WOOD - Building Material Sourced Primarily From Trees.: Flatness Timber Stresses Moisture Grain Finishing Violin Making

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WOOD – Building material sourced primarily from trees.

Wood warping is a deviation from flatness in timber as a result of stresses and uneven shrinkage.
Warping can also occur in wood considered "dry" (wood can take up and
release moisture indefinitely), when it takes up moisture unevenly, or – especially – is allowed to
return to its "dry" equilibrium state unevenly, too slowly, or too quickly. Many factors can contribute to
wood warp; wood species, grain orientation, air flow, sunlight, uneven finishing, temperature – even
cutting season and the moon's gravitational pull are taken into account in some traditions (e.g., violin
making).
The types of wood warping include:

 bow: a warp along the length of the face of the wood


 crook: (also called wain) a warp along the length of the edge of the wood
 kink: a localized crook, often due to a knot
 cup: a warp across the width of the face, in which the edges are higher or lower than the center
of the wood
 twist or wind: a distortion in which the two ends do not lie on the same plane. Winding
sticks assist in viewing this defect.
Wood warping costs the wood industry in the U.S. millions of dollars per year. Straight wood boards
that leave a cutting facility sometimes arrive at the store yard warped. This little understood process
is finally being looked at in a serious way. Although wood warping has been studied for years, the
warping control model for manufacturing composite wood hasn't been updated for about 40 years.
A researcher at Texas A&M University, Zhiyong Cai, has researched wood warping, and was
working on a computer software program in 2003 to help manufacturers make changes in the
manufacturing process so that wood doesn't arrive at its destination warped after it leaves the mill or
factory.[1][2]
Shakes, Checks and Splits in Dimension
Lumber
Author The SPIB Team
What is the difference between a shake, a check and a split?
They are similar in that they all are separations lengthwise in the grain of the wood;
however, each has a different origin and a different effect on the grade of dimension
lumber. First, let’s look at the definition of each.
Shakes
Shakes are a defined lengthwise separation of the wood along the grain, usually
occurring between or through the rings of annual growth. A surface shake occurs on
only one surface, while a through shake extends from one side to the opposite or
adjoining side of the piece.

Shakes are natural occurring defects in standing trees caused by a lengthwise


separation of latewood fibers. Shakes were once thought to be caused by external
stress factors such as wind and temperature extremes (often called wind shakes);
however, research has found that a bacterium is the true cause of shake. The bacteria
that causes shake enter the trees through the roots and not through the stem. The
bacterium belongs to the clostridium genus and is often accompanied by an unpleasant
odor.
Dr. Gene Wengert, forum technical advisor;
http://www.woodweb.com/knowledge_base/Causes_of_Shake.html
Checks
Checks are a separation of the wood normally occurring across or through the rings of
annual growth and usually as a result of seasoning. Surface checks are failures that
usually occur in the wood rays on the flatsawn faces of boards.
Checks occur because drying stresses exceed the tensile strength of the wood
perpendicular to the grain, and they are caused by tension stresses that develop in the
outer part, or shell, of boards as they dry around the still wet and swollen core. Surface
checks can also occur in resin ducts and mineral streaks. Surface checks usually
develop early in drying because the lumber surfaces dry too quickly as a result of low
relative humidity.

End checks occur because moisture moves much faster in the longitudinal direction
than in either transverse direction. Therefore, the ends of boards dry faster than the
middle and stresses develop at the ends.

Splits
Splits are a separation of the wood through the piece to the opposite surface or to an
adjoining surface due to the tearing apart of the wood cells. Splits in wood are
sometimes the result of the drying process or the dry kiln. Splits caused by drying
extend across one or more growth rings (radial direction). Many splits extend parallel to
the growth ring, as in the case of mechanical damage, while some splits run at various
angles to the grain and growth rings.
A Roller Split is a crack in the wood structure caused by a piece of cupped lumber
being flattened in passing between the machine rollers.

End splits are often caused by growth


stresses and are therefore not a drying defect. End splits can be present in the log or
sometimes develop in boards immediately after sawing from the log. Splits that are the
result of drying ruptures occur in the radial direction. In all drying defects, (end splits,
surface checks, and end checking or splitting) the rupture will extend across one or
more growth rings.

Shakes, Checks and Splits and the grade of dimension lumber


A relatively small amount of splits, checks, or shakes are acceptable under the grading
rules for dimension lumber and the amount allowed varies by grade. The amounts
allowed are based upon the effect that these defects have on various strength
properties of wood.
Because shakes and splits reduce resistance to shear in members subjected to bending,
the grading rules restrict shake most closely in those parts of a bending member where
shear stresses are highest. In lumber, which is subjected only to tension or
compression, shake and splits do not affect strength as greatly.
The effects of checks and splits on strength and the principles of their limitation are the
same as those for shake. Horizontal shear strength in a beam is dependent on the
shearing strength of the particular species of wood and upon the extent of shake,
check, and split present. In a beam with a split or shake down the length, a major
portion of the shear stress is redistributed and carried by the upper and lower halves of
the split member. This “two-beam” shear action allows beams with shake and/or splits
to carry loads which would appear to be too heavy in terms of horizontal shear
strength.
The grading rules for shakes and splits are specific, with less of each allowed in the
higher grades. Surface seasoning checks have a negligible effect on all strength
properties and are not limited in dimension lumber grades. Below are just two
examples.
Rules for No.1:
Checks – surface seasoning checks, not limited. Through checks at ends are limited as
splits.
Splits – equal in length to width of the piece.
Shake – if through at ends, limited as splits. Surface shakes up to 2′ long.
Rules for No.3:
Checks – seasoning checks not limited. Through checks at ends are limited as splits.
Splits – equal to 1/6 the length of the piece.
Shake – surface shakes permitted. If through at edges or ends, limited as splits.
Elsewhere through shakes 1/3 the length, scattered along the length.

Different Methods of Veneer


Cutting
Wood veneer is the finest appearance of wood. Wood veneer is being cut
in a very thin layer from tree log. Cutting the solid wood produces more
waste than cutting veneer. Different ranges of veneers in shades, colours
and textures are available in the market. They can be used in interior
decoration. They are also used in the residential, hotel and office projects.

Also Read: Manufacturing Process of Wood Veneer


The size of the log, the species of wood, the desired grain pattern and
other factors determine which type of cut will be made to create wood
veneer. There are distinct methods of cutting veneer from hardwood logs.
Following are the various methods of veneer cutting:

01. Rotary Cut Veneer:


The log is rotated around its axis and peeled off like a carpet roll. Since this
cut follows the log’s growth rings, a bold variegated grain marking is
produced. The veneer sheets produce exceptionally wide. It is the least
expensive veneer style. Rotary cut veneer is a cost effective method to
obtain remarkable effects from birch, maple and oak.

02. Crown Cut Veneer:

Crown cut veneer is common veneer cutting method. The half log is
positioned with the heart side against the flitch table. Slicing is done parallel
to a line through its centre. This cut produces a light multicoloured and a
distinctive pattern. The slices obtained by this method are always uniform.
This method is moderately priced and is available for most species of
wood.

Also Read: Types of Wood and Their Uses


03. Quarter Normal Cut Veneer:
This method of veneer cutting produces a series of straight lines. The
quarter log is mounted on the flitch table such that the logs growth rigs hit
the blade at the right angle.

04. Quarter Rift Cut Veneer:

In this cut, the rotation speed of the log is determined by the log size, its
natural shape, particular features of the species of wood and the thickness
of the veneer sheets. The cut is done at a slide angle from the position of
the quarter log. This method results in a comb or rift grain effect.

From the above veneer cutting methods, different visual effects can be
achieved with the wood’s grain and characteristics. This is the beauty of
working with veneer that two logs of the same species of wood, cut in
different ways, produce distinctive, individual veneers!

plain-saw
[ pleyn-saw ]
SHOW IPA
WORD ORIGIN
verb (used with object), plain-sawed, plain-sawed or plain-sawn, plain-saw·ing.
to reduce (a squared log) to boards with evenly spaced parallel cuts; bastard-saw.

Slicing
The slicing process is composed of several techniques:
rotary slicing, quarter slicing, plain slicing, rift slicing and
half-round slicing. Each of these methods will produce a
very distinctive type of grain depending upon the species
selected.

Rotary Slicing

A log is mounted in a lathe and turned against a blade. Thin slices are peeled from the
log in an almost continuous role. This method produces a variety of patterns as the
blade slices through successive growth rings. The grain pattern is inconsistent making
the leaves more difficult to match. Some species, however, are rotary cut, sliced into
leaves and sequenced much like plain sliced veneers.

QUARTER SLICING
As the name implies, the log is sliced into quarters before slicing the veneer. The knife
slices through the quartered log at approximately a right angle to the growth rings. The
resulting grain pattern is typically straighter in most species. In some specie, principally
oak, quarter slicing produces a unique "flake" pattern that is created as the knife bisects
radial tubules in the log structure called medullary rays.

PLAIN SLICING

Plain Sliced or flat sliced veneers are made by sawing the log parallel to the center or
cut line. Leaf widths vary by the distance from the center and are wider than quartered
or rift cut veneers. The grain pattern produced is commonly referred to as "cathedral" or
"flame" shaped.

RIFT SLICING
Rift slicing or cutting is most often used with oak when the “flake” or medullary rays are
not desired. This is achieved by slicing the quartered log at an angle to the growth rings.
The process involves placing the quartered log in a lathe and adjusting the blade angle
to obtain a straight rift grain pattern.

Mortise and Tenon Tongue and Groove


Shiplap

Methods of Applying Wood Preservatives


Pressure Treatment

Pressure treatment - the wood is placed into an airtight steel cylinder and immersed in a
preservative. Increasing pressure drives the chemical into the wood. There are full cell and empty
cell processes.
Lumber going into a pressurized treatment cylinder (image: jamaicaobserver.com)

The full cell process provides maximum retention of the preservative. A preliminary vacuum
removes as much air from the wood as possible so that it will accept more liquid preservative. The
heated preservative enters the cylinder without adding air. Then, pressure is applied until the
required amount of preservative is retained by the wood.

The empty-cell process obtains deep penetration with a relatively low retention of preservative.
First, the wood in the cylinder is subjected to air under pressure. Then the preservative is forced into
the cylinder and air escapes into an equalizer tank at a rate that keeps pressure in the cylinder
constant. When the cylinder is filled with preservative, the pressure is increased until the required
amount of preservative has entered the wood.

Advantages of the pressure treatment over the non-pressure processes are:

 Deep, uniform penetration

 Better control over retention

 Wood can be pre-conditioned in the treatment chamber

 Faster and more reliable process

 More easily controlled and regulated

The effectiveness of a wood preservative depends largely on penetration and retention. The depth
of penetration depends on the tree species, the proportion of sapwood to heartwood, and the
treatment process used. A preservative penetrates the well-dried sapwood of most species more
easily when pressure-treated but results with heartwood are more variable. Even with the proper
preservative penetration, good protection cannot be achieved unless enough preservative stays in
the wood. Preservative retention is measured in pounds per cubic foot (lbs/cu ft) of wood.

[return]

Non-Pressure Treatments
Non-pressure treatments include superficial applications such as brushing, spraying, pouring
and dipping, cold soaking, steeping, hot and cold bath (thermal process); diffusion, vacuum
process, and preservative pads or bandages. They differ widely in preservative penetration and
retention. Pressure treatment usually gives better protection than non-pressure treatment. However,
non-pressure treatment may be satisfactory where pressure treatment is impractical or in situations
where less protection is required.

Brushing, spraying, and pouring are generally done on cut or machined surfaces of previously
treated wood. Penetration of preservative into wood is superficial, resulting mostly from capillary
action. Creosote or other oil-borne materials and water-borne salts can be used. The temperature
should be warm enough to permit as much penetration as the process allows. Liquid should cover
the wood surface thoroughly to fill checks and depressions in the wood. Rough lumber may require
10 gallons of liquid per 1,000 square feet of surface; less for finished lumber. A second application,
made after the first has dried is desirable. Wood treated in this manner and used in contact with soil
may be protected for 1 to 5 years.

Dipping consists of immersing wood in a preservative solution for several seconds to several
minutes. It allows better penetration into checks and cracks of wood but is unsatisfactory for uses
subject to abrasion. There is little protection against termites and it is not recommended for wood
used in contact with the ground.

Cold soaking well-seasoned wood for 2 to 7 days in a vat containing a low-viscosity oil-borne
preservative is simple and relatively inexpensive. It is thought to give more protection than dipping.

Either green or seasoned wood can be steeped for several days in a tank full of water-borne
preservative. Penetration and retention varies depending on the types of wood and treatment
conditions.

Thermal process treatment consists of immersing wood alternately in separate tanks containing
heated and cold preservative, either oil- or waterborne (or in one tank which is first heated than
allowed to cool). During the hot bath, air in the wood expands and some is forced out. Heating
improves penetration of preservatives. In the cold bath, air in the wood contracts, creating a partial
vacuum, and atmospheric pressure forces more preservative into the wood. Temperature is critical;
only use preservatives that can safely be heated.

In the double diffusion process, green or partially seasoned wood is soaked first in one water-borne
preservative, then in another. The two chemicals diffuse into the wood and then react to form a
combination that is highly resistant to leaching. The process converts leachable preservatives into
stable ones.

Preservative pads or bandages are used on-site with previously-treated wood that is nearing the
end of its protection time, e.g., utility poles. The soil around the pole is removed and the
preservative (oil- or waterborne or paste) is applied to the surface, injected or placed into drilled
holes in the wood. The treated area is then wrapped ("bandaged") with heavy duty water-resistant
paper or plastic film to contain the preservative at the site of application.
Step 1 (image: osmose.com)

Step 2

Sap stain prevention is a temporary treatment applied quickly to newly felled green wood,
preferably within 24 hours after sawing. This is usually done at the sawmill by carrying the logs
through a tank of treated solution to prevent growth of sap stain fungi which can attack cut wood
quickly.

[return]

Pole Treatments
Utility poles are most prone to decay in the groundline zone (from 6― above grade to 18―
below grade) and the pole top.

Pole treatments can be used as an internal treatment for wood utility poles or to help protect open
bolt holes, pole tops, and cross arms. Rod delivery systems are designed to be installed by utility
personnel and are particularly well-suited for use in transmission spar arms and X-braces.

Underneath the umbrella of “carpentry,” which refers to a broad spectrum of wood working, there are
two categories that share similarities, but also important differences: millwork and casework. In a
construction budget, “carpentry” is used almost as a catch-all for woodworking. The term is not
defined as specifically as millwork or casework. In any given construction budget, you will very likely
have all three categories: carpentry, millwork and casework. To understand the difference between
millwork and casework, keep reading below:
Millwork is any type of woodwork or building product that is produced in a mill. This could include
anything from doors, molding, trim, flooring, wall paneling, crown moldings, etc. However, millwork
does not include flooring, ceilings or siding. The real difference between millwork and casework is
that millwork is custom made. It will include any type of custom wood working pieces such as
cabinets shelving, custom storage, even elevator surrounds fall into millwork, because this work has
to be customized for the specific space. To be considered millwork, the finished product must be
built into the space. Otherwise, it would be considered furniture. When budgeting millwork, a rule of
thumb is that the total cost of millwork items will be two to three times the cost of the materials
required.
Casework literally refers to making boxes. Whether for cabinetry, bookcases, or other storage
boxes, casework refers to making boxes. However, the main difference between casework and
millwork is that casework refers to stock goods- think Ikea. Casework is storage, shelving, cabinetry,
etc. that you can purchase ready-made. Casework is not custom, but made was standard
dimensions and measurements. For this reason, casework is typically less expensive than millwork.
Usually casework is assembled cabinetry; if not completely assembled, it is at least partially
assembled.

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