Challenging Filipino Colonial Mentality With Philippine Art PDF

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Master's Theses Theses, Dissertations, Capstones and Projects
Fall 12-16-2016
Challenging Filipino Colonial Mentality with

Philippine Art
Francesca V. Mateo
University of San Francisco, [email protected]
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Challenging Filipino Colonial Mentality with

Philippine Art
Francesca V. Mateo
University of San Francisco – Master of Arts in International Studies – December 2016
ABSTRACT
350 years, the Philippines was colonized by Spain and the United States. The Philippines became
a sovereign nation in 1946 yet, fifty years later, colonial teachings continue to oppress Filipinos
due to their colonial mentality (CM.) CM is an internalized oppression among Filipinos in which
they experience an automatic preference for anything Western—European or U.S. American—
and rejection of anything Filipino. Although Filipinos show signs of a CM, there are Filipinos
who are challenging CM by engaging in Philippine art. Philippine art is defined as Filipino-
made visual art, literature, music, and dance intended to promote Philippine culture. This
research project analyzes the Philippine art community and discovers that those involved in the
Philippine art community are conscious of how colonialism dictates standards today. They also
actively challenge colonial affects by creating and/or supporting artists whom promote Filipino
cultures. However, Philippine art’s ability to decrease CM among Filipinos is not evenly
accessible among classes.

F.V. MATEO – UNIVERSITY OF SAN FRANCISCO 2
Challenging Filipino Colonial Mentality with Philippine Art
Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION 4-10
RESEARCH QUESTION AND METHODS 6
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY 8
PRESENTATION OF RESEARCH PROJECT 10
BACKGROUND FOR THE STUDY 11-16
LITERATURE REVIEW 17-34
COLONIAL MENTALITY 16
DECOLONIZATION BY INCLUSIVITY 24
ART FOR CONSTRUCTING CONFIDENCE 28
RESEARCH METHODS 35-46
RESEARCH SETTING 37
DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES 44
RESEARCH FINDINGS 47-78
MIXED VIEWS ON COLONIALISM 46
WEST IS THE STANDARD AND THE PHILIPPINES IS THE OTHER 56
SOCIAL DIVISIONS CAUSED BY CM 69
PHILIPPINE ART AND FILIPINO IDENTITY 72
CONCLUSION 79
INTRODUCTION
Colonization is the conquest of one nation by another. It involves the exploitation of the
colonized nation’s labor, resources and space for the gain of the colonizing nation. (Kapoor
2007) Not only does the colonizer physically assert itself onto the colonized, it also asserts itself
into the locals’ minds. Colonizers taught the colonized that they must emulate its conquerors in
order to become civilized. (Quijano 1992) (Cupples and Glynn 2011) Thus, rather than
acknowledging the indigenous ways of life as merely different than their own, colonizers
instilled an inferiority complex among those it colonized. This inferiority complex forced the
colonized to conceal their own cultures and redefine what being civilized meant. (Fanon 1967)
(Kapoor 2007)
For nearly four hundred years, colonization has been part of the Philippines’ history.
From 1565 to 1898, Spain colonized the Philippines and left upon being defeated by the United
States in the Spanish-American War. (Caronan 2005) The U.S. then annexed the Philippines and
claimed the country as its own territory until 1946, or as the U.S. 1916 Jones Act stated, until the
U.S. government deemed Filipinos fit to govern themselves. (Caronan 2005) Both Spanish and
American colonizers projected definitions of civilization overruling the Philippines’ own
determination of development. These definitions continue to exist in the Philippines today
through what some scholars call “colonial mentality.” Colonial mentality (CM), as defined by

ethnic study scholars, is an internalized oppression among Filipinos in which they experience an
automatic preference for anything Western—European or U.S. American—and rejection of
anything Filipino. (David 2013)
The measurement of one’s CM correlates to one’s self-esteem1. The higher one’s CM is,
the lower one’s self-esteem may be. (David 2013) Therefore, understanding the lasting effects of
colonization in the Philippines is critical for the mental health of Filipinos. A low self-esteem is
at risk of depression and feelings of hopelessness. (Crocker et al. 1994) One can see traces of
low self-esteem due to CM, or the “feeding off of Americans” as anthropologist Ajrun
Appadurai puts it, among Filipinos’ views on skin color and favoritism for lighter-skinned
celebrities. For example, many of the celebrities in the Philippines are part European or
American and singers often cover American songs.
However, despite remnants of Philippines colonized past in the psychology of Filipinos,
there are Filipinos challenging CM by engaging in Philippine art. For the purpose of this research
project, Philippine art is defined as Filipino-made visual art, literature, music, and dance
intended to promote Philippine culture. One example of Filipinos critiqing CM with art is
Philippine-based artist Abigail Dela Cruz. Dela Cruz illustrated the pre-colonial Tagalog goddess
Dian Masalanta. She did not feel “self-love” for her Filipina identity until she began researching

1
Psychologists define self-esteem as the “central aspect of psychological well-being” that can measure one’s

about pre-colonial cultures in the Philippines, she then applied it to her artwork. By creating her
own Philippine art, Dela Cruz increased her self-esteem for her national identity.
I observed similar efforts among other Filipinos and Filipino American colleagues in
which they challenged their CM after learning to appreciate their Filipino identities. They gained
appreciation for their Philippine identity through art. Observing how Philippine art changed
perspectives is what inspired this thesis. This research project hones in the question of whether
art can be a tool for challenging CM—whether one is Filipino or of another post-colonized
ethnic identity.
Research Question and Methods
This research project focuses on the push against CM by the Philippine art community. I
ask if art can be a sufficient tool for decolonization. Decolonization refers to the process of
reducing CM. As coined by ethnic studies scholar and psychologist E.J.R. David, decolonization
reduces CM by allowing individuals to better analyze their feelings, attitudes and behaviors
toward his or her Filipino-identity then relating those expressions to the Philippines’ colonial
history. (David 2013) Specifically, I ask how Philippine art informs how Filipinos grapple with
CM. I argue that Filipino artists and Filipinos involved in the art community challenge their CM
because, by exposing themselves to Filipino-made artwork, they increase their esteem as
Filipinos.

In order to examine if CM is an influential aspect in the Philippine art community, I
conducted a qualitative study among artists in Metro Manila for six weeks. I interviewed and
surveyed Metro Manila artists as well as art programs’ participants and organizers. For a basis of
comparison, I also studied the CM of a general sampling of Metro Manila students at the
University of the Philippines, Diliman.
Limitations
My limitations in producing this research project revolve around two factors: time
limitations and my Filipina American identity. These two factors may have influenced the
outcome of my data. Given these time restrictions, I cannot claim that the amount of people I
interviewed and surveyed is a full representation of Filipinos in the Philippines or Metro Manila.
I cannot claim that six weeks living in Metro Manila gave me a sufficient understanding of life
as a local.
As a U.S. born Filipina, my Filipina-American (Fil-Am) identity comes with limitations,
including a language barrier as well as my biases and potential biases Filipinos in the Philippines
may have towards me. My oral skills for the Tagalog language are not fluent, although my
comprehension skills are. (My surveys were conducted solely in English whereas my interviews
were mostly in English and occasionally in Taglish, a mixture of Tagalog and English. Lastly,

because of my Fil-Am identity, folks may have been less forthcoming or honest with
information.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of my research is to better understand the existing effects of colonialism
today and how to provide a solution to those effects. Although the focus of my study is in the
Philippines, the findings can be transferrable to other post-colonized ethnic groups because I
address how colonialism still affects the mental health of post-colonized peoples. Because
European colonizers embedded a colorism2 onto the cultures of those they colonized, a skin-
color hierarchy can be seen among nations who have been colonized by Westerners today.
(Hunter 2007) For instance, in Mexico, light-skinned people are higher up in its social class
system due to its Spanish colonial history. (Hunter 2007) Because my research provides possible
reasons of how colonialism affects post-colonized people today— such as with colorism—this
project also promotes the importance of diversifying the representation of people in all forms.
I posit that engaging with art can reduce internalized colonialism. What I do not intend to
do is romanticize the Philippines, indigenous cultures, and its pre-colonial history. Rather, this

2
Colorism is the process in which in which light-skinned people have greater social privileges than those of dark-
skinned color people. These privileges include social favorability, income, and education opportunities. (Hunter
2007)

project demonstrates the need to address the ways in which colorism and prejudice exist in the
Philippines and even in the art community. Decolonization is needed for the Philippines to move
forward as a new, not as emulators of those who colonized it but as autonomous peoples. As
author and politician Aimé Cesaire wrote in his book Discourse on Colonialism:
“The problem is not to make a utopian and sterile attempt to repeat the past, but to go beyond. It is not a
dead society that we want to revive... Nor is it the present colonial society that we wish to prolong... It is a
new society that we must create, with the help of all our brother slaves, a society rich with all the
productive power of modern times, warm with all the fraternity of olden days.” (Cesaire, 1972: pg. 52)
Like Cesaire, I do not suggest that Filipinos should repeat its pre-colonial ways of life or
colonial. Rather, the Philippines must create a society based on what it learned from pre-colonial
and colonial times and “go beyond.”
Presentation of Research Project
In order to better develop my argument for the Philippines’ need to challenge CM, the
following section provides context on the Philippines’ history, colonial experience under Spain,
and its colonial and post-colonial relationship with the U.S. Following background on the
Philippines is the literature review. The literature review is categorized in three parts: CM,
decolonizing through inclusivity, and art for self-esteem. Within each section, I share literature
by other academics on the three topics then pose how my research contributes to them. Thirdly, I
illustrate my research methods, which include surveys and interviews. I then describe how I

collected my data and analyzed it. Afterwards, I demonstrate my research findings in both
paragraph-form and graphics. And, lastly, I conclude with a summary of my results as well as
with a discussion on limitations and how this project opens up further discussions for further
research.

BACKGROUND FOR THE STUDY
External forces have always influenced the Philippines. The oldest human remnants
found in the Philippines are 67,000 years old and has traces from African and Southeast Asian
lineages. (Hnederson 2010) Slightly younger remains prove the Philippines had contact with
several Asian countries such as China, India, and Malaysia. (McKay and Junker 2001) Over the
course of time, several languages formed; in this small country alone, 182 languages are used
today. (Bickford et al. 2014) However, despite these thousands of years old dialects being
spoken across the country, the two national languages include Filipino—based on the native
Philippine dialect Tagalog— and English—a language from one out of two colonizers of the
Philippines.
The two colonizers in the Philippines included Spain (1565-1898) and the United States
(1898-1946). Studying the Philippines colonial past is imperative for this research project
because it provides background on how CM developed. This section illustrates how Spain and
the U.S. influenced the Philippines’ rationale through colonization.
Spanish Colonization
Spain sought to convert Filipinos into Christian believers during its colonial reign.
Colonizers manipulated indigenous beliefs to be favorable of Christianity. The first Archbishop
in Manila Domingo de Salazar, for example, taught locals that those who believed in the

Christian God would be protected from natural disasters. He stated in 1586 that prejudice against
Filipinos who converted to Christianity caused natural disasters. (Salazar 1911 [1588]: 57-69)
(Camba 2012) Therefore, Filipinos’ obeying the Spanish colonizers and their religious beliefs
perceived their Christian conversion to be a favorable act for divine will.
While colonizing the Philippines, Spain built two divisions: 1) between colonizers and
the colonized and 2) between Christian Filipinos and non-Christian Filipinos. Filipinos who
abandoned their traditions that Spain found offensive claimed to be a different type of people
than those who continued the traditions. These traditions included human sacrifices, wearing
loincloths, and teeth decoration. (Scott 1994) The colonizers encouraged this separation. For
example, Spanish priest Pedro de San Buenaventura said “Whoever files his teeth, I will
certainly punish.” (Scott 1994)
U.S. Colonization
Upon winning the Spanish-American war, the U.S. annexed the Philippines. Filipinos
then fought for sovereignty against its new colonizer during the Philippine-American War. In
1902, the U.S. defeated the Philippines. In 1901, the U.S. established an education system
throughout the Philippines in order to maintain its power over the Filipino people. (Rafael 2016)
Military governor, Douglas Macarthur, stated that creating schools were necessary to “expedite
restoration of tranquility throughout the archipelago.” (Rafael, 2016: 44) The U.S. government

used the schools as a means of assimilating the Filipino people to “Anglo-Saxon values” while
cultivating a peaceful relationship with natives.
The U.S. created a universal education system. However, it revolved around
strengthening its power over the Philippines through the weakening of Filipinos’ esteem by
promoting Americanization. The first teachers were American soldiers who were dubbed as
“Thomasites” because they arrived on the U.S.S Thomas. (Rafael 2016) American teaching was
problematic because Thomasites lacked knowledge on Filipino culture yet, they decided to
define what being Filipino meant. For example, an American high school principal in the
Philippines Harry Couch Theobald wrote the Filipino Teacher’s Manual in 1907 where he
encouraged the teachers to create bonds with the students’ culture. However, he left it up to them
to define what their culture entails. (Elias 2014)
One can see another example of U.S. power over Filipinos in the education system within
the book History of the Philippines by David Barrows. Barrows was the General Superintendent
of Education in the Philippines from 1903 to 1909 and also the Chief of the Bureau of Non-
Christian Tribes. His goal for his history book was to teach Filipinos that being colonized by the
U.S. meant they were progressing from primitive ways. (Hawkins 2012) Barrows stated that
“black races”—including Filipinos—did not progress until they were introduced to Westerners.
(Barrows 1905) According to Barrows, the Philippines did not live a historical nor credible life

until it encountered Spain. (Hawkins 2012) Along with Filipinos learning that they were lesser
beings until colonized, Filipinos also learned that speaking English meant they were rising from
savagery. (Rafael 2016) The U.S. established English as the main language for its schools, which
resulted into a social hierarchy based on linguistics. Those who became fluent in English were
more likely to succeed economically and climb up the social ladder. (Rafael 2016)
Identity
Arising from colonialism was a nationalistic push from Filipino scholars who sought to
reframe the education system to better reflect their definition of the Philippines. Historian Renato
Constantino argued that the U.S. instilled their education system in the Philippines as a means of
“pacifying their newly-won freedom from an invader who had posed an ally.” (Constantino,
1966: 47) (Claudio, 2015: 194) Colonial teachings, according to Constantino, caused Filipinos
to become an “uprooted race” detached from their own traditions and ways of life. (Constantino,
1966: 37) (Claudio, 2015: 194)
On the other hand, political scientist Lisandro E. Claudio argues that nationalists such as
Constantino dismissed how “indigenized” curriculum is formed with miseducated biases. For
instance, while Constantino criticized Americanized textbooks, Claudio argued that nationalists
must recognize that we are now in a globalized world. Being simply “anti-Western,” according
to Claudio, leads to the neglect of totalitarian governance within the Philippines.


What is clear from these two opposing sides is that Filipino identity is complicated
because of that history. Philippine president, Benigno Aquino III said in 2015, “Filipinos are
bewildered about their identity. They are an Asian people not Asian in the eyes of their fellow
Asians and not Western in the eyes of the West.” (Heydarian 2015) This project focuses on how
the lost sense of identity due to CM affects Filipinos today and how the Philippine art
community is challenging these ideas


LITERATURE REVIEW
The scholarly work reviewed for this research is organized in the following sections:
colonial mentality (CM), decolonization and inclusion, and art for self-esteem and identity.
Colonial Mentality
Skin-Color Hierarchy and Elitism
Spanish and U.S. colonial teaching strongly affected how Filipinos perceive themselves. One
of the existing effects of colonization was a skin-color hierarchy which is still pertinent today. A
skin-color hierarchy rates the social worth of a person based on the person’s skin-tone. The skin-
color hierarchy parallels light skin as a Western characteristic. Colonialism taught Filipinos to
believe that to be Westernized is to be wealthy, intelligent, and beautiful. Therefore, the lighter
your skin color, the more wealthy, intelligent, and attractive you are perceived to be. On the
other side of the skin-color hierarchy is dark skin-tones, which is identified with the lack of
wealth, intelligence, and attractiveness. (Rondilla 2012)
Spanish colonists established the skin-color hierarchy in the Philippines by teaching
Filipinos that they were the superior race. (Camba 2012) When Spanish men reproduced with the
Filipinas, their children and future generation would often rise to political power and economic
advantages while others were more likely to continue to be less educated and have less economic
opportunities. (Hall and Livingston 2003) Spain strengthened the skin-color hierarchy by

creating a division between Filipinos and Filipinos with Spanish-bloodlines. Also during Spanish
colonization, groups of Chinese merchants migrated to the Philippines and gained a higher
economic status than Filipinos because they supplied Spanish colonists with luxury goods.
(Rondilla 2012) The Chinese migration intensified the color hierarchy because their light
complexion contributed to the discourse that light skin relates to better economic statuses. And,
as demonstrated from “Background Context,” the skin-color hierarchy was reinforced during
U.S. colonization as well.
The skin-color hierarchy instituted a form of a structural violence (SV). SV is a way in
which the structure of a society socially disadvantages a group of people by stereotyping or
stigmatizing them. (Ziegler and Ziegler 2016) Filipinos’ CM perpetuated the skin-color hierarchy
as a form of SV by continuing to endorse light skin as socially superior. For example, most upper
class Filipinos, politicians and celebrities in the Philippines tend to be light-skinned and from
Chinese and/or Western lineages. (Rafael 2003) (Rondilla 2012) Prominent figures include the
2010 to 2016 president Benigno Aquino III’s mother (who was also a Philippine president)
comes from a Chinese-Filipino family. Also, Miss Universe Philippines 2015 Pia Wurtzbach is
half Filipino and half German. (Ax and Bailey 2015)
Darker-skinned Filipinos tend to have additional social disadvantages. Darker-skinned
celebrities exist but are often only athletes like the boxer Manny Pacquiao or Filipino-African

American athletes (Rafael 2003) such as Jordan Clarkson, a basketball player in the Philippine
National Basketball Association. (Yeh 2015) Most darker-skinned Filipinos were stigmatized as
low-valued citizens. (Rafael 2003) For instance, the indigenous populations of the Philippines
were the biggest victims to the SV of CM and were systematically placed in a cycle of poverty.
(Ty 2010) In 2015, different Filipino indigenous groups came together for a forum by the
European Union Delegation to the Philippines in which they complained that they continue to
face “social discrimination, economic marginalization, and political disempowerment.” (ABS-
CBN News 2015)
Demeaning Filipino Self-Esteem
CM affected the mental health of Filipinos by instilling low self-esteem, shame, and other
issues. Psychologists define self-esteem as the “central aspect of psychological well-being” that
can measure one’s satisfaction with his or her life. (Crocker et al., 1994: 503) The higher the
self-esteem, the less likely they are to be at risk of depression and hopelessness, which are
symptoms of SV. (Crocker et al. 1994) (Ziegler and Ziegler 2016) Also, those with higher self-
esteem perceive themselves and the world more positively. Collective self-esteem is defined as
the measurement of how one evaluates the social group he or she belongs to; these social groups
include gender, religion, social class, and ethnic identity. (David 2013) The concept of “self”
comprises of both personal and collective self-esteem. That is, the psychological well-being of

people directly relates to not only how they perceive themselves but also the group(s) in which
they identify themselves a part of. (Crocker-et al. 1994) (David 2013)
Therefore, how one perceives their ethnic identity affects his or her overall self-esteem.
Considering Filipinos experience CM because of their colonial history, they have a low sense of
collective self-esteem. (David 2013) As the skin-color hierarchy stresses, Filipinos should not
have dark skin if they want to be recognized as attractive or intelligent or powerful. For instance,
a 48 year old Filipina woman who migrated to the U.S. recalled her experience growing up in the
Philippines with her darker complexion, “I had no self-esteem in the Philippines. Come to think
of it, I didn’t because everything I was, was I guess not meeting their standards.” (Rondilla 2012)
Figure 1:
“Conceptual model of how racism may shape time in different states over the life course”
(Gee et al., 2012: 971)


There is not enough data on how discrimination affects the mental health of specifically
Filipinos but there are studies on how discrimination affects people for all. Researchers found
that discrimination correlates to stress-induced illnesses such as depression and heart attacks.
(Gee et al. 2012) (Mohammed 2009) Also, as Figure 1 demonstrates, racism correlates to life
disparities. Each bar illustrates how a disparity may exist in a “quality of time.” The unequal
lengths represent how there is an inequality in the lives between those who are not discriminated
against those who do face discrimination.
Significance of Studying CM
Studying CM is important for understanding the potential affects it has on the mental
health of Filipinos. Philippine leaders must address CM because it correlates to depression or
inferiority complex. According to the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2011, the
Philippines ranks number one in depression in Southeast Asia. For every 100,000 Filipinos,
WHO found, 93 of them commit suicide. (Panela 2012) And, out of those diagnosed with
depression, the WHO concluded only a third of them seek professional help. (Panela 2012)
Not only may depression lead to suicide, it can also lead to “loss of interest or pleasure,
feelings of guilt or low self-worth, disturbed sleep or appetite, low energy and poor
concentration.” Also, the 2012 World Happiness Report by Columbia University’s Earth
Institute reported that the Philippines is one of the least happy countries, ranking only 103rd out

of 155 countries. (Helliwell et. al 2012) Although there is not enough data to conclude that
depression rates in the Philippines to determine exactly how much the skin color hierarchy
affects Filipinos’ self-esteems, the Philippines should not dismiss that this hierarchy and CM
contributes to people’s mental health. (David 2013)
One should note that studying CM is also effective in understanding the psychology of
others who identify themselves with post-colonized nations who also feel the need to emulate
Westerners because of inferior connotations tied onto their ethnicity. For example, in Latin
American countries like Columbia, Mexico, and Venezuela, elite statuses are associated with
light skin colors because of their colonial history as well. (Gomez 2008) Another example of
how Latino communities suffer from CM too comes from an organization called the U.S.
Literary Heritage Project. This project restored literature by Hispanics from colonial times,
literature including novels and poems. Commonly found in this literature were dark-skinned
Hispanics’ recollection of the discrimination they faced. One of these narratives is from Angela
Jorge, who wrote in 1979:
As the black Puerto Rican woman goes through various stages of life... the blackness of her skin
and the clearly Negroid physical characteristics makes her experiences within each stage different
from those of her lighter-skinned sister in struggle for emancipation and liberation... (Jorge
1979)(Gomez, 2008: 194)


Like the Philippines, the gap between the quality of life between light-skinned people and dark-
skinned people not only exists in colonial times but even today.
Contribution to CM Literature
Through this research project, I contribute to the discussion on CM by studying current
indicators of CM in Metro Manila. My interviews and surveys reveal how CM affects
individuals today and how art involvement in Metro Manila influences one’s CM. Also, the
interviews reveal how media and consumer culture in Metra Manila perpetuates colonial
standards thus strengthening the CM among Filipinos. Not only does this research project
strengthen the argument that studying CM is necessary for the mental health of Filipinos, this
project also proposes how actors may be able to challenge CM.
Decolonization by Inclusivity
Discussing decolonization and inclusivity is critical for my research project because both
provide a framework for resolving CM. Decolonization refers to the process of reducing CM. As
coined by ethnic studies scholar and psychologist E.J.R. David, decolonization reduces CM by
allowing individuals to better analyze their feelings, attitudes and behavior towards his or her
Filipino-identity then relating those expressions to the Philippines’ colonial history. (David
2013) In a broader sense, as defined by social justice professor George Sefa Dei, decolonization

breaks the boundaries of thinking instilled by colonists thus creating “many paths with many
openings and many endpoints.” (Sefa Dei 2016)
Inclusivity refers to the encompassment of all. By creating an inclusive society, one creates a
safe space for everyone; space not only refers to physical places but also societal and abstract
spaces like in education systems and mass media. (Sefa Dei 2016) Representation in the
Philippine mass media, for example, is exclusive to colonial-like standards of beauty because of
the population’s CM. By decolonizing representation, Philippine media would reflect the
diversity of the Philippines. Media would then represent everyone regardless of their varying
views, appearances, and practices. And, by diversifying spaces, openness to understanding these
differences follows. (Sefa Dei 2016)
This research project argues that decolonization is necessary for the mental health of
Filipinos and other post-colonized people. It also posits that Philippine art can be a tool for
decolonization because Philippine art is inclusive to a wide array of Filipino experiences.
Decolonization programs exist all over the world, all with the goal of healing the oppressions
that colonialism implemented. Actors who support decolonization are responding to colonial
“domination and exploitation” (Cupples and Glynn, 2014: 57) by providing spaces of acceptance
and understanding.

For this section, I provide two decolonization programs to further support how valuable
decolonization is for oppressed groups. The two examples of decolonization are: the Universidad
de las Regiones Autónomas de la Costa Caribe Nicaragaünese (URACCAN) and FADE-ing
Away our Colonial Mentality (FADE.) The first example shows how an inclusive education
system provides the opportunity for marginalized communities to succeed. The second example
demonstrates how becoming aware of one’s own CM, one can deconstruct it.
URACCAN
The indigenous and Creole populations of Nicaragua often struggle economically due to
the country’s colonial history. URACCAN, a Nicaraguan-based university, aims to empower all
of its students to change the status quo and rise against “racism, discrimination, poverty, and
marginalization” by promoting an intercultural university education. Subjects offered include
Intercultural Medicine and Intercultural communication. According to a study in 2009, the
Intercultural Communication students—whom were mostly Creole and the indigenous group
Miskito—were “outspoken, engaged, articulate, and willing to share their ideas about
globalization, development and culture.” This is due to URACCAN creating an inclusive space
that allows all of its students to feel validated and safe when sharing their views. (Cupples and
Glynn, 2014: 61-62)


FADE
Another example is from Filipino-American psychologist E.J.R. David who wrote Brown
Skin, White Minds. In his book, he included a decolonizing program for Filipino-Americans. As
part of the program, these Filipino-Americans attended Filipino history and culture classes that
aimed to increase the participants’ knowledge on Filipino and Filipino-American history, and
gain consciousness of their own CM and how to challenge CM. At the end of the program, the
author noted that the participants did have a decrease in CM and also experienced an
improvement in their awareness of self and community as well as motivation in self and
community empowerment. (David 2013)
Significance
Decolonization and inclusivity does not aim to dismiss a group of people’s colonial past.
Rather, decolonization encourages acceptance of that past whereas inclusivity intends to open the
doors for all. Globalization today continues to expose the Philippines to Western ideals and
theories. (Brillantes and Fernandez 2013) However, Filipinos must not let that influence neglect
its own local context. If the Philippines was more prepared and knowledgeable of its role
individually in the globalized world, its “real identity may emerge.” Then, the Philippines would
cease in attempting to emulate another’s. (Brillantes and Fernandez 2013)


Contribution
My research contributes to the literature on both decolonization and inclusivity by
providing how artists and those who participate in the Metro Manila art community are
decolonizing themselves through Philippine art. As shown in my “Research Findings,” those
who view and engage in Philippine art have the opportunity of feeling included because
Philippine art is reflective of the wide array of Filipino experience. The chapter “Research
Findings” goes into detail on how my interviews reveal different individuals’ thoughts on
inclusivity and its need in the Philippines. My research also provides why individuals and how
Filipinos may or may not choose to decolonize. Overall, my research provides more
understanding on how Filipinos decolonize themselves and how inclusivity affects them.
Understanding both contributes to discussions on improving the mental health and self-esteem of
post-colonized people.
Art for Constructing Confidence
The previous section discusses how decolonization and inclusivity can heal the
oppressions inflicted by CM. This research project proposes that art can enact both
decolonization and inclusivity. Although this project focuses on Philippine art, the following
section discusses art in general. The purpose of discussing art generally is to explore how
engagement in art—whether it be through attending an art program or creating art—one is more


receptive to critically think about his or her environment and increase his or her acceptance of his
or her identity. As the previous sections demonstrated, improving one’s sense of identity
correlates to increasing one’s level of self-esteem. (Phinney and Chavira 1992)
First, I describe how art engagement expands ways of thinking thus leading one towards
positive self-acceptance. In doing so, I provide examples of how art programs in different parts
of the world were used for improving the self-esteem of its participants. I then explain how
studying the ways art constructs confidence is beneficial for my research and how my research
contributes to that discussion.
Expanding Ways of Thinking
By creating art or surrounding oneself in art, one expands his or her way of thinking. For
instance, art engagement not only promotes creativity and self-expression, it enhances one’s
cognitive abilities as well as empathy and critical thinking skills. (Dewey, 1919; Heilig et. al,
2010; Eisner 2002; Kisida et. al 2016) Art educators have also found that utilizing art in
education systems allows its students to develop thinking habits from studying art. These habits
include, “observing, reflecting, envisioning, innovating, stretching, and engaging and persisting.”
(Hetland et. al 2007) In terms of art participation specifically, those who participate increases
their skills in building theories, reflecting, expression and elaboration. (Kisida etl al 2016)

These art benefits can be seen in a case study in Arkansas conducted by the University of
Arkansas, Fayetteville and Rice University of Houston, Texas. The case study found that arts in
education strengthened students’ ways of thinking critically. In order to analyze students’
exposure to art, some students from the study were randomly assigned to participate in a
facilitated art museum tour. All of the students completed a survey that included essay questions
in regards to an unfamiliar work of art. These essays were then coded to examine the students’
critical thinking skills. The results showed that the students who attended the art museum tours
demonstrated signs of critically thinking more than the students who did not. 3 The study
describes the essays by the museum participants as providing “deeper and more complex
interpretations.” (Kisida et al., 2016: 177) (Luke et al. 2007) One example of analysis the
researchers provided was by a tenth grade girl who analyzed the painting “The Box” by Bo
Barlettte (2002):
I believe the children are reminiscing on the loss of their father. The look on the children’s faces is very
mournful. In the open bucket you can see things that would be sent home if a loved one was lost in war. The
Popeye doll seems like he would represent the father’s strength. There is a wedding photo, probably for
remembrance and what looks like communion, which represents religion that maybe the family was close
to. Also, to me, the empty chair in the foreground shows where the father would be sitting if he were

3
The researches of this study used a critical thinking skills checklist in order to score the students’ analysis of
artwork. The checklist includes: “observation, interpretation, evaluation, association, problem finding, comparison,
and flexible thinking.” (Kiside et. al, 2016: 177;

present” (Kisida et al., 2016: 177)
This excerpt of the student’s essay has indicators of critical thinking such as “observation,
interpretation, and association.” Art’s ability to improve critical thinking is not only beneficial to
people pursuing arts, it is beneficial to students overall. Arts integration into other subjects has
the potential to attract different types of learners by enhancing the learners’ “comprehension and
retention of materials.” (May and Robinson 2016)
Constructing Confidence in Identity through Art
Because art improves one’s critical thinking skills, one can better develop his or her
understanding of him or herself. In a case study that observed the effects of art therapy on two
groups, the researchers found that art nourished its participants ability to share and understand
their personal stories. (Linesch et al. 2014) The two groups included 1) Hispanic/Latino
adolescents and 2) Hispanic/Latina immigrant women that were originally from Mexico and
moved to the U.S. Both groups participated in activities in which they would express their
personal narratives. For one of the art therapy sessions, the women used fabrics to share their
experiences onto “tapestries” while the youth repurposed vinyl records for their narratives.
(Linesch et al. 2014)
The groups showed increasing self-confidence especially in their experiences as
immigrants exposed to different cultures in the U.S. For instance, the adolescents expressed how

comfortable they became with sharing their experiences with those who had similar experiences
and be able to reframe those experiences as “positive lessons.” They also expressed how proud
they were of their accomplishments. (Linesch et al. 2014) The adolescents became more
confident because they began seeing their experiences in a new positive light. The women, on
the other hand, became more confident because the art therapy served as a coping mechanism for
them. One woman confessed that she identified feelings in the art sessions that she never
expressed before. Another woman explained how participating in an art process enabled her to
take parts from her past and integrate it into who she is today. (Linesch et al. 2014)
As shown in this case study, art therapy provided a space for its participants to increase their
self-confidence. The participants were able to share their stories with those who experienced
similar trials as immigrants. And, because they were able to share their stories creatively, the
participants were able to be at peace with their past and confidently build from what they learned
from it. The next case study describes a program that increased the participants’ self-confidence
by providing a space for its participants to express their “ethnic and cultural identities.”
Constructing Confidence in One’s Culture through Art
While the Pasifika4 population is growing in New Zealand, educators are investigating
how to teach a culturally wide array of students. Unfortunately, because of the stereotypes

4
Pasifika is a New Zealand term that refers to immigrants from Pacific Islands and their descendants. (Smith 2016)

constructed about Pasifika students, Pasifika students’ academic performance resulted in
“passivity or rebellion.” (Smith, 2016: 87) This case study analyzes how four New Zealand art
teachers sought to empower Pasifika students by providing them the tools and space to express
themselves. The teachers interviewed for the study taught at schools with Pasifika students as the
majority. (Smith 2016)
Each visual arts program included a section that focused on Pasifika cultures, subjects,
and art symbols and techniques. By including their cultures into the program and allowing the
students to share their knowledge and experiences as Pasifika people, the teachers found that the
students felt comfortable being themselves because their cultures were “reflected in the
classroom.” (Smith, 2016: 102) The teachers also observed that the students felt empowered to
express their ethnic and cultural identities in their artwork.
Significance
Art engagement—either creating art or simply observing it—enables people to enhance
their critical thinking skills, construct a better sense of their own identity, and increase their self-
confidence. The examples shown in this section provided how art programs proved how art
benefits people from different age groups, ethnic groups, and cultural groups. Art can improve
the self-esteem and intellect of various people, therefore, art engagement proves to be significant
for education systems, psychology, and the overall well-being of populations.


Low self-esteems can lead people to be more susceptible in believing negative
stereotypes of others and including themselves. (Phinney and Chavira 1992) (Crocker and Major
1989) Whereas, for those with high self-esteem, has a clearer understanding of their own identity
thus more able to express positive feelings about themselves and others. (Phinney and Chavira
1992) Therefore, studying a way in which actors can improve self-esteem would benefit not only
individuals but also how these individuals interact with each other. As this section provided, art
can be that tool for improving self-esteem.
Contribution
CM affects the self-esteems of post-colonized people because it involves the self-
oppression of one’s ethnic identity. My research project contributes to the discussion of
increasing self-esteem through art by providing an analysis of how the Philippine art community
utilizes art to challenge CM. Through my research, I demonstrate how Metro Manila artists and
people involved in the Metro Manila art community are analytical of the Philippines’ colonial
history and how that history plays a role in their identity. This project furthers the argument for
the necessity of art engagement for the mental health of all. I also determine that art
engagement—because of its power to improve critical thinking skills—can be a tool for
decolonizing. Decolonization involves analyzing one’s feelings towards his or her ethnic identity

then relating those feelings to his or her colonial history. Because art improves one’s analysis,
this project determines how helpful art’s benefits are in decolonizing.


RESEARCH METHODS
Exposure to Philippine art inspired me to decolonize my own CM as a Filipina-American.
I seek to discover whether Philippine art can be a tool for challenging the CM for others as well.
In order to achieve this, my goals for this research project are 1) to understand how Filipinos are
experiencing CM and 2) determine whether art engagement affects Filipinos’ CM. Through
surveys and interviews, I conducted a qualitative study in Metro Manila, Philippines.
Table 1.1: Number of surveys and interviews in each research group
PARTICIPANTS OF
PHILIPPINE
THE PHILIPPINE ART STUDENTS
ARTISTS
COMMUNITY
Survey 6 7 10
Total
Interview
4 5 3
Total
The people I interviewed and surveyed were broken down into three groups: Philippine
artists, participants of the Philippine art community, and general population. (Table 1.1) The
general population sample is from University Philippines, Diliman (UPD) in Quezon City of
Metro Manila. The purpose of interviewing and surveying students from UPD was to provide a
basis of comparison between a population that engages in art versus a population is less likely to.
In order to describe my research methodology, I will first illustrate the setting in which I
conducted my research. Ithen provide detail on my data collection procedures for interviews and
surveys. Lastly, I explain the limitations that I faced while conducting the research.

Research Setting
Metro Manila
I lived in Metro Manila from July 9 to August 21, 2016. I interned for the non-profit
organization Viva Manila! from July 18 to August 13, 2016. Metro Manila region surrounds the
country’s capital, the city of Manila. During Spanish colonialism, the Spanish government
developed Manila as the country’s political and economic hub. Since then, Manila and its region
Metro Manila continues to be the urban center of the Philippines. (Choi 2016) The Philippine
government and urban planners today seek to make Metro Manila “modern and global” by
creating developments such as malls. (Choi 2016) This makes Metro Manila an interesting
setting for my research. As my research findings will show, there are various reactions among
Filipino locals in regards to the globalization of Metro Manila and how CM plays a role in
shaping those reactions.
Metro Manila based Artists
The artists I interviewed and surveyed were chosen from various Metro Manila cities.
These cities include Parañaque (1 interview), Makati (2 interviews, 2 surveys), Quezon City (2
surveyed), and Manila (1 interview, 2 surveys.) The artists come from various artistic
backgrounds as well. Their art mediums include: tattooing, graphic design, music, play writing,
acting, and visual art.


Table 1.2: Philippine artists interviewed
Philippine Artists
AGE ART MEDIUM CITY
Interviewed
Andrei 32 Playwright Makati
Carlos 44 Theatre Performer Manila
Daniel 34 Theatre Performer Makati
Luigi 32 Illustrator & Tattooist Parañaque
Table 1.3: Philippine artists surveyed
AGE ART MEDIUM CITY
20 Visual Artist Quezon City
20 Visual Artist Quezon City
23 Musician & Writer Makati
25 Theatre Performer Makati
33 Graphic Photographer Manila
33 Graphic Animator Manila
Although the artists were chosen randomly and I did not know them prior to conducting
research, it should be noted that 3 out of 4 artists interviewed are part of the network of my

internship with Viva Manila! Viva Manila! is a non-profit organization that promotes the city of
Manila’s art and culture scene. Viva Manila! seeks to:
Increase the livability and creativity of the neighborhoods in Manila by: building partnerships, respecting
the city’s heritage, supporting local businesses, advocating for public space, activating underutilized
spaces, and promoting walking and biking in the city. (Viva Manila 2014)
Through this internship, co-founder Julia Nebrija networked me to artists and informed me of
events and spaces of art engagement in Manila.
Participants of the Philippine Art Community
The participants of the Philippine art community group were interviewed and surveyed
were chosen randomly from select organizations and events in two Metro Manila cities: Manila
(4 interviews, 7 surveys) and Quezon City (1 interview). These organizations and events promote
Philippine history, culture, traditions and/or modern Filipino culture.
The events in which I interviewed and surveyed participants were the Walk This Way5
tour, Cinemalaya6, I HUB SABADO7, and Puppet Exchange8. I attended the four events as well.

5
Walk this Way Tour: a guided tour by performer Carlos Celdran through Fort Santiago in Intramuros. In this tour,
Celdran gives insight on Manila’s history—from Spanish Colonization to U.S. colonization and World War II.
6
Cinemalaya: an annual independent film festival featuring short films and long films made by Filipino filmmakers
hosted at the Cultural Center of the Philippines.
7
I HUB SABADO: a weekly event in which artists and crafters who have studios and boutiques in the First United
Building in Manila host an open house of their art spaces.

Table 1.3: Participants of the Philippine art community interviewed
Participants of the Art
Community AGE INVOLVEMENT CITY
Interviewed
Founder of Network for
Charisse 32 Indigenous Communities Manila
with Manila
Glenn 23 Cinemalaya Film Festival Manila
Co-Owner of Brand that

Katalina 27 collaborates with Manila
Indigenous Products
Graduate Student in
Merselle 23 Quezon City
Museum Studies
Monica 25 Walk this Way Tour Manila
Table 1.4: Participants of the Philippine art community surveyed

AGE EVENT CITY
19 Cinemalaya Film Festival Manila
28 I HUB SABADO Bazaar Manila
19 Puppet Exchange Show Manila
29 Walk this Way Tour Manila
55 Walk this Way Tour Manila
Along with participants of Philippine art events, I interviewed individuals who were involved in

8
Puppet Exchange: Hosted at the Cultural Center of the Philippines, Puppet Exchange features the art of puppetry
from both Japan and the Philippines. The event included lectures on the history of puppetry in Japan and the
Philippines and puppetry performances.

Philippine art organizations although they were not artists themselves. These individuals include:
1) the founder of a network for indigenous Philippine communities to share their culture with
Manila, 2) a co-founder of a product brand in which Manila artists work with indigenous
communities to create goods for sale and 3) a museum studies graduate student who was also a
previous staff member of the Vargas Museum in UPD.9
General Population: University of the Philippines, Diliman
I selected University of the Philippines, Diliman to collect data because of safety and
accessibility. I entered the Philippines shortly after a highly controversial presidential election,
putting the country on travel warning list. The new president, Rodrigo Duterte, has encouraged
thousands of extrajudicial killings for a war against drugs. Thus, UPD, being a college campus,
allowed me to conduct research in a controlled safe and calm environment.
In terms of accessibility, UPD is a public university. Only students, staff, and faculty
were permitted on campuses of private universities whereas UPD, on the other hand, was an
open campus. Selected buildings required university identification, however, it was open to the
general population. Also, I decided to conduct research at a university because I am not fluent in
Tagalog/Filipino. Considering many of the college courses in the Philippines are taught in
English, I had a better chance of speaking with locals who were fluent in English than if I were

9
To keep the anonymity of the founders, both of their organizations will remain nameless.

to conduct surveys and interviews elsewhere. It should be noted that two of the survey
participants were not UPD students but visitors to the campus.
Table 1.5: General population interviewed

General Population AGE YEAR IN COLLEGE
Interviewed
Chloe 20 Junior
Paula 21 Senior
Xanith 21 Senior
Table 1.6: General population surveyed
AGE YEAR IN COLLEGE
18 Freshman
19 Freshman
18 Sophomore
19 Sophomore
19 Sophomore
20 Junior
20 Senior
Limitations
This research project’s limitations include: time and my identity as a Filipina-American.
Both of these factors potentially influenced the outcome of my data because they affected how
much data was collected. I conducted research in Metro Manila from July 9 to August 21, 2016.

Although I visited Manila multiple times prior to this research trip, I do not claim that a month’s
visit was sufficient to learning the local experience.
The research findings can provide an insight on CM in Metro Manila and the impact the
art community has on CM. However, the amount of people surveyed and interviewed is a limited
representation of the Filipino experience in Metro Manila. For instance, as mentioned in
Research Setting, the majority of the artists I interviewed are part of the same network. This may
lead to my research only representing the opinions of a niche group within the Manila art scene.
More time researching would have possibly given me more opportunities to interview and survey
a wider variety of people.
Also, considering I only had enough time to interview and survey students from one
university, their campus culture may have affected all of their responses as well. For instance,
UPD is particularly known to be vocal in advocating for social justice. This could mean that all
the students are well versed in the effects of systematic oppressions, such as from colonialism.
Another limitation could be that majority of the research participants are millennials, with the
exception of one 44-year-old artist interviewee and one survey of a 55-year-old Philippine art
community participant. This research’s results are therefore reflective of primarily one age
group.

Data Collection Procedures
Surveys
This research project analyzes the CM of three different groups in Metro Manila: artists,
participants of the Philippine art community, and general population. Survey questions remained
the same among each group. However, I added specific questions pertaining to creating art for
the artist surveys and questions about art events in general for the participants of the Philippine
art community. There are 28 questions in total for art participants and artists. The general group
had a survey of 24 questions. The survey included introductory questions (such as age and “Were
you born in Manila?”) and questions based on a Likert scale from “Strongly Agree “ to “Strongly
Disagree.” The Likert scaled questions can be put into two different categories: self-esteem and
attitudes toward the West.
The purpose of the self-esteem questions is to better understand the participants’ self-
esteems and collective self-esteem. Self-esteem measures how satisfied one is with his or her life
and his or her psychological well-being. Collective self-esteem refers to how satisfied one feels
in regards to the social group he or she belongs to; in this case, this project studies how the
participants feel towards their Filipino ethnic identity. Having low self-esteem and collective
self-esteem are indicators for CM because the questions will reveal how they may reject aspects

of being Filipino. The self-esteem questions ask the participants what their attitudes are towards
light skin-tones versus dark skin-tones, their own skin-tones, and the English language versus
their Filipino language(s).
CM not only indicates the rejection of anything Filipino, it also includes the automatic
preference for anything Western. In order to study this characteristic of CM, the other survey
questions study participants’ attitudes toward the West. These questions can overlap with
revealing their self-esteem, however, these questions have a focus on comparing the Philippines
to the West, particularly the United States. For instance, there are two questions that ask the
participants to compare if they find European/white-Americans and/or part European/white-
American Filipinos more attractive than Filipinos. This portion of the survey also asks students
to reveal their attitudes towards Spanish colonization and U.S. colonization.
Interviews
The purpose of the interview questions was to get a deeper understanding of the three
groups’ CM and how Philippine art may play a role in that. Like the surveys, the participants of
this study include three different groups in Metro Manila: Philippine artists, participants of the
Philippine art community, and general population. The interview questions were consistent
among each group. However, in regards to the artists, I added questions regarding how their
Filipino identity plays a role in their art. The participants of the Philippine art community had

additional questions as well. Their additional questions are about their involvement in the
Philippine art community.
The interview questions followed the same themes as the survey questions: self-esteem
and attitude towards the West. The questions were reformatted to be open-ended rather than like
the Likert scale questions from the surveys. For example, one survey question is “Spanish
colonization of the Philippines was beneficial to the Filipino people.” The interview asks instead,
“How would you say Spain influenced the Philippines, for the better or worse?”

RESEARCH FINDINGS
The surveys and interviews reveal that there is a growing resistance against CM and that
Philippine art plays a role in that. However, the results also reveal that despite the resistance, CM
still harms the self-esteem of Filipinos today. Also, the groups “artists” and “participants of art
community” were found to be more critical and aware of CM than the group “general population,
students from UPD.” The results do support the thesis that those engaging in Philippine art are
challenging their CM. But, as the following sections will reveal, Philippine art has limitations
and cannot eradicate CM alone.
There are four themes found in the research results: 1) mixed views on colonization and
its effects today, 2) the West is the standard and the Philippines is the other 3) social divisions
caused by CM 4) Philippine art and Filipino identity.
Mixed Views on Colonial History
The surveys asked the study’s participants if they believed Spanish and U.S. colonization
were beneficial to the Philippines. Overall, the results showed that majority of the survey
participants believed U.S. colonization as beneficial. (Figure 1.1) Also, more participants
perceived U.S. colonization as favorable compared to Spanish colonization. (Figure 1.2)
However, the participants revealed mixed feelings towards the question, “Filipinos should be
grateful for U.S. colonization. (Figure 1.3) Participants’ feelings towards the Philippines’

Figure 1.1
Spanish Colonization was Beneficial to the Philippines
60.00%
Philippine Artists
Percentage of Survey
50.00%
Participants
40.00% Participants of
30.00% Philippine Art
Community
20.00% General
Population
10.00%
All
0.00%
Agree Disagree Neutral
Figure 1.2
U.S. Colonization was Beneficial to the Philippines
100.00%
Philippine Artists
Participants
80.00%
Participants of
60.00%
Philippine Art
40.00% Community
General
20.00% Population
0.00% All
Figure 1.3
Filipinos should be grateful for U.S. colonization
Percentage of Survey Participants
90.00% Philippine Artists

80.00%
50.00% Community
General
40.00%
Population
30.00%
20.00% All
10.00%
0.00%

colonial history is reflected when categorized into the three groups (artists, participants of art
community, and general population) in both surveys and interviews. The most critical towards
colonization were the artists, then the participants of the art community. The general
population—who still showed reservations towards colonization—was the least critical towards
colonization.
Attitudes towards Spain
Philippine Artists
The artists expressed significantly more negative feelings towards Spain and the U.S. for
colonizing the Philippines. (Figure 1.1 and Figure 1.2) In regards to Spain, half of the artists
surveyed did not perceive Spanish colonization as beneficial for the Philippines. The artist
interviews demonstrated that the negative feelings towards Spain may be due to Spain’s
implementation of Catholicism. For example, Daniel, a theatre practitioner and gallery curator,
expressed frustrations towards Spain because of how Catholicism continues to be embedded in
Filipino culture today:
The Philippines is a shaming society because Filipinos use Catholic values to shame others. Everything is
influenced by our colonial past. No one thinks for themselves.
Carlos explained that he does not blame Spain for wrongdoings towards Filipinos during
colonization. He asserted that Spain created the skin-color hierarchy in the Philippines, however,

the Catholic Church reinforced it by its portrayals of the Catholic martyr Jesus and his mother,
Mary:
White is right because it shows you do not work outdoors; you are more elite. This has a lot to do with
religion because of the portrayals of Jesus and Mary. We should stop blaming Spain. The real enemy is the
Church.
Participants of Philippine Art Community
The survey results revealed that no one involved in the Philippine art community
disagreed that Spain was beneficial for the Philippines. However, more than half of the
Philippine art community surveys chose to be neutral in answering the question. While
surveying, the participants often responded with similar phrases to, “But it depends!” when
asked their opinion.
Unlike the artist interviews, which displayed unfavorable opinions of Spanish
colonization, the art participants’ interviews expressed pros and cons. The pros included
architecture and social systems. The cons, on the other hand, included social and skin-color
hierarchies.
Charisse expressed her mixed feelings towards Spanish colonization in her interview. She
explained that the pros and cons of Spanish colonization can be seen in modern Philippine
society:

Spain introduced to us different food and architecture, Catholicism, galleon trade, but it also depleted our
resources… Spain made us feel inferior; those who were mixed were the social elites. Thus, they created
the hierarchy you see in our class system today.
Monica further explained how Spain created social divisions and color discrimination
that continues to be embedded in the Philippines’ social structure:
Corruption started with [Spain.] They brought the feudal system in our system. Because of them, the
wealthy ones are in control of the government even after colonization. They did build beautiful monuments
and brought great architecture. But, they started the color hierarchy and the white insecurity.
Other interview participants discussed how Spanish colonization created a low collective
self-esteem among Filipinos. For example, Merselle shared that despite the benefits of Spanish
colonization, the real harm was on the “Filipino spirit:”
Spain helped with improving the quality of life. For example, they created a sanitization system. But, they
damaged the Filipino spirit and created an inferior complex.
One participant, Glenn, emphasized that the act of colonizing itself was what makes
Spanish colonization non-beneficial for the Philippines. He explained that this is due to the fact
that colonization involves a country’s feeling of entitlement and another country’s feeling of
suppression:
It is unfair or inhumane for a race or a nation to feel so entitled that they just decide to own or suppress
another nation who do not have the means to defend itself or retaliate. And since the [Spanish]
colonization became successful for a certain time, I believe its largest impact to some or maybe to many is
being conditioned that being Filipino is being inferior.


General Population
According to the surveys, half of the general population group perceived Spanish
colonization positively. The interviews, on the other hand, showed more negative feelings
towards Spain. However, the interviews’ critiques towards Spanish colonization were not as
elaborate nor unfavorable compared to the two other groups studied. For instance, Paula said that
Filipinos simply did not benefit from Spanish colonization:
They were here for a long time and didn’t accomplish much. They did not share any knowledge with us. I
mean, many of Filipino habits come from Spain like siestas. But that’s it.
One student, Chloe, did argue that Spanish colonization damaged Filipino values by
implementing Catholicism. She posited, “Spain brought the Catholic Church and that is why we
are conservatives and sexists.” Unlike the other groups studied, Chloe did not further assert how
Catholicism affected Filipinos’ neither social structures nor self-esteem.
Attitudes towards U.S. Colonization

Philippine Artists
Half of the artists surveyed believed U.S. colonization was beneficial. However, more
than 80% of them disagreed that Filipinos should be grateful for U.S. colonization. The
interviews showed that Philippine artists saw positive and negative affects from U.S.
colonization. The results suggested that the most positive influence the U.S. has on the

Philippines is the sense of individualism. For example, Luigi believes that the Philippines is
progressive due to its relationship with the United States. “I do like that we are more progressive
for a Southeast Asian country because of the US. For instance, we have had women presidents,”
said Luigi.
Andrei posited that exposure to the U.S. helped ease Catholic conservative attitudes in
the Philippines thus boosting his own confidence as someone who identifies as gay:
As a gay man, my exposure to the U.S. media helped with my confidence considering the U.S. has a
stronger sense of compared to the strong Catholic society here in the Philippines.
Despite these positive perceptions, the artists’ interviews reinforced ideas of Western
supremacy. Hence, as a result of colonization, Carlos argued that the Philippines praises
American ways of life and associates products to U.S. branding:
America has more to do with screwing up our mindset than Spain… [Filipinos say that] every toothpaste
here is Colgate, every soft drink is Coke, every copier is Xerox, every refrigerator is Frigidaire… The U.S.
colonized us intellectually and spiritually. They colonized the inside of us.
Out of the three groups surveyed, the participants of the art community disagreed the
most that U.S. colonization was beneficial for the Philippines. However, the participants were
also the highest group to agree that Filipinos should be grateful for U.S. colonization. The

participants’ interviews expressed that the U.S. treated the Philippines better than Spain while
continuing to oppress the country with Western ideologies. According to the interviews,
Filipinos continue to trust the U.S. as they did during colonialism.
Charisse explained that Filipinos’ positive feelings towards the U.S. causes Filipinos to
neglect the negative impacts of U.S. colonization:
The U.S. made us feel like we were loved... Filipinos trust and are optimistic towards the U.S. because they
make us feel protected when really they want us for their power. Yes, the U.S. formed an education system.
However, with that, they taught English and now our language is dying.
Monica inferred how Filipinos’ appreciation for the U.S. causes them to neglect how the
U.S. still has power over them today:
The U.S. intensified the inferior complex. They said they are helping us but they are really conquering us.
And people today do not realize that we are still affected. Everyone wants imported goods and to be white
and classes are taught in English.
Glenn admitted that although the U.S. treated the Philippines “more diplomatic” than
Spain, the U.S. is still “undeniably a colonizer of smaller nations.” He also referred to Filipinos’
preference for U.S. products to be evidence of CM.
I think the most negative influence the US has brought into the Philippines is also conditioning Filipinos
that white is better or superior over brown or black. And that products coming from the US are a status
symbol which pave more susceptibility to colonial mentality.
General Population

At 80%, the students surveyed believe that U.S. colonization was beneficial to the
Philippines. Like the other groups interviewed, the students expressed negative feelings towards
the inferior complex instilled by Spain and reinforced by U.S. colonization. Unlike the other
groups, the students emphasized that U.S. colonization was beneficial for the Philippines because
it established an education system and a globalized economy. Along with the benefits of U.S.
colonization, the interviewees discussed that the negative outcomes were the effects colonization
had on Filipino identity. For example, Paula argued that the U.S founded the Philippines
education system. She explained how education greatly benefitted Filipinos, however, Filipinos
cannot move forward from colonization because of those benefits:
What’s great with the [US] is that they offered education… But Filipinos are only aware of good things the
U.S. did. They have no knowledge of oppression. They made us feel less inferior than Spain because they
spent less time here and they accomplished a lot.... The Philippines has potential but it is very stuck in the
past.
Although Paula perceived U.S. colonization as beneficial to the Philippines, she also said
that because of colonization, Filipinos “weren’t able to explore our own identity” and now “feel
the need to relate to others.”
Xanith mentioned as well how colonization affected Filipino identity in her interview.
She believed colonization was harmful towards Filipinos’ sense of identity but she also
commented that at least the Philippines became prepared to be in a global market:


There was not enough room to develop our identity. Now there’s a separation from indigenous cultures…
What is good is that we can now participate in globalization. We can interact with outside countries and we
can adjust.
Figure 2.1
I prefer American pop culture over Filipino pop culture
80.00%

60.00%
Community
30.00% General
20.00% Population
10.00% All
0.00%
The West is the Standard and the Philippines is the Other
Both surveys and interviews included questions to examine the participants’ CM. In order
to examine the survey participants’ CM, the surveys included questions that asked to compare
Filipino characteristics to Western characteristics. The interview questions were more open-
ended than the survey questions, however, the participants felt the need to express comparisons
between the Philippines and the West, particularly the U.S. Each interview group discussed how
Filipinos’ standards of beauty, art, and quality of life were based on standards brought to the
Philippines during colonization.


Filipino Pop Culture vs. U.S. Pop Culture
The surveys and interviews asked participants their thoughts on Philippine popular
culture. The purpose was to get an understanding on how Filipinos perceive modern Philippine
culture today. Approximately 30% more of the survey participants agreed to have a preference
for American pop culture over Filipino culture than participants who disagreed. (Figure 2.1) It
should be noted that majority of the survey participants chose to remain neutral in answering the
question, “I prefer American pop culture over Filipino pop culture.” Also, although there was a
higher preference for American pop culture, interview participants in each group revealed a
consciousness of CM and how CM shapes Filipinos’ desires.
Philippine Artists
Nearly 70% of the artists surveyed agreed to have a preference for American pop culture
over Filipino pop culture. Based on the interviews, the preference for U.S. pop culture could be
due to how success in the art scene10 is often defined by how well the West perceives one’s work.
For example, as Daniel described, Filipino artists in theatre often aim to be recognized outside
the Philippines:

10
Art scene in this context should not be mistaken for Philippine art scene. Philippine art purposefully promotes
Philippine culture in different art mediums whereas art, in this research paper, does not intend to promote Philippine
culture.

There is a term “world class talent” when talking about Filipino artists. You either are or not. This implies
that the goal is to be acceptable abroad before being able to be seen as legitimate here. This frenzy came
from Miss Saigon11. What does that do to how excellence is defined in theatre? To be seen by a white
producer who brings you to London to play an Asian hooker? Who’s Vietnamese? It’s so sayang12.
Andrei also explained Filipinos’ strive to be Western in the art scene. He says that
Filipinos in theatre constantly feel the need to compare themselves to European and American
actors and actresses:
There is a lot of focus here on “keeping up with the Joneses” for Western standards, which are self-
imposing at this point. People fly to Hong Kong just to audition for Disneyland and Disneyland auditions
here too… Filipinos have the capacity to perform because they have been exposed to Americana for so
long. We will always have like the “Liz Taylor” of the Philippines.
Compared to the artists, about 10% less Philippine art participants agreed to prefer
American pop culture over Filipino pop culture. Although less Philippine art participants prefer
American pop culture, there is a wide gap between those who agree and those who disagree;
57.1% of the participants agreed and 14.3% disagreed while 28.6% remained neutral.

11
Miss Saigon is a musical founded in London in 1989. The Philippine actress Lea Salonga portrayed the lead
character in its debut although the lead character is meant to be a Vietnamese woman. Salonga won a Tony award
from Miss Saigon and continues to be active in the Broadway scene in Europe and the United States.
12
Sayang is the Tagalog word for waste. To describe something as sayang is to say “what a waste!”

Based on the interviews, the participants of the Philippine art community argued that the
Philippines is heavily exposed to Western cultures, particularly because of the malls and
advertisements that make up Metro Manila’s landscape. The interviews did not reveal whether
they preferred American pop culture but they did provide how the exposure to American culture
affected them personally and other Filipinos. For instance, Merselle and Monica both discussed
how exposure to the Western culture is saturated throughout Metro Manila and other urban areas
of the Philippines. Merselle stated:
Everyone’s ideal is the West… The more urban an area becomes in the Philippines, the more Western it
is… One time all of the billboards in Metro Manila featured Anne Curtis13. This is because she is a figure
from the West and that’s the ideal.
Monica posited that because of the Westernization of Metro Manila, Filipinos’ standards
are skewed:
Metro Manila is Westernized. It is the center of entertainment, which is heavily based on the West. Also,
malls are a huge part of Manila which limits perception of people—no nature, museums and there are
limited options especially because they mostly consist of Western products. This is sad. It is difficult to get
nice Filipino products.
Charisse argued that the Westernization of Metro Manila causes Filipinos to overlook
Filipino culture and businesses:

13
Anne Curtis is a Filipina-Australian actress

You go to a Philippine mall. I can tell you which are the best Japanese or Italian restaurants and where the
Krispy Kreme is. But, most people can’t tell you where the best Filipino restaurant is. Filipino cuisine is
just now getting appreciated but it is either super low end or medyo mahal.14
General Population
The general population group preferred American pop culture significantly less than the
other survey groups. While only 20% of the survey participants agreed to prefer American pop
culture and 20% of them disagreed, the remaining 60% chose to remain neutral. The interviews,
like the Philippine art participants, provided more reluctance towards how American ideals
affects Filipinos’ own ideals. For example, Chloe described how CM is the reason why Filipinos
prefer foreign brands to local brands:
Colonial mentality is intangible but still affects tangible things like money. For example, local businessmen
are affected… Local businesses should grow but we associate foreign brands as high quality. Not local
ones. We need to change perspective of quality.
Xanith questioned Philippine brands’ and pop culture’s ideals. She wondered why there
is a lack of representation of different type of Filipinos in mainstream media in the Philippines:
[Celebrities] are always foreigners. Why is that the standard of beauty? This affects Filipinos! Like
Penshoppe models wants to look international, not Filipino.

14
Medyo mahal, from Tagalog, translates to “very expensive.”

Views on Skin-Tone and its Effects on Self-Esteem
As the previous section (“Filipino Pop Culture vs. U.S. Pop Culture”) revealed how
exposure to Westernization affects Philippine society’s ideologies, this section discusses how
Westernization affects Filipinos’ self-esteem and collective self-esteem. The surveys asked the
participants to describe their basis of attraction in terms of skin-tone. Overall, the surveys
revealed that Filipinos are not more attracted to persons with fair skin-tones than those with dark
skin-tones (Figure 2.2) and majority do not use skin-whitening products. (Figure 2.4) However,
there were mixed results among all groups as to whether or not an elder or relative has told them
to not get dark. The survey participants admitted to having mixed feelings in comparing full-
Filipinos to part European or white-American Filipinos,(Figure 2.5) but a strong majority
admitted to being more attracted to Filipinos than Europeans or white-Americans. (Figure 2.6)
The interviews provided insight as to why the surveys results came out in favor for dark
skin-tones and for full Filipinos versus Europeans and white-Americans. Each group
acknowledged the existence of a skin-color hierarchy in the Philippines and expressed feelings of
frustration towards it. Along with the interviews going in-depth on the skin-color hierarchy’s
affects, a few of the survey participants were vocal as well in sharing their feelings beyond
“agree” or “disagree.”

Figure 2.2
I am more attracted to persons with fair skin-tones than persons with dark skin-
tones
60.00%

Participants
40.00%
Philippine Art
20.00% Community
10.00% General
Population
0.00%
Figure 2.3
An elder or relative has told me not to get too dark
80.00%

60.00%
Community
30.00% General
20.00% Population
10.00% All
0.00%

100.00%
Participants of
Participants

Community
60.00% General
Population
40.00%
All
20.00%
0.00%
Agree Disagree Neutral Figure 2.4
I use/have used skin-whitening product(s)

Figure 2.5
Filipinos that are part European/White-American are more attractive than full
Filipinos
80.00%
Philippine Artists
60.00%
Participants
Philippine Art
20.00% Community
General
Population
0.00%
Figure 2.6
Europeans/ White-Americans are more attractive than Filipinos
120.00%
Philippine Artists
100.00%
80.00%
Participants of
Philippine Art
60.00%
Community
40.00% General
Population
20.00%
All
0.00%
Philippine Artists
According to the surveys, 50%of the artists disagreed to being more attracted to Filipinos
with light skin, 66.7% stated that their relatives never told them to not get dark, and 83% have
not used skin-whitening product(s). Also, half of them disagreed that part European or white-
American Filipinos are more attractive than full Filipinos and none of them found Europeans or
white-Americans more attractive than full Filipinos.


A couple of the artists being surveyed made side comments regarding experiences they
had due to their skin color. For instance, a 25-year-old artist commented that his family did not
worry about his skin color because he is already light skinned. This artist was one out of the two
artists who perceive part European-white-American Filipinos more attractive than Filipinos. On
the other hand, a 20-year-old artist exclaimed, “my mom!” when asked if an elder or relative has
told her not to get too dark. This artist is also the only artist surveyed to admit having used skin-
whitening products.
In regards to the artists surveyed, they all indicated to have annoyance towards the
Philippines’ desire for light skin and described that this desire is forced upon everyone in various
situations. For instance, Daniel explained how whitening skin products are more accessible than
regular hygiene products:
There is the literal bleaching of skin. That is everywhere. I can’t even go to a drug store without seeing
[whitening products.] It takes me twenty minutes to find soap that does not bleach your skin. But this is in a
lot of places. Basically, anywhere that was colonized.
Andrei also inferred how the desire for light skin feels forced upon Filipinos. He
described advertisers and pop culture as the reinforcement for the skin-color hierarchy:
I see a lot of whiteness. There is a lack of representation, especially in terms of skin color. Brands bank on
whiteness as the premium color. For example, the local brand Pennshoppe has ads right now with Kylie
Jenner. It was Kate Hudson at one point. Essentially, mainstream media is not representative of being
Filipino.

Wiji received pressures of the skin-color hierarchy from her family. Because she
naturally has fair skin, her family wanted her to avoid situations in which she may tan:
You would think in this day in age we would be more proud of whatever skin color you have. Why can’t we
just be comfortable? Can we just sell a lotion that just moisturizes? I grew up in a province where we’re
near the beach. I love the beach. I’m kind of lighter skin. I really like going to the beach but everyone
would tell me sayang ang kutis mo15. You’re so dark now, what’re you doing! I would say I’m enjoying the
beach more, sorry.
While the participants were the smallest group to disagree in preferring light-skin
persons, (Figure 2.2) they are also the group with the highest percentage of elders or relatives to
tell them not to get dark. (Figure 2.3) They also have the highest percentage of survey
participants who find part European or white-American Filipinos more attractive than full
Filipinos. (Figure 2.5) Whom the participants find attractive may be linked to the influence their
relatives had on them. For example, like the artists of the surveys, one participant of Walk this
Way noted that her family already liked her light skin thus no one told her she needed to change.
However, like the artist interviews, the participants of the Philippine art community felt
frustrated due to the skin-color hierarchy. The participants expressed how the skin-color

15
Sayang ang kutis mo translates from Tagalog to “What a waste of your complexion.”

hierarchy affects their self-esteem and their collective self-esteem. One participant, Katalina,
says that she is not represented in the Philippines because she is not part of what looks are ideal:
I do not feel part of the market. I cannot even shop for make-up because everyone wants to be lighter. Is
there even a shade for me? I can’t find one. To be mestizo16 is mas maganda17 and there is a belief that it is
better to marry a foreigner. Your kids will be mestizo.
Monica shared her concerns on how the skin-color hierarchy harm Filipinos’ self-
esteems, including her own. She commented that the need for light skin affects Filipinos’ values:
What about teens who are affected by this because they are vulnerable? For example, there are now
glutathione injections. If people can spend so much for white skin, what are our priorities? When I lived
abroad [in Singapore], I appreciated my skin and thought, “brown skin is beautiful too” but deep inside is
this insecurity.
Glen related the need for lighter skin to how elders were raised; therefore, the belief light
that light skin is better is a “norm:”
[Elders] make me feel like I should follow a certain norm and stick to a particular belief that being fair is
good to the eyes of people and having a darker complexion is not that pleasing. I believe elders have
become accustomed to the stereotype that there is something better or superior in being light-skinned than
in being dark-skinned.
Despite the passing down of skin-color hierarchy beliefs, Charisse, on the other hand,
recognizes that a trend to “celebrate” brown skin is growing:

16
Mestizo originally refers to lighter-skinned Filipinos of Spanish decent. The term is now used to describe lighter-
skinned Filipinos who are often of European/ white-American decent as well.
17
Mas Maganda is Tagalog for “more beautiful.”

More people are celebrating the brown skin… But people still would like the mestizo or mestiza. Even the
local groups that celebrate “made in the Philippines” still have mestizo models... Usually you’ll find that
when a baby is born, people ask “maputi ba?” People are so used it... I think it’s changing it though... It’s
going to take a while.
General Population
Only 30% of the survey participants agreed to find fair skin more attractive and having an
elder or relative that told them not to become dark. However, they have the highest percentile of
survey participants who have used skin whitening products and the only group to have
participants that find Europeans or white-Americans more attractive than Filipinos. As shown in
the interviews, this could be due to how lack of representation in mainstream media affects
Filipinos’ self-esteem.
A 19-year-old survey participant asked if she could share her experience growing up with
brown skin. She explained how she loves swimming and swam competitively but her parents
were upset that her exposure to the sun made her darker. She ended the story with saying how
she no longer cares what they think and continues to swim. But, when asked whether she has or
still uses skin-whitening products, she said she did.
The interviewees dived even deeper into how the lack of representation for various
Filipino characteristics harms their own self-esteems and other Filipinos as well. For example,
Xanith shared what the impact of exclusive representation is in the Philippines:


The goal here isn’t to look like normal Filipinos. People want the foreign look. That lowers ours self-
esteems because we don’t really look like that.
Paula, on the other hand, acknowledged that Filipinos’ desire to look like a “foreigner”
comes from colonization. She noted that colonization may have come with benefits but the
Filipinos’ need to compare themselves to others makes them “feel down”:
We are attracted to foreigners. This comes from colonizers. There is no appreciation for full Filipinos
because Filipinos feel down in comparison to foreigners… English is taught in most of my classes. This is
good because it is universal and understood by others too. But, it would be great if we can conceptualize in
a Filipino setting too.
Like Charisse, Chloe recognized that there is a growth in appreciation for brown skin in
the Philippines. However, the nearly absent inclusivity in mainstream media still harms her self-
esteem and other Filipinos’ self-esteems:
The light-skin trend is starting to change. But, definitely not facial features. There’s no change in the noses.
That lowers my self-esteem. For example, there were three models at the malls. I felt different from them
like they are from a higher group of people. Filipinos who don’t have those features are lowering
themselves…
Social Divisions caused by CM
One topic that trended among the interviews was how CM enforces social divisions in the
Philippines, especially in Metro Manila. The other research findings discussed so far resulted
from guided questions such as, “What are your thoughts on skin-whitening products?” Unlike the

previous topics, “Social Divisions caused by CM” trended organically when asked the open-
ended question, “Philippines’ colonial history may or may not affect Filipinos today?”
Philippine Artists
The artists discussed how Western characteristics are automatically paralleled to being
characteristics of the elite class in and out the art scene. For example, Daniel argued that the way
Filipinos are represented in mass media perpetuates the social hierarchy in the Philippines:
[Representation here] is compelling and tragic. It is not promoting diversity. The ads are promoting
conformity to elite class of people in which vast majority will never have access to. The goal is to look like
someone you will literally have no access to.
Luigi argued how colonization caused Filipinos to be “superficial” towards using their
own languages. In describing the suburb of Metro Manila she currently lives in, she said, “Not
speaking English is frowned upon. There’s a belief that if you don’t’ speak English well, you
shouldn’t be here.” She added that because of how Filipino languages, Filipino-only speakers are
embarrassed to be there and people are surprised if you do speak a Filipino language:
The other day in the park, my friend was amazed that my son speaks Tagalog so well. Why are you
surprised? I’m in the Philippines! … My friend’s kid, Beyonce, said, Tagalog lang po. This kid felt bad
because she didn’t know how to speak English. I told her, “okay lang” and explained to her that she speaks
to her son in Tagalog too.18
Philippine Art Participants

18
Beyonce says she can only speak Tagalog. “Okay lang” translates from Tagalog to “it’s okay.”

A couple of the Philippine art participants further explained how the English language is
a divider between the upper class and lower class. For example, Merselle described how the
cityscape of Metro Manila utilizes English to determine which class they are selling to:
There are a lot of Western influences in Metro Manila. The buildings, almost everything is in English, even
poorer classes have to speak English... Everything is influenced... Even advertisements use English.
Usually cheaper brands and products are in Tagalog and the richer people breed kids in English because
they believe English is of higher quality.
Katalina recounted that one can tell what type of school someone goes to based on
whether they use Tagalog or English. She related this to how U.S. colonization asserted English
as the language of more civilized people:
I studied in public school so Tagalog is used all the time. Except, English was used for English class and in
science. It really depends on your status. Private schools are in English… There were strict English zones
in school during U.S. colonization. This contributes to elite associate. To speak English today is to have an
edge.
Globalization in Metro Manila, according to Charisse, is thickening the divide between
social classes. She described Metro Manila’s city planners as wanting to appease to foreigners
and the upper classes thus are building malls and luxury condominiums:
Who are they making these malls for? They are making it for themselves. Building all these condos and
displacing all these people. Who are all of these condominiums for? There are all these empty empty
buildings beside a 1000 people in a shanti.


General Population
Out of all of the groups, the students talked the least about social divisions caused by
colonization. Only one student, Paula, recognized how Western ideals related to classism. In
regards to advertisements, Paula said, “The advertisements don’t represent everyone. They are
more so for the elite.”
While other groups interviewed criticized the implementation of Western ideologies in
the Philippines, Xanith favored globalization as an economic benefit:
[Metro Manila] is good because it is exposed to other cultures. That gives us a broader perspective. The
malls here—compared to other countries—is inclusive of everything you need. It is the gathering place. It
is okay to have foreign brands. It is not a hindrance to local brands. It is positive to globalize the
Philippines. We level-up the competition.
Philippine Art and Filipino Identity

Regardless of which survey/interview group a participant belonged in, all participants
believe art is a positive tool for increasing appreciation for Filipino culture. And, every single
participant surveyed agreed that Filipino history, Filipino culture, and art inspire him or her. The
interviews revealed that Philippine art is effective in increasing collective self-esteem because of
how it relates to diverse Filipino experiences. The social divisions between classes—according
to the interviews— limit Philippine art from decolonizing Filipinos’ CM.
Sense of Ownership through Philippine Art


Because Philippine art is inclusive of various Filipino experiences, the interviewees
reveal that they feel a sense of ownership towards their identity as Filipinos. This can be seen
throughout all three research groups.
Philippine Artists
For the Philippine artists, increasing Filipinos’ self-esteem is the goal for their artwork.
For example, Andrei tries his best to emulate an “authentic” Filipino experience in Metro Manila
through his plays’ story, setting, and language. He says that plays that are made to mimic
Westerners are for pure entertainment whereas his plays are meant to relate to his Filipino
audience:
I want people to start championing Filipino work. Through art, I am assuring Filipinos are empowering
themselves. I want to use art to expose Filipino talent… I want the audience to relate to my art since
theatre is a genuine form of human experience. Filipinos see themselves in those characters; there is no
distance unlike Hollywood film… I write what I know and I am sincere and genuine to myself.
Not only does Daniel relate to a Filipino audience, he purposefully seeks to challenge
how colonialism and globalization affects Filipinos:
Metro Manila deals with how post-colonialism affects consciousness everyday here but through [the
gallery I work with], I have a hand in that discussion. I am prioritizing Filipino artists here in Poblacion19.
Everything is promoted and run by internationals in Poblacion but I have access to pushing dialogues on
Filipino-ness.

19
Poblacion is a district in Makati, Metro Manila.

The participants of the Philippine art community may not be artists themselves, but they
extensively shared how Philippine art can impact Filipinos’ self-esteem for the better. The
interviewees described their experiences in the Philippine art community as learning experiences
in which they became more appreciative of their Filipino identity. Merselle described Philippine
art as influential in Filipinos’ self-esteem:
Art can influence Filipinos in a lot of ways. Art shows people we are more. It helps their appreciation of
everyday Filipinos especially because we are very underrepresented and misrepresented…Art is trying to
change to be very non-exclusive.
Through her business, Charisse has a gallery and creates events that promote Philippine
“pre-history” and indigenous groups. She said that Filipinos in Metro Manila are not well versed
in pre-colonial history nor indigenous cultures; therefore, she bridges Metro Manila Filipinos
with indigenous cultures to increase their appreciation for the Philippines’ diversity:
I love what I do. I am working with indigenous people and empowering individuals, my audiences. I love
seeing how happy and excited they are to learn what they have here in the Philippines.
In regards to the participants who attended Philippine art events, they shared how their
experiences helped appreciate their identity as Filipinos. For example, Glen explained that
attending Cinemalaya made him realize that Filipinos are more than colonized people:

From the two movies I have watched, I have come to realize that a Filipino’s identity can never be
boxed…One can never define a Filipino as someone who’s been colonized by Spain or US or Japan years
ago, or someone who’s plainly a follower of Western culture... A Filipino, I believe, will always take from
its roots a distinct quality of family-oriented-ness, resilience, and passion.
Monica, who attended Walk this Way said that the tour made her realize that there is more
to Manila than “air pollution and traffic” but that it is “beaming with culture and history.” She
admitted that she was sad that many Filipinos overlook the city of Manila’s rich history but
because of Walk this Way, there are more Filipinos enticed to learn about it:
The tour makes you appreciate Manila more… If people who were participating in [Walk this Way] did not
find it effective, Intramuros20 would not be popular like it is now. More and more people are becoming
interested in learning about Intramuros so there is a ripple effect. More people want to check it out.
General Population
The students interviewed stated that they appreciate Philippine art because of its
representation and uniqueness to Filipinos. For example, when asked about her opinion on
Philippine art, Chloe immediately responded with “tattoos!” She began excitedly talking about
the oldest indigenous tattooist in the Philippines, Wang Od, who continues to traditionally tattoo
at 93 years old:
With Wang Od—she represents Filipinos. She’s unique solely to us. I like [art] that are unique to us. It’s
cool because, like Wang Od’s tattoos, the process is different. It is ours. We own that tradition.

20 Intramuros is the oldest district of the city of Manila in which the Walk this Way tour takes place

Paula praised Philippine art for its uniqueness to Filipinos as well. She first discussed
how she wishes more could be done to increase other Filipinos’ cultural appreciation. To
exemplify Filipinos’ low collective self-esteem, Paula described how the lack of appreciation
towards the Filipino language contributed to the end of its script:
Thailand has their own writing. Same with Vietnam. Here in the Philippines, you have Baybayin. For me, I
think it’s sayang. Why don’t we use it? It is something from pre-Spanish period… I hope they try to give
more value to the Filipino language. Maybe that’s why it is taking too long to develop here.
Paula stated that there is an effort from museums throughout the Philippine to increase
appreciation for Filipino culture. But for Paula, more can still be done:
What’s interesting is that museums are trying to be free like the National museum, which helps us
appreciate more the works of our fellow Filipinos. I mean some of the influences are really foreign. But, it
is becoming a trend in which people are going to museums. I think it is a really good way to share the
Filipino culture but it is not yet enough.
Limitations to Philippine Art
Although the three research groups expressed how Philippine art benefits Filipinos’ sense
of self and identity, the participants of the Philippine art community recognized limitations to
Philippine art’s benefits. The most common limitation discussed is accessibility to Philippine art.
For example, Kat explained how learning about Philippine art and indigenous cultures can give
Filipinos a sense of connection but it is a matter of being able to:


We are bombarded with the West! That makes it really hard to learn about pre-colonial times. What’s cool
about learning about those times is learning how Filipinos already had our own system of government, can
sustain themselves, and were already functioning before… We’re surrounded by colonialism now but it is
nice to know we can do that without colonists. Learning makes us feel connected to our ancestor. If [other
Filipinos] are open to that—they need to be open—they can learn about it. Art is good especially because
that’s how our ancestors communicated.
Charisse also argued that globalization restrains Filipinos to learn about Philippine art:
Manila is very global. We can have the newest restaurant from France, the newest store from the States.
Filipinos in Manila are not even exposed to our indigenous sounds. They have no sense of our indigenous
music. Filipinos here are more exposed to the States...
On the other hand, Monica and Merselle recognized the lack of accessibility to be due to
the division between classes. Merselle appreciated how Philippine art can enhance one’s
perspective but lower classes do not have the opportunity to experience that:
There is an idea that arts is only for the rich and that someone cultured is someone who was well educated
and elite. Filipino expression is beautiful but people aren’t exposed…how can you include [lower classes]
in the art movement? We can’t proliferate in all classes unless the mindset changed. Basic education
doesn’t have art education here. Art helps you see things better. You see beauty everywhere. It makes you
appreciate things better. But poverty is the greatest wall.
Monica discussed how lower classes cannot afford to enjoy Philippine art, therefore,
mainstream media should promote Filipino culture since it is more accessible to the public:
The problem is promoting art here… it is not a priority- only those who can afford it will go and they’re
already the educated ones. The poor would rather buy food… Art can be a good way to promote Filipino
culture but we should start with mainstream media however. It is still not reflective of all Filipinos…
CHALLENGING FILIPINO COLONIAL MENTALITY WITH PHILIPPINE ART 74

CONCLUSION
Fifty years after centuries of colonialism, colonial teachings continue to thrive in
the Philippines today because of Filipinos’ colonial mentality (CM.) CM refers to an
internalized oppression among Filipinos in which they experience an automatic
preference for anything Western—European or U.S. American—and rejection of
anything Filipino. An example of Filipinos’ CM is the existence of a skin-color hierarchy
in the Philippines. The skin-color hierarchy— institutionalized by colonists—perpetuates
the belief that the lighter one’s skin is, the smarter and more beautiful they are. Effects of
CM, such as the skin-color hierarchy, continues to damage Filipinos’ self-esteem and
collective self-esteem. CM also contributes to the neglect of marginalized communities in
the Philippines, such as indigenous groups.
This research project proposes that Philippine art can be a tool for decolonizing
CM. In order to study how effective Philippine art is in decolonizing CM, I studied three
groups through surveys and interviews in Metro Manila: 1) Philippine artists, 2)
participants of the Philippine art community, and 3) students from the University of the
Philippines, Diliman whom were used as a basis of comparison to the Philippine art
community.
The research findings show that all three groups have a consciousness of how
colonialism dictates Filipinos’ standards today. The Philippine artists and participants of
the Philippine art community expressed more criticism on how much colonialism affects
Filipinos today compared to the students. For example, both Philippine artists and
participants of the Philippine art community recognized the link to CM and Filipinos’
preference for Western products versus local products. The students recognized the

Westernization of consumer culture in the Philippines but did not make connections to
how colonialism may have influenced that. Also, all groups expressed how Western
standards of beauty and intelligence (based on the use of the English language) harms
their own self-esteems and other Filipinos’ self-esteems. They all explained feelings of
bombardment with Western standards through mass media and advertisements. But,
again, the Philippine artists and participants of the Philippine art community associated
the imposing of Western-like standards to colonialism.
In regards to Philippine art itself, the three groups expressed appreciation of how
Philippine art increases their collective self-esteem as Filipinos. Because Philippine art is
inclusive of various Filipino cultures and experiences, Filipinos gain a sense of
ownership and pride because they can identify themselves with the artwork. However,
because of social divisions between classes, Philippine art is not evenly accessible among
all Filipinos. Therefore, not everyone has the ability to challenge his or her CM with
Philippine art.
Recommendations
The purpose of this research project is to emphasize how post-colonized groups
continue to be oppressed internally and externally by colonial teachings. As exemplified
in the “Literature Review,” there are other ethnic groups who face similar cases of low
self-esteem because of their colonial history. Therefore, although this project focuses on
the Philippines, its findings can be transferrable to other post-colonized ethnic groups
who face similar mental health risks. I propose the promotion of art education in basic
education systems to increase populations’ critical thinking skills and individuals’ sense

of self-confidence. By building better critical thinking skills and self-confidence, people
can better decolonize their CM thus being at less risk of depression.
This research project also demonstrates how critical inclusive representation is in
increasing a wider array of people’s self-esteem and deconstructing internal and external
racism. Philippine art granted Filipinos’ feelings of gratitude because of inclusion. With
inclusive representation in advertisements, for example, the advertisements can
deconstruct the stigma against darker-skinned Filipinos whom are currently portrayed as
unattractive and unintelligent. Diversifying representation can influence people to accept
each other’s differences and themselves.


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The University of San Francisco

USF Scholarship: a digital repository @ Gleeson Library |

Challenging Filipino Colonial Mentality with

Follow this and additional works at: https://repository.usfca.edu/thes

Challenging Filipino Colonial Mentality with

University of San Francisco – Master of Arts in International Studies – December 2016

RESEARCH QUESTION AND METHODS 6

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY 8

PRESENTATION OF RESEARCH PROJECT 10

BACKGROUND FOR THE STUDY 11-16

LITERATURE REVIEW 17-34

ART FOR CONSTRUCTING CONFIDENCE 28

RESEARCH METHODS 35-46

DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES 44

RESEARCH FINDINGS 47-78

MIXED VIEWS ON COLONIALISM 46

WEST IS THE STANDARD AND THE PHILIPPINES IS THE OTHER 56

SOCIAL DIVISIONS CAUSED BY CM 69

PHILIPPINE ART AND FILIPINO IDENTITY 72

American colonizers projected definitions of civilization overruling the Philippines’ own

determination of development. These definitions continue to exist in the Philippines today

automatic preference for anything Western—European or U.S. American—and rejection of

anything Filipino. (David 2013)

American and singers often cover American songs.

However, despite remnants of Philippines colonized past in the psychology of Filipinos,

Research Question and Methods

because, by exposing themselves to Filipino-made artwork, they increase their esteem as

In order to examine if CM is an influential aspect in the Philippine art community, I

University of the Philippines, Diliman.

As a U.S. born Filipina, my Filipina-American (Fil-Am) identity comes with limitations,

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of my research is to better understand the existing effects of colonialism

and colonial times and “go beyond.”

Presentation of Research Project

BACKGROUND FOR THE STUDY

the U.S. influenced the Philippines’ rationale through colonization.

Colonizers manipulated indigenous beliefs to be favorable of Christianity. The first Archbishop

perceived their Christian conversion to be a favorable act for divine will.

certainly punish.” (Scott 1994)

cultivating a peaceful relationship with natives.

The U.S. created a universal education system. However, it revolved around

to define what their culture entails. (Elias 2014)

1966: 37) (Claudio, 2015: 194)

to Claudio, leads to the neglect of totalitarian governance within the Philippines.

community is challenging these ideas

Skin-Color Hierarchy and Elitism

wealth, intelligence, and attractiveness. (Rondilla 2012)

Spanish colonists established the skin-color hierarchy in the Philippines by teaching

U.S. colonization as well.

The skin-color hierarchy instituted a form of a structural violence (SV). SV is a way in

which the structure of a society socially disadvantages a group of people by stereotyping or

half Filipino and half German. (Ax and Bailey 2015)

Darker-skinned Filipinos tend to have additional social disadvantages. Darker-skinned

face “social discrimination, economic marginalization, and political disempowerment.” (ABS-

CBN News 2015)

Demeaning Filipino Self-Esteem

(Gee et al., 2012: 971)

against those who do face discrimination.

health of Filipinos. Philippine leaders must address CM because it correlates to depression or