Unit I – General Introduction 1

MO D U L E I
GENERAL
INTRODUCTION
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Outline history of the development of computers – Types of
computers – PC/ Workstations – Laptops – Palmtops – Mobile
Devices – Notebooks – Mainframes – Supercomputers –
Significance of IT and the Internet.

1. History of Computer Development

1.1. Introduction
We are living in the computer age today and most of our day to
day activities cannot be accomplished without using computers.
Sometimes knowingly and sometimes unknowingly we use
computers. Computer has become an indispensable and
multipurpose tool. We are breathing in the computer age and
gradually computer has become such a desire necessity of life that
it is difficult to imagine life without it.
The word ‘computer’ comes from the word ‘compute’, which
means ‘to calculate’. Hence, people usually consider a computer to
be a calculating device that can perform arithmetic operations at
enormous speed.
In fact, the original objective for inventing the computer was to
create a fast calculating machine. However, more than 80% of the
work done by the computers today is of nonmathematical nature.
Hence, to define a computer as a calculating device is to ignore
more than 80% of its work.
2 Informatics

Computer appears differently to different people. The computer

appears to be Magic Box to a layman. It strikes him simply as a
calculator, which works automatically. To one with technical
know-how, the computer is a sophisticated electronic device
capable of solving problems or manipulating data by accepting
data and instructions, performing the prescribed operations on data
and supplying the results of these operations as output.
More accurately, a computer may be defined as a fast and accurate
sophisticated electronic data processing device that is designed to
automatically accept, store and process data and produce output
results under the direction of a stored program.

1.2. Evolution of Computers

Necessity is the mother of invention. This saying holds true for
computers also because computers evolved as a result of man’s
search for fast and accurate calculating devices.
The evolution of computer has passed through a number of stages
before it reached the present state of development. The efforts are
still continuing to make the machine more and more versatile.

The Early Days (1,000 B.C. to 1940)

Ancient Civilizations: Computers are named so because they
make mathematical computations at fast speeds. As a result, the
history of computing goes back at least 3,000 years ago, when
ancient civilizations were making great strides in arithmetic and
mathematics. The Greeks, Egyptians, Babylonians, Indians,
Chinese, and Persians were all interested in logic and numerical
computation. The Greeks focused on geometry and rationality, the
Egyptians on simple addiction and subtraction, the Babylonians on
multiplication and division, Indians on the base-10 decimal
numbering system and concept of zero, the Chinese on
trigonometry, and the Persians on algorithmic problem solving.
These developments carried over into the more modern centuries,
fuelling advancements in areas like astronomy, chemistry, and
medicine.
Pascal, Leibniz, and Jacquard: During the first half of the 17th
Unit I – General Introduction 3

century there were very important advancements in the automation

and simplification of arithmetic computation. John Napier invented
logarithms to simplify difficult mathematical computations. The
slide rule based on Napier's ideas about logarithms was introduced
by William Oughtred in 1625 and the French mathematician Blaise
Pascal spent most of his life in the 1600's working on a calculator
called the Pascaline. The Pascaline was mostly finished by 1672
and was able to do addition and subtraction by way of mechanical
cogs and gears. In 1674 the German mathematician Gottfried
Leibniz created a mechanical calculator called the Leibniz Wheel.
This 'wheel' could perform addition, subtraction, multiplication,
and division, although not very well in all instances.
Neither the Pascaline nor Leibniz wheel can be categorized as
computers because they did not have memory where information
could be stored and because they were not programmable. The first
device that did satisfy these requirements was a loom developed in
1801 by Joseph Jacquard. Jacquard built his loom to automate the
process of weaving rugs and clothing. It did this using punched
cards that told the machine what pattern to weave. Where there
was a hole in the card the machine would weave and where there
was no hole the machine would not weave. Jacquard's idea of
punched cards was later used by computer companies like IBM to
program software.
Charles Babbage was a mathematics professor at Cambridge
University who was interested in automated computation. In 1823
he introduced the Difference Engine, the largest and most
sophisticated mechanical calculator of his time. Along with
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division to 6 digits – the
Difference Engine could also solve polynomial equations. It was
never actually completed because the British Government cut off
funding for the project in 1842. After this Babbage began to draw
up plans for an Analytical Machine, a general-purpose
programmable computing machine. Many people consider this to
be the first true computer system even though it only ever existed
on paper. The Analytical Machine had all the same basic parts that
modern computer systems have. While designing the Analytical
Machine, Babbage noticed that he could perfect his Difference
Engine by using 8,000 parts rather than 25,000 and could solve up
4 Informatics

to 20 digits instead of just 6. He drew schematics for a Difference

Engine no. 2 between 1847 and 1849.
After twelve years spent trying to get his Difference Engine No. 2
built, Babbage had to give up. The British Government was not
interested in funding the machine and the technology to build the
gears, cogs, and levers for the machine did not exist in that time
period. Babbage's plans for the Difference Engine and Difference
Engine No. 2 were hidden away after his death, and finally
resurfaced around 150 years after they had each been conceived. In
1991 a team of engineers at the Science Museum in London
completed the calculating section of Babbage's Difference Engine.
In 2002 the same museum created a full fledged model of the
Difference Engine No. 2 that weighs 5 tons and has 8,000 parts.
Miraculously, it worked just as Babbage had envisioned.
In America during the late 1800's there were many immigrants
pouring in from all over the world. Officials at the U.S. Census
Bureau estimated that it would take ten to twelve years to do the
1890 census. By the time they finished it would be 1900, and
they'd have to do the census all over again! The problem was that
all of the calculations for the census were performed manually. To
solve their problems the U.S. Census Bureau held a competition
that called for proposals outlining a better way to do the census.
The winner of the competition was Herman Hollerith, a
statistician, who proposed that the use of automation machines
would greatly reduce the time needed to do the census. He then
designed and built programmable card processing machines that
would read, tally, and sort data entered on punch cards. The census
data was coded onto cards using a keypunch. Then these cards
were taken to a tabulator (counting and tallying) or sorter (ordering
alphabetically or numerically).
Hollerith's machines were not all-purpose computers but they were
a step in that direction. They successfully completed the census in
just 2 years. The 1880 census had taken 8 years to complete and
the population was 30% smaller then, which meant that automated
processing was definitely more efficient for large scale operations.
Hollerith saw the potential in his tabulating and sorting machines,
so he left the U.S. Census Bureau to found the Computer
Unit I – General Introduction 5

Tabulating Recording Company. His punch-card machines became

national bestsellers and in 1924 Hollerith's company changed its
name to IBM (International Business Machine) after a series of
mergers with other similar companies. The computer age was
about to begin.

Birth of Computers (1940-1950)

WWII : World War II brought concerns about how to calculate the
logistics of such a large scale battle. The United States needed to
calculate ballistics, deploy massive amounts of troops, and crack
secret codes. The military started a number of research projects to
try and build computers that could help with these tasks and more.
In 1931 the U.S. Navy and IBM began working together to build a
general-purpose computer called the Mark 1. It was the first
computer to use the base-2 binary system, was programmable, and
made of vacuum tubes, relays, magnets, and gears. The Mark 1
was completed in 1944. The Mark 1 had a memory for 72 numbers
and could perform 23-digit multiplication in 4 seconds. It was
operational for 15 years and performed many calculations for the
U.S. Navy during WWII.
The Mark 1 was still a mix of electronic and mechanical. At the
same time as the Mark 1, however, there was another project
taking place. During WWII the United States army was building
new artillery that required firing tables. These firing tables were
created by way of intense mathematical calculation that took a very
long time to manually compute. To help make this process quicker
the Army started a project in 1943 to build a completely electronic
computing device. J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly headed the
project and eventually created the Electronic Numerical Integrator
and Calculator (ENIAC), which was completed in 1946. The
ENIAC had 18,000 vacuum tubes and absolutely gigantic; 100 feet
long, 10 feet high, and 30 tons. It was about a thousand times faster
than the Mark 1 at multiplying numbers and 300 times faster at
addition.
Von Neumann: Though the computers developed in the Second
World War were definitely computers, they were not the kind of
computers we are used to in modern times. Jon Von Neumann
6 Informatics

helped work on the ENIAC and figured out how to make

computers even better. The ENIAC was programmed externally
with wires, connectors, and plugs. Von Neumann wanted to make
programming something that was internalized. Instead of rerouting
wires and plugs, a person could write a different sequence of
instructions that changes the way a computer runs. Neumann
created the idea of the stored computer program, which is still
implemented today in computers that use the 'Von Neumann
Architecture'.

First Generation (1950 - 1957)

The first computer to implement Von Neumann's idea was the
EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) in
1951, developed in a project led by Von Neumann himself. At the
same time a computer using stored programs was developed in
England, called the EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic
Calculator). The EDVAC was commercialized and called the
UNIVAC 1 (Universal Automatic Computer). It was sold to the
U.S. Bureau of the Census in March, 1951. This was actually the
first computer ever built for sale. The UNIVAC 1 made a famous
appearance on CBS (a major American television network) in
November, 1952 during the presidential election. The television
network had rented the computer to boost ratings, planning to have
the computer predict who would win the election. The UNIVAC
predicted very early on that Eisenhower would beat Stevenson,
which was correct. Network executives were sceptical and did not
go live with the prediction until they had arrived at the same
conclusion using manual methods. The UNIVAC sat right behind
CBS staff during the broadcast, and it was the first time that many
people had the chance to see this elusive new technology called the
computer.
IBM's first production computer was the IBM 701 Defence
Calculator, introduced in April, 1952. The IBM 701 was used
mostly for scientific calculation. The EDVAC, EDSAC, UNIVAC
1, and IBM 701 were all large, expensive, slow, and unreliable
pieces of technology – like all computers of this time. Some other
computers of this time worth mentioning are the Whirlwind,
developed at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and
Unit I – General Introduction 7

JOHNNIAC, by the Rand Corporation. The Whirlwind was the

first computer to display real time video and use core memory. The
JOHNNIAC was named in honour of Jon Von Neumann.
Computers at this time were usually kept in special locations like
government and university research labs or military compounds.
Only specially trained personnel were granted access to these
computers. Because they used vacuum tubes to calculate and store
information, these computers were also very hard to maintain. First
generation computers also used punched cards to store symbolic
programming languages. Most people were indirectly affected by
this first generation of computing machines and knew little of their
existence.

Second Generation (1957 - 1965)

The second generation of computing took place between 1957 and
1965. Computers were now implementing transistors, which had
been invented in 1947 by a group of researchers at Bell
Laboratories, instead of vacuum tubes. Because of the transistor
and advances in electrical engineering, computers were now
cheaper, faster, more reliable, and cheaper than ever before. More
universities, businesses, and government agencies could actually
afford computers now.
In 1957 the first FORTRAN compiler was released. FORTRAN
was the first high-level programming language ever made. It was
developed by IBM for scientific and engineering use. In 1959, the
COmmon Business-Oriented Language (COBOL) programming
language was released. Where FORTRAN was designed for
science and engineering, COBOL was designed to serve business
environments with their finances and administrative tasks. These
two programming languages essentially helped to create the
occupation of a programmer. Before these languages,
programming computers required electrical engineering
knowledge.
This generation of computers also had an increase in the use of
core memory and disks for mass storage. A notable computer to
mention from this time period is the IBM System/360, a
mainframe computer that is considered one of the important
8 Informatics

milestones in the industry. It was actually a family of computer

models that could be sold to a wide variety of businesses and
institutions.

Third Generation (1965 - 1975)

The third generation of computing spanned from 1965 to 1975.
During this time integrated circuits with transistors, resistors, and
capacitors were etched onto a piece of silicon. This reduced the
price and size of computers, adding to a general trend in the
computer industry of miniaturization. In 1960 the Digital
Equipment Corporation introduced the Programmed Data
Processor- 1 (PDP-1), which can be called the first minicomputer
due to its relatively small size. It is classified as a third generation
computer because of the way it was built, even though it was made
before 1965. The PDP-1 was also the computer that ran the very
first video game, called Spacewar (written in 1962).
The software industry came into existence in the mid 1970's as
companies formed to write programs that would satisfy the
increasing number of computer users. Computers were being used
everywhere in business, government, military, and education
environments. Because of there target market, the first software
companies mostly offered accounting and statistical programs.
This time period also had the first set of computing standards
created for compatibility between systems.
e-mail originated sometime between 1961 and 1966, allowing
computer users to send messages to each other as long as they were
connected through a network. This is closely tied to the work that
was being done on Advanced Research Projects Agency Network
(ARPANET), networking technology and innovation that would
one day bring the Internet.

Fourth Generation (1975 - 1985)

The fourth generation of computing spanned from 1975 to 1985.
Computer technology had advanced so rapidly that computers
could fit in something the size of a typewriter. These were called
microcomputers, the first one being the Altair 8800. The Altair
8800 debuted in 1975 as a mail-order hobby kit. Many people
Unit I – General Introduction 9

acknowledge the Altair 8800 as the computer that sparked the

modern computer revolution, especially since Bill Gates and Paul
Allen founded Microsoft with a programming language called
Altair BASIC – made specifically for the 8800. Now that
computers could fit on desks they became much more common.
A small company called Apple Computer, Inc. was established in
1976 and single handedly changed the industry forever. Steve
Wozniak and Steve Jobs began to sell their Apple I computer that
same year, and it quickly gained popularity. It came with a
keyboard and only required a monitor to be plugged into the back
of the system, which was a novel idea for computers at that time.
The Apple II was released the next year and was the first mass
produced microcomputer to be commercially sold, and also
ushered in the era of personal computing.
In 1981, Microsoft Disk Operating System (MS-DOS) was
released to run on the Intel 8086 microprocessor. Over the next
few years MS-DOS became the most popular operating system in
the world, eventually leading to Microsoft Windows 1.0 being
released in 1985. In 1984 Apple introduced their Mac OS, which
was the first operating system to be completely graphical. Both
Mac OS and Windows used pull-down menus, icons, and windows
to make computing more user-friendly. Computers were now being
controlled with a mouse as well as keyboard. The first mouse was
developed in 1981 by Xerox.
Software became much more common and diverse during this
period with the development of spreadsheets, databases, and
drawing programs. Computer networks and e-mail became much
more prevalent as well.
The first truly portable computer, called the Osborne 1, was
released in 1981. Portable computers like the TRS-80 Model 100 /
102 and IBM 5155 followed afterward.
Not all the computers of the time were small, of course. There was
still being supercomputers built with the aim of being as fast as
possible. These supercomputers were sold to companies,
universities, and the military. An example of one such
supercomputer is the Cray-1, which was released in 1976 by Cray
Research. It became one of the best known and most successful
10 Informatics

supercomputers ever for its unique design and fast speed of 250
MFLOPS (million/mega floating-point operations per second).
This generation was also important for the development of
embedded systems. These are special systems, usually very tiny,
that have computers inside to control their operation. These
embedded systems were put into things like cars, thermostats,
microwave ovens, wristwatches, and more.

Fifth Generation (1985 - Present)

The changes that have occurred since 1985 are plentiful.
Computers have gotten tinier, more reliable, and many times faster.
Computers are mostly built using components from many different
corporations. For this reason, it is easier to focus on specific
component advancements. Intel and AMD (Advanced Micro
Devices) are the main computer processor companies in the world
today and are constant rivals. There are many different personal
computer companies that usually sell their hardware with a
Microsoft Windows operating system preinstalled. Apple has a
wide line of hardware and software as well. Computer graphics
have gotten very powerful and are able to display full three
dimensional graphics at high resolution. Nvidia and ATI are two
companies in constant battle with one another to be the computer
graphics hardware king.
The software industry has grown a lot as well, offering all kinds of
programs for almost anything you can think of. Microsoft
Windows still dominates the operating system scene. In 1995
Microsoft released Windows 95, an operating system that
catapulted them to a new level of dominance. In 1999 Apple
revamped its operating system with the release of Mac OS X. In
1991 Linus Torvalds wrote the Linux kernel that has since
spawned countless open source operating systems and open source
software.
Computers have become more and more online orientated in
modern times, especially with the development of the World Wide
Web. Popular companies like Google and Yahoo! were started
because of the internet.
Unit I – General Introduction 11

In 2008 the IBM Roadrunner was introduced as the fastest

computer in the world at 1.026 PFLOPS (peta flops). Fast
supercomputers aid in the production of movie special effects and
the making of computer animated movies

2. Types of Computers
Traditionally, computers were classified by their size, processing
speed, and cost. Based on these factors, computers were classified
as microcomputers, minicomputers, mainframes and
supercomputers. However, with rapidly changing technology, this
classification is no more relevant. The problem is that the
computer technology is changing so swiftly that after every few
months, new models of computers are introduced having much
higher performance and costing less than their preceding models.
Hence, a recently introduced small system can outperform large
models of a few years ago, and a minicomputer can perform the
jobs of an earlier mainframe at much lower cost. Hence, today
computers are classified based on their mode of use. Classification
of computers based on their mode of use is discussed in the
following sections:
2.1. Personal Computers
A personal computer (PC) is any general-purpose computer whose
size, capabilities, and original sales price make it useful for
individuals, and which is intended to be operated directly by an
end user, with no intervening computer operator.
A personal computer may be a desktop computer, a laptop, tablet
PC or a handheld PC (also called palmtop). The most common
microprocessors in personal computers are x86-compatible CPUs.
Software applications for personal computers include word
processing, spreadsheets, databases, Web browsers and e-mail
clients, games, and myriad personal productivity and special-
purpose software. Modern personal computers often have high-
speed or dial-up connections to the Internet, allowing access to the
World Wide Web and a wide range of other resources.
A PC may be used at home, or may be found in an office. Personal
computers can be connected to a local area network (LAN) either
12 Informatics

by a cable or wirelessly.
While early PC owners usually had to write their own programs to
do anything useful with the machines, today's users have access to
a wide range of commercial and non-commercial software which is
provided in ready-to-run form. Since the 1980s, Microsoft and
Intel have dominated much of the personal computer market with
the Wintel platform.
The capabilities of the personal computer have changed greatly
since the introduction of electronic computers. Today, computers
for personal use come in all shapes and sizes, from tiny PDAs
(personal digital assistant) to hefty PC (personal computer) towers.
More specialized models are announced each week - trip planners,
expense account pads, language translators...
Following are the important types of Personal Computers:

Workstation
A workstation is a high-end personal computer designed for
technical or scientific applications. Intended primarily to be used
by one person at a time, they are commonly connected to a local
area network and run multi-user operating systems.
Historically, workstations had offered higher performance than
personal computers, especially with respect to CPU and graphics,
memory capacity and multitasking capability. They are optimized
for the visualization and manipulation of different types of
complex data such as 3D mechanical design, engineering
simulation (e.g. computational fluid dynamics), animation and
rendering of images, and mathematical plots. Consoles consist of a
high resolution display, a keyboard and a mouse at a minimum, but
also offer multiple displays, graphics tablets, 3D mice (devices for
manipulating and navigating 3D objects and scenes), etc.
Presently, the workstation market is highly commoditized and is
dominated by large PC vendors, such as Dell and HP, selling
Microsoft Windows/Linux running on Intel Xeon/AMD Opteron.
Alternative UNIX based platforms are provided by Apple Inc., Sun
Microsystems, and SGI (Silicon Graphics International).
Unit I – General Introduction 13

A workstation class PC may have some of the following features:

 Support for ECC (error correcting code) memory
 A larger number of memory sockets which use registered
(buffered) modules
 Multiple processor sockets, sophisticated cpus (for Intel CPU it
will be Server derived Xeon instead of typical for pcs Core)
 Multiple displays
 Run reliable operating system with advanced features
 High performance graphics card (i.e. Nvidia's professional
Quadro instead of games-oriented GeForce)
Current workstation market centres around x86-64
microprocessors. Operating systems available for these platforms
are Windows, the different Linux distributions, Mac OS X and
Solaris 10.

Desktop PC

Figure 1.2: Compaq dc7800: An Ultra Slim Desktop from HP

A desktop computer is a personal computer (PC) in a form
intended for regular use at a single location, as opposed to a mobile
laptop or portable computer. Prior to the wide spread of PCs a
computer that could fit on a desk was considered remarkably
14 Informatics

small. Today the phrase usually indicates a particular style of

computer case. Desktop computers come in a variety of styles
ranging from large vertical tower cases to small form factor models
that can be tucked behind an LCD monitor.
Most of today's desktop computers have one of the three major
operating systems available. In order of usage share, they are
Microsoft Windows, Mac OS and Linux. Microsoft Windows and
Linux can be used for almost any desktop computers. Mac OS is
only available for Apple computers. New versions of each of these
operating systems are released on a semi-regular basis. The newest
version of Microsoft Windows is called Windows 7 and is widely
regarded as a marked improvement over the previous Windows
Vista. The newest version of Mac OS is Mac OS X Snow Leopard.
Linux is available in multiple distributions, including Ubuntu and
Fedora. Each distribution has its own version number and bundled
software, but all distributions of Linux contain a Linux kernel.

Figure 1.3: The iMac G4: An All-in-One Desktop from Apple

All-in-One computers are a subtype of desktop computers that
combine the monitor into the same case as the CPU. The monitor
often utilizes a touch screen as an optional method of user input,
however detached keyboards and mice are normally still included.
The inner components of the PC are often located directly behind
Unit I – General Introduction 15

the monitor. Apple has manufactured several popular examples of

all-in-one computers, such as the original Macintosh of the mid-
1980s and the iMac of the late 1990s and 2000s. Some older 8-bit
computers, such as the Commodore PET 2001 or Kaypro II, also
fit into this category. All-in-One PCs are typically more portable
than other desktop PCs and many have been built with carrying
handles integrated into the case. They can simply be unplugged
and transported to a new location.

Nettop PC
A nettop is a very small form factor, inexpensive, low-wattage
desktop computer designed for basic tasks such as surfing the
Internet, accessing web-based applications, document processing,
and audio/video playback. The word nettop is a portmanteau of
Internet and desktop, similar to the portmanteau netbook (Internet
+ notebook)

Figure 1.4: Acer Aspire REVO: An ultra-Small Factor NVidia Ion-

based Nettop Desktop from Acer
Compared to ordinary desktop computers, nettops are not only
smaller and cheaper, they also consume much less power. For
example, CompuLab's fit-PC2 consumes no more than 8 watts of
power whereas a typical desktop would easily consume more than
100 watts of power. Consequently, nettops are often fanless with
an external power supply. Some do not have an optical disk drive
and use a solid state disk, making them completely silent. The
trade off is that the hardware specifications and processing power
are usually reduced and hence make nettops less appropriate for
16 Informatics

running complex or resource intensive applications.

Some nettops are designed to have stylish cases or run Windows
operating systems in order to attract ordinary customers. Others are
designed more towards business and experienced computer users.
These models typically run a version of Linux to allow better
customization and cut costs. Major manufacturers of the nettop
include Acer, Asus, Dell and Lenevo.
There are three platforms that are primarily intended for nettops
and netbooks:
 Intel's Centrino Atom platform
 Nvidia's Ion platform
 VIA's Trinity Platform.
Some nettops have also adopted system-on-a-chip designs.
Many net-top models are X86-processor-based and as such are
capable of running standard PC operating systems. There are also
operating systems designed specifically for nettops and other
machines in the same performance class. Linux distributions of this
type include Moblin, Ubuntu Netbook Remix and Jolicloud.
Windows XP has been one of the popular choices as its hardware
requirements match nettop capabilities. Some high-end nettops and
upcoming models are capable of running Windows Vista and
Windows 7. Linux has also been adopted by some nettop
manufacturers as it costs little to no money to install and supports a
wide range of CPU architectures. Google's Android Linux
distribution is another option. Although Google's Android was
originally announced for smartphones, it has also taken a seat in
the nettop market.

Laptop PC
A laptop computer or simply laptop, also called a notebook
computer or sometimes a notebook, is a personal computer
designed for mobile use and small and light enough to sit on a
person's lap while in use.
A laptop integrates most of the typical components of a desktop
Unit I – General Introduction 17

computer, including a display, a keyboard, a pointing device (a

touchpad, also known as a trackpad, and/or a pointing stick),
speakers, and often including a battery, into a single small and
light unit. The rechargeable battery (if present) is charged from an
AC adapter and typically stores enough energy to run the laptop
for two to three hours in its initial state, depending on the
configuration and power management of the computer.
Laptops are usually notebook-shaped with thicknesses between
0.7–1.5 inches (18–38 mm) and dimensions ranging from 10x8
inches (27x22cm, 13" display) to 15x11 inches (39x28cm, 17"
display) and up. Modern laptops weigh 3 to 12 pounds (1.4 to 5.4
kg); older laptops were usually heavier. Most laptops are designed
in the flip form factor to protect the screen and the keyboard when
closed. Modern tablet laptops have a complex joint between the
keyboard housing and the display, permitting the display panel to
swivel and then lie flat on the keyboard housing.

Figure 1.5: A Laptop

The general terms "laptop" or "notebook" can be used to refer to a

number of classes of small portable computers. Based on purpose
and (approximately) by screen size, laptops can be classified as
follows:
 Desktop replacement – emphasizes performance, is less
portable, 15" and larger screen,
 Standard laptop – balances portability and features, 13-15"
18 Informatics

screen and
 Subnotebook – emphasizes portability, has fewer features, 12"
or smaller screen.
By features, laptops can be classified as follows:
 Budget – a cheap, lower-performance standard-sized laptop;
 Tablet PC – Has a touch-screen interface, may or may not have
a keyboard;
 Netbook – A budget subnotebook suited to Internet surfing and
basic office applications. Usually has a 9" or 10" screen.
 Gaming laptop - A larger laptop with a powerful graphics card
for playing graphics-intensive computer games
 Rugged – Engineered to operate in tough conditions (strong
vibrations, extreme temperatures, wet and dusty environments
Advantages of laptops: Portability is usually the first feature
mentioned in any comparison of laptops versus desktop PCs.
Portability means that a laptop can be used in many places – not
only at home and at the office, but also during commuting and
flights, in coffee shops, in lecture halls and libraries, at clients'
location or at a meeting room, etc. The portability feature offers
several distinct advantages:
 Getting more work done – Using a laptop in places where a
desktop PC can't be used, and at times that would otherwise be
wasted. For example, an office worker managing their e-mails
during an hour-long commute by train, or a student doing
his/her homework at the university coffee shop during a break
between lectures.
 Immediacy – Carrying a laptop means having instant access to
various information, personal and work files. Immediacy
allows better collaboration between co-workers or students, as
a laptop can be flipped open to present a problem or a solution
anytime, anywhere.
 Up-to-date information – If a person has more than one desktop
PC, a problem of synchronization arises: changes made on one
computer are not automatically propagated to the others. There
are ways to resolve this problem, including physical transfer of
updated files (using a USB flash memory stick or CDRs) or
Unit I – General Introduction 19

using synchronization software over the Internet. However,

using a single laptop at both locations avoids the problem
entirely, as the files exist in a single location and are always
up-to-date.
 Connectivity – A proliferation of Wi-Fi wireless networks and
cellular broadband data services combined with a near-
ubiquitous support by laptops means that a laptop can have
easy Internet and local network connectivity while remaining
mobile. Wi-Fi networks and laptop programs are especially
widespread at university campuses.
Other advantages of laptops include:
 Size – Laptops are smaller than standard PCs. This is beneficial
when space is at a premium, for example in small apartments
and student dorms. When not in use, a laptop can be closed and
put away.
 Ease of Access - Most laptops have doors on the underside that
allow the user to access the memory, hard drive and other
components, by simply flipping the laptop to access the doors.
For desktops the user must usually access the backside of the
computer, which is harder if it is in an area with little space.
 Low power consumption – Laptops are several times more
power-efficient than desktops. A typical laptop uses 20-90 W,
compared to 100-800 W for desktops. This could be
particularly beneficial for businesses (which run hundreds of
personal computers, multiplying the potential savings) and
homes where there is a computer running 24/7 (such as a home
media server, print server, etc.)
 Quiet – Laptops are often quieter than desktops, due both to the
components (quieter, slower 2.5-inch hard drives) and to less
heat production leading to use of fewer and slower cooling
fans.
 Battery – a charged laptop can run several hours in case of a
power outage and is not affected by short power interruptions
and blackouts. A desktop PC needs a UPS to handle short
interruptions, blackouts and spikes; achieving on-battery time
20 Informatics

of more than 20–30 minutes for a desktop PC requires a large

and expensive UPS.
However, compared to desktop PCs, laptops have disadvantages in
the following fields:
 Performance – Whilst the performance of mainstream desktops
and laptops is comparable, laptops are significantly more
expensive than desktop PCs at the same or even lower
performance level. The upper limits of performance of laptops
are a little bit lower, and "bleeding-edge" features usually
appear first in desktops and only then, as the underlying
technology matures, are adapted to laptops. However, for
Internet browsing and typical office applications, where the
computer spends the majority of its time waiting for the next
user input, even netbook-class laptops are generally fast
enough. Most higher-end laptops are sufficiently powerful for
high-resolution movie playback, 3D gaming and video editing
and encoding. However, laptops are disadvantaged when
dealing with database, math, engineering, financial software,
etc.
 Upgradeability – Upgradeability of laptops is very limited
compared to desktops, which are thoroughly standardized. In
general, hard drives and memory can be upgraded easily.
Optical drives and internal expansion cards may be upgraded if
they follow an industry standard, but all other internal
components, including the CPU, motherboard and graphics, are
not intended to be upgradeable. The reasons for limited
upgradeability are both technical and economic. There is no
industry-wide standard form factor for laptops; each major
laptop manufacturer pursues its own proprietary design and
construction, with the result that laptops are difficult to upgrade
and have high repair costs. With few exceptions, laptop
components can rarely be swapped between laptops of
competing manufacturers, or even between laptops from the
different product-lines of the same manufacturer. Some
upgrades can be performed by adding external devices, either
USB or in expansion card format such a PC Card: sound cards,
network adapters, hard and optical drives, and numerous other
Unit I – General Introduction 21

peripherals are available, but these upgrades usually impair the

laptop's portability, because they add cables and boxes to the
setup and often have to be disconnected and reconnected when
the laptop is moved
 Durability – Due to their portability, laptops are subject to
more wear and physical damage than desktops. Battery life of
laptops is limited; the capacity drops with time, necessitating
an eventual replacement after a few years.
 Security – Being valuable, common and portable, laptops are
prized targets for theft. The cost of the stolen business or
personal data and of the resulting problems (identity theft,
credit card fraud, breach of privacy laws) can be many times
the value of the stolen laptop itself. Therefore, both physical
protection of laptops and the safeguarding of data contained on
them are of the highest importance

Netbook PC
Netbooks (also called mini notebooks or subnotebooks or
ultraportables) are a rapidly evolving category of small, light and
inexpensive laptop computers suited for general computing and
accessing web-based applications.

Figure 1.5: A Netbook PC

At their inception in late 2007 — as smaller notebooks optimized
for low weight and low cost — netbooks omitted key features (e.g.,
22 Informatics

the optical drive), featured smaller screens and keyboards, and

offered reduced specification and computing power. In the short
period since their appearance, netbooks have grown in size and
features, now converging with new smaller, lighter notebooks.
Netbooks typically have less powerful hardware than larger laptop
computers. Some netbooks do not even have a conventional hard
drive. Such netbooks use solid-state storage devices instead, as
these require less power, are lighter and generally more shock-
resistant, but with much less storage capacity (such as 8, 16, or
32GB compared to the 80 to 160GB mechanical hard drives typical
of many notebooks/laptop computers).
All netbooks on the market today support Wi-Fi wireless
networking and many can be used on mobile telephone networks
with data capability (for example, 3G). Mobile data plans are
supplied under contract in the same way as mobile telephones.
Some also include Ethernet and/or modem ports, for broadband or
dial-up Internet access, respectively.

Tablet PC
In general terms, tablet PC refers to a slate- or tablet- shaped
mobile computer device, equipped with a touch screen or stylus.
This form factor offers a more mobile computer. Tablet PCs may
be used where notebooks are impractical or unwieldy, or do not
provide the needed functionality.
Tablet PCs were first introduced by Pen computing in the early 90s
with their PenGo Tablet Computer and popularized by Microsoft.
In addition to the host of features found on regular laptops, tablet
PCs may also possess:
 Capacitive contact technology, which can sense finger(s) on
the screen without requiring significant pressure for system to
recognize an input.
 Palm recognition, which prevent inadvertent palms or other
contacts from disrupting the pen's input.
 Multi-touch capabilities, which can recognize multiple
Unit I – General Introduction 23

simultaneous finger touches, allowing for enhanced

manipulation of on-screen objects.
Tablet PCs are now available in different varieties, including:
Booklets: Booklet PCs are dual screen tablet computers that fold
open like a book. A typical Booklet PC is equipped with
multitouch screens and pen writing recognition capabilities. They
are designed to be used as a digital day planner, internet surfing
device, project planner, to watch videos, live TV, play music, and
for e-reading.

Figure 1.6: A Booklet type Tablet PC

Slates: Slate computers, which resemble writing slates, are tablet
PCs without a dedicated keyboard. For text input, users rely on
handwriting recognition via active digitizer, touching the screen
with a fingertip or stylus or by using an external keyboard which
can usually be attached via a wireless or USB connection. These
tablet PCs typically incorporate small (8.4–14.1 inches/21–36
centimetres) LCD screens and have been popular for quite some
time in vertical markets such as health care, education, and field
work. Applications for field work often require a tablet PC that has
rugged specifications that ensure long life by resisting heat,
humidity, and drop/vibration damage. This added focus on
mobility and/or ruggedness often leads to elimination of moving
parts that could hinder these qualities.
24 Informatics

Figure 1.6: A Slate type Tablet PC

Convertibles: Convertible notebooks have a base body with an
attached keyboard. They more closely resemble modern laptops,
and are usually heavier and larger than slates. Typically, the base
of a convertible attaches to the display at a single joint called a
swivel hinge or rotating hinge. The joint allows the screen to rotate
through 180° and fold down on top of the keyboard to provide a
flat writing surface. This design, although the most common,
creates a physical point of weakness on the notebook. Some
manufacturers, however, have attempted to overcome these weak
points. The Panasonic Toughbook 19, for example, is advertised as
a more durable convertible notebook. One model by Acer has a
sliding design in which the screen slides up from the slate-like
position and locks into place to provide the laptop mode.

Figure 1.7: A Convertible type Tablet PC

Unit I – General Introduction 25

Convertibles are by far the most popular form factor of tablet PCs,
because the convertibles still offer the keyboard and pointing
device of older notebooks, for people who are unsure about the
practicality of using the pen as the primary method of input.

Hybrids: Hybrids, coined by users of the HP/Compaq TC1000 and

TC1100 series, share the features of the slate and convertible by
using a detachable keyboard which operates in a similar fashion to
a convertible when attached. This is not to be confused with slate
models that have a detachable keyboard—detachable keyboards
for pure slate models do not rotate to allow the tablet to rest on it
like a convertible.
The advantages and disadvantages of tablet PCs compared to
laptop PCs are highly subjective measures. What appeals to one
user may be exactly what disappoints another. The following are
commonly cited opinions of the tablet PC platform:
Advantages:
 Usage in environments not conducive to a keyboard and mouse
such as lying in bed, standing, or handling with a single hand.
 Lighter weight, lower power models can function similarly to
dedicated reading devices like the Amazon Kindle.
 Touch environment makes navigation much easier than
conventional use of keyboard and mouse or touch pad.
 Recording non-character information such as diagrams,
mathematical notations, and symbols.
 Allows universal use without special keyboard versions for
different countries/languages.
Disadvantages:
 Higher cost — convertible tablet PCs can cost significantly
more than their non-tablet counterparts although this premium
has been predicted to fall.
 Input speed — handwriting can be significantly slower than
typing speeds, the latter of which can be as high as 50-150
WPM.
26 Informatics

 Screen and hinge damage risk - Tablet PCs are handled more
than conventional laptops, yet are built on similar frames; in
addition, since their screens also serve as input devices, they
run a higher risk of screen damage due to impacts and misuse.
A convertible tablet PC's screen hinge is required to rotate
around two axes, unlike a normal laptop screen, subsequently
increasing the number of possible mechanical and electrical
(digitizer and video cables, embedded WiFi antennas, etc)
failure points.
 Slower processing - tablet PCs tend to have slower
computational and graphical processing than traditional laptops
in their price range. Most tablet PCs are equipped with
embedded graphics processors instead of discrete graphics
cards.
Major tablet PC Manufacturers include AIS, Acer, Asus, , Fujitsu,
Hewlett-Packard, IBM, Lenovo Group, LG Electronics, Panasonic
and Toshiba.

Mobile Devices
A mobile device (also known as cellphone device, handheld
device, handheld computer, "Palmtop" or simply handheld) is a
pocket-sized computing device, typically having a display screen
with touch input or a miniature keyboard. In the case of the
personal digital assistant (PDA) the input and output are combined
into a touch-screen interface. Smartphones and PDAs are popular
amongst those who require the assistance and convenience of a
conventional computer, in environments where carrying one would
not be practical. Enterprise digital assistants can further extend the
available functionality for the business user by offering integrated
data capture devices like barcode, RFID and smart card readers.
These devices are called handheld devices because they are small,
lightweight devices that can be used by holding in hand.
Obviously, their size, weight and designs are such that they can be
used comfortably by holding in hand. Handheld PCs are also called
palmtops because they can be kept on palm and operated.
Mobile devices have been designed for many applications and
include:
Unit I – General Introduction 27

 Personal digital assistant/enterprise digital assistant

 Mobile computers (Pocket PC)
 Graphing calculator
 Handheld game consoles
 Digital still camera (DSC)
 Digital video camera (DVC or digital camcorder)
 Portable media player
 e-book reader
 Mobile phone
 Pager
 Personal navigation devices (PNDs)

First two of the mobile devices are discussed below:

Personal Digital Assistant

A personal digital assistant (PDA), also known as a palmtop
computer, is a mobile device which functions as a Personal
information manager and connects to the internet. The PDA has an
electronic visual display enabling it to include a web browser, but
some newer models also have audio capabilities, enabling them to
be used as mobile phones or portable media players. Many PDAs
can access the Internet, intranets or extranets via Wi-Fi, or
Wireless Wide Area Networks (WWANs). Many PDAs employ
touch screen technology.
The term PDA was first used on January 7, 1992, by Apple
Computer CEO John Sculley at the Consumer Electronics Show in
Las Vegas, Nevada, referring to the Apple Newton. In 1996, Nokia
introduced the first mobile phone with full PDA functionality, the
9000 Communicator, which has since grown to become the world's
best-selling PDA and which spawned a category of phones called
the smartphone. Today the vast majority of all PDAs are
smartphones, selling over 150 million units while non-phone
("stand-alone") PDAs sell only about 3 million units per year. The
RIM BlackBerry, the Apple iPhone and the Nokia N-Series and
HTC are typical smartphones.
28 Informatics

Figure 1.9: A Personal Digital Assistant

Currently, a typical PDA has touch screen for entering data, a
memory card slot for data storage and at least one of the following
for connectivity: IrDA, Bluetooth and/or WiFi. However, many
PDAs (typically those used primarily as telephones) may not have
a touch screen, using softkeys, a directional pad and either the
numeric keypad or a thumb keyboard for input.
PDAs are used to store information that can be accessed at any
time and anywhere. PDAs are of particular use in the following
cases:
Automobile navigation – Many PDAs are used in car kits and are
fitted with differential Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers
to provide real-time automobile navigation. PDAs are increasingly
being fitted as standard on new cars. Many systems can also
display traffic conditions, dynamic routing and roadside mobile
radar guns.
Medical and scientific uses – In medicine, PDAs have been shown
to aid diagnosis and drug selection and some studies have
concluded that their use by patients to record symptoms improves
the effectiveness of communication with hospitals during follow-
up. A range of resources have been developed to cater for the
demand from the medical profession which supply drug databases,
treatment information and relevant news in formats specific to
mobile devices and services such as AvantGo translate medical
Unit I – General Introduction 29

journals into readable formats and provide updates from journals.

Educational uses – PDAs and handheld devices are commonly
allowed in the classroom for digital note taking. Students can spell-
check, modify, and amend their class notes or e-notes. Some
educators distribute course material through the use of the internet
connectivity or infrared file sharing functions of the PDA.
Textbook publishers have begun to release e-books, or electronic
textbooks, which can be uploaded directly to a PDA, reducing the
number of textbooks students must carry. Software companies
have developed programs to meet the instructional needs of
educational institutions such as dictionaries, thesauri, word
processing software, encyclopaedias and digital planning lessons.
Sporting uses – PDAs may also be used by music enthusiasts. They
can be used to play a variety of file formats (unlike most MP3
Players) during physical exercise (e.g. running), unlike certain
larger devices such as laptops. PDAs can be used by road rally
enthusiasts. PDA software can be used for calculating distance,
speed, time, and GPS navigation as well as unassisted navigation.
PDA for people with disabilities – PDAs offer varying degrees of
accessibility for people with differing abilities, based on the
particular device and service. People with vision, hearing,
mobility, and speech impairments may be able to use PDAs on a
limited basis, and this may be enhanced by the addition of
accessibility software (e.g. speech recognition for verbal input
instead of manual input).
Pocket PC
A pocket PC is a hardware specification for a handheld-sized
computer (personal digital assistant) that runs the Microsoft
Windows Mobile operating system. It may have the capability to
run an alternative operating system like NetBSD or Linux. It has
many of the capabilities of modern desktop PCs.
Currently there are tens of thousands of applications for handhelds
adhering to the Microsoft Pocket PC specification, many of which
are freeware. Some of these devices also include mobile phone
features. Microsoft compliant Pocket PCs can also be used with
many other add-ons like GPS receivers, barcode readers, RFID
30 Informatics

readers, and cameras. In 2007, with the release of Windows

Mobile 6, Microsoft dropped the name Pocket PC in favour of a
new naming scheme. Devices without an integrated phone are
called Windows Mobile Classic instead of Pocket PC. Devices
with an integrated phone and a touch screen are called Windows
Mobile Professional.

Figure 1.9: A Pocket PC

Mainframe Computer
The term mainframe computer was created to distinguish the
traditional, large, institutional computer intended to service
multiple users from the smaller, single user machines. Mainframes
are computers used mainly by large organizations such as
government, banks and large corporations for critical applications
involving bulk data processing such as census, industry and
consumer statistics, enterprise resource planning, and financial
transaction processing. These computers are capable of handling
and processing very large amounts of data quickly.
Mainframes have the following characteristics:
 Nearly all mainframes have the ability to run (or host) multiple
operating systems, and thereby operate not as a single
computer but as a number of virtual machines. In this role, a
single mainframe can replace dozens or even hundreds of
smaller servers. While mainframes pioneered this capability,
virtualization is now available on most families of computer
systems, though not always to the same degree or level of
Unit I – General Introduction 31

sophistication.
 Mainframes can add or hot swap system capacity non
disruptively and granularly, to a level of sophistication usually
not found on most servers. Modern mainframes, notably the
IBM zSeries, System z9 and System z10 servers, offer two
levels of virtualization: logical partitions (LPARs, via the
PR/SM facility) and virtual machines (via the z/VM operating
system).
 Mainframes are designed to handle very high volume input and
output (I/O) and emphasize throughput computing. Since the
mid-1960s, mainframe designs have included several
subsidiary computers (called channels or peripheral processors)
which manage the I/O devices, leaving the CPU free to deal
only with high-speed memory. Compared to a typical PC,
mainframes commonly have hundreds to thousands of times as
much data storage online, and can access it much faster.
 Mainframe return on investment (ROI), like any other
computing platform, is dependent on its ability to scale,
support mixed workloads, reduce labour costs, deliver
uninterrupted service for critical business applications, and
several other risk-adjusted cost factors.
 Mainframes also have execution integrity characteristics for
fault tolerant computing. For example, z900, z990, System z9,
and System z10 servers effectively execute result-oriented
instructions twice, compare results, arbitrate between any
differences (through instruction retry and failure isolation),
then shift workloads "in flight" to functioning processors,
including spares, without any impact to operating systems,
applications, or users.
Mainframes differ from supercomputers in the following ways:
 A supercomputer is a computer that is at the frontline of
current processing capacity, particularly speed of calculation.
Supercomputers are used for scientific and engineering
problems (Grand Challenge problems) which are limited by
processing speed and memory size, while mainframes are used
for problems which are limited by data movement in
32 Informatics

input/output devices, reliability, and for handling multiple

business transactions concurrently.
 Mainframes are measured in (millions of) integer operations
per second (MIPS), whereas supercomputers are measured in
floating point operations per second (FLOPS). Examples of
integer operations include adjusting inventory counts, matching
names, indexing tables of data, and making routine yes or no
decisions. Floating point operations are mostly addition,
subtraction, and multiplication with enough digits of precision
to model continuous phenomena such as weather. In terms of
computational ability, supercomputers are more powerful.

Super Computers
A supercomputer is a computer that is at the frontline of current
processing capacity, particularly speed of calculation.
Supercomputers can process billions of instructions per second.
Super computers are very expensive and are employed for
specialized tasks that require intensive numerical computations
such as stock analysis, weather forecasting, scientific simulations,
animated graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy
research, electronic design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in
petrochemical prospecting). Perhaps the best known super
computer manufacturer is Cray Research. Some of the "traditional"
companies which produce super computers are Cray, IBM and
Hewlett-Packard.
In the constantly changing the world of computing, the term
supercomputer itself is rather fluid, and today's supercomputer
tends to become tomorrow's ordinary computer. As of July 2009,
the Cray Jaguar is the fastest supercomputer in the world.
Supercomputers using custom CPUs traditionally gained their
speed over conventional computers through the use of innovative
designs that allow them to perform many tasks in parallel. They
tend to be specialized for certain types of computation, usually
numerical calculations, and perform poorly at more general
computing tasks. Their memory hierarchy is very carefully
designed to ensure the processor is kept fed with data and
instructions at all times – in fact, much of the performance
Unit I – General Introduction 33

difference between slower computers and supercomputers is due to

the memory hierarchy. Their I/O systems tend to be designed to
support high bandwidth, with latency less of an issue, because
supercomputers are not used for transaction processing.

Significance of Information Technology

Before the coming of the industrial revolution, the majority of jobs
were in some way linked with agriculture. At this time,
communication was solely by word of mouth or written text. The
industrial age bought with it, demands for administration and paper
work. As time went on, technology was used to develop machines
such as the typewriter, telephone and most importantly, the
computer. We now live in an 'information age', a society that is
heavily dependant upon the storage and communication of
information.
Today, information is increasingly recognized as a key resource
comparable in importance to capital and human resources. Some
experts believe that just as labour was probably the most critical
resources in the agricultural age, and capital was the most critical
resources in the industrial age, information will be the most critical
resource in the information age.
Advancements in the field of Information Technology (IT) is the
driving force behind the information revolution.

Components of Information Technology

Also known as information and communication technology (ICT),
IT is defined as the technology required for information
processing. In particular, the use of computer and computer
software to convert, store, process, transmit, and retrieve
information. Information technology is, in fact, a combination of
the following technologies:
Computer Hardware Technologies: These technologies include
microcomputers, midsize servers and large mainframe systems,
and the input, output and storage devices that support them.
34 Informatics

Computer Software Technologies: These technologies include

operating system software, web browsers, software productivity
suits and software for business applications.
Telecommunication and Network Technologies: These
technologies include telecommunications media, processors and
software needed to provide wire-based and wireless access and
support for Internet and other networks.
Data Resource Management Technologies: These technologies
include database management system software for the
development, access and maintenance of the databases of an
organization.

Impact of Information Technology

IT is playing a crucial role in contemporary society. It has
transformed the whole world into a global village with a global
economy, which is increasingly dependant on the creative
management and distribution of information. Globalization of
world economies has greatly enhanced the values of information to
business organizations and has offered new business opportunities.
Today, IT provides the communication and analytical power that
organizations need for conducting trade and managing business at
global level with much ease. To coordinate their worldwide
network of suppliers, distributors and consumers, organizations
have developed global information systems that can track orders,
deliveries, and payments round the clock. This has been possible
because of the development of IT in its present form.
The scope of information technology is very wide and is gaining
momentum with each passing day, to encompass many fields of
work and study. In earlier days, information technology was
limited to people working in particular sectors, such as banking,
engineering or science. The passing time, however, has seen a
huge growth spurt in the usage of information technology. The
advent of the personal computer has made it possible even for the
masses to benefit immensely from the same.
The impact of IT at major areas is summarized below:
Unit I – General Introduction 35

Economic Impacts: In recent decades, the widespread

incorporation of ICTs into many tiers of business, political
processes and everyday life has caused fundamental restructuring
of the global economy. ICTs have increased international
interconnectedness and speed up the process of globalization. By
increasing the speed of international communication, ICTs have
enabled corporations to outsource jobs, both in the manufacturing
as well as white collar sectors. While this lowers production costs
and, as a result, the cost of goods, it has also had fundamental and
often detrimental impacts on labour conditions.
Despite the international spread of ICTs, the economic impacts
have been geographically uneven. They have exacerbated pre-
existing disparities between developed countries, which can afford
to produce and consume the latest technologies, and developing
countries, which cannot. This gap is known as the digital divide.
Social Impacts: ICTs have impacted societies on many levels.
They have extended the reach of public administration, leading to a
centralization of regional management into urban centres. They
have led to new forms of employment in innovation and
production of ICTs and a demand for highly-skilled specialists.
However, ICTs have also enabled professionals in certain
industries to be replaced by unskilled workers, or even made
entirely redundant. Proponents of ICTs portray this as a ‘re-
skilling’ of the workforce, while to detractors it is a ‘de-skilling’
process.
The diffusion of ICTs within societies is varied, with some
institutions and sections of society having greater access to ICTs
than others. These divisions are reflected in the content of ICTs.
For example the English language, which is understood by only
10% of the world’s population, accounts for approximately 80% of
internet content.
Despite these imbalances in power relations, many social justice
movements believe ICTs can be used to promote equality and
empower marginalized groups. These groups advocate ICTs as a
means of providing accessible and affordable information and as a
platform for voices that might otherwise go unheard.
36 Informatics

Economic development: ICTs have been identified by many

international development institutions as a crucial element in
developing the worlds' poorest countries, by integrating them into
the global economy and by making global markets more
accessible. The World Bank has collaborated with the International
Finance Corporation to promote access to ICTs, an initiative which
it describes as one of its most successful. In 2006 the United
Nations launched an initiative called the Global Alliance for
Information and Communication Technologies and Development.
The following is a summary of the significance of IT in various
fields:
 In businesses, information technology plays a major role in the
management and upkeep of huge amounts of information. It
helps in creating information as well as aids in information
exchange. Due to this, businesses can work with their clients in
any part of the world, as though they were in the same
building.
 In the field of medicine, information technology plays a major
role in various diagnostic procedures such as Magnetic
Resonance Imaging (MRI), scans, and other tools used to
diagnose major conditions. These days, there are computer-
aided surgeries that are being performed as well.
 In the fields of science and engineering, information
technology plays an important role in the collection and
exchange of demographic data, weather reports, behavioural
sciences and numerous other areas where automation and quick
work is needed.
 Information technology has contributed to various security
systems for homes as well as businesses, to a large extent.
More complex security systems are being used in the cases of
government agencies and military bases.
 Public databases and secret identification of people is now
maintained with the help of information technology. In fact, a
large number of criminals are traced with the aid of modern
technology, since the exact location of people can be traced by
tracking out the computer that they had used.
Unit I – General Introduction 37

 GPS or Global Positioning System is one facet of information

technology that is fast catching up with more and more people
these days. Using this technology, people can not only track
out travel routes, but can also recover stolen items, such as
cars, mobile phones, etc.
 Information technology is extremely important to the
entertainment sector. Numerous special effects, graphical
additions and innovative multimedia applications are being
used these days in movies. All this has been made possible
because of information technology.
 The World Wide Web (www), more commonly known as
internet, is the most important means of linking the world.
Without the internet, we could just as well return to the Stone
Age. Communication has become much easier, and the world
is a much smaller place, thanks to information technology.
 IT to provide better usage of natural resources: Agriculture is
the main vehicle, which needs a rural policy to be delivered. IT
increases shareability of information typically used for
improving income-earning opportunities (e.g., weather news
for farmers, to enhance sustainable growth in farming).
 IT to enhance economical status: For both government and
private provision, one of IT's main direct benefits is in
increasing efficiency by economizing on resource use in the
operation of firms as well as in market transactions. There is a
need for better matching of buyers &sellers, creation of new
markets.
 IT in education: The primary importance of information
technology in education is that various learning resources can
be accessed instantly, by students as well as teachers, at their
convenience. Learners can also adopt multimedia approach and
collaborative learning. The information is authentic and the
latest updated information is available. Multiple
communication approaches like chats, forums, e-mails, etc. can
be adopted by them. Students can access the on-line libraries
and distance learning is also possible. Information technology
has proved to be a significant employer. Many people with
38 Informatics

knowledge of computers have got jobs in the field of

information technology and have successfully made it into a
career. It has helped in finding cures for many diseases thereby
serving mankind in more ways than one. Different kinds of
softwares are provided for hearing and visually impaired
people which aids them in their passion for learning new things
and gathering information.
 IT for Employment: Not only is education important, computer
education too is critical considering the role that technology
plays in our lives, and is likely to play in the coming years.
Moreover the youth with adequate computer knowledge could
be employed in jobs IT-related areas, providing the prospect of
using technology.
 IT in Administration (Governance): A Government is very
much like a large multi-location Enterprise. If we think of
intelligent, real-time enterprises, we can also apply the same
ideas to enable intelligent, real-time governance. A real-time
enterprise is a company that uses Internet technology to drive
out manual business processes, to eliminate guesswork, and to
reduce costs.
 IT in Health Care: The care for rural residents in their own
home as far as possible is sometimes difficult to implement due
to difficulties in recruiting and retaining staff in this poorly
paid sector. IT can be better applied to enhance the rural
development, improve the standards of living as a whole, with
concerns for commitment in health, education, and governance.
 IT in Commercial Businesses: The advances in information
technology have heavily influenced commercial businesses in
several areas. The most important role of information
technology in a commercial business, however, is to provide a
commercial advantage. Advances such as computer-aided
design, relational database technologies, spreadsheets and word
processing software provide a commercial benefit to the
business, as does automation of manufacturing processes.
Advances in information technology over the last thirty years
have lead to the television, for example, being more widely
used today than thirty years ago (e.g. the introduction of
Unit I – General Introduction 39

transistor-based televisions reduced costs while increasing

reliability).
 IT in News & Media Organizations: Due to the nature of news
and media organizations, information technologies have
particular relevance to them. As defined by the Information
Technology Association of America (ITAA), is "the study,
design, development, implementation, support or management
of computer-based information systems, particularly software
applications and computer hardware. As noted earlier,
"Information technology is the technology used to store,
manipulate, distribute or create information". News and media
organizations are intimately acquainted with each of these
elements of information technology.
Today, we are all in agreement that the world is becoming
increasingly dependent upon technology as is evidenced by the big
role it is playing. The Internet has become a major shareholder. All
developing nations can derive tremendous advantages from this
technology for updating the knowledge of its researchers and
scientists. The Indian software and services industry has
significantly helped to boost the Indian economy. Society expects
to be able to store information more than was previously
conceived. Society expects to be able to manipulate the
information it has for its own benefit, to increase understanding
and discover new relationships. Society expects to be able to
distribute information quickly, efficiently and cheaply. The
Government of India has been working gradually and successfully
towards improving the IT policy climate in the country.
40 Informatics