Topic 4: The Frequency Response Analysis of Linear Processes

Summary:

4.1 Introduction
4.2 The Response of a First-Order System to a Sinusoidal Input
4.3 The Frequency Response Characteristics of a General Linear System
4.4 Bode Diagrams
4.5 Nyquist Plots
4.6 Summary
4.7 Problem Solving

4.1 Introduction

Frequency Response Analysis is a new technique often used in designing feedback

controllers.
When a linear system is subjected to a sinusoidal input, its ultimate response (after
a long time) is also a sustained sinusoidal wave. This characteristic constitutes the
basis of the Frequency Response Analysis.
With the frequency response analysis we are primarily interested to find how the
features of the output sinusoidal wave (amplitude, phase shift) change with the
frequency of the input sinusoid.
In this topic we will be interested only with basic premises of the frequency
response analysis.

4.2 The Response of a 1st-order system to a sinusoidal input

Consider a simple first-order system with the transfer function:

Let f(t) be a sinusoidal input with amplitude A and frequency ω, i.e. f(t) = A sinωt,
then:

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Eqn 2 into eqn 1: , expanding this into partial fractions:

Compute the constants Cl, C2 and C3 and find the inverse Laplace transforms of the
three terms in eqn (3):

Using the following trigonometric identity:

Then eqn 4 yields:

From eqns (5) and (6) we observe that;

 The ultimate response (also referred as steady state) of a first-order system

to a sinusoidal input is also a sinusoidal wave with the same frequency ω.
 The ratio of the output amplitude to the input amplitude is called amplitude
ratio and is a function of the frequency, i.e.

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  The output wave lags behind (phase lag) the input wave by an angle
which is also a function of the frequency ω (eqn. 6). Figure 5.1 shows the
ultimate response of the system and its relationship to the input wave.

Fig 4.1 Ultimate response of the system and its relationship to the input wave

The above three observations do not hold only for first-order systems but are
expandable to any order linear system.

4.3 The Frequency Response Characteristics of a General Linear System

Consider a general linear system with the transfer function:

where Q(s) and P(s) are polynomials of orders m and n respectively, with m <n. We
will prove that:
 The ultimate response of this system to a sinusoidal input is also a sinusoidal
wave.
 The ratio of the output amplitude to the input amplitude is a function of the
frequency ω and it is given by the modulus of G(s) if we put s = jω,
i.e.AR = modulus of G (jω)

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  The output wave is shifted with respect to the input wave by an angle Ǿ
which is a function of the frequency ω given by Ǿ = argument of G(jω)

Proof:
For a sinusoidal input f (t) = Asinωt we have f(s) = Aω/ (s2 + ω2) and
eqn. (8) yields:

Expanding the equation into partial fractions:

The terms:

If the poles pl, p2,…,pn have negative real parts, all the above terms decay to zero
as t→∞.
Therefore, the ultimate response is given by:

And after computation;

Eqn 9 becomes:

G(-jω) and G(jω) can be expressed in polar form, then eqn 10 becomes:

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The last equation proves what we set out to prove, i.e.
 the ultimate response as t→∞ is sinusoidal with frequency ω,
 the amplitude ratio:

 the output sinusoidal wave has been shifted by the angle

4.4 Bode Diagrams

The Bode diagrams (in honor of H. W. Bode) constitute a convenient way to

represent the frequency response of a system. As we can see from eqns. (11- a) and
(11- b), the amplitude ratio and the phase shift of the response of a system are
functions of the frequency ω.
The Bode diagrams consist of a pair of plots showing;
 how the logarithm of the amplitude ratio varies with frequency and
 how the phase shift varies with frequency
In order to cover large range of frequencies we use a logarithmic scale for the
frequencies.
The Bode diagrams can be applied to some simple dynamic systems that we have
encountered, such as 1st – order and 2nd – order systems, pure capacitive processes
and pure dead time systems, systems in series and feedback controllers.

Let’s examine First-Order System:

For a first-order system we have seen that;

Amplitude ratio = -----7

For simplification, let Kp = 1. Then, from eqn. (7) we find that,

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For convenience, since ιp is constant regard ιpω as independent variable instead of
ω. The plot of log (AR) v-s log (ιpω) is shown in Figure 4.2a (solid line) and can
be constructed from eqn. (12) for various values of the frequency ω. Instead of the
very elaborate numerical work needed to plot this graph, we can give an
approximate sketch by considering its asymptotic behavior as ω→0 (low-
frequency asymptote) and as ω→ ∞ (high frequency asymptote).

Thus, we have:

As ω→ 0 then ιpω→ 0 and from eqn. (12) logAR→ 0 or AR→l.
This is the low-frequency asymptote shown by a dotted line in Figure 5.2a.
It is a horizontal line passing through the point AR=l.

As ω→∞, then ιpω→∞ and from eqn. (12) 1ogAR = -log(ιpω)
This is the high-frequency asymptote shown also by a dotted line in Figure 4.2a.
It is a line with a slope of -1 passing through the point AR=1 for ιpω = l.
The frequency ω = l/ιp is known as the corner frequency.
At the corner frequency, as it can be seen from Figure 4.2a, the deviation of the
true value of AR from the asymptotes is maximum.
The plot of phase shift vs (ιpω) is shown in Figure 4.2b. It can be constructed from
eqn. (6). We can easily verify the following characteristics of this plot:

As ω→ 0 then Ǿ → 0

As ω→∞ then Ǿ→tan-1(-∞) = -90º

At ω = l/ιp (corner frequency), Ǿ = tan-l(-1) = -45º

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 Fig 4.1(a) Plot of log (AR) vs log (ιpω)

Fig 5.2(b) plot of phase shift vs (ιpω

Remark: If Kp # 1 then as it can be seen from eqn. (7) the low frequency asymptote
shifts vertically by the value logKp. Equation (6) shows that Kp has no effect on the
phase shift.

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4.5 Nyquist Plots

A Nyquist plot is an alternate way to represent the frequency response

characteristics of a dynamic system. It uses the Im[G(jω)] as ordinate and
Re[G(jω)] as abscissa. Figure 4.3 shows the form of a Nyquist plot.
A specific value of the frequency ω defines a point on this plot. Thus, at the point 1
(Figure 4.3) the frequency has a value ωl and we observe the following:
 The distance of the point 1 from the origin (0, 0) is the amplitude ratio at the
frequency ωl, i.e.

 The angle Ǿ with the real axis is the phase shift at the frequency ωl,i.e.

Thus, as the frequency varies from 0 to ∞ we trace the whole length of the
Nyquist plot and we find the corresponding values for the amplitude ratio and
phase shift.
The shape and location of a Nyquist plot are characteristic for the particular
system.
The Nyquist plot contains the same information as the pair of Bode plots for the
same system and can be applied to: 1st – order, 2nd - order and 3rd – order systems,
pure dead time and pure capacitive processes and feedback controllers.

Let us now construct the Nyquist plots of some typical systems using their Bode
plots developed in the previous section e.g; First-Order System:

The corresponding Bode plots are given in Figure 4.3. We observe that:
(i). When ω = 0, then AR = 1 and Ǿ = 0. Therefore, the beginning of the
Nyquist plot is on the real axis where Ǿ = 0 and at a distance from the origin (0, 0)
equal to 1 (Figure 4.4).
(ii). When ω → ∞ then AR→ 0 and Ǿ → -90°. Therefore, the end of the Nyquist
plot is at the origin where the distance from it is zero (Figure 4.4 is.
(iii). since for every intermediate frequency 0 < AR < 1 and -90º < Ǿ < 0, the
Nyquist plot will be inside a unit circle and will never leave the first quadrant. Its
complete shape and location are shown in Figure 4.4.
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 Fig 4.4 Nyquist plot for 1st – order system

4.6 Summary

The ultimate response (also called sometimes steady state) of a linear system to a
sinusoidal input has the following characteristics:
 Is a sinusoidal wave with the same frequency as the input
 The ratio of the output amplitude to the input amplitude is a function of the
input frequency ω and equal to the modulus IG (jω) I.
 The phase of the sinusoidal response is shifted by an angle Ǿ with respect to
the input. We have a phase lag when Ǿ < 0 and phase lead when Ǿ > 0. The
phase shift Ǿ is equal to the argument of G (jω).
Frequency response analysis is the study of the ultimate response of a linear system
subjected to a sustained sinusoidal input.
Since this response varies with the frequency of the input wave, Bode diagrams
and Nyquist plots are used to represent the frequency response characteristics of a
system.
The Bode diagrams consist of a pair of plots showing how the amplitude ratio and
phase shift vary with the frequency.
The Nyquist plot is a polar plot with Re [G (jω)] and Im [G (jω)] as coordinates.
Both contain the same information and can be constructed from each other.
Frequency response analysis and the Bode diagrams or Nyquist plots will be used
extensively to design effective controllers and identify the dynamics (transfer
function) of unknown systems.