Chapter 10

Weight and Balance

Introduction
Compliance with the weight and balance limits of any aircraft
is critical to flight safety. Operating above the maximum
weight limitation compromises the structural integrity of
an aircraft and adversely affects its performance. Operation
with the center of gravity (CG) outside the approved limits
results in control difficulty.

Weight Control
As discussed in Chapter 5, Aerodynamics of Flight, weight
is the force with which gravity attracts a body toward the
center of the Earth. It is a product of the mass of a body and
the acceleration acting on the body. Weight is a major factor
in aircraft construction and operation and demands respect
from all pilots.

The force of gravity continuously attempts to pull an aircraft

down toward Earth. The force of lift is the only force that
counteracts weight and sustains an aircraft in flight. The
amount of lift produced by an airfoil is limited by the airfoil
design, angle of attack (AOA), airspeed, and air density. To
assure that the lift generated is sufficient to counteract weight,
loading an aircraft beyond the manufacturer’s recommended
weight must be avoided. If the weight is greater than the lift
generated, the aircraft may be incapable of flight.

10-1
Effects of Weight change that takes place. As fuel is used, an aircraft becomes
Any item aboard an aircraft that increases the total weight is lighter and performance is improved.
undesirable for performance. Manufacturers attempt to make
an aircraft as light as possible without sacrificing strength Changes of fixed equipment have a major effect upon the
or safety. weight of an aircraft. The installation of extra radios or
instruments, as well as repairs or modifications, may also
The pilot should always be aware of the consequences of affect the weight of an aircraft.
overloading. An overloaded aircraft may not be able to leave
the ground, or if it does become airborne, it may exhibit Balance, Stability, and Center of Gravity
unexpected and unusually poor flight characteristics. If not Balance refers to the location of the CG of an aircraft, and is
properly loaded, the initial indication of poor performance important to stability and safety in flight. The CG is a point
usually takes place during takeoff. at which the aircraft would balance if it were suspended at
that point.
Excessive weight reduces the flight performance in almost
every respect. For example, the most important performance The primary concern in balancing an aircraft is the fore
deficiencies of an overloaded aircraft are: and aft location of the CG along the longitudinal axis. The
• Higher takeoff speed CG is not necessarily a fixed point; its location depends on
the distribution of weight in the aircraft. As variable load
• Longer takeoff run
items are shifted or expended, there is a resultant shift in
• Reduced rate and angle of climb CG location. The distance between the forward and back
• Lower maximum altitude limits for the position of the center for gravity or CG range
is certified for an aircraft by the manufacturer. The pilot
• Shorter range should realize that if the CG is displaced too far forward
• Reduced cruising speed on the longitudinal axis, a nose-heavy condition will
• Reduced maneuverability result. Conversely, if the CG is displaced too far aft on the
longitudinal axis, a tail heavy condition results. It is possible
• Higher stalling speed that the pilot could not control the aircraft if the CG location
• Higher approach and landing speed produced an unstable condition. [Figure 10-1]
• Longer landing roll
Location of the CG with reference to the lateral axis is also
• Excessive weight on the nose wheel or tail wheel important. For each item of weight existing to the left of

The pilot must be knowledgeable about the effect of weight

on the performance of the particular aircraft being flown. Empty Full
Preflight planning should include a check of performance
charts to determine if the aircraft’s weight may contribute
to hazardous flight operations. Excessive weight in itself
reduces the safety margins available to the pilot and becomes
even more hazardous when other performance-reducing
Lateral unbalance will cause wing heaviness.
factors are combined with excess weight. The pilot must
also consider the consequences of an overweight aircraft if
Excess baggage
an emergency condition arises. If an engine fails on takeoff
or airframe ice forms at low altitude, it is usually too late to
reduce an aircraft’s weight to keep it in the air.

Weight Changes
The operating weight of an aircraft can be changed by
simply altering the fuel load. Gasoline has considerable
weight—6 pounds per gallon. Thirty gallons of fuel may
Longitudinal unbalance will cause
weigh more than one passenger. If a pilot lowers airplane either nose or tail heaviness.
weight by reducing fuel, the resulting decrease in the range
of the airplane must be taken into consideration during flight
Figure 10-1. Lateral and longitudinal unbalance.
planning. During flight, fuel burn is normally the only weight

10-2
the fuselage centerline, there is an equal weight existing at The forward CG limit is often established at a location that
a corresponding location on the right. This may be upset is determined by the landing characteristics of an aircraft.
by unbalanced lateral loading. The position of the lateral During landing, one of the most critical phases of flight,
CG is not computed in all aircraft, but the pilot must be exceeding the forward CG limit may result in excessive loads
aware that adverse effects arise as a result of a laterally on the nosewheel, a tendency to nose over on tailwheel type
unbalanced condition. In an airplane, lateral unbalance occurs airplanes, decreased performance, higher stalling speeds, and
if the fuel load is mismanaged by supplying the engine(s) higher control forces.
unevenly from tanks on one side of the airplane. The pilot
can compensate for the resulting wing-heavy condition by Control
adjusting the trim or by holding a constant control pressure. In extreme cases, a CG location that is beyond the forward
This action places the aircraft controls in an out-of-streamline limit may result in nose heaviness, making it difficult or
condition, increases drag, and results in decreased operating impossible to flare for landing. Manufacturers purposely
efficiency. Since lateral balance is addressed when needed in place the forward CG limit as far rearward as possible to
the aircraft flight manual (AFM) and longitudinal balance is aid pilots in avoiding damage when landing. In addition to
more critical, further reference to balance in this handbook decreased static and dynamic longitudinal stability, other
means longitudinal location of the CG. undesirable effects caused by a CG location aft of the
allowable range may include extreme control difficulty,
Flying an aircraft that is out of balance can produce increased violent stall characteristics, and very light control forces
pilot fatigue with obvious effects on the safety and efficiency which make it easy to overstress an aircraft inadvertently.
of flight. The pilot’s natural correction for longitudinal
unbalance is a change of trim to remove the excessive control A restricted forward CG limit is also specified to assure
pressure. Excessive trim, however, has the effect of reducing that sufficient elevator/control deflection is available at
not only aerodynamic efficiency but also primary control minimum airspeed. When structural limitations do not limit
travel distance in the direction the trim is applied. the forward CG position, it is located at the position where
full-up elevator/control deflection is required to obtain a high
Effects of Adverse Balance AOA for landing.
Adverse balance conditions affect flight characteristics in
much the same manner as those mentioned for an excess The aft CG limit is the most rearward position at which the
weight condition. It is vital to comply with weight and CG can be located for the most critical maneuver or operation.
balance limits established for all aircraft. Operating above As the CG moves aft, a less stable condition occurs, which
the maximum weight limitation compromises the structural decreases the ability of the aircraft to right itself after
integrity of the aircraft and can adversely affect performance. maneuvering or turbulence.
Stability and control are also affected by improper balance.
For some aircraft, both fore and aft CG limits may be
Stability specified to vary as gross weight changes. They may also
Loading in a nose-heavy condition causes problems in be changed for certain operations, such as acrobatic flight,
controlling and raising the nose, especially during takeoff retraction of the landing gear, or the installation of special
and landing. Loading in a tail heavy condition has a serious loads and devices that change the flight characteristics.
effect upon longitudinal stability, and reduces the capability
to recover from stalls and spins. Tail heavy loading also The actual location of the CG can be altered by many variable
produces very light control forces, another undesirable factors and is usually controlled by the pilot. Placement of
characteristic. This makes it easy for the pilot to inadvertently baggage and cargo items determines the CG location. The
overstress an aircraft. assignment of seats to passengers can also be used as a means
of obtaining a favorable balance. If an aircraft is tail heavy,
Stability and Center of Gravity it is only logical to place heavy passengers in forward seats.
Limits for the location of the CG are established by the Fuel burn can also affect the CG based on the location of the
manufacturer. These are the fore and aft limits beyond fuel tanks. For example, most small aircraft carry fuel in the
which the CG should not be located for flight. These limits wings very near the CG and burning off fuel has little effect
are published for each aircraft in the Type Certificate Data on the loaded CG.
Sheet (TCDS), or aircraft specification and the AFM or
pilot’s operating handbook (POH). If the CG is not within the
allowable limits after loading, it will be necessary to relocate
some items before flight is attempted.

10-3
Management of Weight and Balance Control Before any flight, the pilot should determine the weight
Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 23, and balance condition of the aircraft. Simple and orderly
section 23.23 requires establishment of the ranges of weights procedures based on sound principles have been devised
and CGs within which an aircraft may be operated safely. The by the manufacturer for the determination of loading
manufacturer provides this information, which is included in conditions. The pilot uses these procedures and exercises
the approved AFM, TCDS, or aircraft specifications. good judgment when determining weight and balance. In
many modern aircraft, it is not possible to fill all seats,
While there are no specified requirements for a pilot operating baggage compartments, and fuel tanks, and still remain within
under 14 CFR part 91 to conduct weight and balance the approved weight and balance limits. If the maximum
calculations prior to each flight, 14 CFR part 91, section passenger load is carried, the pilot must often reduce the fuel
91.9 requires the pilot in command (PIC) to comply with the load or reduce the amount of baggage.
operating limits in the approved AFM. These limits include
the weight and balance of the aircraft. To enable pilots to 14 CFR part 125 requires aircraft with 20 or more seats
make weight and balance computations, charts and graphs or maximum payload capacity of 6,000 pounds or more
are provided in the approved AFM. to be weighed every 36 calendar months. Multi-engine
aircraft operated under 14 CFR part 135 are also required
Weight and balance control should be a matter of concern to to be weighed every 36 months. Aircraft operated under 14
all pilots. The pilot controls loading and fuel management CFR part 135 are exempt from the 36 month requirement
(the two variable factors that can change both total weight if operated under a weight and balance system approved in
and CG location) of a particular aircraft. The aircraft owner the operations specifications of the certificate holder. For
or operator should make certain that up-to-date information additional information on approved weight and balance
is available for pilot use, and should ensure that appropriate control programs for operations under parts 121 and 135,
entries are made in the records when repairs or modifications reference the current edition of AC 120-27, Aircraft Weight
have been accomplished. The removal or addition of and Balance Control. AC 43.13-l, Acceptable Methods,
equipment results in changes to the CG. Techniques and Practices—Aircraft Inspection and Repair
also requires that the aircraft mechanic ensure that the weight
Weight changes must be accounted for and the proper and balance data in the aircraft records is current and accurate
notations made in weight and balance records. The after a 100-hour or annual inspection.
equipment list must be updated, if appropriate. Without such
information, the pilot has no foundation upon which to base Terms and Definitions
the necessary calculations and decisions. The pilot should be familiar with the appropriate terms
regarding weight and balance. The following list of terms
Standard parts with negligible weight or the addition of minor and their definitions is standardized, and knowledge of these
items of equipment such as nuts, bolts, washers, rivets, and terms aids the pilot to better understand weight and balance
similar standard parts of negligible weight on fixed-wing calculations of any aircraft. Terms defined by the General
aircraft do not require a weight and balance check. The Aviation Manufacturers Association (GAMA) as industry
following criteria for negligible weight change is outlined standard are marked in the titles with GAMA.
in Advisory Circular (AC) 43.13-1 (as revised), Methods • Arm (moment arm)—the horizontal distance in inches
Techniques and Practices—Aircraft Inspection and Repair: from the reference datum line to the CG of an item.
• One pound or less for an aircraft whose weight empty The algebraic sign is plus (+) if measured aft of the
is less than 5,000 pounds datum and minus (–) if measured forward of the datum.
• Two pounds or less for aircraft with an empty weight • Basic empty weight (GAMA)—the standard empty
of more than 5,000 pounds to 50,000 pounds weight plus the weight of optional and special
equipment that have been installed.
• Five pounds or less for aircraft with an empty weight
of more than 50,000 pounds • Center of gravity (CG)—the point about which an
aircraft would balance if it were possible to suspend it
Negligible CG change is any change of less than 0.05 percent at that point. It is the mass center of the aircraft or the
Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC) for fixed-wing aircraft theoretical point at which the entire weight of the aircraft
or 0.2 percent for rotary wing aircraft. MAC is the average is assumed to be concentrated. It may be expressed in
distance from the leading edge to the trailing edge of the inches from the reference datum or in percent of MAC.
wing. Exceeding these limits would require a weight and The CG is a three-dimensional point with longitudinal,
balance check. lateral, and vertical positioning in the aircraft.

10-4
• CG limits—the specified forward and aft points within • Moment index (or index)—a moment divided by a
which the CG must be located during flight. These constant such as 100, 1,000, or 10,000. The purpose
limits are indicated on pertinent aircraft specifications. of using a moment index is to simplify weight and
• CG range—the distance between the forward and aft balance computations of aircraft where heavy items
CG limits indicated on pertinent aircraft specifications. and long arms result in large, unmanageable numbers.

• Datum (reference datum)—an imaginary vertical • Payload (GAMA)—the weight of occupants, cargo,
plane or line from which all measurements of arm are and baggage.
taken. The datum is established by the manufacturer. • Standard empty weight (GAMA)—aircraft weight
Once the datum has been selected, all moment arms that consists of the airframe, engines, and all items of
and the location of CG range are measured from this operating equipment that have fixed locations and are
point. permanently installed in the aircraft, including fixed
• Delta—a Greek letter expressed by the symbol r to ballast, hydraulic fluid, unusable fuel, and full engine
indicate a change of values. As an example, rCG oil.
indicates a change (or movement) of the CG. • Standard weights—established weights for numerous
• Floor load limit—the maximum weight the floor items involved in weight and balance computations.
can sustain per square inch/foot as provided by the These weights should not be used if actual weights
manufacturer. are available. Some of the standard weights are:

• Fuel load—the expendable part of the load of the Gasoline.................................................. 6 lb/US gal
aircraft. It includes only usable fuel, not fuel required Jet A, Jet A-1........................................ 6.8 lb/US gal
to fill the lines or that which remains trapped in the Jet B.......................................................6.5 lb/US gal
tank sumps.
Oil..........................................................7.5 lb/US gal
• Licensed empty weight—the empty weight that
consists of the airframe, engine(s), unusable fuel, and Water.................................................. 8.35 lb/US gal
undrainable oil plus standard and optional equipment • Station—a location in the aircraft that is identified by
as specified in the equipment list. Some manufacturers a number designating its distance in inches from the
used this term prior to GAMA standardization. datum. The datum is, therefore, identified as station
• Maximum landing weight—the greatest weight that zero. An item located at station +50 would have an
an aircraft is normally allowed to have at landing. arm of 50 inches.

• Maximum ramp weight—the total weight of a loaded • Useful load—the weight of the pilot, copilot,
aircraft including all fuel. It is greater than the takeoff passengers, baggage, usable fuel, and drainable oil.
weight due to the fuel that will be burned during the It is the basic empty weight subtracted from the
taxi and run-up operations. Ramp weight may also be maximum allowable gross weight. This term applies
referred to as taxi weight. to general aviation (GA) aircraft only.

• Maximum takeoff weight—the maximum allowable Principles of Weight and Balance Computations
weight for takeoff. It is imperative that all pilots understand the basic principles
• Maximum weight—the maximum authorized weight of weight and balance determination. The following methods
of the aircraft and all of its equipment as specified in of computation can be applied to any object or vehicle for
the TCDS for the aircraft. which weight and balance information is essential.
• Maximum zero fuel weight (GAMA)—the maximum
weight, exclusive of usable fuel. By determining the weight of the empty aircraft and adding
the weight of everything loaded on the aircraft, a total weight
• Mean aerodynamic chord (MAC)—the average can be determined—a simple concept. A greater problem,
distance from the leading edge to the trailing edge of particularly if the basic principles of weight and balance are
the wing. not understood, is distributing this weight in such a manner
• Moment—the product of the weight of an item that the entire mass of the loaded aircraft is balanced around
multiplied by its arm. Moments are expressed in a point (CG) that must be located within specified limits.
pound-inches (in-lb). Total moment is the weight of
the airplane multiplied by the distance between the The point at which an aircraft balances can be determined by
datum and the CG. locating the CG, which is, as stated in the definitions of terms,

10-5
the imaginary point at which all the weight is concentrated.
To provide the necessary balance between longitudinal Datum
stability and elevator control, the CG is usually located 100"
slightly forward of the center of lift. This loading condition
causes a nose-down tendency in flight, which is desirable
during flight at a high AOA and slow speeds.
50
lb
As mentioned earlier, a safe zone within which the balance
point (CG) must fall is called the CG range. The extremities Fulcrum
of the range are called the forward CG limits and aft CG Moment = 5,000 in-lb
limits. These limits are usually specified in inches, along the Wt x Arm = Moment
longitudinal axis of the airplane, measured from a reference Note: The datum is assumed to be
(lb) x (in) = (in-lb)
50 x 100 = 5,000
point called a datum reference. The datum is an arbitrary located at the fulcrum.
point, established by aircraft designers that may vary in
location between different aircraft. [Figure 10-2]
Figure 10-3. Determining moment.

The distance from the datum to any component part or any in Figure 10-4), if a 100-pound weight is placed at a point
object loaded on the aircraft is called the arm. When the (station) 25 inches from the datum, and another 50-pound
object or component is located aft of the datum, it is measured weight is placed at a point (station) 50 inches from the datum,
in positive inches; if located forward of the datum, it is the sum of the product of the two weights and their distances
measured as negative inches or minus inches. The location total a moment of 5,000 in-lb, which will balance the board.
of the object or part is often referred to as the station. If
the weight of any object or component is multiplied by the Weight and Balance Restrictions
distance from the datum (arm), the product is the moment. An aircraft’s weight and balance restrictions should be
The moment is the measurement of the gravitational force closely followed. The loading conditions and empty weight
that causes a tendency of the weight to rotate about a point of a particular aircraft may differ from that found in the
or axis and is expressed in inch-pounds (in-lb). AFM/POH because modifications or equipment changes
may have been made. Sample loading problems in the
To illustrate, assume a weight of 50 pounds is placed on AFM/POH are intended for guidance only; therefore, each
the board at a station or point 100 inches from the datum. aircraft must be treated separately. Although an aircraft is
The downward force of the weight can be determined by certified for a specified maximum gross takeoff weight, it
multiplying 50 pounds by 100 inches, which produces a may not safely take off at this weight under all conditions.
moment of 5,000 in-lb. [Figure 10-3] Conditions that affect takeoff and climb performance, such as
high elevations, high temperatures, and high humidity (high
To establish a balance, a total of 5,000 in-lb must be applied density altitudes), may require a reduction in weight before
to the other end of the board. Any combination of weight flight is attempted. Other factors to consider when computing
and distance which, when multiplied, produces a 5,000 in-
lb moment will balance the board. For example (illustrated
Datum
50" 100"
CG
range 25"
Fwd limit Aft limit
Datum
100
50 lb 50
lb lb
(–) (+)
Arm Arm
Fulcrum
Moment = 700 in-lb 2,500 2,500 5,000
in-lb in-lb in-lb
( + ) Arm 70"

Wt x Arm = Moment 100 x 25 = 2,500

10 lb (lb) x (in) = (in-lb) 50 x 50 = 2,500
Total = 5,000
Sta 0 Sta 70

Figure 10-2. Weight and balance. Figure 10-4. Establishing a balance.

10-6
weight and balance distribution prior to takeoff are runway Item Weight Arm Moment
length, runway surface, runway slope, surface wind, and the
Aircraft Empty Weight 2,100 78.3 164,430
presence of obstacles. These factors may require a reduction Front Seat Occupants 340 85.0 28,900
in or redistribution of weight prior to flight. Rear Seat Occupants 350 121.0 42,350
Fuel 450 75.0 33,750
Some aircraft are designed so that it is difficult to load them Baggage Area 1 80 150.0 12,000
in a manner that places the CG out of limits. These are
usually small aircraft with the seats, fuel, and baggage areas Total 3,320 281,430
281,430 ÷ 3,320 = 84.8
located near the CG limit. Pilots must be aware that while
within CG limits these aircraft can be overloaded in weight. Figure 10-5. Example of weight and balance computations.
Other aircraft can be loaded in such a manner that they will
be out of CG limits even though the useful load has not been
84.8 is within the 78–86 inch range; therefore, the aircraft is
exceeded. Because of the effects of an out-of-balance or
loaded within limits.
overweight condition, a pilot should always be sure that an
aircraft is properly loaded.
Graph Method
Another method for determining the loaded weight and CG is
Determining Loaded Weight and CG
the use of graphs provided by the manufacturers. To simplify
There are various methods for determining the loaded weight calculations, the moment may sometimes be divided by 100,
and CG of an aircraft. There is the computational method as 1,000, or 10,000. [Figures 10-6, 10-7, and 10-8]
well as methods that utilize graphs and tables provided by
the aircraft manufacturer. Front seat occupants....................................340 pounds
Rear seat occupants.......................................300 pounds
Computational Method Fuel ..................................................................40 gallons
The following is an example of the computational method
involving the application of basic math functions. Baggage area 1................................................20 pounds

Aircraft Allowances: The same steps should be followed in the graph method as
Maximum gross weight......................3,400 pounds were used in the computational method except the graphs
provided will calculate the moments and allow the pilot to
CG range.............................................78–86 inches
determine if the aircraft is loaded within limits. To determine
Given: the moment using the loading graph, find the weight and draw
Weight of front seat occupants.............340 pounds a line straight across until it intercepts the item for which the
moment is to be calculated. Then draw a line straight down
Weight of rear seat occupants..............350 pounds
to determine the moment. (The red line on the loading graph
Fuel...........................................................75 gallons in Figure 10-7 represents the moment for the pilot and front
Weight of baggage in area 1....................80 pounds passenger. All other moments were determined the same
1. List the weight of the aircraft, occupants, fuel, and
Sample Loading Problem Moment
Weight (lb) (in-lb/1,000)
baggage. Remember that aviation gas (AVGAS)
weighs 6 pounds per gallon and is used in this 1. Basic empty weight (Use data pertaining
example. to aircraft as it is presently equipped)
includes unusable fuel and full oil 1,467 57.3
2. Enter the moment for each item listed. Remember 2. Usable fuel (At 6 lb/gal)
“weight x arm = moment.” Standard tanks (40 gal maximum) 240 11.5
Long range tanks (50 gal maximum)
3. Find the total weight and total moment. Integral tanks (62 gal maximum)
Integral reduced fuel (42 gal)
4. To determine the CG, divide the total moment by the 3. Pilot and front passenger (Station 34
total weight. to 46) 340 12.7
4. Rear passengers 300 21.8
NOTE: The weight and balance records for a particular 5. Baggage area 1 or passenger on child’s
seat (Station 82 to 108, 120 lb maximum) 20 1.9
aircraft provide the empty weight and moment, as well as the
6. Baggage area 2
information on the arm distance. [Figure 10-5] (Station 108 to 142, 50 lb maximum)
7. Weight and moment 2,367 105.2
The total loaded weight of 3,320 pounds does not exceed
the maximum gross weight of 3,400 pounds, and the CG of Figure 10-6. Weight and balance data.

10-7
 Load Moment/1,000 (kilogram-millimeters)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

200

400
rs 175
n ge
se
350
62 gal***(234.7 liters)
pas
340 ar

r)
60 gal (227.1 liters)
Re 150

te
/li
kg
300

2
.7

Load Weight (kilograms)

50 gal**(189.3 liters)

r
ge

;0
125

al
en
Load Weight (pounds)

/g
ss
250

lb
pa
42 gal reduced***(159 liters)

6
l(
nt 40 gal*(189.3 liters)

e
100
Fu
fro

200
&
lot

30 gal (113.6 liters)

Pi

75
150

20 gal (75.7 liters)

50
100 Baggage area 1 or Maximum Usable Fuel
passenger on child’s seat * Standard tanks
10 gal (37.9 liters) ** Long range tanks 25
50
*** Internal tanks
Baggage area 2
0 0
5 10 12.7 15 20 25 30
Load Moment/1,000 (inch-pounds)

Figure 10-7. Loading graph.

Loaded Aircraft Moment/1,000 (kilogram-millimeters)

600 700 800 900 1,000 1,100 1,200 1,300

1,100
2,400
2,367
1,050
2,300

Loaded Airplane Weight (kilograms)

2,200 Normal 1,000
Loaded Aircraft Weight (pounds)

category

2,100 950

2,000
900
ry
go

1,900
te

850
ca
y
ilit

1,800
Ut

800
1,700
750
1,600
700
1,500
45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110
105.2
Loaded Aircraft Moment/1,000 (inch-pounds)

Figure 10-8. CG moment envelope.

10-8
way.) Once this has been done for each item, total the weight Table Method
and moments and draw a line for both weight and moment The table method applies the same principles as the
on the CG envelope graph. If the lines intersect within the computational and graph methods. The information
envelope, the aircraft is loaded within limits. In this sample and limitations are contained in tables provided by the
loading problem, the aircraft is loaded within limits. manufacturer. Figure 10-9 is an example of a table and a

Occupants Minimum Maximum

Usable Fuel Weight Moment Moment
Front Seat Rear Seats 100 100
Main Wing Tanks Arm 75 Arm 85 Arm 121
2,400 1,848 2,057
Moment Moment
Moment Weight Weight 2,410 1,856 2,065
Gallons Weight 100 100
100 2,420 1,863 2,074
120 102 120 145 2,430 1,871 2,083
5 30 22 130 110 130 157 2,440 1,879 2,091
10 60 45 140 119 140 169 2,450 1,887 2,100
15 90 68 FUEL TANK 150 128 150 182 2,460 1,894 2,108
20 120 90 160 136 160 194 2,470 1,092 2,117
25 150 112 170 144 170 206 2,480 1,911 2,125
30 180 135 180 153 180 218 2,490 1,921 2,134
35 210 158 190 162 190 230
40 240 180 200 170 200 242 2,500 1,932 2,143
44 264 198 2,510 1,942 2,151
2,520 1,953 2,160
2,530 1,963 2,168
2,540 1,974 2,176
SEATING AREA

2,550 1,984 2,184

2,560 1,995 2,192
2,570 2,005 2,200
2,580 2,016 2,208
2,590 2,026 2,216
BAGGAGE AREA
OIL 2,600 2,037 2,224
2,610 2,048 2,232
2,620 2,058 2,239
Minimum Maximum 2,630 2,069 2,247
*Oil Baggage or 5th Weight Moment Moment 2,640 2,080 2,255
Seat Occupant 100 100 2,650 2,090 2,263
Quarts Weight Moment 2,660 2,101 2,271
100 Arm 140
2,100 1,617 1,800 2,670 2,112 2,279
10 19 5 Moment 2,110 1,625 1,808 2,680 2,123 2,287
Weight 2,120 1,632 1,817 2,690 2,133 2,295
FUEL TANK 100
*Included in basic empty weight 2,130 1,640 1,825
10 14
2,140 1,648 1,834 2,700 2,144 2,303
20 28
2,150 1,656 1,843 2,710 2,155 2,311
Empty Weight ~ 2,015 30 42 1,851
2,160 1,663 2,720 2,166 2,319
MOM/ 100 ~ 1,554 40 56 2,170 1,860
1,671 2,730 2,177 2,326
50 70 2,180 1,679 1,868 2,334
2,740 2,188
60 84 2,190 1,686 1,877 2,342
Moment Limits vs Weight 2,750 2,199
70 98 2,760 2,350
2,210
Moment limits are based on the following weight and 80 112 2,200 1,694 1,885 2,770 2,358
2,221
center of gravity limit data (landing gear down). 90 126 1,894
2,210 1,702 2,780 2,232 2,366
Weight Forward AFT 100 140 2,220 1,709 1,903 2,790 2,243 2,374
Condition CG Limit CG Limit 110 154 2,230 1,717 1,911
2,950 lb (takeoff 82.1 84.7 120 168 2,240 1,725 1,920 2,800 2,254 2,381
or landing) 130 182 2,250 1,733 1,928 2,810 2,265 2,389
2,525 lb 77.5 85.7 140 196 2,260 1,740 1,937 2,820 2,276 2,397
2,475 lb or less 77.0 85.7 150 210 2,270 1,748 1,945 2,830 2,287 2,405
160 224 2,280 1,756 1,954 2,840 2,298 2,413
Sample Loading Problem Weight 170
Moment 238 2,290 1,763 1,963 2,850 2,309 2,421
180 252 2,300 1,771 1,971 2,860 2,320 2,426
Basic empty weight 2,015 1,554
190 266 2,310 1,779 1,980 2,870 2,332 2,436
Fuel main tanks (44 gal) 264 200
198 280 2,320 1,786 1,988 2,880 2,343 2,444
210 294 2,330 1,794 1,997 2,890 2,354 2,452
*Front seat passengers 300 254 308
220 2,340 1,802 2,005 2,900 2,365 3,460
*Rear seat passengers 190 230
230 322 2,350 1,810 2,014 2,910 2,377 2,468
Baggage 30 240 42 336 2,360 1,817 2,023 2,920 2,388 2,475
250 350 2,370 1,825 2,031 2,930 2,399 2,483
260 364 2,380 1,833 2,040 2,940 2,411 2,491
Total 2,799 2,278/100
270 378 2,390 1,840 2,048 2,950 2,422 2,499
* Interpolate or, as in this case, add appropriate numbers.

Figure 10-9. Loading schedule placard.

10-9
weight and balance calculation based on that table. In this
Item Weight Arm Moment
problem, the total weight of 2,799 pounds and moment of
Basic empty weight 3,230 CG 90.5 292,315.0
2,278/100 are within the limits of the table. Front seat occupants 335 89.0 29,815.0
3rd & 4th seat occupants 350 126.0 44,100.0
Computations With a Negative Arm forward facing
5th & 6th seat occupants 200 157.0 31,400.0
Figure 10-10 is a sample of weight and balance computation Nose baggage 100 10.0 1,000.0
using an aircraft with a negative arm. It is important to Aft baggage 25 183.0 4,575.0
remember that a positive times a negative equals a negative, Zero fuel weight max 4,400 pounds
Subtotal 4,240 CG 95.1 403,205.0
and a negative would be subtracted from the total moments. 822 113.0 92,886.0
Fuel
Ramp weight max 5,224 pounds
Subtotal ramp weight 5,062 CG 98.0 496,091.0
Computations With Zero Fuel Weight
* Less fuel for start,
Figure 10-11 is a sample of weight and balance computation taxi, and takeoff −24 113.0 −2,712.0
using an aircraft with a zero fuel weight. In this example, Subtotal
takeoff weight 5,038 CG 97.9 493,379.0
the total weight of the aircraft less fuel is 4,240 pounds,
Less fuel to destination −450 113.0 −50,850.0
which is under the zero fuel weight of 4,400 pounds. If the
Max landing weight 4,940 pounds
total weight of the aircraft without fuel had exceeded 4,400 Actual landing weight 4,588 CG 96.5 442,529.0
pounds, passengers or cargo would have needed to be reduced *Fuel for start, taxi, and takeoff is normally 24 pounds.
to bring the weight at or below the max zero fuel weight.
Figure 10-11. Sample weight and balance using an aircraft with a
published zero fuel weight.
Shifting, Adding, and Removing Weight
A pilot must be able to solve any problems accurately that
involve the shift, addition, or removal of weight. For example, aircraft have forward and aft baggage compartments, weight
the pilot may load the aircraft within the allowable takeoff may be shifted from one to the other to change the CG. If
weight limit, then find that the CG limit has been exceeded. starting with a known aircraft weight, CG, and total moments,
The most satisfactory solution to this problem is to shift calculate the new CG (after the weight shift) by dividing the
baggage, passengers, or both. The pilot should be able to new total moments by the total aircraft weight.
determine the minimum load shift needed to make the aircraft
safe for flight. Pilots should be able to determine if shifting a To determine the new total moments, find out how many
load to a new location will correct an out-of-limit condition. moments are gained or lost when the weight is shifted.
There are some standardized calculations that can help make Assume that 100 pounds has been shifted from station 30 to
these determinations. station 150. This movement increases the total moments of
the aircraft by 12,000 in-lb.
Weight Shifting
Moment when
When weight is shifted from one location to another, the
at station 150 = 100 lb x 150 in = 15,000 in-lb
total weight of the aircraft is unchanged. The total moments,
however, do change in relation and proportion to the
Moment when
direction and distance the weight is moved. When weight is
at station 30 = 100 lb x 30 in = 3,000 in-lb
moved forward, the total moments decrease; when weight
is moved aft, total moments increase. The moment change
Moment change = [15,000 – 3,000] = 12,000 in-lb
is proportional to the amount of weight moved. Since many
By adding the moment change to the original moment (or
Item Weight Arm Moment subtracting if the weight has been moved forward instead of
Licensed empty weight 1,011.9 68.6 69,393.0
aft), the new total moments are obtained. Then determine the
Oil (6 quarts) 11.0 −31.0 −341.0 new CG by dividing the new moments by the total weight:
Fuel (18 gallons) 108.0 84.0 9,072.0
Fuel, auxiliary (18 gallons) 108.0 84.0 9,072.0 Total moments =
Pilot 170.0 81.0 13,770.0 616,000 in-lb + 12,000 in-lb = 628,000 in-lb
Passenger 170.0 81.0 13,770.0
Baggage 70.0 105.0 7,350.0
CG = 628,000 in-lb = 78.5 in
Total 1,648.9 122,086.0
8,000 lb
CG 74.0
The shift has caused the CG to shift to station 78.5.
Figure 10-10. Sample weight and balance using a negative.

10-10
 Example Example

Weight shifted ∆CG (change of CG) Given:

=
Total weight Distance weight is shifted Aircraft total weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,860 lb
CG station. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80.0 in
100 ∆CG
=
8,000 120 Determine the location of the CG if 140 pounds of baggage is added to
∆CG = 1.5 in station 150.

The change of CG is added to (or subtracted from when appropriate) Solution:

the original CG to determine the new CG:
77 + 1.5 = 78.5 inches aft of datum Added weight ∆CG
=
New total weight Distance between weight and old CG
The shifting weight proportion formula can also be used to determine 140 lb ∆CG
how much weight must be shifted to achieve a particular shift of the CG. =
6,860 lb + 140 lb 150 in − 80 in
The following problem illustrates a solution of this type.
140 lb ∆CG
=
7,000 lb 70 in
Example
CG = 1.4 in aft
Given:
Aircraft total weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,800 lb Add ∆CG to old CG
CG station. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81.5 in New CG = 80 in + 1.4 in = 81.4 in
Aft CG limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80.5 in

Determine how much cargo must be shifted from the aft cargo compart-
ment at station 150 to the forward cargo compartment at station 30 to Example
move the CG to exactly the aft limit.
Given:
Aircraft total weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,100 lb
Solution:
CG station. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80.0 in
Weight to be shifted CG
=
Total weight Distance weight is shifted Determine the location of the CG if 100 pounds is removed from
station 150.
Weight to be shifted 1.0 in
=
7,800 lb 120 in Solution:
Weight to be shifted = 65 lb Weight removed ∆CG
=
New total weight Distance between weight and old CG

100 lb ∆CG
A simpler solution may be obtained by using a computer =
6,100 lb − 100 lb 150 in − 80 in
or calculator and a proportional formula. This can be done 100 lb ∆CG
=
because the CG will shift a distance that is proportional to 6,000 lb 70 in
the distance the weight is shifted. CG = 1.2 in forward

Subtract ∆CG from old CG

Weight Addition or Removal New CG = 80 in − 1.2 in = 78.8 in
In many instances, the weight and balance of the aircraft will
be changed by the addition or removal of weight. When this
In the previous examples, the rCG is either added or
happens, a new CG must be calculated and checked against
subtracted from the old CG. Deciding which to accomplish is
the limitations to see if the location is acceptable. This type
best handled by mentally calculating which way the CG will
of weight and balance problem is commonly encountered
shift for the particular weight change. If the CG is shifting
when the aircraft burns fuel in flight, thereby reducing the
aft, the rCG is added to the old CG; if the CG is shifting
weight located at the fuel tanks. Most small aircraft are
forward, the rCG is subtracted from the old CG.
designed with the fuel tanks positioned close to the CG;
therefore, the consumption of fuel does not affect the CG to
any great extent.
Chapter Summary
Operating an aircraft within the weight and balance limits
The addition or removal of cargo presents a CG change is critical to flight safety. Pilots must ensure that the CG is
problem that must be calculated before flight. The problem and remains within approved limits throughout all phases of
may always be solved by calculations involving total a flight. For additional information on weight, balance, CG,
moments. A typical problem may involve the calculation and aircraft stability refer to the FAA handbook appropriate
of a new CG for an aircraft which, when loaded and ready to the specific aircraft category.
for flight, receives some additional cargo or passengers just
before departure time.

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