American Journal of Applied Sciences 6 (12): 2036-2042, 2009

ISSN 1546-9239
© 2009 Science Publications

Food-Related Lifestyle Segments in Taiwan: Application

of the Food-Related Lifestyle Instrument

Cheng-Hsi Fang and Hwang-Jaw Lee

Department of Marketing and Distribution Management, Ching-Yun University, Taiwan

Abstract: Problem statement: This study applied the Food-Related Lifestyle (FRL) instrument for
market segmentation in the Taiwan food sector. FRL instrument was originally developed by the
Market-Based Product and Process Development in Danish (MAPP) research group, the instrument
was adjusted for the Chinese food culture. The FRL instrument is wildly applied to empirical market
analysis, especially in European nations. Its reliability and validity are also empirically proven. The
present study serves as the first attempt to employ the FRL instrument to explore food-related lifestyle
segments in Taiwan. Approach: A short questionnaire was issued to 650 Taiwanese consumers using
quota sampling procedures and 565 valid responses were collected. Using the two-step cluster analysis,
four distinct food-related consumer lifestyle segments were identified. Results: The four segments
includes: traditional consumers (23.54%), adventurous consumers (27.61%), uninvolved consumers
(24.07%) and astute consumers (24.78%). Conclusion/Recommendations: Comparison showed that
these segments differ in their attitudes and behaviors towards food consumption. Profiles of the
segments are achieved by observing the socio-demographic characteristics of typical segment
members.

Key words: AIO, segmentation, instrument, VALS, food consumption

INTRODUCTION questionnaires typically involve hundreds of questions.

As a result, such surveys become too general to explain
The lifestyle concept has been wildly used in consumer behaviors in specific areas.
marketing research to assist companies with To address this problem, Brunsø and his
promotional strategies, customer segmentation and colleagues[4,5] at the MAPP center in Denmark
product development. Because lifestyle provides a life- developed the food-Related Lifestyle Model (FRL)
like view for classifying consumers into specific focused food choices in general. Based on the means-
lifestyle patterns, it is used extensively to develop end chain theory, the authors successfully develop a
effective marketing strategies. Albeit widely used, the cross-nationally validated food-related lifestyle
lifestyle concept is still quite controversial for two instrument[3,14]. Thus far, their FRL instrument is
primary reasons: (1) Lifestyle has been used as a applied to many European nations[3], Australia[12] and
general term and there is no consensus in academia as also to some Asian nations; such as Singapore and
to what the term lifestyle actually means[1,3]. In fact, Japan[12,15]. The present study serves as the first attempt
lifestyle instruments are typically built by researchers to employ the FRL instrument to explore food-related
on the basis of subjective induction rather than the lifestyle segments in Taiwan. Research results are
result of deduction from related theories[1]. The expected to improve our understanding of food-related
resultant lack of a theoretical foundation for lifestyle consumer behaviors in Taiwan and serve as a reference
causes numerous difficulties when attempting to for enterprises to develop marketing strategies for food-
compare the results of different researches[1]. (2) related products in the country[9].
Human behaviors are so diverse that individual
lifestyles are not necessarily consistent across different Food-related lifestyle instrument: Food-related
life domains. As most lifestyle instruments aim to lifestyle, as developed by MAPP, is defined as the
measure individual Activities, Interests and Opinions system of cognitive categories, scripts and their
(AIO) in nearly all aspects of life, lifestyle associations. It relates a set of products to a set of
Corresponding Author: Cheng-Hsi Fang, Department of Marketing and Distribution Management,
Ching-Yun University, Taiwan, 229, Chien-Hsin Rd., Jung-Li, Taiwan 320, Republic of China
Tel: 886-3-458-1196/ext 7512 Fax: 886-3-468-3994
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values[9]. In order to provide theoretical background for

lifestyle research, development of the FRL instrument
was in strict accordance with a means-end chain
approach. The dimensions to be measured were
formulated in advance base on a sound theory; the
research questionnaire was then developed accordingly.
The means-end chain shows how the product
characteristics are linked to the consequences of food
consumption, the attainment of life values are
connected subsequently. This approach regards lifestyle
as a mental construct that explains, but is not identical Fig. 1: Cognitive structures model for food-related
to, actual behavior. Therefore, lifestyle becomes a lifestyles. Source: Brunsø and Grunert (1998)
concept that transcends individual brands or products,
but may still be specific to a product class[9]. The FRL instrument used for the present study is
Development of the FRL instrument is deductive and extensively tested in European nations. Its reliability
considerably more rigorous than the predominating and validity are also empirically proven[6,11]. Empirical
inductive approach in related lifestyle research. Further, results support that the measurement scale is invariant
items of the FRL questionnaire are tested by across Denmark, France, Germany, England and
confirmatory factor analysis rather than traditional Australia. However, research in Singapore suggests that
exploratory data analysis techniques. the dimensions and some items should be modified to
The FRL model introduced by Brunsø et al.[6] as fit Chinese culture[2].
shown in Fig. 1 which covers 23 dimensions in five The FRL instrument is also wildly applied to
interrelated domains. Each dimension includes three empirical market analysis. For instance, Kesić and Piri-
questions, so there are 69 questions in total. The five Rajh[10] used the FRL instrument to segment Croatian
domains are: consumers into five groups: A “relaxed group” of
consumers who are not interested in buying and
• Way of shopping: This domain reflects consumer preparing foods and reluctant to change eating habits;
food shopping behaviors. There are six “traditionalists” who pay extra attention to foods and
dimensions, including: The importance of product costs and generally are good cooks; a “modern group”
information, attitude toward advertising, joy of of consumers who dislike spending time buying,
shopping, specialty shopping, price criterion and preparing and cooking foods and wish to shorten
shopping list shopping and cooking times; a “concerned group” of
• Quality aspects: This domain refers to what consumers prefer organic foods and avoid food
consumers demand from food consumption. Its 6 products with additives; and “hedonists” who
dimensions include: Health, price-quality emphasize food freshness and enjoy eating, buying and
relationship, novelty, organic products, tastiness cooking foods with friends and family.
and freshness Bruwer et al.[7] applied a modified FRL instrument
• Cooking methods: This domain examines such to segment the Australian wine market into five
aspects as how products purchased are transformed different categories, each of which is characterized by
different drinking habits. De Boer et al.[8] examined
into meals. The six dimensions of cooking methods
Irish consumers’ purchasing behaviors for convenience
include: Involvement with cooking, looking for
food-related products to discover that fast and instant
new ways, convenience, family involvement,
food consumers care about social activities most, like to
spontaneity and woman’s task
try new tastes, new recipes and prepare various kinds of
• Consumption Situations: This domain concerns the foods. They also hold positive attitudes toward
situations in which consumers eat food. Two advertising. Ryan et al.[13] employed the FRL
dimensions are included: Snacks versus meals and instrument to segment Irish consumers into six groups
social events to discover that the derived food-related lifestyle
• Purchasing motives: This domain examines what segments are similar across several nations. For
consumers expect from a meal and the importance instance, conservative and uninvolved consumer
of these expectations. Self-fulfillment, security and segments are included in all related studies, while
social relationships are three dimensions of this adventurous and astute consumer segments also exist in
domain many nations.
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Table 1: Respondents’ demographic profiles

MATERIALS AND METHODS Description Frequency Percentage
Gender
Male 126 22.30
Sample and sampling method: The FRL instrument Female 439 77.70
comprises 69 items that measure 23 lifestyle Marital status
dimensions within the five domains described above. Married 401 70.97
Single 164 29.03
All items are rated on a seven-point Likert-type scale, Age group
ranging from: (1) “completely disagree” to (7) Under 30 141 24.96
“completely agree.” A sample of 650 Taiwanese 31-44 234 41.42
Over 45 190 33.63
consumers is drawn on a household basis. The number Educational background
of questionnaires distributed in each of four major Less than high school 182 32.21
counties is determined by the population ratio i.e., Junior college 147 26.02
county vs. nation. In each household, the person who is Higher than college 236 41.77
Monthly household income (NTD)
responsible for food shopping and meal preparation was Less than $40,000 96 16.99
interviewed. In total, 565 valid responses are collected, $40,001-60,000 119 21.06
which amounts to an 87% response rate. As shown in $60,001-80,000 125 22.12
$80,001-100,000 91 16.11
Table 1. Respondents are mostly female (78%) and Above $100,001 134 23.72
married (71%). The primary age group is 31-44 years
old (41%), followed by 45+ year olds (34%). In terms Table 2: Modification of the FRL
of education, subjects with a college degree or above Domains/dimensions Item Cronbach’s alpha
accounted for the largest group (42%). Ways of shopping
Importance of product information 4 0.71
Reliance on experts 4 0.67
Scale modification: According to Askegaard and Price criterion 3 0.71
[2]
Brunsø , the FRL instrument should be adjusted to fit Unscheduled shopping 2 0.72
into Chinese Collectivism culture. Therefore, after data Joy of shopping 2 0.72
were collected, the instrument was further adjusted Quality aspects
Health and organic products 5 0.82
using item analysis and exploratory factor analysis. Novelty 5 0.78
Analysis was carried out using SPSS 10.0 for Price-quality relationship 6 0.78
Windows. First, we performed item analysis to Freshness 2 0.64
Cooking methods
evaluate item-remainder correlation and internal Involvement with cooking 6 0.77
consistency. Once a satisfactory coefficient alpha was Convenience 3 0.71
achieved, exploratory factor analysis was used to Assistance from family 2 0.66
Woman’s task 2 0.50
confirm the uni-dimensionality of the construct. Consumption situations
Table 2 demonstrates our modification of the FRL Snacks versus meals 3 0.55
instrument. According to the results of factor analysis, Social event 3 0.60
Purchasing motives
the FRL instrument can be divided into 17 Social interaction and self-fulfillment
6 0.71
dimensions. Some dimensions in the original scale are Security 3 0.68
combined into one dimension. For instance, “attitude
toward advertising” and “specialty shopping” were RESULTS
combined into “reliance on experts”; “health” and
“organic products” into “health and organic products”;
Food-related lifestyle segments: To determine the
“spending time” and “looking for new ways” into optimal number of food-related lifestyle segments, a
“involvement with cooking”; and “social two-step cluster analysis was adopted. First,
relationships” and “self-fulfillment in food” into hierarchical cluster analysis was performed to calculate
“social interaction and self-fulfillment”. In the “ways the Cubic Clustering Criterion (CCC) and the
of shopping” domain, the “shopping list” dimension is maximum value was selected as the relative optimal
renamed “unscheduled shopping” because making a number of cluster. The K-means method was introduced
shopping list before purchasing food products is rare with the optimal number, the final segments were
in Taiwan. In the “cooking methods” domain, the obtained. This method can be used to avoid subjective
dimension of “spontaneity” was found to be explanation of cluster analysis and the instability of
insignificant and deleted from the scale. hierarchical clustering caused by data-sorting problems.
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Table 3: Results of cluster analysis

Domain/dimensions F ratio p- value Cluster 1 (23.54%) Cluster 2 (27.61%) Cluster 3 (24.07%) Cluster 4 (24.78%)
Ways of shopping
Importance of product information 55.66 0.00 0.39a (0.87) b 0.18 (0.68) -0.84 (1.04) 0.24 (0.92)
Reliance on experts 54.83 0.00 -0.09 (1.11) 0.74 (0.76) -0.27 (0.79) -0.47 (0.84)
Price criterion 36.82 0.00 -0.50 (1.11) 0.22 (0.77) -0.31 (0.88) 0.53 (0.90)
Unscheduled shopping 23.52 0.00 0.46 (0.90) -0.29 (1.09) -0.34 (0.76) 0.21 (0.97)
Joy of shopping 21.50 0.00 -0.03 (1.10) 0.16 (0.82) -0.52 (0.97) 0.35 (0.91)
Quality aspects
Health and organic products 38.81 0.00 0.19 (1.00) 0.55 (0.68) -0.43 (0.79) -0.37 (1.13)
Novelty 113.5 0.00 -0.90 (1.01) 0.63 (0.61) -0.31 (0.76) 0.46 (0.77)
Price-quality relation 92.56 0.00 0.43 (0.80) 0.03 (0.69) -0.97 (1.00) 0.50 (0.78)
Freshness 25.86 0.00 0.33 (0.88) 0.31 (0.86) -0.51 (0.91) -0.16 (1.10)
Cooking methods
Involvement with cooking 42.42 0.00 -0.41 (0.96) 0.45 (0.77) -0.49 (0.92) 0.37 (0.98)
Convenience 49.04 0.00 -0.62 (0.83) 0.37 (1.06) 0.49 (0.78) -0.30 (0.85)
Assistance from family 13.73 0.00 0.02 (0.95) 0.33 (0.95) -0.40 (0.92) -0.01 (1.04)
Woman’s task 41.07 0.00 0.27 (0.88) 0.43 (0.98) -0.08 (0.82) -0.66 (0.94)
Consumption situations
Snacks versus meals 58.92 0.00 -0.33 (0.77) 0.63 (0.98) 0.23 (0.89) -0.61 (0.83)
Social event 41.27 0.00 -0.73 (1.07) 0.34 (0.85) 0.01 (0.88) 0.31 (0.83)
Purchasing motives
Social interaction and 101.8 0.00 -0.50 (0.86) 0.57 (0.69) -0.73 (0.92) 0.55 (0.76)
self-fulfillment
Security 65.18 0.00 -0.05 (0.94) 0.59 (0.88) 0.18 (0.75) -0.78 (0.88)

The analyzed results allow us to distinguish four their ways of cooking. They don’t like to use instant-
different segments of food-related lifestyles of food or ready-to-eat foods. Moreover, consumers in this
Taiwanese families. Table 3 shows these four segments segment seldom dine out with friends and do not think
and the result of ANOVA on the 17 dimensions. Post that they can obtain self-fulfillment and achievement
hoc Scheffe’s test confirmed that the differences from cooking.
between groups were significant. Thus, it can be
inferred that the segmentation of the sample data into Segment 2: Adventurous food consumers: The
four clusters is appropriate. We further calculated the adventurous food consumers segment of the individuals
means and standard deviations of each dimension. under study comprises 156 people (27.61%) of the
Groups are labeled according to the segment’s primary sample. Consumers in this segment prefer advertised
characteristics and based on similar food-related food products and like to buy foods in specialty shops
clusters identified by earlier studies. The following four with the assistance of a salesperson. In general, these
clusters are named and explained as follows: consumers are interested in all food-related activities;
they are price consciences to certain degrees, they
Segment 1: Traditional food consumers: A total of usually do research before making purchase decisions.
133 participants (23.54%) are included in this segment. In terms of quality, they have strong preferences for
Consumers in this segment are quite traditional in their organic and healthy foods; however, they also like to
shopping and cooking behaviors; they tend to pay extra taste various exotic cuisines and emphasize the
attention to product labels before purchases, but are importance of food tastes.
also involved in many impulsive purchases. In fact, In terms of cooking methods, compared to other
their price consciousness is the lowest of all segments. segments, adventurous food consumers are most keen
That doesn’t mean that they care less about how much on cooking and open to creativities and challenges in
they pay for food products, they simply don’t buy the cooking. However, most of them conceived that the
cheapest products but pay extra attention to the whole cooking process to be the woman’s job. In fact,
price/quality relationship. these individuals consider the kitchen a woman’s
In terms of quality aspects, traditional food domain. Food and food products are very important
consumers appreciate the freshness of foods. However, parts of their lives; they enjoy eating out with friends
they are far less interested in novelty products; these and snack regularly. With respect to motives, this group
individuals avoid trying foods which they are not considers dining with friends or family an important
familiar with. As to cooking methods, traditional food social activity and is proud if complimented on their
consumers are more conservative and dislike changing food.
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Table 4: Demographic characteristics of consumers in identified segments

Consumers Traditional Adventurous Uninvolved Astute All
Gender
Male 18 (13.53) 34 (21.79) 47 (34.56) 27 (19.29) 126 (22.30)
Female 115 (86.47) 122 (78.21) 89 (65.44) 113 (80.71) 439 (77.70)
Marital status
Married 114 (85.71) 114 (73.08) 86 (63.24) 87 (62.14) 401 (70.97)
Single 19 (14.29) 42 (26.92) 50 (36.76) 53 (37.86) 164 (29.03)
Age
Under 30 10 (7.52) 32 (20.51) 54 (39.71) 45 (32.14) 141 (24.96)
31-44 years old 45 (33.83) 76 (48.72) 59 (43.38) 54 (38.57) 234 (41.42)
Over 45 years old 78 (58.65) 48 (30.77) 23 (16.91) 41 (29.29) 190 (33.63)
Occupation
Governmental employee and military 36 (27.07) 39 (25.00) 32 (23.53) 44 (31.43) 151 (26.73)
Worker 19 (14.29) 26 (16.67) 25 (18.38) 16 (11.43) 86 (15.22)
Household person 42 (31.58) 26 (16.67) 20 (14.71) 30 (21.43) 118 (20.88)
Private company employee 24 (18.05) 38 (24.36) 32 (23.53) 32 (22.86) 126 (22.30)
Other 12 (9.02) 27 (17.31) 27 (19.85) 18 (12.86) 84 (14.87)
Education background
Less than high school 62 (46.62) 58 (37.18) 34 (25.00) 28 (20.00) 182 (32.21)
Junior college 35 (26.32) 48 (30.77) 29 (21.32) 35 (25.00) 147 (26.02)
Higher than college 36 (27.07) 50 (32.05) 73 (53.68) 77 (55.00) 236 (41.77)
Household structure
No children 10 (7.52) 31 (19.87) 43 (31.62) 35 (25.00) 119 (21.06)
Youngest child under 5 years old 16 (12.03) 27 (17.31) 23 (16.91) 19 (13.57) 85 (15.04)
Youngest child between 6-18 years old 50 (37.59) 50 (32.05) 30 (22.06) 40 (28.57) 170 (30.09)
Youngest child over 18, living with parents 49 (36.84) 40 (25.64) 31 (22.79) 39 (27.86) 159 (28.14)
No children at home 8 (6.02) 8 (5.13) 9 (6.62) 7 (5.00) 32 (5.66)

Segment 3: Uninvolved food consumers: Based on enjoy cooking and love to try new recipes. They do not
the sample, a total of 136 consumers (24.07%) are in think that cooking should be quick and easy. Moreover,
this segment. On the whole, these consumers are less astute food consumers are strongly against the idea that
interested in any food-related activities. They show cooking is solely a woman’s task. This group has the
little interest in any kind of food-related information lowest tendency to snack, but they like to eat out with
and are insensitive to price fluctuations. In fact, they do friends. Self-fulfillment and social relationship are
not like shopping. Consumers in this segment care important purchasing motives.
much less about taste, healthiness, freshness or the
price/quality relationship of food, than other consumers. Demographic analysis of food-related lifestyle
Not surprisingly, this group doesn’t want to waste much segments: The food-related lifestyle segments derived
time on cooking and are the ones most interested in from the modified FRL instrument show significant
quick and easy cooking methods. Thus, uninvolved differences with respect to demographic variables. As
food consumers typically purchase instant or frozen shown in Table 4, in the traditional consumer segment,
foods and also prefer ready-to-eat products. They the ratio of female consumers is approximately 10%
sometimes eat snacks to cover regular meals and more than the average; with regard to uninvolved food
seldom change their dietary habits. consumers, male consumers comprise 12% more than
the average. In terms of marital status, uninvolved and
Segment 4: Astute food consumers: This segment astute food consumers comprise higher proportions of
comprises 140 individuals of the sample (24.78%). unmarried consumers, while traditional consumers have
These consumers enjoy shopping, care about product a higher proportion of married consumers. With respect
information, but are not affected by advertisements. to age and occupation, traditional food consumer
Compared to other consumers, these individuals score segment comprises mainly female consumers over 45
high on price consciousness and are very sensitive to years old (58.65%), who are older than the average age
price fluctuations. They don’t buy food simply based on of all segments. Most of them are housewives.
word-of-mouth referrals. With regard to quality aspects, People in the adventurous consumer segment are
the most important factor to these individuals is the concentrated in the 31-44 years old age group. They are
price/quality relationship; they are not interested in typically career women who devote themselves to their
healthy, fresh, natural and ecological products, whereas families and jobs. Consumers in the uninvolved and
taste is very important to them. These consumers also astute consumer segments are slightly younger than
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other consumers. In terms of education, traditional food marketing strategies and planning for market
consumer segment has a lower level of education, on campaigns. For instance, the uninvolved consumer
average, whereas the uninvolved consumer segment segment comprising mostly male bachelors, it may not
and astute consumer segment comprise a high be necessary to stress on advertising. Instead, food
proportion of individuals who holds a degree above the companies should focus on product designs to provide
college education level. In terms of family composition, easy-to-use food products. For traditional consumers,
most traditional consumers have family members aged food companies should pay attention to the design of
6-18 years in their households. Uninvolved consumers product labels since consumers in this group are reliant
significantly include individuals with no children. on product labels and they usually have unplanned
purchase behaviors. The study found that adventurous
DISCUSSION consumers are enthusiastic for almost all part of food-
related activities. They not only like to try new products
This study modified the FRL instrument into 17 but also enjoy sharing their food with friends. Thus,
food-related dimensions of five domains. Based on a they play an important role in diffusion of product
modified-FRL instrument, food-related lifestyle information.
segments in Taiwan are empirically explored. Using a The FRL instrument used in the present study is
two-step cluster analysis, we identify four distinctive extensively applied by extant literature in the analysis
food-related lifestyle segments, which include: (1) of consumer segments in European nations. In these
traditional consumer segment (23.54%); (2) regions, there are typically 4-6 segments developed.
adventurous consumer segment (27.61%); (3) This study adopts Cubic Clustering Criterion (CCC) to
uninvolved consumer segment (24.07%) and (4) astute determine the relatively optimal number of clusters. Such
consumer segment (24.78%). The number of an approach allows the avoidance of criticism over
adventurous consumers in the study group slightly subjective clustering. However, the segments derived in
outnumbers those in other segments; however, the this study share several similarities with those obtained
difference is not significant. in other studies. For example, Brunsø et al.[6] performed
The uninvolved and adventurous consumer analysis of cross-cultural segmentation in Denmark,
segments are of two extreme lifestyles. Uninvolved France, Germany and England to discover that, except
food consumers pay little attention to food-related for France, all other nations studies have identified
consumption; their primary concern is convenience. By “exploratory” and “uninvolved” consumers. The
contrast, adventurous consumers pay careful attention characteristics of these two segments are similar to
to each food-related dimension; they prefer healthy and those of the “adventurous” and “uninvolved” segments
organic food products, but also like to taste different identified in this study. Moreover, the “rational”
kinds of food. Adventurous consumers even used consumer segment exists in all four nations. This
instant food or ready-to-eat foods from time to time. In segment resembles the “astute” consumer segment in
addition, these individuals carefully read the this study; the only difference lies in the quality aspects.
information on product labels (second only to Rational consumers care about healthy and organic
traditional consumers) but still are easily affected by foods while astute consumers pay careful attention to
advertisements and the recommendations of novelty and tastes. The “conservative” consumer
salespersons. In sum, adventurous consumers hold open segment also is frequently observed in many nations.
attitudes toward any kind of food-related activities. This segment is related to the traditional consumer
Traditional food consumers less frequently dine out segment from this study. The notable differences are:
and dislike trying novel or exotic foods. They are also the conservative consumers tend to pay more attention
not sensitive to price fluctuations and care most about to low price and be more sensitive to price fluctuation.
food freshness. Astute food consumers also value product They like to cook and obtain self-fulfillment from
information, but show little trust of the advertisements or preparing food for their family. However, in this study,
recommendations from the salesperson. Having the traditional consumers are least price sensitive and do
highest level of price awareness, they are likely to not expect to obtain satisfaction from cooking. They do
accurately estimate whether or not every penny spent is not like to change their diet or pursue new tastes.
worthwhile and effective. In addition, as a group, they
show the most interest in food shopping. CONCLUSION
The study also provides demographic profiles for
each segment, the results of which can serve as a This study has important implications for
reference for companies to use when developing researchers and practitioners alike. First of all, the
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similar results found in this study again confirmed the 8. de Boer, M., M. McCarthy, C. Cowan and I. Ryan,
cross-cultural validity of the FRL instrument. For an 2004. The influence of lifestyle characteristics and
international food company, FRL instrument serve as a beliefs about convenience food on the demand for
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for companies to develop marketing strategies. Culturally Valid Instrument for Market
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