UNIVERSITY OF THE EAST

Caloocan Campus

A THESIS PROPOSAL ON PRODUCING CONCRETE MASONRY UNIT

FROM AQUATIC PLANT AND WASTE MATERIALS

Submitted by:

Bolaño, Patricia Anne Mae N.

De Guzman, Ana Camille M.
Gerez, Abigail A.

EN – 3C

October 16, 2015

 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

A. Background of the Study

A concrete block or concrete masonry unit (CMU) is a precast building material

that is used in the construction of walls. The most common composition of a concrete

block is a mixture of powdered Portland cement, sand, gravel, and water. Today,

different alternative materials are used in the production of the said concrete blocks

such as plants and waste materials. According to Commercial Glass (2013), fiber plants

are used to hold the composition in a concrete mixture that is used to produce durable

concrete blocks. In addition, the surface of the concrete block can be coated with glazes

like silica sand to prevent chemical reaction with other unnecessary compositions.

Waste materials, such as glass, have the chemical composition of about 3/4 silica that

can be used to alter the said chemical reactions that causes the blocks to form voids

and become brittle ("How Products Are Made", 2015).

Studies are conducted in relation to the modified concrete block using some

organic materials found at the environment. Meyer, Egosi and Andela (2001) stated that

a concrete made of glass is quite unsafe because of its tiny structure that may injured

workers. However, adding fiber in the production of glass concrete block is beneficial.

Another study from Xu and Shayan (2006) analyzed the glass powder from mixed color

waste packaging glass as a pozzolanic material in a concrete by incorporating different

proportions of glass powder to replace the cement. On the other hand, shown in Yalley

and Kwan (2009), reinforced high-fiber content material to the concrete may enhance

the engineering properties, toughness and tensile strength; and the resistance from
spalling and cracking were improved, as well. Also, Yan and Chou (2014) found that

natural fibers such of the water hyacinth's can be an alternative reinforcement

aggregate of concrete structures. Aside from it concerns with environmental issues, it

associates with increasing of flexural strength with the use of short fibers.

The usage of plants and waste materials as alternative components in the

production of different construction materials such as concrete blocks to be more

economically sufficient are widely spread. On the other hand, the production of the said

materials made from plants and waste materials are not much used because there are

still other sources available. The innovations made in the construction industry

throughout the years are to supply the growing need of humans to have a durable

structure that can withstand the changing weather patterns. However, due to the

growing number of population, the common materials used in construction may not be

sufficient in the coming years. Therefore, using aquatic resources and recyclable

materials as alternative components for construction materials can bring success not

only to the said industry, but also to the economic industry.

This study aims to produce a concrete masonry unit made from water hyacinth

and waste materials such as glass. The stem of the water hyacinth plant will be dried

and be grinded, as well as, the glass will be pounded. The process that will be

accomplished in the production of the modified block is the same as the standard

process. The additive components will be mixed up with the usual concrete mixture and

will be molded following the nominal measurements of a standard hollow block.

B. Statement of the Problem

This study aims to produce an alternative masonry concrete unit from aquatic

plant and some waste materials.

Specifically, the following questions will be answered:

1. What part of the water hyacinth will be used in making a concrete unit?

2. Will the water hyacinth be fresh or dried, and be chopped or grinded before it can

be added into the concrete mixture?

3. Which design of concrete masonry blocks will be used in which they are more

durable and efficient?

4. What process will be used in producing the said blocks?

5. What process will the concrete unit undergo to test its durability?

6. What should be the form of the recycled glass before it combines with the

concrete mixture?

C. Objectives of the Study

General Objective:

This study aims to produce an alternative concrete masonry unit from aquatic

plant and some waste materials.

Specific Objectives:

- To use the stem of the water hyacinth as one of the components

- To dry and to grind the stem of the said plant before it mixes with the concrete

mixture
 - To use the specific design of concrete masonry block called hollow block for

the modified material

- To use the Press and Mould process in producing the hollow block

- To test the durability of the produced blocks using Compression Test

- To pound the recycled/used glass into smaller pieces

D. Significance of the Study

The primary significance of this study is to bring an innovation to the

construction industry. Because of the growing need of human for structures, like houses

and bridges, a lot of construction materials are needed. With this, the usage of such

materials like cements and aggregates can be lessened by using an alternative material

such as water hyacinth. This aquatic plant naturally grows fast specially in a tropical

country like the Philippines. But because of its rapid growth on rivers and canals; it is

becoming a pest to the people living around it. One of the biggest problems it causes is

the blockage of water passageways through the drainage when there is a storm. Even

though it blocks drainages, its stem can be used for enhancing the quality of concretes.

The stem of the water hyacinth has a fiber content, which is also possessed by other

kinds of plants, which can be used in the production of the modified blocks. The only

difference in using water hyacinth plant than any other plant as a fiber source is that it

can be easily found and its growth rate increases faster than the others. Aside from the

reduction of the population of this aquatic plant, it will be used in a way that it can be a

great contribution to the field of engineering.

 The production of the said concrete that also uses waste materials like broken

glasses can be lot more practical because the usage of aggregates will be lessened.

The indicated materials to be used are abundant because they are materials that have

no use for others. Thus, it can produce more practical concrete materials that can still

possess the same properties of the concrete blocks that are being used in the

construction industry.

E. Scope and Limitation

This study aims to produce a concrete block from an aquatic plant and waste

material. Water hyacinth and glass are abundant in the environment that leads to being

pests and junks. In this way, these junks will be used in a useful way. The researchers

will formulate the mixture of the water hyacinth, broken glass, cement, aggregates, and

water. The press and mould process accomplished in the production of commercial

concrete block will be used in the production of the modified concrete hollow block. The

water hyacinth will undergo a natural drying process that will not make the study

expensive for the researchers. Also, the glass will also be pounded manually and be

turned into powder by using tools and equipments found at home.

However, the produced concrete blocks will not show results if can be used as an

alternative blocks that can withstand change in weather patterns and natural calamities

for it will take a long period of time to determine if the deterioration of the modified

blocks are lesser than the normal hollow blocks. Also, the tests that the modified blocks

can undergo will only be limited. Tests like absorption and compressive can be done if

there will be available laboratories nearby that conducts the tests needed by the
researchers in order to prove the positive effects of the water hyacinth and glass as

alternative aggregates.
 Chapter 2

Review of Related Literature and Studies

A. Related Literature

One of the essential necessities of a person to sustain in the world is shelter. As

the population increases, the need for shelter meant for safety and protection also

increases. With the innovations made by human in the field of construction, the

structural formation of shelters and other infrastructures are being developed to address

the different circumstances such as economical, industrial and environmental

conditions. Safety is the main concern of the ones making ang building structures meant

for the usage of people. There are a lot to consider before making changes with the

materials and with the design to be carried out. The danger that may occur can affect

the whole community in which a certain infrastructure is situated. Also, the lives of the

people are at risk if there will be lapses that will not be resolved immediately. With this,

the improvement of the materials used in the said industry will have to go through a lot

of research in order to be used to come up with the best possible structural material.

One of the materials that are mainly used in the construction industry is concrete. The

said material is defined as a strong hard building material. It is a mixture of paste and

aggregates, or rocks. The paste, composed of Portland cement and water, coats the

surface of the fine and coarse aggregates. The paste hardens and gains strength to

form the rock-like mass known as concrete through a chemical reaction called hydration

("How Concrete is Made", 2011).

 In the production of concrete blocks, there are several processes that are needed

to be done in order to produce good quality blocks. First is the need to choose for an

excellent set of raw materials. The materials to be used can affect the outcome of the

blocks such as its strength and its formation. Materials such as cement must be stored

in a dry place and aggregates must be stockpiled in such a way that the mixing of

different types would be prevented. The water to be used must be clean to avoid any

chemical reaction which can significantly affect the quality of concrete. The

proportionality of the materials to be used must be maintained in order to form a

concrete mixture that can be used to form the blocks. In general, the concrete mixture

used for the formation of these units has a higher percentage of sand and a lower

percentage of gravel and water than the concrete mixtures used for typical construction

purposes. With this, the process called molding can be done. Molding can be done

manually or by the usage of different machineries. One example of the manual molding

process is called a press and mould in which the concrete mixture is placed on a molder

to be pressed in order to form the desired block. In addition to the ways of molding,

there are two types of concrete making machines namely the stationary and the egg-

layer machine. After the concrete mixture has been molded, the last process to be done

is the curing. The curing process is the hardening or solidifying of the made concrete

blocks by drying or cooling. It also involves the hydration of the blocks that is ensured

through moisture maintenance and temperature regulation. The blocks made should be

cured for minimum of 7 days to fully hardened before it can be used. In this process, it is

where it will develop its strength to withstand different circumstances without total

destruction (“How to make concrete bricks and blocks”, 2011).

 Concrete masonry units are also known as concrete blocks. The term “concrete

block” was formerly limited to only hollow masonry units made with such aggregates as

sand, gravel, and crushed stone. Today, the term covers all types of concrete blocks -

both hollow and solid—made with any kind of aggregate. According to Mortar Industry

Association (2013), there are 3 types of blocks namely the solid, cellular, and the hollow

blocks. The main difference between the three blocks is its cavity or the holes present in

the block. In a solid concrete block, there is no present hole or void on the material. It is

just mainly a mass of concrete molded to form blocks just like bricks. Rather than in a

cellular and hollow block, there are one or more cavities present on it. The said units are

modular, constructed with standardized units or dimensions that allow flexibility and

variety in use. The most common size is a nominal 8-by-8-by-16-inch concrete unit.

A well-proportioned mixture can improve the physical properties of a concrete

unit such as compressive strength which is the most important engineering property of a

concrete (Lee, Koh, Wang & Zhang, 2015). In addition to this, Jablonski (1996) stated

that “the right mix proportions can improve the CMU’s durability and appearance.”

Apart from the aforementioned materials enumerated above that could improve

the physical properties of concrete, there is also recent addition to those materials; one

of it is fiber reinforcements. Fiber reinforcements are utilized to enhance the brittle

characteristics of concretes. Fiber reinforcements such as natural fibers and glass fibers

are used to control the formation of cracks in the concrete. It also helps in avoiding

other problems such as water penetration in the concrete that could lead to corrosion.

The performance of fiber reinforced concrete shows better quality than plain concrete

because of its high tensile strength and ductile tensile behavior.

 Fiber reinforced concretes are more ductile than the normal concrete. The

increase in ductility is due to the capability of the fibers to transfer tensile stresses

throughout a cracked section, leading to the decrease in crack widths. The fibers are

used to reduce shrinkage cracking. These fibers are used in slabs and pavements that

have large exposed surface leading to high shrinkage crack. The crack-width reduction

depends on the fibers added as well as their physical properties such as surface

roughness and chemical stability and mechanical properties such as tensile strength

(Jansson & Gylltoft ,2011).

From a structural aspect, the main reason for adding fibers is to improve the

fracture characteristics and structural behavior through the fibers ability to bridge

cracks. Fiber bridging over the cracks leads to increased shear, moment and punching

resistance, increased dowel effect, reduced crack spacing and crack widths, increased

flexural stiffness and increased ductility in compression. Although Fiber Reinforced

Concrete is common, there is a limited use of reinforced concrete in load-carrying

structures because of the deficiency of customary guidelines of design. Dossland (2008,

p.2) implied that “a more general utilization of fiber reinforced concrete in structural

concrete structures require more detailed design rules, combined with guidance

regarding choice of fiber types, concrete composition, execution rules and test

methods.”

According to Ferreira and Banco (2007), one of the most concerning problems of

glass reinforced concrete was the resilience of the glass fibers which became fragile

with time because of the alkalinity of cement mortar. Since then, innovations in

progresses have been made, and at present, development of new types of alkali-
resistant glass fibers with mortar additives practically solved the problem to prevent the

embrittlement of the reinforced concrete. The fibers are uniformly distributed in three-

dimensions making an efficient load distribution. The fibers are less sensitive to

corrosion than the reinforcing steel bars and it can reduce the labor cost of placing the

bars and wire mesh.

Glass fiber is one of the examples of fiber reinforcements. Glass is made up of

several chemical varieties, such as; binary alkali- silicate glass, boro- silicate glass, and

ternary soda- lime silicate glass. Soda- lime silicate variety is manufactures in various

colors, mostly green, amber and clear, but as domestic waste, soda- lime silicate glass

becomes a stream of mixed colors. Researches on the use of crushed glass as a partial

replacement for aggregate dates back as early as 1970s. This was highly due to the

continual accumulation of waste glass and its consequent environmental issues.

Moreover, researchers saw that waste glass is potentially a very useful material and

appropriate economical applications need to be found for it. However, there are still

concerns about the use of glass aggregates in concrete due to its susceptibility to alkali-

aggregate- reaction (AAR) in concrete. This aspect was also recognized in earlier

literatures, which is now the focus of present studies; for according to researches, it is

important to recognize the reactivity of glass depending on its type, composition and

physical features, such as the presence of pores and separate solid phases in the

glass.

Another type of fiber reinforcement is natural fiber. Recently, the use of natural

fibers as reinforcement in polymer aggregates to produce low cost materials for

engineering has stirred attention. One of the widely- known type of natural fibers are the
ones found in water plants such as the water hyacinth. Water plants have increased in

number very rapidly in different waterways which causes subsequent problems. Even

though the source of natural fibers has become rampant due to high growing rate of

water hyacinth plants, water hyacinth plants are not being used outstandingly to be

industrialized being commercial products. Furthermore, the abilities of these plants such

as being absorbent and being flexible organisms are lowly acknowledged by people

(Abral, Kadriadi, Rodianus, Mastariyano, Ilhamdi, Arief, Sapuan and Ishak, 2014).

Yet, they added that as an example of natural fiber. Water hyacinth fiber is an

effective reinforcement material in polymer aggregate because of its distinctive feature:

relative high celluloses and small cellulose diameter.

Water hyacinth is a tropical aquatic plant having spikes of large blue flowers

which can withstand a wide range of ecological conditions such as temperature,

illumination, pH, sanity, wind, current and drought. The dark green leave blades of the

water hyacinth plants are circular to elliptical in shape attached to a spongy, inflated

petiole. The root of the water hyacinth is heavily branched and fibrous. It is an

aggressive invader and can form thick mats. If the dissolved oxygen in the water is

lower than a standard limit, water source can be considered polluted. Furthermore,

water hyacinth covering the water area can block the water transportation. Khatun and

Sutradhar (2014) pointed out that in areas that are predominantly influenced by aquatic

life, the fast spread and congested growth of water hyacinth lead to serious problems in

navigation, irrigation, power generation, and eventually on the environment, human

health, and economic development.

 The said aquatic plant is one of the most successful in terms of colonizing

various ecological niches. It is one of the most intellectually productive aquatic plants

which grows and spreads at an alarming rate. Water hyacinth has emerged as a major

weed in more than 50 countries in the tropical and subtropical regions in the world.

Water hyacinth has also been labeled as the world’s worst water weed and has

garnered increasing international attention as an invasive species (Zhang, 2010 in

UNEP Global Environmental Alert Services. The said plants are considered pests

because its uses are only limited. Water hyacinths are plants that cannot be eaten for it

said that it contains chemicals that can harm human beings. Also, there are minimal

studies that these plants can be used and transformed into medicines (Zhang, 2010 in

UNEP Global Environmental Alert Services [UNEP GAES], 2013). Also, climate change

and global warming may allow the spread of water hyacinth to higher latitudes for it

grows largely on rivers and lakes of tropical countries mostly on Asia and Africa and

countries on Southern America. The said countries are mostly the ones searching for

solutions to eradicate or somehow lessen its population (Patel, 2012 in UNEP GAES,

2013).

The primary disadvantage of the said plant is the destruction of biodiversity.

Water hyacinth is challenging the ecological stability of the fresh water bodies in where

it increases its number (Pyšek and Richardson, 2010 in UNEP GAES, 2013). The said

aquatic plant is posing a threat to aquatic biodiversity for it is out-winning all other

species also living in the area in which they are growing. Other disadvantages of the

water hyacinth include the clogging of waterways due its rapid reproduction and

propagation rate and the killings of fishes because of the imbalanced oxygen level in the
water for it prevents the transfer of oxygen from the air to the water surface. However,

these plants also have its advantages. People found ways on how to reduce its

population while using it in a manner in which it can be a source of income. The first

step adopted for the solution of this problem was control by known methods. Many

years ago various kinds of herbicides such as 24-D, Dalapon, Diquat and others were

used in some other rural places. But the ecological problems created by these

herbicides were obvious. The herbicides are a chemical agent that destroy plants or

inhibits their growth; however, it also kills the lives of the other organisms living on the

same body of water where these weeds are cultivating. The water in which these plants

are abundant could not be used for irrigation or human consumption for long periods of

time, and the fauna in the eco-system were seriously affected. The pests are growing

fast, and so do the determination of the people to find ways on how to eradicate these

plants or use its contents to be able to produce materials that can help to lessen the

population of the said plant. A lot of materials such as bio-gas were developed for it is

rich in methane gas. Also, alternative feeds which are mainly composed of these plants

were made that did not affect the growth of the animals (Bressani and Lareo, 2010).

Also, it can be used as a source of fertilizers for use in agriculture. It can also be

a source of raw materials for handcraft making, paper and boards. In addition, the plant

has been found to be useful as a filter worth of solving man created problems of

pollution in water bodies. However, all the potential uses of the water hyacinth do not

promote utilization of the weed that qualifies it as a feasible control option (Oyakawa,

1970 in Jafari, 2010).

 There are others which are still in their early stage of developing ideas on the

possible uses of these plants. In the Philippines, water hyacinth is dried and used to

make baskets and matting for domestic use. The stalks of the water hyacinth plants are

properly used and dried to be able to produce good quality baskets. Similarly, in

Bangladesh, the fibers from the stems of water hyacinth plants are used to make ropes.

The stalk from the plant is shredded lengthways to expose the fibers and then left dry

for several days. The rope making process is similar to that of jute rope. A jute rope

uses a plant fiber in the production of ropes or sacks. The finished rope is treated with a

certain chemical called sodium metabisulphate prevent it from rotting. However, the

ropes produced are not as strong as the commercially used ropes made from synthetic

materials. The ropes made from the said plant are used by furniture manufacturers as

designs that are placed on furnitures to produce an elegant finished product. Another

application of water hyacinth is the production of fibreboards for general purpose. It is a

wallboard composed of wood chips or shavings bonded together with resin and

compressed into rigid sheets. The usage of water hyacinth as an alternative material

for the production of these boards makes it a low cost roofing material that is accessible

to the public (Jafari, 2010).

Truly, materials that can be used an alternative in order to produce low cost yet

good quality products are now acknowledge. The availability of materials is becoming

less than the ability to sustain the needs of the growing number of humans. In the

construction industry, the low cost building materials increases the access to buildings

by less fortunate people. The use of low cost alternate building materials also prevents

the rise of construction cost due to use of scarce building materials which is one of the
main reason building houses and bridges are expensive. Construction of low cost

houses and other infrastructures can also be achieved by using alternate construction

methods available. Furthermore, manufacturing of low cost building materials should be

environmental friendly. The method of recycling wastes that can be used in masonries

such as for the production of plywood or soft boards can result in the reduction of

pollutants to the environment. The usage of materials for construction such as waste

can help in the reduction of using natural produced materials such as aggregates,

gravel, and sand without risking the quality of the products. The development of such

products, however, should be studied carefully. The lives of the people should not be in

risk just to be able to build low cost houses and buildings. The materials to be produced

should be able to compete with the materials available in the market. Properties such as

its durability and flexibility should be able to match the properties present in normal

produced building materials ("Materials for Low Cost Housing", 2014).

The techniques available that can help in reducing the cost in construction

through the usage of locally available materials should not sacrifice the performance

and life of the structure. A huge misconception about low cost is only suitable for only

substandard works and they are constructed by utilizing cheap building materials of low

quality. By proper management of resources, low cost infrastructures and buildings can

be a great help to people (“Low Cost Housing”, 2015).

B. Review of Related Studies

Researchers work on their recent studies to improve and reform existing ones.

Commonly in industries like engineering designs and materials are being modified in

order to have a good quality of service. The modifications of materials utilized are

mainly focus by research engineers. However, environmental concerns are also

considered. One of the essential material in building infrastructures and other

structures-the concrete masonry unit, take its adjustments to facilitate with its

improvements. The best way they think is to use some recycled materials that is rich in

strengthening agent, which includes the fiber-rich reinforcement as a coarse and fine

aggregates. These strengthening materials are blended with the conventional cement-

sand-water concrete mixture. More so, disposal of agricultural waste materials such as

rice husk, groundnut husk, corn cob and coconut shell have constituted an

environmental challenge, hence the need to convert them into useful materials to

minimize their negative effect on the environment.

A conventional concrete mixture is considered as relatively brittle material and

could not withstand the extreme weather conditions and intense pressure created by

some catastrophe that could cause concrete cracking. In these cases, robust and sturdy

concretes are necessarily needed. Thus, the commonly used Portland cement concrete

is not that high-technology. In most instances, the cracks are the only aesthetic problem

engineers and architect may encounter but it limits the good quality and durability of the

concrete. Therefore, the idea of adding fibers in concrete, as a solution, was arisen. The

use of fibers helps to modify properties of concrete in plastic and hardened stage; and

to come up with a better durability result (Pereira, 2015).

 Fibrous materials themselves increase structural integrity of a concrete. They

reinforce the concrete with their short discrete fibers that are uniformly distributed and

randomly oriented. Now, they are used in concrete to control cracking due to plastic

shrinkage and to drying shrinkage (small cracks). These materials include the steel

fibers, glass fibers, synthetic fibers and natural fibers. However, the strength, durability

and other enhancement of properties vary whether what kind of fibrous materials will be

used. Work with the ones that are relatively beneficial in the modifying concrete and

concrete blocks. Drawing up with some researches could be helpful. With the

environmental concerns, it is better to use the some natural fibers and glass fibers.

Aside from being eco-friendly themselves, they are also convenient in terms of

availability (Ochia, Okubob, & Fukuib, 2007).

Another study by Yan and Chouw (2014), found that natural fibers in different

configurations can be used to replace conventional steel rebar as reinforcement of

concrete structures. Since, the steel reinforcement causes corrosion or oxidation that

challenges civil engineers. Also, it creates lots of environmental issues associated with

the significant release of CO2 and other greenhouse gases. The tensile and flexural

strength, toughness, and impact resistance can be modified using short natural fibers

when used within cementations. An increase in fiber content and fiber length, the static

modulus of elasticity of various fiber reinforced concrete may reduce. Pacheco-Torgal

and Jalali (2011, in Yan & Chouw, 2014) concluded that vegetable fibers (e.g. sisal,

hemp, coir, banana and sugar cane bagasse, etc.) can be used as reinforcement for

cementitious materials that increases the flexural strength by more than 10 times.
 Joong, Woo, Chan, and Jin (2014) stated in their study that steel fiber reinforced

concrete has high tensile and bending strengths, and it controls cracks, as well. Still,

there will be some complications may experience such the occurrence of corrosion and

rebounding of the steel fiber. Hence, they developed polyamide (an organic) fibers with

optimized features for reinforcing concrete, to enhance the mechanical properties and

workability of organic fiber reinforced concrete. PA fibers are advantageous compared

to steel fibers that are corrosive and gravitated. The macro-sized PA fiber significantly

improved concrete ductility and toughness. The said fiber was fabricated into micro-

sized and air-textured yarn. The bulking and looping texture of the yarn allows the

concrete mixture to pass through the yarn that yields extensive contact between the two

components, resulting in better adhesion. Moreover, The bundled PA fibers have a

larger specific surface area, which accommodates attachment to cement, compared to

PP fibers and other fiber reinforcements.

Another material that could produce high-fiber content is the coconut husk.

Engineering properties, notably torsion, toughness and tensile strength of concrete

improve through aggregation of standard concrete mixture with the coconut fibers. The

ability to resist cracking and spalling were enhanced, as well. Conversely, the addition

of coconut fibers in concrete has unfavorable effect on its compressive strength.

Depending on the fiber content and on the fiber geometry (diameter and length of fiber),

the expected extent of improvement of the properties of concrete could be achieve.

Thus, various combinations of these parameters would give rise to different strength

characteristics. The results of the tests were shown in Yalley and Kwan (2009). In

addition, Islam, Hussain, and Morshed (2012) found that the addition of 0.5% vol.
coconut husk fibers enhanced the flexural strength of normal-strength concrete by more

than 50% but only by less than 10% of high-strength concrete.

According to Ramakrishma (2005, in Yalley et al, 2009), coconut fiber improve

the toughness of concrete and mortar after using this fiber as aggregates. However, he

has not yet solved the problem regarding with the long-term durability. The degree of

enhancement of concrete by coconut fibers depended on the type of coconut species

will be using.

Ganiron Jr. (2013) design a specification of a modified concrete block with

substitute aggregates, coconut shells and fiber. He also compared the conventional

concrete block with the concrete block with coconut shells and fibers. Some distinct

observations are seen during the test that may support the coconut shells and fibers as

aggregates. The concrete blocks undertake property test like sieve analysis, specific

gravity, moisture content and mechanical property test such as compressive test in

accordance with the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). One of the

results of those test, stated that the compressive strength of concrete hollow block

(CHB) with coconut shell and fiber attained the highest average loads and stress

compared to commercial CHB. In addition, the modified concrete block goes beyond the

minimum strength of commercial CHB at 28 days that may use as a substitute coarse

aggregate for CHB.

Although the water hyacinth plants, also a fibrous plant, have a high rate

production of natural fibers, these still not yet used maximally to develop commercial

products. However, they are very useful as reinforcement in polymer composites. The

said fibers possess interesting characteristics: relative high celluloses and small
cellulose diameter that increase the mechanical properties of such product. The dried

water hyacinth have higher tensile and flexure strength compared to the wet ones.

Abral, Arief, Ilhamdi, Ishak, Kadriadi, Mastariyano, Rodianus, and Sapuan (2014) also

stored the dried water hyacinth in vacuum desiccators to maintain the moisture.

Using the mixture of cement, water and aggregates with little adjustments in the

micro- structure (and probably adding specific materials), it is possible to obtain some of

the special types of concrete such as high performance concrete (HPC), self-

compacting concrete (SCC) and roller compacted concrete, high volume fly ash

concrete (HVFAC) where fly ash is an agricultural waste from coconut (Patil & Chore,

2014). They added that using substitute materials in dry state before thoroughly mixed

by machine, obtains uniform color throughout the unit block. The required percentages

of admixture were added to the water calculated for the particular mix. Their study were

accomplished the compaction factor test and slump test by fresh concrete.

Awwad, Hamad, Mabsout, & Khatib (2012) used hemp fibers as an aggregate of

concrete in their study. They hemp fibers are used only as space fillers and no

improvement in tensile properties is expected. The main objective for using hemp fibers

was to lessen the consumption of expensive but typical aggregate, to lower the block

density, and to improve the thermal and acoustic properties, at the same time.

According to their experimental results, when the hemp fibers added to concrete

mixture, they may intermingle and undergo balling instead of mixing within the concrete

matrix. In this way, the orientation of fibers is well-spread and controlled.

The other eco-friendly and convenient reinforcement material is the glass fibers.

They are embedded in the glass fiber-reinforced concrete in matrix. The fibers provide
reinforcement for the matrix and other useful functions in fiber-reinforced composite

materials. The effect of the fibers in this composite leads to an increase in the tension

and impact strength of the material (Ferreira & Branco, 2007). In the study of Girard

(2013), he stated that having an ample amount of glass fiber in concrete leads to high

tensile strength where the visible cracks are not tolerable.

Zdenek (2000 in Asi, Batayneh & Marie, 2007) reported that the molecule size of

ground glass utilized as a part of concrete is corresponding to the concrete’s strength.

The smaller the size, the more effective it could be. Thus, the its size is proximately

close with the sizes of the other used materials such the cement, sand and the

aggregates. He added that the Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR) will be eradicated if the size

of the particles is small enough. ASR is one of the concerns in using glass in concrete.

It is the reaction between the alkali in the pore solution of concrete and the silica in the

particles of the aggregates such as glass. Blumenstyk (2003, in Asi et. al, 2007) found

out that the chromium oxide used to color glass bottles green can lessen the ASR.

Asi, Batayneh and Marie (2007) conducted a research about the use of waste

materials in concrete mixes. The said materials must be kept clean and segregated by

batches to avoid some contamination. Also start with studying the design details of the

building to ensure the efficient use of materials. The use of materials that are made

from recycled materials and are recyclable should be included in the initial design of the

structure. The researchers found out that the values of the compressive strength,

splitting strength, and flexural strength for up to one-fifth substitution of glass as

aggregate in the mixture of the concrete are higher than the mixture of the normal

concrete. The evident change in strength is due to the difference in the surface texture
and strength of the glass compared to the sand. In addition, surface area of the crushed

materials due to its irregular shape affects the workability of the said mix up. However, it

requires increase of water and cement. Hence, irregular shape of materials has

negative effects.

Glass is made of sand, calcium carbonate and limestone which are commonly

found in nature. Shao, Lefort, Moras and Rodriguez (2000) said that the use of waste

glass in concrete give the chemical composition of soda lime glass and fly ash a

stronger output. Several difficulties have seen in the process among glass such melting

down and distortion due to extreme temperature. Production plants that make glass

tend to be large centers located in a limited amount of locations throughout the county.

Energy must be used to transport the waste glass from the collection source over 5 a

long distance to the production plant. These difficulties have led to the search for

alternative applications of recycled glass such as using crushed glass in civil

engineering projects. The convenient availability has found among the materials and the

asking price is definitely lower compared to glass from plants. The only problem is that

the demanded size of particles is quite hard to achieve, though the waste glass is

manually crushed or powdered.

According to the study of Ismail and Al-Hashmi (2009), the weight of the concrete

block with waste glass as an aggregate is lighter compared to the conventional masonry

units. The particles of the glass have lesser density and may smaller in diameter

compared to the common aggregate especially whenever they are in powdered form; as

a result they bound to weigh lesser. They used waste glass as very fine aggregates in
their study of various concrete mixtures. Their research used waste glass that had a

specific gravity of 2.19 and fine aggregate with a specific gravity of 2.57.

Waste glass as an aggregate replacement tends to reduce the slump of a

concrete mixture. Its properties may similar to the usual aggregate such sand, glass has

more unified compositions from various elements that increases the strength and

durability. When Topcu and Canbuz (2004) used waste glass as a coarse aggregate,

the found out that there is about 1.5 cm of slump differences between with more than

50% replacement used and mixture without substitute aggregate. The glass particles

make tighter compaction with other materials.

On the other hand, Park, Lee, and Kim (2004) added that there are more

significant decrease slump in their study when they used waste glass as a fine

aggregate. However, the decrease did not severely affect the workability of the

concrete.

Shayan and Xu (2006) considered two factors that may affect the efficiency of

the glass as aggregate: the particle size of glass and alkali content of the mortar or

cement. Their experimental findings resulted that there are no adverse effect on

concrete durability, even if the fine glass powder (GLP) of b10 µm particle size is used

together with the crushed glass aggregate. The implication of their work was that

considerable amounts of waste glass could be diverted from landfill for utilization in

concrete. They also proved that fine glass powder could be used as valued-admixture

that could replace a proportion of expensive concrete ingredients.

The surface texture is also a factor affecting the concretes' durability. It is

expected that one would drop in strength and in particular a reduction of an already low
ductility if it is chosen to employ crushed glass particles with relatively smooth surfaces

rather than natural aggregate with relatively rough surfaces (Meyer et al., 2001).

Indicated in their study are some properties that glass is proven attractive aggregate for

various concrete products, despite of its potential reactivity in an alkaline environment.

They emphasized that glass is it extremely durable natural material that other

ingredients could rely on. Thus, it has basically zero water adsorption. It may limit the

production of excess water in mixture that causes slumps. The excellent hardness of

glass gives the concrete an abrasion resistance that can be reached only by few natural

stone aggregates or the additional of metallic elements. Furthermore, they said that very

finely ground glass has pozzolanic properties and therefore can serve both as partial

cement replacement and filler.

In 2014, Rai and Joshi’s study of applications and properties of fiber reinforced

discovered that concrete modulus of elasticity of fiber reinforced concrete increases

slightly with an increase in the fibers content. It has obtained an increase of 3 percent in

the modulus of elasticity for each 1 percent increase in fiber. In the same study

conducted, the flexural strength was reported to have increased by about 3 times using

4 percent fibers, and the durability is about 10 to 40 times of the normal concrete. The

addition of 3 percent fiber by volume was reported to increase the splitting tensile

strength of mortar about 2.5 times that of the normal concrete. The brittle mode of

failure associated with plain concrete was transformed into a more ductile one with the

increased addition of fibers.

Flexural strength of glass fiber reinforced concrete increases up to a fiber content

of about 7 percent by volume. The density decreases as the fiber increases for the
reason that it is strenuous for the mix to be compacted and to be dewatered. For most

spray- head - mixed products glass fiber content is generally 4 to 5 percent. The fiber

content tends to be less in amount for batch-mixed products. Adding further fibers in the

mixture makes uniform surfaces hard to achieve. For batch-mixed product applications,

adding more fiber is not vital often. Adding one-fourth fiber to the mixture can attain the

desired crack resistance (“Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete,” 2015)

Shakor and Pimplikar (2011) found out that the existence of air reduces the

compressive strength of concrete more than the tensile strength leading to the

difference in the tensile strength to compressive strength ratio of the concrete mainly in

the case of rich and strong mixes. The components found on the concrete are not the

only ones that affects its strength but also the environmental factors. One of the factors

involved is humidity.
 Chapter 3

Methodology

A. Project Description

This project is all about determining the effects of using water hyacinth

and waste materials such as glass on the durability of a concrete hollow block.

The said materials were added on the mixture with different percentages in order

to find out whether the strength of the modified hollow blocks was able to surpass

the strength of a normal hollow block. A test such as compressive was conducted

to determine the differences on strength of the modified blocks with a normal

block that were made and undergone the same process undertaken by the

modified blocks.

B. Materials and Tools

a. Water Hyacinth

The collected water hyacinth plants were dried and chopped manually

by the investigators into small pieces that were added on the mixture. The

weight percentages vary on the two modified hollow blocks that were made.

The first block contained a 1/20 kg of water hyacinth. On the other hand, the

second block contained a 1/18 kg of the said material.

b. Glass Powder

The glass powder was attained by grinding the recycled glass

containing chromium oxide such as the bottles of Sprite using some tools
 found at home such as improvised mortar and pestle. The size of the glass

particles needs to pass through #30 (0.595 mm) sized mesh to make these

particles visible. The content of the glass powder were different on the two

modified hollow blocks. The 1 kg of glass powder was partnered with the 1/20

kg of water hyacinth and the 1 ½ kg of glass powder was partnered with the

1/18 kg of water hyacinth.

c. Cement

The cement brand that was used in this study is Lafarge Republic

Rapid Set Portland Cement Type 1.

d. Moulder

The machine used a process called press and mould in order to form

the desired design and size of the hollow blocks that was used in the study.

e. Shovel and other tools

Shovels, gloves, and pails were used in the preparation of the mixture

before it was placed into the molding machine.

C. Design

The shapes and sizes of most concrete blocks have been standardized to

ensure uniform building construction. However, this study used different

measurements for each of the block. The first block, which is the normal block,

has a value of 398 mm (15.67 in) for its length, 119 mm (4.69 in) for its width,

and 127 mm (5 in) for its height. The second block, one of the modified blocks,

has a value of 398 mm (15.67 in) for its length, 120 mm (4.72 in) for its width,

and 127 mm (5 in) for its height. The third block, which is also one of the modified

blocks, has a value of 397 mm (15.63 in) for its length, 118 mm (4.65 in) for its

width, and 127 mm (5 in) for its height. The values might not be the same as the

others because of the molders used, but it was not a problem because the

compressive strength was computed using the dimensions and area of each of

the block.

Figure 1. The Dimensions of the Normal Concrete Hollow Block

Figure 2. The Dimensions of the First Modified Concrete Hollow Block

Figure 3. The Dimensions of the Second Modified Concrete Hollow Block

D. Experimentation

a. Mixing

The mixture was prepared first without the water hyacinth and the glass

powder. The cement and other aggregates were first mixed dry until the

desired color and correct proportionality of materials are achieved. The

mixture was mixed manually without the usage of machineries. Once all the

materials were mixed, water was added slowly, while mixing, until the proper

consistency (slump) was reached. The different proportionalities of the

powdered water hyacinth and glass were added directly in three separate

mixtures in a dispersed manner.

b. Location and Placement of the Concrete

The hollow blocks formed were placed in a horizontal surface that was

free from vibrations and other disturbances that might affect the formation of

the blocks. If possible, place the molded blocks at a place near where it can

be stored during the first 24 hours. The heat of the sun can be an aid in order

for the blocks to dry up easily.

c. Finishing

The specimens made should have an even and flat surface. The

blocks produced should not have excess projections with the size of the

molder used. If possible, remove the excess mixture or flatten the surface in

order to have the desired appearance of the blocks.

 d. Curing

The blocks made are to be dried for an entire day. As soon as it dries, the

hollow blocks were then been removed from the mold. The blocks undergone

the process called curing. The curing process implies the maintenance of the

free water on the entire surface area of the blocks. The processes that the

blocks undergone were to provide the required compressive strength for it would

ensure the continuous hydration of the blocks. The longer the concrete blocks

are to be kept moist, the stronger and durable it were to become. Normally, it

takes about 7 to 14 days of hydration before the blocks can be used.

E. Testing Method

Compressive strength test was conducted to test the efficiency and

durability of the concrete. Sample specimen with mix variations of 1/20 kg (50

g), 1/18 kg (55. 56 g) of water hyacinth, and one with none was used for this

test.

a. Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Concrete Hollow

Block Specimens

Compression test of the sample specimens were made after the

removal from the curing stage. The moisture of the block was kept during

the removal until the actual testing was conducted.

a.a Apparatus

a.b Procedure

a.b.a Ask for an expert operator of the Compression Testing Machine for

the assistance on conducting the test.

a.b.b Set up the specimen on the Compression Testing Machine by

placing horizontally the specimen on the steel plate directly under the upper

bearing block of the machine. Align the axis of the specimen at the center of

thrust the cylindrical seated block.

 a.b.c Set the load indicator to zero. Apply a load corresponding to a stress

rate on the specimen to avoid shock loading. Record the maximum load that

can be applied on the specimen before it fails. Observe the pattern on the

failure of the specimen.

a.b.d Have the three specimens tested respectively.

a.b.e Record for the Compressive Strength of the other two specimens.

a.c Computation of the Compressive Strength

𝑷
𝝈=
𝑨

Where:

𝜎 = 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑠𝑖)

𝑃 = 𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑏)

𝐴 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛 (𝑠𝑞𝑎𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠)

 Chapter 4

Results and Discussion

1. What aquatic plant and recycled material will be used in producing modified concrete

unit?

The water hyacinth is a fibrous aquatic plant that obviously seen in its most

structure. Its leaves and stems are broad, thick and ovate which have high nutritive

value. Thus, they are good substitute aggregate in concrete hollow block. The

researchers used them in modifying a concrete hollow block which amend properties

and come up with a better durability result. The fibers serve as the "bonding agent" of

the mixture's particles. They absorb the mixture and water content in it.

On the other hand, the green glass used in producing modified masonry unit

contains chromium oxide that gives its green color that can lessen the Alkali- Silica

Reaction (ASR) problem. However, it yields high tensile strength.

2. Will the water hyacinth be chopped or grinded, and be dried or leave it fresh before it

mix the concrete mixture?

The gathered water hyacinth is dried and is chopped and ground into tiny pieces

which they could be somehow visible. Being these dried gives more strength compared

to the fresh and wet ones. The excess water produced naturally by the plant may make

the concrete mixture sloppy. Also the dried plant takes in excess water from the mixture

itself. In addition, the modified concrete block still looks presentable if the aggregates

are in smaller form.

3. What should be the form of the recycled glass before it combines with the concrete

mixture?

The glass was pounded until it became a powder. Proportional to the size of the

ground water hyacinth, the glass also may achieve the required particle size. Aside from

the reason ASR can be eradicated if the size of the particles is small and visible

enough, the pounded glass may virtually mix with the concrete. However, the larger

glass particles may submerge totally at the bottom of the concrete due to their greater

density.

4. What process will be used in producing the said blocks?

The process that the blocks undergo were mixing, molding, and curing. Mixing is

a process in construction engineering that manipulates the heterogeneous physical

system with intent to attain being homogeneous. Pounded glass, cement, water

hyacinth, and water were mixed altogether manually until the right consistency is

achieved. The mixed cement will then be placed in a molder. Molding is a process in

construction by shaping a liquid mixture using a frame called matrix or mold. As soon as

it was removed from molder, it will undergo curing. Curing is the process of maintaining

the moisture and temperature inside the concrete after it was molded to develop it

strength and durability. It takes 1 or 2 weeks of hydration before concrete can be used.

5. What processes will the concrete unit undergo to test its durability?

To test the strength and durability of the concrete units, it undergo Compressive

Strength Test. Compressive strength test determines the capacity of the block to
 withstand loads before fracturing. A universal testing machine was used to apply a force

on the block until it deforms. The compressive strength was computed by dividing the

force applied to the block’s gross area. Compressive strength of modified blocks having

different water hyacinth and glass content were compared to the compressive strength

of the normal block to determine whether it is more durable than the normal block.

6. Efficiency

Table 1.
Compressive Strength Test of Concrete Hollow Blocks
Sample Gross Machine
Dimension Compressive Strength
Identification Area Reading
Length Width mm2 (KN) psi Mpa
CHB 5” Normal
(1) 398 119 47362 67.4 206 1.42

CHB 5” Modified
(2) 1 kg of glass
& 1/20 kg of 398 120 47760 145.9 443 3.05
water hyacinth

CHB 5” Modified
(3) 1 ½ kg of
glass & 1/18 kg 397 118 46846 127.6 395 2.72
of water hyacinth

Based on the test conducted, both of the modified blocks shows significant

difference in compressive strength compared to the normal block. Modified blocks have

higher compressive strength than the normal block. Modified block with 1 kg of glass
and 1/20 kg of water hyacinth has higher compressive strength than the modified block

with 1 ½ kg of glass and 1/18 of water hyacinth. It can be concluded that adding

moderate amount of glass and water hyacinth to the normal mixture of concrete will

strengthen the said concrete unit.

 CHAPTER 5

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATION

A. Summary of Findings

The produced modified hollow block from aquatic plant (the water hyacinth) and

waste material (lime glass) is certainly efficient and functional. The conducted

compressive test had drawn an excellent result. Both modified blocks have higher

compressive strength than the commercial block. Among the two, the first modified

is the strongest, even the second one contained more substitute aggregate. Hence,

the first modified block acquired more than 100% of the strength of the normal block

which is only 206 pounds per square inches. It concludes that the addition of some

organic aggregate won't damage the structure and durability of the product instead

they made it stronger and more efficient. Moreover, the proportionality of the

substitute aggregates to the main ingredients of the concrete block also affects the

quality of the concrete block.

B. Conclusion

The production of concrete masonry unit from glass and water hyacinth is a great

contribution to the field of civil engineering. As the population increases,

indestructible structures such as houses, buildings, street, and bridges are much

needed. With the need to improve the durability of the structures, the modified

concrete can be a key to this problem since concrete is a common building material

that is used in construction. In addition, alternative material such as powdered glass

and water hyacinth fiber can be used as an aggregate and as an additive

respectively instead of using costly material for the production of the concrete block.

C. Recommendation

The usage of water hyacinth and glass as alternative aggregates have been able

to produce a more durable and flexible concrete blocks. The produced modified

concrete blocks were able to surpass the durability of the normal hollow block that

had undergone the same process of production as the others. However, limited

tests such as compressive were the only one that the blocks, normal and modified,

have undergone and interpreted because of limited time and laboratories available

nearby. The researchers would like to recommend the following to the future

studies. The future researchers should be able to determine laboratories that

conduct tests for other characteristics of hollow blocks such as its longevity and

ability to withstand different changes in weather patterns and natural calamities.

The study requires longer time to verify if the usage of plants and waste materials

as alternative components in making the materials to be used in construction. The

time needed to be able to determine if the deterioration of the modified blocks are

lesser than the normal blocks are longer than determining its durability. Also, a lot

more tests and processes are needed to be able to prove that the modified blocks

can pass the safety standard in the building of houses and other infrastructures to

be able to ensure the safety of the people that will be living and using the structures

built.
 References

Abral, H., Arief, S., Ilhamdi, Ishak, M. R., Kadriadi, D., Mastariyano, P., Rodianus, A. &
Sapuan, S. M. (2014). Mechanical properties of water hyacinth fibers – polyester
composites before and after immersion in water. Materials & Design, 58, 125-
129. Retrieved from: http://www.researchgate.net/publication/260214792_
Mechanical_properties_of_water_hyacinth_fibers__polyester_composites_before
_and_after_immersion_in_ water

Asi, I., Batayneh, M. & Marie, I. (2007). Use of selected waste materials in concrete
mixes. Waste Management, 27(12), 1870-1876. Retrieved from:
http://www.researchgate.net/publication/6713094_Use_of_selected_waste_mater
ials_in_concrete_mixes

Awwad, E., Hamad, B., Mabsout, M., & Khatib, H. (2012). Sustainable concrete using
hemp fibers. Institution of Civil Engineers - Construction Materials Journal, doi:
10.1680/coma.11.00006.

Branco, F. A. B & Ferreira, J.P. (2007, June). The use of glass fiber-reinforced
concrete. Experimental Techniques, 64-74. doi: 10.1111/j.1747-
1567.2007.00153.x.

Bressani, R. & Lareo, L. (2010). Possible utilization of the water hyacinth in nutrition and
industry. Retrieved from:
http://archive.unu.edu/unupress/food/8F044e/8F044E0c.htm

British Glass Manufacturers' Confederation (2013). Commercial glass. Retrieved from

http://www.britglass.org.uk/commercial-glass

Cement & Concrete Institute. (2011). How to make concrete bricks and blocks.
Retrieved from:http://www.cidb.org.za/Documents/KC/CCI_Publications/
concrete_bricks_blocks.Pdf

Civil Engineering Portal. (2015). Low Cost Housting. Retrieved from:

http://www.engineeringcivil.com/low-cost-housing.html
Concrete Construction (2015). Glass fiber reinforced concrete. Retrieved from:
http://www.concreteconstruction.net/concrete-articles/glass-fiber-reinforced-
concrete-gfrc.aspx

Conventry University and the University of Wisconsin Milwaukee, Centre for By-
products Utilization. (2010). Coconut fibre – A versatile material and its
applications in Engineering. Retrieved from
http://www.claisse.info/2010%20papers/k13.pdf

Coull, S. (2014) . Comparing concrete durability testing methods. Concrete Best

Practices. Retrieved from http://blog.kryton.com/2014/05/comparing-concrete-
durability-testing-methods/#sthash.ntMXQOlc.dpuf

Dossland, A. L. (2008, February). Fibre reinforcement in load carrying concrete

structures. Retrieved from: www.divaportal.org/smash/get/diva2:124658/
FULLTEXT02.pdf

Fathi, H., & Fathi, A. (2015). Sugar beet fiber and Tragacanth gum effects on concrete.
Journal of Cleaner Production. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.06.072

Ferreira, J. G. & Branco, F.B. (2007). The use of glass fiber-reinforced concrete as a
structural material. Experimental Techniques. Retrieved from:
http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P3-1283394681.html

Ganiron Jr, T. U. (2013). Recycling of waste coconut shells as substitute for aggregates
in mix proportioning of concrete hollow blocks. Seas Transactions on
Environment and Development, 4 (9), 290-300. Retrieved from:
http://www.researchgate.net/publication/257099368

Girard J. (2013). High compressive, flexural and tensile strength. Introduction to GFRC
(Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete). Retrieved from:
http://www.concretecountertopinstitute.com/blog/2013/04/introduction-to-gfrc-
glass-fiber-reinforced-concrete/

Gylltoft, K & Jansson, A. (2011). Design methods for fibre-reinforced concrete: A state-
of-the-art review. Retrieved from: http://www.betong.net/ikbViewer/
Content/779358/S89%20-%20Anette%20Jansson%20et%20al%202008-07-
07_just%20af%20DB_FINAL.PDF.
Hasan N.S., Sobuz H.R., Sayed M.S., Islam S.M. (2012) The use of coconut fibre in the
production of structural lightweight concrete. J App Sci 12(9), 831-839. Retrieved
from: http://www.academia.edu/5192292/The_Use_of_Coconut_Fibre
_in_the_Producti on_of_Structural_Lightweight_Concrete

How Products are Made (2015). Concrete block. Retrieved from

http://www.madehow.com/Volume-3/Concrete-Block.html

Ismail, Z. Z. & Al-Hashmi, E. A. (2009). Recycling of waste glass as a partial

replacement for fine aggregate in concrete. Waste Management, 29(2), 655-659.

Jablonski, N. (1996). Mix designs for concrete block. Retrieved from:

http://www.theconcreteproducer.com/Images/Mix%20Designs%20for%20Concret
e%20Block_tcm77-1306028.pdf

Jafari, N. (2010). Ecological and socio-economic utilization of water hyacinth

(Eichhornia crassipes Mart Solms). Journal of Applied Sciences and
Environmental Management, 14(2), 43-49. Retrieved from:
http://scholar.google.com.ph/scholar_url?url=http://www.ajol.info/index.php/jasem
/article/viewFile/57834/46201&hl=en&sa=X&scisig=AAGBfm1ODr_PwjXwmwEB
PdvxA_ZmZCypFw&nossl=1&oi=scholarr&ved=0CBoQgAMoADAAahUKEwisgP
K1taHIAhXj2KYKHZ_cAKY

Joong, K. J., Woo, S. K., Chan, K. J. & Jin, C. K. (2014). Processing and mechanical
properties of macro polyamide fiber reinforced concrete. Material, 7, 7634-7652.
doi:10.3390/ma7127634

Khatun, S. & Sutradhar, K. B. (2014). Water hyacinth: A possible alternative rate

retarding natural polymer used in sustained release tablet design. Frontiers in
Pharmacology, 5(137), 1-8. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2014.00137

Meyer, C., Egosi N., & Andela C. (2001). Concrete with waste glass as aggregate.
Recycling and Re-use of Glass Cullet, p. 6. Retrieved from:
http://www.seas.columbia.edu/earth/wtert/sofos/meyer_egosi_paper.pdf
The Constructor. (2014). Materials for Low Cost Housing. Retrieved from:
http://theconstructor.org/building/materials-for-low-cost-housing/5352/

The Mortar Industry Association. (2013). Brick and block production. Retrieved from:
http://www.mortar.org.uk/documents/LT05-Bricks-and-Blocks.pdf

Ochia, T.; Okubob, S.; Fukuib, K. (2007). Development of recycled PET fiber and its
application as concrete-reinforcing fiber. Cement and Concrete Composites,
29(6), 448–455.doi:10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2007.02.002

Okoye, P.C., Daddy, F. & Jlesanmj, B.D. (2002). The nutritive value of water hyacinth
wichhornia crassipes) and its utilisation in fish feed. Proceedings of the
International Conference on Water Hyacinth, pp. 65-70. Retrieved from:
http://aquaticcommons.org/965/1/WH_065-070.pdf

Park, S.B., Lee, B.C. & Kim, J.H. (2004). Studies on mechanical properties of concrete
containing waste glass aggregate. Cement and Concrete Research, 34(12),
2181-2189. Retrieved from:
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/00088846/34/2

Patil, U.V. & Chore, H.S. (2014). Performance studies on concrete using rice husk ash
and ground granulated blast furnace slag. International journal of multidisciplinary
approach and studies,1(6). pp.39-51. ISSN NO:: 2348 – 537X

Pereira, C. (2015). Role of fibers for durable concrete construction. NBM Media
Construction Information. Retrieved from:
http://www.nbmcw.com/articles/concrete/5043-role-of-fibers-for-durable-concrete-
construction.html

Portland Cement Association (2015). How concrete is made. Retrieved from:

http://www.cement.org/cement-concrete-basics/how-concrete-is-made

Pimplikar, S. S. & Shakor, P. N. (2011). Glass fibre reinforced concrete use in

construction. International Journal of Technology And Engineering System, 2(2).
Retrieved from: http://ijcns.com/pdf/328.pdf.
Rai, A. & Joshi, Y. P. (2014). Applications and properties of fibre reinforced concrete.
Journal of Engineering Research and Applications, 4(5), 123-131. Retrieved
from: http://www.ijera.com/papers/Vol4_issue5/Version%201/V4501123131.pdf.

Shayan, A., & Xu, A. (2006). Performance of glass powder as a pozzolanic material in
concrete: A field trial on concrete slabs. Cement and Concrete Research, 36(3),
457-468. Retrieved from: http://www.researchgate.net/publication/222665481
_Performance_of_glass_powder_as_a_pozzolanic_material_in_concrete_A_field
_trial_on_concrete_slabs

Shao, Y., Lefort, T., Moras, S. & Rodriguez, D. (2000). Studies on concrete containing
ground waste glass. Cement and Concrete, 30(1), 91-100.

Topcu, I. B. & Canbaz, M. (2004). Properties of concrete with glass. Cement and
Concrete Research, 34, pp. 267-274. Retrieved from:
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/00088846/34/2

UNEP Global Environmental Alert Services (GEAS). (2013). Water hyacinth – Can its
aggressive invasion be controlled? Retrieved from:
http://www.unep.org/pdf/UNEP_GEAS_APRIL_2013.pdf

United Nations University (2010). Possible utilization of the water hyacinth in nutrition
and industry Retrieved from:http://archive.unu.edu/unupress/food/8F044e/
8F044E0c.htm

Yalley, P. P. & Kwan, A.S K. (2009) . Mechanical and physical properties coconut fibre
enhanced concrete. Use of Coconut Fibres as an Enhancement of Concrete, 54-
73. Retrieved from: https://orca.cf.ac.uk/43403/1/Yalley%20Kwan
%20KNUST%20paper%20.%201.pdf

Yan, L. & Chouw, N. (2014). Sustainable concrete and structures with natural fibre
reinforcements. OMICS ebooks group. Retrieved from:
http://www.esciencecentral.org/ebooks/infrastructure-corrosion-
durability/sustainable-concrete-and-structures-with-natural-fibre-
reinforcements.php