test facility may show the
errors and precision, position of instruments, such as thermocouples, pressure tubes,
cameras, photoelectric cells, and sampling tubes. A specialized
instrument may require more detailed description and
Format of Experiment Descriptions additional drawings. The design of instruments may be
illustrated with a sketch or referenced to previous work.
The format of experiment descriptions varies greatly with Commercial instruments are usually described only to the
the type of work being reported. For example, a report on extent necessary to duplicate the results (e.g., "self-balancing
an experimental program may have separate sections entitled potentiometer," "calibrated rotameter," or "fiat-plate orifice
"Apparatus," "Test Procedure," and "Test Specimens," or installed according to ASME specifications"). See discussion
it may have one combined section entitled "Apparatus and of trade names on page 9.
Procedure" with appropriate subsections.
The extent to which the descriptive material is divided by Materials Section
subheadings depends on its complexity or length. Unless the
description is brief, the use of subheadings will be extremely In reports describing the testing or evaluation of materials,
helpful to your readers. New and different equipment or the test materials should be characterized in detail, including
procedures require more detailed description than if they are the purity of the material, its grain size and density, the method
standard. When possible, construct subheadings that relate to used to produce it, and its thermal history prior to testing.
those used in the Results section. These characteristics are needed to compare the test results
It is usually best to describe first the whole and then the with other data on similar materials.
parts. Organize descriptions so that statements need not be
repeated to bring out associated material. Give enough Test Procedure Section
information directly, or indirectly by reference, so that your In describing the procedures used in a test program, it is
readers could reproduce the experiments. Refer where helpful to begin with an introductory paragraph that describes
necessary to previous reports, but do not reference another the kind of data obtained in the program. If the procedures
report for one sentence of additional description, used. were numerous and complex, summarize them in the

Apparatus Sections introductory paragraph.

The conditions studied can usually be described clearly in
Test facilities section.--Generally a new test facility should a few sentences but may be sufficiently numerous or complex
be described in sufficient detail that its essential workings could to warrant listing them in a table. State your reasons for
be reproduced. A good initial description that can be refer- selecting these particular conditions.
enced may greatly simplify future reports. Be sure to note special Describe the test procedures in enough detail that your
mechanical devices used. Use photographs and diagrammatic readers can judge the value of the results and could repeat the
sketches with adequate notation. Try to use standard, accepted experiment. If the procedures are detailed in other publications,
terms for equipment, but avoid trade names (see p. 9). reference them and only briefly describe the major steps.
If the basic facility has been adequately described in a Always include enough description to give an overall picture
previous report, do not repeat the detailed description but of the operation. A unique operation will require more detail.
 Where the calculations performed in analyzing the test data and then superscripts. Capital symbols precede corresponding
are conventional, it is usually sufficient to reference the type lower-case ones. Do not define mathematical conventkms sue!:
of analysis made and merely include the final equation (or as d, exp, and - (bar). When subscripts or superscripts appiy
equations) used. Describe nonconventional or little-known to several main-line symbols, do not define them with ca_;?
analytical methods in more detail. When these methods are symbol but list them separately. Explanatory information (such
lengthy or complex, a sample calculation would be helpful to as formulas or units) follows the definition. No symbo! _"a)
most readers. It is best included as an appendix, be used for more than one concept, and usage of symbol_ a:',d
units must be consistent throughout the text, appcndi.,:c:.
tables, and figures. Use symbols that are conventional in 5oc,
Format of Analysis Descriptions particular field of work.
Define acronyms, initialisms, abbreviations, and the symb,_is
If a report presents the results of a theoretical analysis, the for chemical elements and compounds at their first occurrence
experiment description section is replaced by a section that in the Summary and again in the main text (e.g., monolithic
might be entitled "Analysis." If the analysis is lengthy, the microwave integrated circuit (MMIC)). They are not defined
details may be included as an appendix. The Analysis section in the Symbols section. Chemical names are preferably written
in the main text then includes (1) a statement of the problem, out throughout the text except when formulas are used or the
(2) the assumptions and limitations of the analysis, and (3) a terms appear frequently.
brief description of the general analytical method. (Refer your Abbreviate units after numbers, but write them out otherwise.
readers to the appendix for details.)
In preparing an Analysis section note the following items:
(1) All numbered and most unnumbered equations are Errors and Precision
centered between margins and set off from the text by spacing.
(2) An equation and the introductory material that directly In any report concerned with numerical values the accuracy,
precedes it should be presented in correct grammatical form. precision, and reproducibility of the data presented must be
The introductory material may be followed by a colon, a clearly stated. Discrepancies within the data should be
comma, or no mark of punctuation, explained. This material fits best in the Results and Discussion
(3) Equations needed for later reference are numbered (1), section if based on a comparison of duplicate test results and
(2), (3), etc. Identification such as (la) and (lb) may be used in the Test Procedure section if based on instrument calibration
for equivalent or derivative equations. A brace may be used data. The experimental work must obviously be planned so
to connect a group of equations with the same number, as to yield the necessary data on accuracy, precision, and
Equations in appendixes are usually numbered according reproducibility. Day-to-day check tests at identical test condi-
to the appendix in which they appear ((A1), (A2), (B1), tions and periodic calibrations of instruments are necessary
(B2), etc). parts of most experimental programs.
(4) When a numbered equation is repeated, it retains its When the terms "accuracy," "precision," and "repro-
original number. An equation given more than once should ducibility" are used, their exact meanings should be clearly
be repeated in exactly the same form. stated, for such terms have different connotations to different
people. Accuracy usually denotes the absolute correctness of the
determination; precision generally denotes the extent to which
Symbols Section a result is free from random accidental errors. A result can
be very precise (i.e., all measurements agree) but also
Use consistent mathematical notation throughout a report, inaccurate because of inherent errors in the measurements.
Because many symbols have different meanings in various Reproducibility denotes the agreement, or lack thereof,
fields of science, define all symbols used in a NASA report, between values obtained in like determinations at different
including those in figures and tables. If only a few symbols times during the test program. Poor reproducibility may be
are used, define each in the text as it first occurs. If many the result of either the precision or the accuracy.
symbols are used, group their definitions in a separate section A discussion of accuracy should contain an analysis of
entitled "Symbols." This section directly follows the possible errors involved in individual measurements and how
Introduction or is either the first or the last appendix. Make these errors are reflected in the final results. This is generally
a symbols list an appendix when it contains more than 30 expressed as the "maximum probable error." A discussion
symbols, when the symbols are used mainly in the appendixes, of precision usually involves comparisons of duplicate results,
or when some or all symbols have been used and defined only and the precision is generally expressed in terms of a
on the figures and tables. "deviation." Use standard methods of computing probable
List symbols in alphabetical order with English symbols errors and deviations whenever possible, and indicate for your
preceding Greek symbols. These are followed by subscripts reader the methods used.

14
OR|GJN_L p_r_ !_:
OF POOR QUALITY
 Chapter 5

Results and Discussion

The presentation and discussion of the results is the heart presented in the Results section. The Discussion section would
of the technical report. Many readers, of course, are interested then be used to compare the properties of the various materials,
only in obtaining the quick review of the work afforded by to review their advantages and disadvantages for the applica-
the Summary and the concluding section. But readers who have tion being considered, and finally to select the best material.
reas_n to study the entire text of a report will normally spend (2) When a large number of similar curves must be com-
most of their time on the Results and Discussion section, pared on a single figure. If your data fall too close together
The first purpose of this section is a well-organized and to be presented on a single plot, you can present the original
objective presentation of the results. Tables and figures that data in separate figures and later combine only the faired
show the results should have sufficient supporting description curves (using different types of lines) from these figures on
to permit the reader to interpret them quickly and accurately, a single figure for comparison and discussion. The report may
But do not repeat in words what is already apparent from well be written with these two sections separated. A lengthy
examination of the tables and figures. The second purpose of presentation of results about which there is little or no discus-
tt_is section is a discussion of the results, together with their sion is best made in an appendix. Then only the comparison
analysis, to show that the conclusions are warranted. Each figure need be shown in the Results and Discussion section,
n_aj,,)rconclusion should be clearly explained and compared with reference made to the appendix.
with the results of similar work by other investigators. If this section is longer than approximately one page, use
This chapter describes the mechanics for achieving these the pertinent subheadings determined during your preliminary
purposes. The organization, the methods of presentation, and outlining. Perhaps the most frequently used type of outline
the discussion of results are described. Several examples groups similar data. Another type of outline groups the data
illustrate the principles involved, obtained with each of several systems being compared.
Avoid promises of NASA research to be published and
references to work in progress. Such suggestions in no way
Organization of Section enhance the value of the report and might stimulate inquiries
that could prove embarrassing if redirection of a worker's
The Results and Discussion section should present the data activities leaves such promises unfulfilled. If results indicate
as concisely and clearly as possible. To achieve this goal, the need for further research, a simple statement to this effect
prepare a good outline of this section before starting to write, should suffice.
Conventionally an introductory statement is used to remind
readers of the type of tests conducted and the scope of the
investigation. Any other statements necessary for correctly Presentation of Results
interpreting the results should be made in this introductory
paragraph. Data should be presented as clearly and simply as possible.
An important decision is whether to present this material Although you are familiar with the work, others are not. Avoid
as a single section or as two separate sections, one entitled taking too much for granted; avoid complicated correlations;
"Results" and the other "Discussion." Regardless of the avoid making the presentation too long and too involved with
Icngth of the report a single section combining the results and insignificant details. First present the data in a simple, readily
their discussion is usually preferable because this scheme is understood form. Then if necessary, give complicated com-
clearer and less repetitious, parison figures or correlation curves that make sense only to
Separate sections may sometimes be desirable: those fully familiar with the field. In preparing the figures and
(1) When heterogeneous data must be considered in making tables take care to put them in acceptable form (as discussed
a point in the discussion. For example, the use of separate in Chapter 2).
sections may be better when reporting test data on several Including a summary data table is sometimes desirable. The
materials to determine which is best for a particular applica- table should include the data necessary for your readers to
tion. In this case the test results for each material would be evaluate the accuracy of your plots and correlations. Additional

15
data may be included to enable them to devise additional plots the Summary and the concluding section, must be clearly
and correlations. For the sake of brevity present only the most established here.
important data in the summary table. But if calculated data Any new or unusual result should be explained. If you do
are very important and are widely used in the report, include not understand the phenomenon or if the data are too limited
them in the summary data table even though the reader could to permit rigorous analysis, it is sometimes worthwhile to
obtain these values by independent calculations, present a speculative discussion outlining several possible
causes. Alert your readers that such a discussion is speculative.
The discussion of the results sometimes includes the method
Discussion of Results of computation or derivation, normally presented in the
Analysis or Procedure sections. Such situations may arise when
The discussion of the results is one of the most important one figure is derived from preceding figures. If the method
parts of a technical report. To discuss the results adequately, is involved, include a complete example as an appendix and
you must clearly understand their significance. This requires indicate only the main steps here.
that you have mastery of the theory pertaining to your field Again judgment must be exercised to achieve the desired
and broad knowledge of the information already available from result. Essential information must not be kept from the reader.
work in this and allied fields. The discussion must clearly point But trivial details must be subordinated by placing them in
out the exact contribution made to the existing fund of an appendix to avoid diluting the text and obscuring the
knowledge by the new data. If the results have an immediate important facts. End the discussion with a short summary
application, point this out. If possible, give an example to explaining the significance of your work. "When you describe
illustrate the method of application. Clearly state any the meaning of your little bit of truth, do it simply. I believe
significant conclusions and either prove or properly qualify that the simplest statements evoke the most wisdom; verbose
them. But discuss the results; do not merely recapitulate them. language and fancy technical words are used to convey shallow
The major results and the conclusions, normally stated in both thought" (ref. 2).
Chapter 6

Concluding and Supporting Sections

This final chapter on the mechanics of report writing is a (2) Do not cite equations, tables, figures, references, and
catchall in that it encompasses all parts of a report not prey- appendixes.
iously discussed: concluding section, Summary, Abstract, title, (3) Do not introduce new material.
appendixes, and references.
The concluding section is where you tell your readers what Summary of Results
you have told them. It is also the section usually examined
first by the prospective reader with |imited available time. The The Summary of Results is the most straightforward con-
Surmnary aJld Abstract are concise recapitulations of the report cluding section. It simply restates the major findings of the
content. The title is the "punch line" and is most effective investigation. All of the material presented must have appeared
when short and informative. Each of these parts is important in the main body of the report. A frequently used method is
because of its potential to reach a different group of readers, to itemize the main factual results, usually in single sentences.
Each should be written clearly and concisely. The facts given are supplied from experimentation or theory--
but not from any reasoning (i.e., they are not deduced).

Concluding Section Conclusions

A Conclusions section allows the inclusion of "deductions."
It is common practice in NASA reports to end the main text
with a concluding section. In spite of skillful writing the reader The usual form of reasoning in reports is to draw a conclusion
may become confused or overwhelmed by the largenumber from a series of facts. Conclusions should be general: They
of details in a complicated report. Clearly the writer needs should not depend on the particular apparatus or conditions
to bring out the most important facts and discuss their signi- of the report. If more than one conclusion is drawn, present
ficance. Many busy people read the concluding section of a them in the order of importance.
report first. On the strength of this reading they may become After the conclusions are written, examine every word and
interested in the details, or they may discard the entire report. sentence critically to ensure that it means what you intended
Therefore the concluding section must be self-contained and it to mean. Do not "conclude" already known facts. Do not
independent of the main body of the report. Preferably it confuse conclusions with results.
should be so worded that a person not completely familiar with
that particular branch of science can understand what was Concluding Remarks

learned from the investigation. When it is not possible to draw adequate, clear-cut conclu-
"Summary of Results," "Conclusions," and sometimes sions, a Concluding Remarks section may be used. With this
"Concluding Remarks" are the common headings for this approach you are not constrained by the connotations of the
section. These headings connote somewhat different contents headings "Summary of Results" and "Conclusions." You
distinguished by the degree of generality and certainty of the are free to give opinions, to evaluate, and to recommend. Of
material included in them. Since statements made in this
course the views you express should be based on the
section are often quoted by other investigators, each statement information provided by your investigation.
should be critically evaluated for accuracy and clarity. A useful Sometimes both a Concluding Remarks section and a
stage-setting approach to the concluding section is to briefly Summary of Results section are used. Dual concluding sections
state the purpose and scope of your work. allow a concise summary of the major results as well as
A few ground rules should be observed in writing the speculation or recommendations. When both sections are used,
concluding section: the Concluding Remarks usually precedes the Summary of
(1) Do not use undefined symbols. Results as a "further discussion" of the results.
Summary Section title with, for example, "Study of... " or "Research on
•.." Do not use part numbers in titles (e.g., I, II, etc.) unless
The Summary is the first main section in a NASA report, at least the first two parts can be published concurrently or
(Although this section appears first, it is usually written last.) nearly so.
In many respects the Summary is an abstract of the Introduction If a report has been published in some other form, include
and the concluding section. The Summary is limited to 300 that information on your rough draft. Depending on the type
words. The concluding-section ground rules also apply to of publication this information will be presented as a footnote
the Summary, which must be written so that it can be read on page 1 or in block 15 of the report documentation page.
independently of the report. It should be a concise recapitu- For example,
lation of the report content. *Published in part in the Welding Journal, vol. 43, no. 9,
No specific format is prescribed for the Summary. Consider
including the purpose and scope of your work (noting whether Sept. 1985, and presented at the October 1984
it is experimental, theoretical, or both), the range of variables, Meeting of the American Welding Society.
any limitations, and the major findings. Obviously results and Judicious use of footnotes may be made in the text, but
conclusions given in the Summary should be consistent with remember that footnotes are disruptive to readers and decrease
those in the concluding section, their comprehension. Bibliographic references must not be
given as footnotes. (See the section on references.)
Prepare a list of several tentative titles as you write the
Abstract report, but make the selection only after all writing has been
completed. By that time you will have had to ponder all aspects
All NASA reports must contain a brief Abstract. It appears of your work and will be in the strongest position to choose
on the report documentation page (facing the back cover) and a representative title.
in library abstracting services such as Scientific and Technical
Aerospace Reports (STAR). Abstracts are retrievable by
technical automated on-line systems such as RECON. The
Abstract must be understandable independently of the text and Appendixes
should be no longer than 200 words. But if you can tell your
story in 50 or 100 words, do not use 200. The Abstract should An appendix should be regarded as the place for material
briefly state the main features of the report such as the purpose, that is important, but not essential, to the complete develop-
scope, and major findings. It is a condensed form of the ment of the report. Examine the main parts of your report for
Summary. Because the Abstract and Summary are used for unusually long and detailed sections. Frequently the report can
different purposes, repetition in these two sections is acceptable, be improved by relocating some material from these sections
The Abstract of a classified report must be unclassified, to an appendix. Particularly appropriate for appendixes are
Many readers are first informed of your report through (1) Involved mathematical derivations
abstracting services. In fact, the Abstract usually receives (2) An example of an analysis described in the report
wider circulation than the report. Therefore take the time to (3) Detailed descriptions of novel techniques, procedures,
word the Abstract carefully so that the true nature and content or equipment not essential to the main purpose of the
of your report are described, report
(4) Symbol lists

Title Appendixes must have titles. If there is more than one

appendix, identify them by capital letters (A, B, C, etc.) in
Webster says the title is "the distinguishing name of a the order of their mention in the report. (Each appendix should
written, printed, or filmed production." Clearly this statement be referred to at some point in the main body of the report.)
is appropriate to titles of technical publications. Much If the symbol list is an appendix, make it either the first or
abstracting and indexing is based on the title. "An improperly last appendix. Numbering of figures and tables mentioned for
titled paper may be virtually lost and never reach the audience the first time in the appendixes is a continuation of the
for which it was intended" (ref. 2). For this reason alone the numbering in the main text. Equations are usually numbered
title must be carefully thought out and worded to convey the according to the appendix in which they appear (e.g., (C 1),
most information in the fewest words (maximum length, 120 (C2), etc.) but may be a continuation of the equation numbers
characters including spaces), in the main text.
Identify the basic area of effort and, if possible, convey Appendixes may be written by authors other than those of
either explicitly or implicitly whether the work covered was the report. Appendixes having independent authors are
primarily experimental or theoretical. But avoid starting your mentioned in the Introduction in the following manner:
"Appendix B by John Z. Doe describes the computer program When surveying the literature for source material, check its
used in the analysis." An author and affiliation line, as availability. Do not use material that is not readily obtainable.
applicable, also appear under the appendix title. Personal communications and papers "to be published" may
not be included in the reference list of NASA reports but may
be acknowledged with a parenthetical note in the text. In the
References note give the author's name, the date, the company name and
location, and the status of the information (e.g., J.C. Jones,
References are citations of work related to points brought 1985, Acme Co., Philadelphia, PA, personal communication;
out in the report and are given as sources of additional
P.D. Smith, 1986, J. Phys. Chem., to be published). Not-yet-
information for the reader. The question of whether a reference
is needed can only be answered with experience. A reference published Lewis reports may be cited in the reference lists of
published NASA reports if they have received the division
may be appropriate chief's approval for final processing as NASA publications and
(1) To show work pertinent to the subject have been assigned a report number by NASA Headquarters.
(2) To acknowledge the work of others in the same field, (In the rough-draft stage the Lewis identification number (E-
particularly quotations number) of the referenced Lewis report is sufficient.)
(3) To save repetition of lengthy descriptions of apparatus or Limited-distribution documents, unclassified reports whose
procedures, development of theories, or other information availability is restricted by Government regulations concerning
(4) To support your assumptions, reasoning, viewpoints, or the export of technology, should not be referenced unless
explanations absolutely necessary. To use such material, you may need
(5) To compare previous results with those of your report written permission from the office controlling the report. (See
Reports, books, papers, and other publications referred to refs. 11 and 12 for more information.)
in NASA reports are listed in the References section at the Copyrighted material may be referenced without permission
end of the text, after any appendixes but before tables or figures from the copyright holder, but you must obtain permission for
appearing at the back of the report, direct quotation or reproduction of any part of such material.
To avoid delaying the report, ask the Lewis library to contact
Format the copyright holder as soon as you decide to use the material.

References are generally put into established NASA style Documents of higher classification than the report may be
cited in the reference list both as an acknowledgment of the
and listed by number in the order of mention in the text, tables,
contributions of others and as a courtesy to those with access
and figures consecutively. But the style and format of the to these documents. But neither the document title nor material
reference list may follow accepted practice in the discipline or data from the referenced document may be quoted or
of the report, discussed if they are classified higher than your report.
If you prefer, you may use the name (-date) style of citation Correct citation of a reference is an important responsibility
(e.g., Anders (1971, 1972); Smith (1974)). This style allows of the author. Doublecheck the final draft of your report to
you to revise your manuscript without searching for and changing make certain no errors have crept into the reference list.
all reference numbers. This type of reference list is alphabet-
ized by the last name of the first author. Multiple publications

by the same author (or authors) are listed in chronological

order from oldest to most recent. Documents by the same
Report Documentation Page
author in the same year are cited by author, year, and letter The last left-hand page facing the back cover of all NASA
(e.g., Robinson (1970a,b)). Documents having no personal publications except those in the Special Publications series is
author may be cited in the text by using an abbreviated title, the report documentation page. This standard form includes
If a bibliography is presented in addition to or in place the title and authors, the Abstract, the key words, and
of the References section, the publications in it are neither information on the report's distribution as well as the funding
numbered nor cited in the text and are either listed alphabet- number. When you bring your report to the Report Control
ically according to author, listed chronologically, or grouped office, you will be asked to provide the information necessary
according to subject, to complete this form (see ref. 11). Key words are terms or
short phrases that identify the principal subjects covered in
Suitability the report. The NASA Thesaurus (ref. 8) contains the subject
Only material that you have seen should be referenced. If terms by which documents in the NASA Scientific and
you cannot obtain the original material, you must list the Technical Information System are indexed and retrieved.
secondary source, but you may mention the original source Therefore all key words should be chosen from the thesaurus,
in parentheses, which is also the primary guide for spelling.

19
Chapter 7

Review of Reports
Report review refers to the process wherein the proposed effectively, the need for later review and evaluation will be
report is examined in detail for both its technical content and minimized. There obviously would be little need for technical
its composition by the author, the author's supervisors, and review committees if reports were thoroughly examined by
the technical review committee or a single reviewer. A the authors. Many times failure to review a report effectively
published report not only represents an author's contribution can be attributed to the tendency of many authors (and
to the scientific community but also reflects the fact that the supervisors) to allow poor rough drafts to pass through regular
contribution has the full support of NASA. Effective review channels on the assumption that so many people review the
of a proposed report is consequently of considerable impor- report that the author will be able to defer rewriting to a later
tance'both to the author and to NASA. All participants have time. Remember that subsequent review will be less severe
a respignsilfility to do a thorough, effective, and expedient job. and time consuming if you carefully examine the original rough
For some basic guidelines on publishing NASA reports, draft before submitting it to your immediate supervisor.
see the NASA Publications Guide (ref. 13) and Technical As an aid in evaluating your reports ask yourself these
Publication Policy (ref. 14). questions when reviewing your draft:

•
..
_ ....
" (1) Are the purpose and scope of the report clearly stated?

Steps in Review (2)

(3) Has
Does the
thepurpose been
Introductionfulfilled?
give the information needed to
understand the results (or tell where to get it)? Are your
A Lewis report generally passes through four reviewing assumptions clearly defined?
Steps before it is submitted to the Technical Information (4) Did you say what you wanted to say? Do you mean what
SerVices Division (TISD) for processing and publication. (See
ref' _11 for detailed information on processing.) The major you said? Can what you said be misinterpreted?
(5) Are the important results clear? Is the order of
steps in reviewing Lewis reports are importance clear?
(1) Review of rough draft by branch chief (6) Are the limitations of the conclusions clearly stated?
(2) Review of rough draft by technical review committee (7) Have you emphasized the most important results rather
or single reviewer than the difficulty of the work?
(3) Approval of rough draft by branch chief (8) Have you clearly separated facts from opinions?
(4) Approval of rough draft by division chief In essence, these questions are the same ones that your
The nature of the report or your division's review policy may supervisor and a review committee will be asking.
cause minor variances.
Prompt handling at each step is essential to minimize the

total time involved. A good job of preparation and review by

the author followed by a thorough check by the branch chief
Technical Review Committee
can save considerable time and effort in the subsequent steps. Work to be published in a NASA Special Publication or
In particular, a detailed review of the technical accuracy and
Reference Publication must be reviewed by a committee. All
emphasis can save time in the originating division's reviews,
other publications are reviewed by a committee or a single
and care in preparing and checking the figures and tables can reviewer at the discretion of the division chief.
save time in TISD's preparation of the final report figures and
The technical review committee (TRC) usually consists of
tables, three or more persons selected by either the branch chief or
the division chief. One person serves as chair, another as
checker, and the others as advisors. The committee is usually
Author Review of Rough Draft given about 2 weeks in which to examine the report, and then
Evaluation and review of a report must begin with the a meeting is held between the committee and the author (or
author. If you develop the ability to criticize your own material authors).

21

PRE_'iG PhC__ BLANK NOT FILMED

Objectives The duty of the chair is to direct the review of the report
so that the objectives of the committee are achieved harmoni-
The objectives of the TRC are to check the technical ously and efficiently. The chair should confine discussion to
accuracy and clarity of a report and to ensure that it is worthy matters pertaining directly to the report. All suggestions should
of publication and meets the standards required of NASA be clarified for the author, but modifying the report should
reports. The committee members share responsibility with the be left to the author. When a report must be substantively
author for the technical soundness, logic of arrangement, and
altered, the chair may call a subsequent meeting.
clarity of expression in the report. Each member of the Reviewers should become familiar with the requirements
committee should spend enough time on the report to effect
of each section of a report and watch for deviations as they
a complete and judicious appraisal, review them. The title of a report should be brief but com-
As a reviewer if you feel that your other duties may conflict
prehensive. It should give readers an idea of the objective of
with the review, by all means make this known to your super- the report stated in the Introduction. The title and the objective
visor. It is not fair to NASA or to the author of the report
must, in turn, be related to the conclusions. Examine the
for you to neglect your responsibilities as a reviewer. Your conclusions carefully to be sure that the objective has been
duties in the normal course of your work are certainly impor- reached.
tant, but they are no more so than your job as the reviewer
Another important point in reviewing a report is considering
of a report to be released to the general public, the reliability of the reference material. To do a conscientious
As the author do not feel that you attend the review meeting job of report reviewing, one reviewer (e.g., the checker)
to defend the report. Consider yourself not as the author of should make sure that the material cited from a reference
the report but as a member of the committee making a more actually is in the reference. Many writers have the habit of
critical examination of the report than the other members, recalling that a certain fact appeared in a particular reference,
Occasionally the author and the committee members disagree and if the reference is not handy to check the particular point,
on certain points. If disagreements are sufficiently serious, they will include it in the reference list without being certain
either the author or the committee members may submit that the reference is proper.
memorandums backing their opinions to the division chief for The reviewers should decide carefully whether the conclu-
a decision. This situation does not arise often, and both authors
sions drawn by the author are logical and supported by the
and committee members are urged to enter meetings with open data. Conclusions from NASA reports are often quoted
minds ready to consider the report in an unbiased manner.
verbatim in other publications. Therefore their exact meaning

Reviewing Guidelines and

Asintent should before,
mentioned be clear.the committee must evaluate the

The general guidelines for the TRC are given in the Instruc- contribution of the report to a specific area of knowledge. This
tions for Technical Review Committee, Form NASA-C-25 responsibility should be taken seriously by committee members
(Rev. 8-86), shown in figure 1. All committee members and the author. They must be prepared to tell the division chief
should examine the figures and tables and each reference to whether or not the report should be published.
the data in the text to determine that every statement is justified
by the data presented. They should watch for conflicting state-
ments and needless repetition. The member of the committee
designated as checker should examine the raw data, the Single Reviewer
instructions and formulas used by the computers in converting
the data, and the points on the curves to ascertain that the The responsibilities of a single reviewer are the same as
methods of computing and plotting are correct. In general, those of a TRC. The reviewer alone is responsible for evalu-
the committee's time should be spent in ensuring that the report ating the technical soundness and accuracy of the report and
is technically sound, leaving grammatical points to the Editorial its value as a contribution. In assuming this significant burden
Branch of TISD. But grammatical changes should be made the reviewer should feel as much responsibility as for his or
when the technical clarity is in doubt, her own technical reports.

22
 INSTRUCTIONS FoR TECHNICAL REVIEW COMMITTEE
CHAIRMAN .. DISTRIBUTIONDATE

CHECKER MEETING DATE

.,

ADVISOR •
TIME
..

ADVISOR PLACE

HAVE MAJORAND/ORGENERAL COMMENTS PREPARED FOR CHAIRMAN BY(Date) I TASK NO.

I
• ,,
, OBLIGATIONS OF THE COMMITTEE

(1) Determine if the report is worthy of publication. •

(2) Ensure that the major contribution of the report is emphasized.
(3) Ensure technical accuracy and clarity.
(4) Work with the author to produce a quality product within a reasonable time.

REMINDERS FOR THE COMMITTEE

(1) Take the time to be thorough. Whenever possible, criticism should be accompanied by a suggested revision.
Avoid generalities. If a statement, table, or figure is technically correct and not subject to misinterpretation, the
committee should feel free to suggest but should not insist upon revisions.
(2) Major and/or general comments on method of presentation, validity of argument, etc., should be prepared
for the chairman at least 3 days before the meeting.
(3) Each report is reviewed by the Editorial Branch for grammatical errors and by Lewis and Headquarters staffs
for administrative policy and security. Therefore prolonged discussions of these subjects should be avoided,
and these comments should be given to the author outside the meeting.
(4) If any member of the committee is unable to reach an agreement with the author, the member should sub-
mit a memorandum to the author's division chief stating the objections.

Specific Duties for the

CHAIRMAN"
(1) Talk with the author to become familiar with the purpose and scope of the report and the results of any pretech-
nical review committee or outline meetings.
(2) Set the meeting day. (A maximum of 2 weeks for members to review the report is a reasonab/e goaL)
(3) Determine prior to the meeting day that members are prepared by soliciting each for major and/or gen-
eral comments and discuss possible major problem areas with the author before the meeting day.
(4) Keep committee discussions focused on the major contributions of the report and concentrate committee
time on problem areas.
(5) DO NOT allow trivial or nontechnical discussions on questions of grammar, punctuation, etc.
(6) Keep a record of agreed upon changes to the report during the meeting for use in checking the revised draft.
(7) Check revised draft resulting from committee discussionsand signthe Publication Review and Approval Record
(Form NASA-C-22) if the technical content of the report is correct. If issues arise that cannot be resolved, note
this on the Form C-22 without signing it, and submit it and the report with written details to the author's divi-
sion chief.

CHECKER: ADVISOR"
(1) Check the accuracy of equations, calculations, and (1) Try to ensure clarity for the nonspecialist in
plots. If necessary, examine raw data and/or computer in the field of science covered by the report by freely
instructions and formulas used to obtain results, questioning confusing passages.
(2) Check tables and figures against text for accuracy (2) Check report for elemental completeness, e.g.,
of statements, an abstract, summary, introduction, etc. (See Lewis
(3) Ensure that figure keys are consistent throughout manual "Technical Report Writing.")
a set of figures. (3) Compare summary of results or conclusions with
(4) Check all symbols used and comments on confusing text to ensure that all results or concluding state-
redundant usage or incomplete listings. Verify the accur- ments are explicity stated in the text.
acy of all conversions from one unit system to another. (4) Compare summary against summary of results
(5) Determine that references are listed completely and or conclusions to ensure all major points included
are appropriate. (See author for the references before in the summary are in the summary of results or
contacting Library.) conclusions. (Make sure these sections are complete
in themselves and do not require the text for clar-
ification.)
NASA-C-25 (Rev. 8-86)
Figure 1.

23
References 7. Technical Motion Picture and Videotape Catalog, NASA Lewis Research
Center, 1989.

1. Strunk, William, Jr.; and White, E.B." The Elements of Style. Third 8. NASA Thesaurus. Volume l--Hierarchical Listing, 1985 Edition. NASA
Edition. The Macmillan Co., 1979. SP-7053 (Vol. 1), 1985.
2. Day, Robert A." How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper. ISI Press, 9. Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary. Merriam-Webster, Inc.,
Philadelphia, PA, 1979. Springfield, Mass., 1983.
3. Chandler, Harry E." Technical Writers Handbook. American Society for 10. Style Manual, U.S. Govt. Printing Office. Washington, 1984.
Metals, 1983. 11. Research Publications Processing Guide. NASA Lewis Research Center,
4. Lanham, Richard A.: Revising Business Prose. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1992.
1981. 12. NASA Scientific and Technical Information Handbook. NHB 2200.2,
5. Ebbitt, Wilma R.; and Ebbitt, David R.: Writer's Guide and Index to 1987.
English. Seventh ed., Scott, Foresman and Co., 1982. 13. NASA Publications Guide. NASA SP-7047, 1982.
6. Elsbree, Langdon; Altizer, Nell G." Kelly, Paul V." The Heath Handbook 14. Technical Publication Policy. NASA LHB 2220.1, 1992.
of Composition. D.C. Heath & Co., 1981.

24
 Public
reporting
gathering
burden
andmaintaining
REPORT DOCUMENTATION
forthiscollection
of information
thedataneeded,
isestimated
andcompleting
toaverage
andreviewing
1 hourperresponse,
thecollection
including
of information.
PAGE
thetimeforrevmwmg
Sendcomments regarding
•
instructions,
thisburden
•
Form Approved

searching
estimate
I
OMB No. 0704-0188
existing
datasources,'
oranyotheraspectofthis
collection
of information,
including
suggestionsforreducing
thisburden,
toWashington Headquarters
Services,
Directorate
forinformation
Operations
andReports,
1215Jefferson
DavisHighway, Suite1204,Arlington,
VA 22202-4302, andtotheOffice
of Management andBudget,PaperworkReduction
Project
(0704-0188),
Washington,
DC 20503.

, 1. AGENCYUSEONLY (Leaveb/ank) I2. REPORTDATE

1992., " 13.
; : REPORTTYPE
:. , ANDDATESCOVERED
Technical Memorandum -
4. TITLEANDSUBTITLE 5. FUNDINGNuMBERs
Technical Report Writing
• ._ . . .
.. . . .. : . . :, . . .:

6."AUTHOR(S) " ' "

Carol A. Vidoli ' ' '
• ;

7. PERFORMINGORGANIZATIONNAME(S)AND ADDRESS(ES) ...... 8. PERFORMINGORGANIZATION "

..... REPORTNUMBER
National Aeronautics and Space Administration ,
Lewis Research Center E-6832
Cleveland, Ohio 44135-3191

9. SPONSORING/MONITORING
AGENCYNAMES(S)ANDADDRESS(ES) 10. SPONSORING/MONITORING
AGENCYREPORTNUMBER

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Washington, D.C. 20546-0001 NASA TM-105419
.

, , ,
11. SUPPLEMENTARYNOTES

'1'2a.DISTRIBUTION/AVAILABILITY
STATEMENT ' ' ' ' 12b. DISTRIBUTIONCODE

Unclassified - Unlimited
Subject Category 82

13. ABSTRACT(Maximum 200 words)

This manual covers the fundamentals of organizing, writing, and reviewing NASA technical reports. It was written
to improve the writing skills :of Lewis technical authors and the overall quality of their reports.

14. SUBJEcTTERMS 15. NUMBEROF PAGES

Technical writing 28
'16. PRICE coDE
A03

17. SECURITYoF
REPORTunclassifiedCLASSIFICATION
] 18. SECURITYoF
THISunclassifiedPAGECLASSIFICATION
, ,, , 19. SECURrrYOF
, ABSTRACTunclassifiedCLASSIRCATION
, , 20. LIMITA:IrlON OF ABSTRACT
NSN 7540-01-280-5500 Standard Form 298 (Rev.'2-89)
Prescribed by ANSIStd. Z39-18
298-102
 Authors Checklist

D Is the title 120 characters or fewer including spaces? 5 Are chemical symbols defined the first time they
are used?
[-] Are the Abstract, Summary, Introduction, and
Summary of Results or Conclusions included? D Are all acronyms, initialisms, and abbreviations
defined?
N Are report headings of equal weight written in the
same form? Are there at least two subheadings D Are the mathematical conventions cOnsistent?

under the same higher heading? D Have you used trade names only where necessary?

Is the Abstract less than 200 words? 5 Do all the appendixes have titles?
D Does the Summary of Results summarize only the
5 Are the tables organized? Do the numbered tables
material presented in the main body of the report?
Are the Conclusions based on the material discussed have titles? Do the column headings include

in the main body of the report? definitions of symbols used? Are conditions that
apply to the entire table given in a headnote and
Is the system of units used consistently? not in individual columns?

N Are the tables, figures, references, and appendixes _ Do all the figures have legends? Do parts (a), (b),
numbered in the order cited? (c), etc., have sublegends? Are the scales labeled
with word definitions? Is the grid numbered for
D Are the references complete? Do they contain no
unpublished reports or private communications? easy interpolation of scales? Are the keys
consistent? Do all parts of a particular figure or
f--] Are the mathematical symbols all defined in the related figures have the same scale increments? Is
symbol list? Is each symbol used for only one each figure of a classified report marked with its
concept? own classification?

D Is the report complete and ready for submission to the Technical Information Services Division (Report Control
office)?

D Has the Document Availability Authorization form (FF427) been filled in and signed by your branch chief?
i

D Has the Technical Publication Review and Approval Record and Processing Information form (NASA-C-22)
! been signed by your division chief?.

D Has the appropriate distribution category been chosen from the STAR (NASA Subject) Categories?

7] Have you compiled a list of individuals and organizations, other than those appearing in the STAR Category,
who should receive a copy of the report? Is the list with the rough draft?
5 Are the original graphs with the rough draft?

[5] Have the original negatives or glossy prints of photographs that do not have a Photo Lab file number been obtained?
Are they with the rough draft?

D Have glossy prints of any electron micrographs and negatives of photomicrographs used in the report been obtained?
Are they with the rough draft?

U] Have you identified handwritten symbols the first time they appear?
NationalAeronauticsand FOURTHCLASSMAIL
Space Administration
Lewis Research Center ADDRESSCORRECTIONREQUESTED
Cleveland, Ohio 44135

Official Business'

Penalty for Private Use 1300 Poslage and Fees Pa_cl

Nal_onal Aeronautics and
• Space Admln_slratK)n
NASA-451

IM/ A
I I II I II I III I I IIII I I II IIIIIII _ II ll[ll I II II llll . II I I I II III I IIII