AIRCRAFT & ENGINE (General)

OBJECTIVE:
On successful completion of this paper, the students should have understood
the basic concepts of aircraft engines, principles of flight and mechanics.
Unit 1
Airframe and Systems
Fuselage – Wings – Stabilizing Surfaces – Landing Gears – Flight controls –
Hydraulics – Electrical Systems – Power Plant General – Lubrication System – Air
Cooling – Ignition – Engine Fuel Supply – Engine Performance – Propeller – Engine
Handling and Manipulation

Unit 1
Airframe and Systems

FUSELAGE
Introduction:
The fuselage is the main structure or body of the fixed-wing aircraft. It provides space
for cargo, controls, accessories, passengers, and other equipment.
In single-engine aircraft, the fuselage houses the power-plant.
In multiengine aircraft, the engines may be either in the fuselage, attached to the
fuselage, or suspended from the wing structure.

Need of pressurization in cabin:

Cabin air pressure
Although aircraft cabins are pressurized, cabin air pressure at cruising altitude is
lower than air pressure at sea level. At typical cruising altitudes in the range 11,000–12,200
m (36,000–40,000 feet), air pressure in the cabin is equivalent to the outside air pressure at
1,800–2,400 m (6,000–8,000 feet) above sea level.
To maintain the air pressure inside the cabin, compressed air is generally bled off
from the engines. This air is very hot, about 250 degree Celsius.
 This air is then passed through an air cycle machine where, the heat is taken out of the
air, humidified and then its bled-in to the cabin.
This process is known as Cabin Pressurization.
Cabin altitude is the air pressure inside the cabin, expressed in terms of height above
mean sea level. Maintaining a cabin altitude of 6000–8000 feet implies that the aircraft‘s
cabin is maintaining a pressure equal to the atmospheric pressure at altitude of 6000–8000
feet, above mean sea level.
While maintaining a cabin altitude of 6000 feet, the cabin walls experience a
differential pressure of 8 psi, which is too high. Maintaining a zero feet cabin altitude, would
create a very high differential pressure, which can exceed the aircraft‘s structural limits.

Forces acting in fuselage:

Fuselage shape and sections:

a) Fuselage sections
1) Nose section
2) Center section
3) Rear section
1) Nose section

2) Center section

3) Rear fuselage:
  The three sections will carry different loads in accordance with the task the aircraft is
required to do, but in all types the centre section needs to be large and strong.
 In flight, the whole aircraft will be supported by lift from the wings, transmitted
through the centre of the fuselage to carry the other parts of the airframe.
b) Fuselage Shapes
 In transport aircraft, the majority of the fuselage is tubular.
 This is a convenient shape for carrying cargo or passengers, and makes it possible to
stretch the aircraft.
 This results in mainly cylindrical fuselages, with tapered nose and tail sections.
 Stretching is achieved by inserting extra pieces or plugs without a major re-design of
the fuselage.

Double deck fuselage:

There are some commercial aircraft that do not have a circular cross section.
The Airbus A380 and Boeing 747 ‗Jumbo Jet‘ have a fuselage cross-section that is
oval in shape.
This is to accommodate the double deck passenger section.

Construction of Fuselage:
a) Truss Structure
 i) Pratt Truss

ii) Warren Truss

The main drawback of truss structure is its lack of a streamlined shape. In this construction
method, lengths of tubing, called longerons, are welded in place to form a well braced
framework.
Vertical and horizontal struts are welded to the longerons and give the structure a square
or rectangular shape when viewed from the end. Additional struts are needed to resist
stress that can come from any direction.
Stringers and bulkheads, or formers, are added to shape the fuselage and support the
covering.
As technology progressed, aircraft designers began to enclose the truss members to
streamline the airplane and improve performance. This was originally accomplished with
cloth fabric, which eventually gave way to lightweight metals such as aluminum.
a) Warren Truss b) Semi-Monocoque

Former Monocoque
A former is a structural member of an aircraft fuselage, of which a typical fuselage has a
series from the nose to the empennage, typically perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the
aircraft. The primary purpose of formers is to establish the shape of the fuselage and reduce
the column length of stringers to prevent instability. Formers are typically attached
to longerons, which support the skin of the aircraft.
Difference between longerons and stringers:
 Sometimes the terms "longeron" and "stringer" are used interchangeably. Historically,
though, there is a subtle difference between the two terms.
  If the longitudinal members in a fuselage are few in number and run all along the
fuselage length (usually 4 to 8), then they are called "longerons". The longeron
system also requires that the fuselage frames be closely spaced (about every 4 to 6 in
or 10 to 15 cm).
 If the longitudinal members are numerous (usually 50 to 100) and are placed just
between two formers/frames, then they are called "stringers".
 In the stringer system the longitudinal members are smaller and the frames are
spaced farther apart (about 15 to 20 in or 38 to 51 cm).
 Generally, longerons are of larger cross-section when compared to stringers.
 On large modern aircraft the stringer system is more common because it is more
weight-efficient, despite being more complex to construct and analyze. Some aircraft
use a combination of both stringers and longerons.
 Longerons often carry larger loads than stringers and also help to transfer skin loads
to internal structure. Longerons nearly always attach to frames or ribs. Stringers often
are not attached to anything but the skin, where they carry a portion of the fuselage
bending moment through axial loading. It is not uncommon to have a mixture of
longerons and stringers in the same major structural component.
Monocoque and semi-monocoque fuselage:

 The monocoque design relies largely on the strength of the skin, or covering, to
carry various loads. The monocoque design may be divided into three classes—
monocoque, semimonocoque, and reinforced shell.
 The true monocoque construction uses formers, frame assemblies, and bulkheads
to give shape to the fuselage. However, the skin carries the primary stresses. Since
no bracing members are present, the skin must be strong enough to keep the
fuselage rigid.
 The biggest problem in monocoque construction is maintaining enough strength
while keeping the weight within limits.
 Semimonocoque design overcomes the strength-to-weight problem of monocoque
construction. In addition to having formers, frame assemblies, and bulkheads, the
semimonocoque construction has the skin reinforced by longitudinal members.
 The reinforced shell has the skin reinforced by a complete framework of structural
members. Different portions of the same fuselage may belong to any one of the
three classes. Most are considered to be of semimonocoque-type construction.

Pressure Bulkhead:
 The nose and tail of the fuselage uses double curvature bulkheads, like the surface of
an egg, to make the skin even stiffer.
 Pressure bulkheads are fitted in the nose and close to the tail of most aircraft. They are
generally curved. Their job is to withstand the loads imposed by pressurisation of the
fuselage.

Wings
 A wing is a type of fin that produces lift, while moving through air or some other
fluid. As such, wings have streamlined cross-sections that are subject to aerodynamic
forces and act as an aerofoil.

Production of Lift:
For a wing to produce "lift", it must be oriented at a suitable angle of attack relative to
the flow of air past the wing. When this occurs the wing deflects the airflow downwards,
"turning" the air as it passes the wing.

Since the wing exerts a force on the air to change its direction, the air must exert a
force on the wing, equal in size but opposite in direction. This force manifests itself as
differing air pressures at different points on the surface of the wing.

The lower air pressure on the top of the wing generates a smaller downward force on
the top of the wing than the upward force generated by the higher air pressure on the bottom
of the wing. Hence, a net upward force acts on the wing. This force is called the "lift"
generated by the wing.

The basic principle behind the lift is described by Bernoulli's theorem.

As the angle of attack (the angle between the chord line and relative air flow) is
increased, more lift is created. Once the critical angle of attack is reached (generally around
14 degrees) the aerofoil will stall.

Aircraft Wing construction:

Wing construction is basically the same in all types of aircraft. Most modern aircraft
have all metal and composite wings, but many older aircraft had wood and fabric wings.

To maintain its all-important aerodynamic shape, a wing must be designed and built
to hold its shape even under extreme stress. Basically, the wing is a framework composed
chiefly of spars, ribs, and stringers.
 Spars are the main members of the wing. They extend lengthwise of the wing
(crosswise of the fuselage). The entire load carried by the wing is ultimately taken by the
spars. In flight, the force of the air acts against the skin. From the skin, this force is
transmitted to the ribs and then to the spars.

Most wing structures have two spars, the front spar and the rear spar. The front spar is
found near the leading edge while the rear spar is about two-thirds the distance to the trailing
edge. Depending on the design of the flight loads, some of the all-metal and composite wings
have as many as five spars. In addition to the main spars, there is a short structural member
which is called an aileron spar.

The ribs are the parts of a wing which support the covering and provide the aerofoil
shape. These ribs are called forming ribs. And their primary purpose is to provide shape.
Some may have an additional purpose of bearing flight stress, and these are called
compression ribs.

In most modern airplanes, the fuel tanks either are an integral part of the wing‘s
structure, or consist of flexible containers mounted inside of the wing.

The most simple wing structures will be found on light civilian aircraft. High-stress
types of military aircraft will have the most complex and strongest wing structure.

Wing and fuselage attachments

Three systems are used to determine how wings are attached to the aircraft fuselage
depending on the strength of a wing's internal structure. The strongest wing structure is the
full cantilever which is attached directly to the fuselage and does not have any type of
external, stress-bearing structures. The semi-cantilever usually has one, or perhaps two,
supporting wires or struts attached to each wing and the fuselage. The externally braced wing
is typical of the biplane (two wings placed one above the other) with its struts and flying and
landing wires.

In order to confer lateral stability to an aircraft, the wings may be angled upwards
from the fuselage towards the wingtips. This is known as a dihedral. Some wings may be
inclined the opposite way and this is called anhedral and allows aircraft to be very
manoeuvrable, as is needed for military or aerobatic aircraft.
Stabilizing surfaces

Empennage

The empennage, commonly called the tail assembly (Fig-1), is the rear section of the
body of the airplane. Its main purpose is to give stability to the aircraft. The fixed parts are
the horizontal stabilizer and the vertical stabilizer or fin.

The front, fixed section is called the horizontal stabilizer and is used to prevent the
airplane from pitching up or down.

The rear section is called the elevator and is usually hinged to the horizontal
stabilizer. The elevator is a movable aerofoil that controls the up-and-down motion of the
aircraft's nose.

Fig-1 empennage structure

The vertical tail structure is divided into the vertical stabilizer and the rudder. The
front section is called the vertical stabilizer and is used to prevent the aircraft from yawing
back and forth. In light, single-engine aircraft, it also serves to offset the tendency of the
aircraft to roll in the opposite direction in which the propeller is rotating.

The rear section of the vertical structure is the rudder. It is a movable aerofoil that is
used to turn the aircraft.

Sometimes the fixed stabilizer and separate movable elevators are replaced by a
single moving horizontal tail known as a Stabilator. The Piper Pa28 is an example.

Another variation is to combine the vertical fin and the stabilizer into one
pair of controls (two instead of three) which form a Vee shape, known as a V-Tail. The
theoretical advantage of this design is the reduced interference drag associated with two
surfaces instead of three. On the V-tail the combined rudders and elevators are known as
Ruddervators. The engineering is more complicated in this system. The early Beechcraft
Bonanzas are an example.
Tailless Aircraft

Although the conventional aircraft described above represent 95% of all the world
aircraft some of the most important designs are Tailless. Concorde, the AVRO Arrow,
and the Space Shuttle are three notable examples. As you may have noticed they are all
Supersonic aircraft. In the future, when supersonic flight becomes more common we will
probably see more tailless aircraft.

On the tailless aircraft the pitch controls and roll controls must both be on the
wing. There can be separate elevators and ailerons or they can be combined into one set
of controls known as Elevons.
The tailless aircraft still usually has a vertical Fin with a rudder.
 Canard Aircraft
A Canard aircraft is one in which the horizontal stabilizer and elevators are
ahead of the main wing. Such aircraft still have the same controls as the conventional
aircraft they are just in different places. The aircraft below (Cozy) has two vertical fins
and two rudders on the tips of the wings. (An interesting side note about this design is
that the left rudder pedal operates the left rudder and vice versa. The rudders only extend
outboard. Both rudders can be deflected at once by pushing the rudder pedals together,
thus acting like drag brakes.)

Electrical Systems
Aircraft Electrical Systems
• The most basic aircraft must produce electricity for operation of the engine‘s ignition system.
Modern aircraft have complex electrical systems that control almost every aspect of flight.

• In general, electrical systems can be divided into different categories according to the
function of the system. Common systems include lighting, engine starting, and power
generation.

Small Single-Engine Aircraft

 • On most light aircraft, there is only one electrical system powered by the engine-driven
alternator or generator.

• The aircraft battery is used for emergency power and engine starting. Electrical power is
typically distributed through one or more common points known as an electrical bus (or bus
bar).

• There are two ways to protect electrical systems from faults: mechanically and electrically.

• Mechanically, wires and components are protected from abrasion and excess wear through
proper installation and by adding protective covers and shields.

• Electrically, wires can be protected using circuit breakers and fuses. The circuit breakers
protect each system in the event of a short circuit. It should be noted that fuses can be used
instead of circuit breakers. Fuses are typically found on older aircraft.

Elements of aircraft electrical systems

• An aircraft electrical system is mainly composed of :

1. Power sources

2. Components

- Control devices

- Conversion devices

- Protection devices.

3. Power distribution systems

4. Electrical loads

• 1) Electrical Power Sources

Electricity power sources on an aircraft may be classified into two groups :

1. Batteries

- Lead-acid

- Nickel-cadmium

2. Generators

- DC generators

- AC generators

1.1) Battery

• A battery is a device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy.

• It is a power reservoir that stores energy in chemical form. It does not produce energy. Its
functions are:

1. To provide power when no other power source is available

2. To assist in damping transient loads in the dc system

3. To provide a short term source during emergency condition

• The capacity of battery is measured in ampere-hours.

• It is automatically recharged when the engine-driven generator is operational.

• Two types of batteries are used in aircraft

- Lead-acid batteries

- Nickel cadmium batteries

Lead-acid battery

• It is usually found in piston aircraft.

• It is made up of cells which have positive/negative plates of lead and filled with electrolyte
of sulfuric acid and water.

• It has corrosive effects.

• Frequent total discharge and remaining battery in discharged condition for a long time will
shorten the life of the battery.

Nickel cadmium battery

• They are the most common type of battery used in turboprop and turbojet aircraft.

• They provide electrical discharge at a high rate without voltage drop and accept high charge
rates that shorten recharge time

• They may be subject to thermal runaway condition caused by overheating, in which the
battery destructs itself.

1.2) GENERATORS

• A generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy by the
process of electromagnetic induction

• They are driven by the engine(s), and sometimes by APU.

• A generator must be rated at adequate amperage to drive all the operating components on its
circuit(s).

• The current required to operate each electrical component is known as its load.
 • Naturally, All generators produce alternating current.

• The method which is used to take it from the coil will determine if the generator provides ac
or dc to the circuit.

• If a commutator is used for this purpose it will be a dc generator.

• If a slip ring is used it will be an ac generator.

DC GENERATORS

• Commutator in the generator converts the ac current to dc current.

• DC generator is designed to supply nearly constant voltage. Usually the voltage is 28vdc, but
there are 270vdc systems developed recently.

• They supply current up to 400 A. Most aircraft do not have a separate dc generator, but ac
produced by ac generator is converted to dc to power dc systems.

AC GENERATORS (Alternator)

• On most large aircraft high-load electrical devices are usually AC powered.

• AC is produced by ac generator which is usually called alternator.

• AC generators use slip rings instead of commutators to provide the current to the circuits.

• Alternator generates three-phase current, and standard aircraft voltage is 115 vac with 400
Hz.

Modern electrical power generation types

Mainly two types of electrical power generation currently in use on aircraft.

- Constant frequency Integrated drive generators (IDG)

- Variable speed constant frequency (VSCF) generators

Constant Speed IDG

 It is essential that the alternator output have a frequency of 400 Hz with a very small
tolerance. Thus rotational speed of alternator must remain absolutely constant.
 This is accomplished by using a Constant Speed Drive (CSD) unit between the engine and
alternator.
 CSD provides a constant alternator rpm within a specified engine rpm range.
 An alternator and constant speed drive unit combination is called integrated drive generator
(IDG).
 CSD is hydro-mechanically operated and needs to be correctly maintained in terms of oil
level and oil cleanliness.
 It is the most commonly used power generation method on today turbine-powered aircraft.

VSCF
  In this method, the variable frequency power produced by the alternator is converted to
constant frequency 400 Hz, 115 vac by solid-state devices electronically.
 Thus there is no need for CSD unit.
 It is a new technique and limited in use.

2) Components in Aircraft Electrical System

1. Control devices

2. Conversion devices

3. Protection devices.

Power Generation Control

 Power produced by generators is usually controlled by generator control unit (GCU).

 The main functions of this device are:

- Act as a voltage regulator

- Direct current to battery for recharging

- Provide circuit and generator protection by disconnecting the generator from the
system when electrical abnormalities occur.

2.1)Control Devices

These devices are use to initiate and control the operation of the circuits. Control devices include

1. Switches

2. Rheostats

3. Relays

4. Solenoids

Switches

A switch is used to start, to stop, or to change the direction of the current flow in the circuit.

Toggle switches : They are on/off switches and extensively used in aircraft electrical system.

Push Switches : They are used primarily for operations of short durations

Rotary switches : When it is necessary to select several condition for a circuit, a rotary switch may
be used.

Rheostats : Control the amount of current that flows throughout the circuit and used as dimmer
devices(a device for regulating the intensity of an electric lighting ) for instrument and cockpit
lights.
 Relays : Electromagnetic switching devices which are used to remotely control electric circuits
carrying large amount of current.

Solenoids : Solenoids are used as mechanical control devices to operate hydraulic or pneumatic
valves, locking pins, etc.

2.2) Conversion Devices

• There are many occasions within an aircraft electrical system where it is required to convert
power from one form to another.

• Typical examples of power conversion are :

- Conversion from dc to ac power

- Conversion from 115vac to 28 vdc

- Conversion from one ac voltage level to another

- Battery charging (from 115vac to 28vdc)

• Following devices are used for these purposes:

1. Transformers

2. Rectifiers

3. Transformer-rectifier units (TRUs)

4. Inverters

5. Transistors

• Transformers : Used to change ac voltage level.

• Rectifiers : Used to convert ac into highamperage, low-voltage dc.

• TRUs: Combination of transformers and rectifiers and used as main unit to convert
alternator output to dc in an aircraft

• Inverters : Converts 28 vdc power to 26 vac power particularly for flight instruments or
115 vac.

• Transistors : Electronic devices that control electron flow and convert ac to dc.

2.3) Protection Devices

• These devices are used to protect circuits, cables and system components from damage due
to failures.

1. Fuses

2. Circuit breakers
 3. Diodes

4. GCUs

2.3) Protection Devices

• Fuses : They are designed to protect the cables against the flow of short-circuit and
excessive current. They break the circuit and stop the current flow when the current exceeds
a predetermined value.

• Circuit breakers :They have same function with the fuses. The difference from the fuse is
that they are resettable, while a fuse must be replaced.

• Diodes : They are the electronic equivalent to the check valves in hydraulic system. They
allow electricity to flow in one way only.

3) Power Distribution

• An electrical distribution system is required in order to convey the electrical power to the
equipments and systems that need it.

1. Busbar systems

2. Wire and cables

3.1) Busbar System

• In most types of aircraft, output from the generators is sent to one or more conductors before
distribution throughout the system.

• These conductors are called busbars and they act as distribution centers for electric power.

• A busbar system is set up so that each power source supplies one or more specific buses.

• A variety of electrical items are hooked upto each bus for power.

• The buses are interconnected via circuit protection devices which are called bus ties.

• Bus ties are switches or relays used to connect or disconnect buses from one another.

• They serve to isolate failed buses from working ones and/or send electrical power to buses
that lost their normal powersources.

4) Electrical loads

• Once the aircraft electrical power has been generated and distributed then it is available to
the aircraft services.

• These electrical services are distributed throughout the aircraft and may be broadly
subdivided into following categories.

1. Motors
 2. Lighting services

3. Heating services

4. Avionics

Engine Ignition Systems

Piston Engine - THE DUAL IGNITION SYSTEM

• All aero piston engines are fitted with dual ignition, that is to say, two electrically
independent ignition systems.

• Each engine cylinder has two sparking plugs fed by two separate magnetos. This reduces the
risk of engine failure caused by faulty ignition and increases the power output of the engine
by igniting the cylinder charge at two points (reducing combustion time).

Operation of Dual Ignition systems

• Magnetos are self-contained engine-driven electrical generators. They produce a series of

extra high tension (EHT) electrical sparks at the sparking plugs, in the correct firing sequence,
for ignition of the petrol and air mixture.

• The magneto combines the principles of the permanent magnet generator and the step-up
transformer in order to generate the EHT voltage necessary to break down the gap between
the sparking plug electrodes.
• A small magnetic field in the magneto primary coil, which consists of a few hundred turns of
thick wire, is made to collapse at regulated intervals.

• As the primary magnetic field collapses, the lines of magnetic force cut thousands of turns of
very thin wire which comprise the secondary coil, and this induces within it an EHT voltage.

• This is an example of electromagnetic induction. The induced EHT voltage is taken to a

rotary switch called the 'distributor' which distributes it to the sparking plugs in the correct
firing sequence. The cam-operated contact breaker points and the distributor rotor are geared
together so that the spark will appear at the sparking plug as the contact breaker points just
open.

MAGNETO CHECKS

• The 'Dead Cut Check' is carried out at slow running. This check ensures that the pilot has
control of the ignition before carrying out further ignition checks at higher engine speeds.
RPM MUST DROP BUT ENGINE MUST NOT STOP WHILE SWITCHING ONE
MAGNETO OFF AT A TIME.

• The 'Live magneto check' is not normally required, as evidence of a live magneto is usually
found at the Dead Cut Check simply by observing a change in rpm as the switch is operated.

• The 'Magneto rpm Drop Check' is carried out at approximately 75% of the maximum
engine speed. This checks that the magneto and sparking plugs are functioning correctly.
GT Engine - Ignition systems

• All GT engine have a Dual IGNITION system fitted and they all use High Energy Igniter
Units(H.E.I.U) for engine starting.

THE HIGH ENERGY IGNITION UNIT

• The high energy ignition unit works on the principle of charging up a very large capacitor
and then discharging it across the face of an igniter plug.

• The actual size of the capacitor makes it potentially a lethal device, and several safety factors
have to be built into the high energy ignition unit (H.E.I.U.) to make it conform to safety
regulations.

• The circuit shown in illustrates all of the components within a H.E.I.U. Supplied by 28 volts
D.C.
• With the supply connected, the primary coil and the trembler mechanism are fed with 28
volts D.C.

• The trembler mechanism works in a manner similar to an electric bell, and by doing so
causes the primary coil input to become a sawtooth waveform.

• This is a very crude form of A.C. and by transformer action the voltage is passed to the
secondary coil where its voltage is boosted to 25,000 volts.

• The 25,000 volts A.C. is changed back to D.C. in the rectifiers and commences charging the
reservoir capacitor.

• As the value of the charge in the capacitor builds up, it eventually reaches a level that allows
a spark to jump the discharge gap.

• The energy in that spark has then to flow through the choke, this acts as a normal inductance
and slows down the flow to make the duration of the spark longer. The energy then passes to
the igniter in the combustion chamber.

• The discharge resistors act as a safety device should the unit have to be removed for
servicing, the charge which may remain in the capacitor could be lethal to anyone touching
the casing of the H.E.I.U., so it is allowed to leak through the resistors to zero the charge
once the supply has been removed.

• The safety resistors act as a kind of safety valve if the igniter plug becomes disconnected. If
this did happen, there would be a continued build up of energy in the capacitor which
eventually would cause it to explode, to prevent this the safety resistors allow energy in
excess of the normal level to flow through them in an attempt to balance the charge on the
plates of the capacitor.

• The normal rate of sparking of the H.E.I.U. is between 60 - 100 per minute, this is completely
random, and anyone listening at the jet pipe before engine start, if relight is selected, should
hear an unsynchronised beat if both units on the engine are working correctly.
Power Plant General – Lubrication System – Air Cooling – Ignition –
Engine Fuel Supply – Engine Performance – Propeller

BASICS: A VENTURI TUBE:

A practical application of Bernoulli's theorem with which the pilot should be familiar is the
Venturi tube, sometimes called a convergent / divergent duct (see Figure 1.2) The Venturi tube
has an inlet which narrows to a throat, and an outlet section, relatively longer, which increases
in diameter towards the rear.

PISTON ENGINE:
ENGINE LAYOUT GENERAL

The power of an engine can be increased by adding cylinders producing multi-cylinder

engines. This is a more efficient way of increasing power than making a single cylinder larger, and
also has the benefit of making the engine run smoother.
There are various types of engine design with regard to cylinder arrangement. fig 2.1
 The cylinder arrangement selected for a particular engine will depend on the type of cooling
of the engine, the power required, and role of the aircraft.
Early aircraft used In-Line engines. These have their cylinders arranged in a straight line,
one after the other, they can be liquid or air cooled. The air cooled variants are limited to around six
cylinders. Many in-line engines are inverted, so that the crankshaft is at the top and pistons below.
The propeller is driven from the crankshaft and this arrangement gave greater ground clearance for
the propeller.
The V Engine arrangement was used for larger more powerhl engines of eight to twelve
cylinders. These engines powered the fighter aircraft of World War 2. Liquid cooled, the V
arrangement of cylinders could easily be streamlined into the fuselage so reducing drag. The the
liquid cooling system however increased weight and complexity of the engine. Like the in-line
engine they could also be inverted.

The Radial Engine gave a large frontal area to the aircraft, but were short in length. The
pistons are arranged radially around a single crank. Although drag was increased the engines were
light, rigid and produced high power. Radial engines always have an odd number of cylinders. By
placing further rows of cylinders behind the first produced Double and Triple Bank radials.
These engines were the ultimate in piston engine design. Triple bank radials of 27 cylinders
powered the large military and civil airliners of the 1940's-50's. The engines are air cooled.
Most modern light aircraft use four or six cylinder engines arranged in the Flat/Horizontally
opposed configuration. This arrangement makes for a short rigid engine, which is easily
streamlined.

THE THEORETICAL 'OTTO' CYCLE.

It was stated that the engine works on a four stroke cycle.

A 'Stroke' is defined as the linear distance that the piston moves in the cylinder . When the
piston is at the top of the stroke it is said to be at Top Dead Centre (T.D.C), and when at the
bottom of the stroke 'Bottom Dead Centre' (B.D.C.).
The piston is connected to a crankshaft and as the piston moves from TDC to BDC the crankshaft
rotates 180". The complete cycle
taking 720° ( 4 x 180 )

The 'Stroke' is equal to Twice the Crank-throw. figure 2.2

The internal diameter of the cylinder is called the Bore. These terms are used to explain the
'Otto' cycle. Piston and valve positions are related to degrees of crankshaft movement, and
position in relation to TDC and BDC.

The four strokes of the 'Otto' cycle are shown in figure 2.3.
 The four strokes are
1. 'Induction'.
2. 'Compression'.
3. 'Power'
4. 'Exhaust'.
When the piston is at TDC at the end of the compression stroke an electrical spark is
produced at the spark plug, and ignites the fue1 air mixture. It should be appreciated that this does not
result in an explosion of the mixture, but is a controlled burning . This event is called
'Combustion'.
The combustion process takes place with the piston at TDC. The volume in the cylinder at that
moment in time is constant. Combustion is said to take place at Constant Volume.
In the Otto cycle there are Five Events. Induction, Compression, Combustion, Power,
Exhaust. These events can be shown graphically by a valve timing diagram. figure 2.4. The
timing diagram shows the relationship between the events, and degrees of crankshaft rotation.
Each arc between TDC and BDC represents 180° of crankshaft rotation.

SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION ( S.F.C )

The increase in energy given to the air comes from the heat released by burning the fuel.
This in turn produces power in the engine. The weight of fuel burnt, ( lbs ) for the power
produced ( B.H.P. ) in unit time ( Hour ) is called the 'Specific Fuel Consumption'.

Lubrication systems
TASKS OF THE LUBRICATION SYSTEM

The components that make up a piston engine are subjected to high loads, high
temperatures, and high speeds.
The component parts are generally made of metals, and as the moving parts of the
engine slide against each other, there is a resistance to their movement. This is called 'Friction'
The friction will increase as the load , temperature and speed increases, the movement of
the components also produces 'Wear' which is the loss or destruction of the metal components.
Both friction and wear can be reduced by preventing the moving surfaces coming into
contact by separating them with a material/substance which has lower frictional properties than
the component parts. This is referred to as a 'Lubricant'.
A lubricant can come in many forms. Greases, Powders and some solid materials.
However it is in the form of 'Oils' with which this chapter will concentrate on. The oil can be
forced between the moving parts, called 'Pressure Lubrication' or the components can be
'Splash Lubricated'.
The 'Primary' task of the lubrication system of the engine is to 'Reduce Friction' and
component 'Wear', it also has a number of secondary functions. Of these perhaps the most
important is the task of 'Cooling'.
The flow of oil through the engine helps to dissipate the heat away from the internal
components of the engine.
As the oil flows through the engine it also carries away the by-products of the combustion
process and 'Cleans' the engine.
The internal metal components are protected against 'Corrosion' by the oil, which also
acts a 'Hydraulic Medium' reducing the shock loads between crankshaft and bearing and so
reducing vibration. The oil can provide the power source for the operation of a hydraulic variable
pitch propeller.
The 'Reduction in Friction and Wear' by the lubricant is of prime importance, but the
secondary functions of 'Cooling, Cleaning, Protection, Hydraulic and Indicating Mediums'
should not be ignored.

THE WET AND DRY SUMP LUBRICATING SYSTEMS.

There are two lubrication systems in common use, these are the 'Wet Sump' and 'Dry
Sump' systems. The system used is normally dependant on the power output of the engine, and
role of the aircraft.
The principle of lubrication of the engine is the same whichever system is used, the
principle difference between the two systems being the method used to store the supply of oil.
Most light, non-aerobatic aircraft engines use the 'Wet Sump' system. In this system the
oil is stored in the bottom or sump of the engine.
This simplifies construction but has number of disadvantages:
a) Lubrication difficulties arise during manoeuvres. The oil enters the crankcase, is flung around
by the revolving shafts with possible over-oiling of the engine, inverted flight being particularly
hazardous.
b) The temperature of the oil is more difficult to control as it is stored within the hot engine
casing.
c) The oil becomes contaminated and oxidizes more easily because of the continual contact of
the oil with hot engine.
d) The oil supply is limited by the sump capacity.

The 'Dry Sump' system overcomes the above problems by storing the oil in a remotely mounted
'Tank'.

As previously stated the principle of oil supply is the same for both systems.

A 'Pressure Pump' circulates the oil through the engine, and so lubricates the moving parts. In a
dry sump system,
'Scavenge Pumps' then return the oil to the tank to prevent the engine sumps flooding. The
arrangement of the oil systems in different aircraft engines varies widely, however the
functions of all such systems are the same.
A study of one system will clarify the general operation and maintenance requirements of other
systems.
The principal units in a typical reciprocating engine oil system includes an 'Oil Tank' (dry
sump), 'Oil Filters', 'Pressure' and 'Scavenge Pumps', 'Oil Cooler' (radiator), an 'Oil
Pressure' and 'Temperature Gauge', plus the necessary interconnecting oil lines, which are all
shown in the following diagram. figure 3.1. This shows a dry sump system, for a wet sump
system the oil tank is not used.
The following paragraphs state the function of the main components of the system.
THE OIL TANK.
Oil tanks are made of sheet metal, suitably baffled and strengthened internally to prevent
damage due to the oil surging during manoeuvres.
The tank is placed wherever possible at a higher level than the engine to give a gravity
feed to the pressure pump, and forms a reservoir of oil large enough for the engine's
requirements, plus an air space.
The 'hot pot' forms a separate compartment within the tank. Its purpose is to reduce the
time taken to raise the temperature of the oil when starting the engine from cold by restricting the
quantity of oil in circulation when the oil is cold and viscous.
The hot pot consists of a cylinder of metal fitted above the oil outlet to the engine, thus
the oil must be inside the hot pot to be able to reach the pressure pump. When starting, the level
of oil in the hot pot drops, uncovering a ring of small diameter ports. These ports offer a great
resistance to the flow of cold thick oil so that very little passes to the inside of the hot pot. The oil
is returned from the engine to the inside of the hot pot and is recirculated.
As the hot oil is returned to the tank some of its heat raises the temperature of the walls of
the hotpot. The oil in the immediate vicinity is heated and thins so that the ports offer less
resistance to the flow of the thinner oil, and progressively more and more oil is brought into
circulation.
The oil is filtered by the suction filter before passing to the pressure pump.
When feathering propellers are fitted, the lower ring of feed ports to the hot pot are placed
above the bottom of the tank, this provides a feathering reserve of oil even if the main tank has
been emptied through the normal outlet, as would occur if the main feed pipeline was to develop
a leak or completely fail.
The scavenge oil returning to the tank is passed by an internal pipeline over a de-aerator
plate to the inside of the hot pot. The plate separates the air from the oil to reduce frothing. The
tank is vented through the crankcase breather to prevent oil losses during excessive frothing
conditions.
THE SUCTION FILTER.
A coarse wire mesh filter is fitted between the tank and pressure pump. It is designed to
remove large solid particles from the oil before it enters the pressure pump and so prevent
damage.
THE PRESSURE PUMP.
The pump consists of two deep toothed spur gears rotating in a close fitting pump casing
and driven via the accessory housing. Oil is carried either side of the casing in the space between
the gear teeth, and is made to flow. The outlet side of the pump is enclosed and restriction to
flow is given from the engine components to be lubricated. This gives a rise in system pressure.
Figure 3.2
The actual oil pressure obtained will depend on the 'Speed of the Pump', the
'Temperature of the Oil' and the 'Resistance offered by the Components'.
The capacity of the pump must be such that it will supply a minimum oil pressure under
its most adverse running conditions of low turning speed and high inlet oil temperature. As a
consequence of this, under normal running conditions the increased flow would tend to cause a
dangerously high oil pressure.

Very high pressures are prevented by a 'Pressure Relief Valve' ( P.R.V.) across the inlet
and outlet connections which limits maximum pressure in the system. When the pressure reaches
a predetermined figure, the valve opens and sufficient oil is returned to the inlet side of the pump
to limit the maximum oil pressure.

THE CHECK VALVE (aka Non Return Valves, or One-Way Valves).

The oil tank may be at a higher level than the pressure pump to provide a gravity feed.
When the engine is stopped and the oil is hot and thin, there is sufficient pressure from the
gravity feed to force the oil through the clearances in the pressure pump so that the oil tank
would drain into the crankcase and the engine would be flooded with oil. To prevent this
happening a check valve is fitted. This consists of a lightly sprung loaded valve which will hold
back the oil until the engine is started.
THE PRESSURE FILTER.
The pressure filter is fitted down stream of the pressure pump before the oil enters the
engine and is designed to remove very small solid particles before the oil passes to the bearing
surfaces.
A spring loaded relief valve is fitted to by-pass the filter element when the oil is cold, or
if the element becomes blocked. It will also protect the engine if the pressure pump breaks up.
THE SCAVENGE PUMP.
The 'Scavenge Pump' returns the oil by pumping it fiom the sump back to the tank. When
the engine is stopped the oil in the crankcase will drain into the sump. As the engine is started there
will be a quantity of oil, which, if the pumps were the same size, would not be removed.
 Therefore, to maintain a dry sump it is necessary for the scavenge pump to be of a larger
capacity than the pressure pump. In practice the scavenge pump capacity is 25% - 50% larger than
that of the pressure pump.
OIL COOLER.
The use of oil for cooling the internal components of the engine has already been emphasised.
If the oil itself gets too hot, it could fail as a lubricant. To prevent its temperature rising too high a
cooler is introduced in to the system.
The oil cooler consists of a matrix or tube block, which spreads the oil in a thin film and
subjects it to cooling air. The matrix is built up of round tubes, the ends of which are expanded and
shaped to form hexagons to form a surface for soldering the tubes together. The matrix itself is
bonded into the oil cooler jacket by soldering the flats of the tubes to the inner shell of the cooler
jacket.
When starting the engine from cold, the cooler matrix will be full of cold thick oil, and to
force the oil through the small oilways of the cooler would require a very high pressure. To prevent
damage the cooler a 'Anti surge Valve' is fitted to by-pass the matrix when the oil is cold.

The temperature of the oil is effected by three factors:

1. The amount of heat generated in the engine ( power ).
2. The temperature of the cooling air
3. The rate at which air flows through the cooler.

Air cooling:
THE REASONS FOR COOLING

The piston engine is a heat engine, its purpose is to convert the energy released by the
fuel into mechanical energy and so do useful work. In chapter 2 it was stated that the thermal
efficiency is at best only 25-28%. This means that over 70% of the heat energy released by the
fuel is wasted.
The exhaust gas is responsible for around 40%. Some of this energy can be recovered
on some aircraft by driving a turbine driven supercharger ( turbo charger )
The remaining 32% raises the temperature of the engine components, and if not
controlled could lead to the following problems.
1) Structural failure of the engine components.
2) Over temperature of the oil , which could result in breakdown of its lubricating
properties.
3) The fuel can ignite as it enters the cylinder, before the spark plug fires this is
called 'Pre-Ignition'. The combustion process can become unstable even if the
mixture has been ignited by the spark plug. This is called 'Knocking or
Detonation'. Both result in a loss of engine power.

LIQUID AND AIR COOLED SYSTEMS

The cylinder arrangement was dependant on the power required and type of cooling
system used. The two types are 'Liquid Cooling' and 'Air Cooling'
The liquid cooling system (fig 4.1) dissipates the heat from the engine by pumping a
mixture of 'Water and Glycol' (anti-freeze) through passages built into the cylinder's and
cylinder head's.
The liquid is then past through an 'Air Cooled Radiator' mounted in slip stream of the
propeller. This ensures that there is an air flow through the radiator even with the aircraft
stationary on the ground.
 An engine driven 'Pump' circulates the liquid through the engine, and temperature is
controlled by a 'Thermostat'. The liquid is stored in a reservoir called a 'Header Tank'. Pipes
carry the liquid from the header tank to the engine, and then from the engine to the radiator and back
to the header tank. Air flowing through the radiator dissipates the heat from the coolant to the air.

AIR COOLING

The air-cooled engine uses the cooling air from the Propeller Slipstream and the Aircraft's
Forward Speed to transfer the heat generated in the engine directly to the air. The engine is
Cowled to reduce drag and control the flow of air around the engine to ensure equal cooling and
so prevent overcooling at the front of the engine.

The air-cooled engine has few moving parts, and its simplicity make it virtually maintenance
free. It is lighter in weight than a similar powered liquid cooled engine, and for these reasons it is the
preferred choice for aero piston engines.
 The main factors governing the efficiency of an air cooled system are:-
1) Air Temperature. The ambient air temperature can vary widely with changes in
climatic conditions and altitude. Dissipation of the heat will be more rapid as the air
temperature decreases.
2) Speed of the Air Flow. The speed of the airflow passing over the cylinders is
governed by the slipstream and will vary with the speed of the aircraft.
Consequently, care must be taken when ground running to prevent over heating. On
some installations, a fan is fitted behind the propeller to obtain a more uniform speed of
airflow.
3) Cooling Fins. The walls of the cylinder are finned to increase the cooling area.
However, the pitch of the fins must be such that a large fin area can be obtained but the
fins must not be so close that the resistance to the airflow builds up pressure which
would tend to decrease the flow and iwrease drag. An average pitch for fins is about
five to the inch. The fins are thin in section and may be extended to increase fin area at
local hot spots to try to produce an even temperature throughout the component, e.g.
around the exhaust ports on cylinders.
4) Baffles. Baffles (see Figure 4.2) are directional air guides to direct the airflow
completely around the cylinder. They must always be close fitting and provide a seal
with the cowlings, so that all the cooling airflow is over the cylinders. Care is taken to
ensure that an even cross sectional area is maintained, so that the airflow does not slow
down and cause drag.

5) Engine Construction. Where possible, engine components are made of materials

with a high heat conductivity, aluminium alloys are in common use. Cylinder heads
are sometimes made of steel, and to obtain a better heat flow, there is a heavy deposit
of copper on the combustion chamber face.
6) Cowlings Cowl Flaps and Gills. Cowlings must be close fitting without dents or
projections to disturb the airflow. Any disturbance to the designed flow will not only
increase drag but also decrease cooling. With the cowl flaps or gills open, the airflow
over the engine nacelle causes a pressure drop at the cooling air outlet, thus making it
easier for the heated air to flow and maintain a high speed over the engine. As the air
flows over the cylinders it absorbs heat and expands and, given a suitable gill opening,
increases its speed. Any increase in speed through the engine will create a reactive force,
tending to reduce the total engine drag. The heat from the engine is not always transferred
straight to the atmosphere. It can be used for heating the cabin of the aircraft, and directed
when selected to supply hot air to remove ice from the Carburettor.
Engine Fuel supply:
TYPES OF FUEL
The preferred fuel currently used in aircraft piston engines is derived from mineral oil.
The fuel is a blend of Hydrogen & Carbon. Jet and diesel fuels are also derived from the
oil. The differing types of fuel are produced by a process called cracking. Aircraft piston
engines use a Gasoline fuel known as Avgas.
CALORIFIC VALUE.
The Calorific Value of a fuel is a measure of the amount of heat that will be released
during combustion, and is measured in British Thermal Units (B.T.U.) per pound. This varies
with the chemical composition of the fuel, those with a high hydrogen content being superior.
The calorific value is related to specific gravity. The higher the specific gravity the higher the
calorific value.
VOLATILITY.
A volatile liquid is one which is capable of changing readily from the liquid to the vapour
state by the application of heat, or by contact with a gas into which it can evaporate. Fuel is added to
the air at the carburettor, the efficiency with which the fuel mixes with the air is largely determined
by the volatility of the fuel.
HIGH VOLATILITY.
A liquid boils when its vapour pressure is greater than the atmospheric pressure acting on the
surface of the liquid. This means that, as the atmospheric pressure reduces with altitude, the fuel
vaporizes at a lower temperature. This is generally referred to as 'low pressure boiling'.

THE COMBUSTION PROCESS.

Combustion is a controlled rate of burning, is not an 'explosion'. The mixture induced
into the cylinders consists of gasoline vapour (84.2% carbon and 15.8% hydrogen by weight)
and air (78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and 1% other inert gases). When combustion has been
completed, the hydrogen in the fuel will have combined with the oxygen in the air to form H20
which is water vapour, and the carbon in the fuel will combine with the oxygen in the air to form
C02 - carbon dioxide.
The nitrogen and other gases play no active part in the combustion process, but they do
form the bulk of the gas that is heated and expanded to create pressure energy. The nitrogen also
slows down the rate of combustion, without nitrogen, combustion would be an explosion with far
too rapid a temperature and pressure rise to be harnessed to do useful work.

DETONATION. (KNOCKING)

Detonation occurs after ignition and is unstable combustion. During normal combustion,
the flame travels smoothly and steadily through the mixture as the advancing flame front heats
the gases immediately ahead of it, so that they in turn burn.
Progressively there is more and more heat concentrated in the flame front, which is
brought to bear on the remaining unburnt portion of the mixture, termed 'end gas', and its
temperature is raised.
In addition, the burnt gases have expanded, so that, the end gas is subjected to an
increasing pressure.
Ultimately there is sufficient pressure and heat available to bring all the end gas to the
point of combustion at the same instant, and it explodes.
Mixture:
THE CHEMICALLY CORRECT RATIO:
Although air and fuel vapour will bum when mixed in proportions ranging between 8 : 1
(rich) and 20 : 1 (weak), complete combustion only occurs with an air I fuel ratio of 15 : 1 by
weight.
This is the chemically correct ratio, at this ratio all of the oxygen in the air combines with
all of the hydrogen and carbon in the fuel.
The chemically correct mixture does not give the best results, because the temperature of
combustion is so high that power can be lost through detonation.

THE PRACTICAL MIXTURE RATIO.

Although the chemically correct mixture strength would theoretically produce the highest
temperature and therefore power, in practice mixing and distribution are less than perfect and this
results in some regions being richer and others being weaker than the optimum strength. This
variation may exist between one cylinder and another.
A slightly rich mixture does not have much effect on power since all the oxygen is still
consumed and the excess of he1 simply serves to slightly reduce the effective volumetric
efficiency, in fact its cooling effect can be to some extent beneficial.
Weak mixtures, however, rapidly reduce power since some of the inspired oxygen is not
being utilized, and this power reduction is much greater than that resulting from slight richness.
It is, therefore, quite common to run engines (when maximum power rather than best fuel
economy is the objective) at somewhat richer than chemically-correct mixtures (e.g. about 12.5 :
1) to ensure that no cylinder is left running at severely reduced power from being unduly weak.

PROBLEMS CAUSED BY WEAK MIXTURES.

A mixture which is weaker than the chemically correct ratio, besides burning at lower
temperatures, also bums at a slower rate (because of the greater proportion of nitrogen in the
cylinder). Power output thus decreases as the mixture is weakened, but, because of the increase
in efficiency resulting from cooler burning, the fall in power is proportionally less than the
decrease in fuel consumption. Thus the Specific Fuel Consumption (S.F.C.), decreases as the
mixture strength is weakened below 15 : 1.
,
For economical cruising at moderate power, air I fuel ratios of 18 : 1 may be used, an
advance in the ignition timing being necessary to allow for the slower rate of combustion.
 With extremely weak mixtures, the gases may still be burning when the exhaust valve
opens, exposing the valve to high temperatures which may cause the valve to crack or distort. As
the inlet valve opens, the heat of the exhaust gases is still so high that it may ignite the mixture in
the induction system, and 'popping back' occurs through the induction manifold.
This slow burning also causes overheating, as a certain amount of the heat is not
converted into work by expansion and has to be dissipated by the cooling system. The mixture
requirement is, therefore, dependent upon engine speed and power output. A typical air 1 he1
mixture curve is shown in Figure 7.1.

SLOW RUNNING AND STARTING:

A rich mixture is required for starting and slow running because:
a) Fuel will only burn when it has vaporized and is mixed with air. When starting, the
engine is cold and there is little heat to assist the vaporizing process, therefore only the
lightest fractions of the fuel will vaporize. To make sure that there is sufficient fuel
vapour in the cylinders to support combustion a rich mixture is required.
b) The exhaust valve is given a certain amount of lag so that full advantage can be taken
of the considerable inertia of the gases at normal engine speeds, to obtain efficient
scavenging of the burnt gases, and to give impetus to the incoming charge. As engine speed
reduces, the gas velocity falls and more of the burnt gases remain in the cylinder,
whilst at still lower speeds there is the tendency for exhaust gases to be sucked back into
the cylinder by the descending piston before the exhaust valve closes. The consequent
dilution of the induction gases is such that, to maintain smooth running, a rich mixture
is required.

THE EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURE GAUGE:

As the mixture control is moved from fully rich to a weaker setting, the air fuel ratio
approaches the chemically correct value of approximately 15:l. At this ratio all the air and fuel are
consumed and the heat released by combustion is at its maximum. More heat means more power.
RPM will rise ( fixed pitch propeller ) airspeed will increase as more power is produced. Both
these indications can be used to adjust mixture, but a more accurate method is to indicate the
change in exhaust gas temperature as the mixture is varied.
The Exhaust Gas Temperature Gauge ( EGT) consist of a Thermocouple fitted into the
exhaust pipe of the hottest cylinder. A thermocouple produces a voltage directly proportional to
its temperature. The voltage is indicated by a gauge calibrated to show temperature . The mixture
control should always be moved slowly. If moved toward lean the temperature will peak at the
ratio of 15: 1. It should be remembered that this ratio IS NOT USED as detonation can occur. On
reaching the peak EGT the mixture control would then be moved towards rich and the
temperature would drop. A temperature drop would be specified in the aircrafts flight manual
which would give the rich cruise setting.
Weakening the mixture beyond the chemically correct value will also reduce temperature.
Again the flight manual will spec@ the temperature drop required to set the economy cruise ratio's.
Mixture is normally only adjusted at cruise power settings. It should be returned to Fully Rich
whenever the power is changed. (Figure 7.2)

Carburetors:
THE BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF A CARBURETTOR
The carburation system must:
 Control the air / fuel ratio in response to throttle setting, at all selected power
outputs from slow-running to full throttle, and during acceleration and
deceleration.
 It must function at all altitudes and temperatures in the operating range.
 It must provide for ease of starting and may incorporate a means of shutting off
the fuel to stop the engine.
Aircraft carburetors are separated into two categories:
1) Float type carburetors
2) pressure-type carburetors.

Float-type carburetors, complete with idling, accelerating, mixture control, idle

cutoff, and power enrichment systems, are the most common of the two
carburetor types.
Pressure-type carburetors are usually not found on small aircraft. The basic
difference between a float-type and a pressure-type carburetor is the delivery of
fuel. The pressure-type carburetor delivers fuel under pressure by a fuel pump.

THE SIMPLE FLOAT CHAMBER CARBURETTOR:

This carburettor employs two basic principles, those of the 'U' tube and the Venturi.

a) The 'U' Tube Principle: If a tube is bent into the shape of a 'U' and then filled with
liquid, the level in either leg will be the same, provided that the pressure acting on the
tube is the same. If the pressure difference is created across the 'U' tube it will cause the
liquid to flow. In practice one leg of the 'U' tube is opened out to form a small tank, a
constant level being maintained by a float and valve mechanism regulating the flow of
fuel from a fuel pump (or pumps) delivering a supply from the main aircraft tanks. See
Figure 8.1..
b)The Venturi Principle: Bernoulli's Theorem states that the total energy per unit mass along any
one streamline in a moving fluid is constant. The fluid possesses energy because of its pressure,
temperature and velocity, if one of these changes one or both of the others must also change to
maintain the same overall energy.

Working of Float chamber carburetor:

As the air passes through the restriction of the Venturi its velocity increases, causing a
drop in pressure and temperature. The pressure drop at the throat of the Venturi is proportional to
the mass airflow, and is used to make fuel flow from the float chamber by placing one leg of the
'U' tube in the Venturi.
In a float-chamber carburettor such as that shown in Figure 8.2, airflow to the engine is
controlled by a throttle valve, and fuel flow is controlled by metering jets. Engine suction
provides a flow of air from the air intake through a Venturi in the carburettor to the induction
manifold.
This air speeds up as it passes through the Venturi, and a drop in pressure occurs at this
point. Within the induction manifold however, pressure rises as the throttle is opened.
Fuel is contained in a float chamber, which is supplied by gravity, or an electrical booster
pump, or by an engine-driven fuel pump, and a constant level is maintained in the chamber by
the float and needle-valve.
Where fuel pumps are used, a fuel pressure gauge is included in the system to provide an
indication of pump operation. Air intake or atmospheric air pressure acts on the fuel in the float
chamber, which is connected to a fuel discharge tube located in the throat of the Venturi.
The difference in pressure between the float chamber and the throat of the Venturi
provides the force necessary to discharge fuel into the airstream. As airflow through the Venturi
increases so the pressure drop increases, and a higher pressure differential acts on the fuel to
increase its flow in proportion to the airflow.
The size of the main jet in the discharge tube determines the quantity of fuel which is
discharged at any particular pressure differential, and therefore controls the mixture strength.
 Gas Turbine Engine
Both piston (reciprocating) engines and gas turbine engines are internal combustion
engines. They have a similar cycle of operation that consists of induction, compression,
combustion, expansion, and exhaust. In a piston engine, each of these events is a separate
distinct occurrence in each cylinder. Also in a piston engine, an ignition event must occur
during each cycle in each cylinder. Unlike reciprocating engines, in gas turbine engines these
phases of power occur simultaneously and continuously instead of successively one cycle at a
time. Additionally, ignition occurs during the starting cycle and is continuous thereafter. The
basic gas turbine engine contains four sections: intake, compression, combustion, and
exhaust.

To start the engine, the compressor section is rotated by an electrical starter on small engines
or an air-driven starter on large engines. As compressor rates per minute (rpm) accelerates,
air is brought in through the inlet duct, compressed to a high pressure, and delivered to the
combustion section (combustion chambers). Fuel is then injected by a fuel controller through
spray nozzles and ignited by igniter plugs. (Not all of the compressed air is used to support
combustion.
Some of the compressed air bypasses the burner section and circulates within the engine to
provide internal cooling, enhanced thrust, and noise abatement. In turbojet engines, by-pass
airflow may be augmented by the action of a fan located at the engine‘s intake.) The fuel/ air
mixture in the combustion chamber is then burned in a continuous combustion process and
produces a very high temperature, typically around 4,000° Fahrenheit (F), which heats the
entire air mass to 1,600 – 2,400 °F. The mixture of hot air and gases expands and is directed
to the turbine blades forcing the turbine section to rotate, which in turn drives the compressor
by means of a direct shaft, a concentric shaft, or a combination of both. After powering the
turbine section, the high velocity excess exhaust exits the tail pipe or exhaust section. (The
exhaust section of a turbojet engine may also incorporate a system of moving doors to
redirect airflow for the purpose of slowing an airplane down after landing or back-powering it
away from a gate. They are referred to as thrust reversers). Once the turbine section is
powered by gases from the burner section, the starter is disengaged, and the igniters are
turned off. Combustion continues until the engine is shut down by turning off the fuel supply.

High-pressure exhaust gases can be used to provide jet thrust as in a turbojet engine.
Types of Turbine Engines

Turbine engines are classified according to the type of compressors they use. There are three
types of compressors—centrifugal flow, axial flow, and centrifugal-axial flow. Compression
of inlet air is achieved in a centrifugal flow engine by accelerating air outward perpendicular
to the longitudinal axis of the machine. The axial-flow engine compresses air by a series of
rotating and stationary airfoils moving the air parallel to the longitudinal axis. The
centrifugal-axial flow design uses both kinds of compressors to achieve the desired
compression.

The path the air takes through the engine and how power is produced determines the type of
engine. There are four types of aircraft turbine engines—turbojet, turboprop, turbofan, and
turboshaft.

Turbojet
The turbojet engine consists of four sections—compressor, combustion chamber, turbine
section, and exhaust. The compressor section passes inlet air at a high rate of speed to the
combustion chamber. The combustion chamber contains the fuel inlet and igniter for
combustion. The expanding air drives a turbine, which is connected by a shaft to the
compressor, sustaining engine operation. The accelerated exhaust gases from the engine
provide thrust. This is a basic application of compressing air, igniting the fuel-air mixture,
producing power to self-sustain the engine operation, and exhaust for propulsion. [Figure 7-
23]

Figure 7-23. Turbojet engine

Turbojet engines are limited in range and endurance. They are also slow to respond to throttle
applications at slow compressor speeds.

Turboprop
A turboprop engine is a turbine engine that drives a propeller through a reduction gear. The
exhaust gases drive a power turbine connected by a shaft that drives the reduction gear
assembly. Reduction gearing is necessary in turboprop engines because optimum propeller
performance is achieved at much slower speeds than the engine‘s operating rpm. Turboprop
engines are a compromise between turbojet engines and reciprocating powerplants.
Turboprop engines are most efficient at speeds between 250 and 400 mph and altitudes
between 18,000 and 30,000 feet. They also perform well at the slow airspeeds required for
takeoff and landing and are fuel efficient. The minimum specific fuel consumption of the
turboprop engine is normally available in the altitude range of 25,000 feet to the tropopause.
[Figure 7-24]

Figure 7-24. Turboprop engine

Turbofan

Turbofans were developed to combine some of the best features of the turbojet and the
turboprop. Turbofan engines are designed to create additional thrust by diverting a secondary
airflow around the combustion chamber. The turbofan bypass air generates increased thrust,
cools the engine, and aids in exhaust noise suppression. This provides turbojet-type cruise
speed and lower fuel consumption.

The inlet air that passes through a turbofan engine is usually divided into two separate
streams of air. One stream passes through the engine core, while a second stream bypasses
the engine core. It is this bypass stream of air that is responsible for the term ―bypass engine.‖
A turbofan‘s bypass ratio refers to the ratio of the mass airflow that passes through the fan
divided by the mass airflow that passes through the engine core. [Figure 7-25]
 Figure 7-25. Turbofan engine
Turboshaft

The fourth common type of jet engine is the turboshaft. [Figure 7-26] It delivers power to a
shaft that drives something other than a propeller. The biggest difference between a turbojet
and turboshaft engine is that on a turboshaft engine, most of the energy produced by the
expanding gases is used to drive a turbine rather than produce thrust. Many helicopters use a
turboshaft gas turbine engine. In addition, turboshaft engines are widely used as auxiliary
power units on large aircraft.

Figure 7-26. Turboshaft engine.

ENGINE FUEL SYSTEM

SYSTEM COMPONENTS.

The booster pumps in the tank pass the fuel to the engine from the 'airframe fuel system'
through non-return valves to an engine fuel shut off valve (pylon shut off valve) which is used to
shut off the supply of fuel to the engine in the event of component removal. It can also be closed
by the fire handle in the event of an engine fire warning to isolate the fuel from the engine.
It can be used in an emergency to stop the engine, but the engine will take longer to run down.
Figure 14.1
Low Pressure Pump (LP pump)
The fuel then enters the 'engine fuel system' and is delivered to the low pressure pump
(LP pump) or backing pump. The LP pump is driven by the engine gearbox and supplies fuel to
the HP pump. In the event of total failure of the fuel tank booster pumps the LP pump will 'suck'
fuel from the fuel tank to allow the engine to remain running. In this event the aircraft MEL may
require a reduction of altitude to prevent LP pump cavitation.

Cooler
A fuel cooled oil cooler (FCOC) is fitted in the majority of gas turbine installations. The
oil cooler serves the double purpose of cooling the oil and also heating the fuel to eliminate the
formation of ice crystals which may block the components further downstream the system.

Heater
The next component, the fuel heater, completes the warming of the fuel and the
elimination of ice crystals that may occur. It uses compressor delivery air to warm the fuel and
may be automatic, working in conjunction with the FCOC to maintain a predetermined fuel
temperature, or manual, selected by the flight engineer.

Filter

The fuel filter is in the low pressure side of the system and protects the delicate control
components within the H.P. fuel pump and the fuel control unit (F.C.U.) from any dirt or
contamination.

Flowmeter
The Flowmeter measures the instantaneous fuel flow in Gallons/hour or Kilograms/hour
and may also include an integrator to sum the total amount of fuel used since the engine was
started (Totaliser).
Fuel pressure and temperature
May be sensed at this point in the system and indicated to the pilot to allow the system to
be monitored.
The high pressure (H.P.) fuel pump.
The High Pressure pump (HP pump) is driven by the engine high pressure shaft through
the HP gearbox and raises the pressure and flow required for the demanded engine thrust setting.
The high pressure fuel pump illustrated is representative of the type of pump employed in some
engines, it is an axial piston type pump.

The Fuel Control Unit (F.C.U.) or Fuel Flow Regulator (F.F.R.)

The Fuel Control Unit (FCU) or Fuel Flow Regulator (FFR) controls the fuel flow for a
given thrust setting. Various devices within the F.C.U. are used to adjust the fuel flow to cater for
variations in air intake pressure, engine acceleration control, exhaust gas temperature and
compressor delivery pressure:-
a) Altitude control
Variations in air intake pressure (PI), require that the fuel flow to the burners is changed
accordingly so that a fixed R.P.M. is maintained for a selected throttle position at all
altitudes and airspeeds. This is achieved by the expansion or contraction of a capsule
influenced by PI pressure which in turn modifies the fuel flow accordingly. This
capsule, known as the barometric pressure capsule (B.P.C.), is incorporated in an
'altitude sensing unit' within the F.C.U.
b) Acceleration control
The addition of fuel is necessary to cause the engine to accelerate, however, too rapid an
increase of fuel is the usual cause of compressor stall and surge . To regulate the fuel
flow under conditions of engine acceleration, an 'acceleration control unit' is fitted within
the fuel control unit. It receives information regarding engine intake pressure (PI) and
compressor delivery pressure (P3 for a two spool engine) and uses this information to
adjust a 'fuel metering plunger'. This effectively acts as a second throttle valve in series
with the main throttle and regulates the fuel flow to achieve the maximum engine
acceleration without causing stall or surge.

c) Exhaust gas temperature limiting

Exhaust gas temperature is probably the most important parameter in a gas turbine
engine. To obtain maximum efficiency, the engine must be run at the highest possible
temperature in the turbine without melting the materials from which it is made.
To achieve this and yet allow the engine to be a practical user friendly unit, automatic
monitoring of the exhaust gas temperature is combined with a 'top temperature control'
unit. This allows the pilot to select full power at any time without risking a melt down
in the turbine assembly.
Thermocouple probes are positioned in the gas stream either within the turbine or close
after it. The output of these thermocouples is used to give an indication of the
temperature at the rear of the engine, this is passed both to the cockpit instrumentation
and to a 'temperature control signal amplifier'. The electrical output of this amplifier
powers a solenoid which indirectly controls the fuel flow.
d) Power limiter
The ability of the compressor to withstand internal pressure is limited by the strength of
the materials from which it is made. If the compressor casing is subjected to greater than
its design maximum pressure it will break with possibly catastrophic consequences.
To prevent this happening, the F.C.U. has a 'power limiter' device. This unit is signalled
by both intake pressure (PI), and compressor delivery pressure (P3). The combination
of these signals working through capsules and levers controls the fuel flow so that the
maximum pressure ration is not.

e) RPM limiter
The rotational speed of the compressor spools must be limited if they are to be prevented
from self destructing through excessive centrifugal forces. There are basically two
methods of achieving rotational speed limitation.
The first method depends on an electrical signal proportional to the speed of the shaft.
A tacho-generator or electronic speed sensor driven by the appropriate shaft sends
signals to an amplifier, normally this amplifier is the same one that powers the
temperature limiting circuits. Thus, if the output of the tacho-generator approaches a
predetermined level, the fuel flow will be adjusted to prevent the maximum RPM being
0

exceeded.
The second method is normally used to control the speed of rotation of the H.P.
compressor shaft. This shaft drives the external gearbox which is responsible for
powering the H.P. fuel pumps, among other things. Fitted within the H.P. fuel pump is
a 'hydro-mechanical governor' which uses hydraulic pressure proportional to engine
speed as its controlling parameter.

HP fuel cock (HP fuel shut off valve)

The HP fuel cock or HP fuel shut off valve shuts off the fuel between the FCU and the
fuel spray nozzles (burners) and is the normal control for starting or stopping the engine. It may
be mechanically controlled by a lever on the flight deck or electrically controlled by an actuator,
also controlled by a switch on the flight deck.
Pressurising and dump valve
A pressurising and dump valve is used with a duplex fuel nozzle. At a preset pressure the
pressurising valve opens and allows fuel to flow into the main manifold as well as the pilot or
primary manifold.
The dump valve allows the manifold fuel to be dumped into the drains tank when the
engine is shut down to prevent he1 boiling in the manifold due to residual engine heat.
Drains Tank
A small tank which collects the unburnt fuel from the fuel manifold and combustion
chamber after the engine is shut down or after a failed start. When the engine is running a
pressure operated non return valve will isolate the drains tank.

LUBRICATION

REASONS FOR LUBRICATION:

There are many reasons for having a lubricant within the engine besides that of reducing friction.
1) However scrupulously clean the engine is maintained, there will always be a small amount of
dirt or impurities that find their way inside. That dirt must be removed before it can cause
damage to bearings or block small oil passageways.
2) The oil can be used to keep the engine clean by carrying dirt to the oil filter where it is
strained out and where it remains until replacement of the filter.
3) The majority of the bearings within the engine are manufactured from steel, a metal which
would soon oxidise itself if it were not prevented from doing so by a liberal coating of oil,
thus the lubricant will also minimise corrosion inside the engine.
4) The engine bearings, particularly those around the hot end of the engine, must be cooled if
they are to be able to withstand the constant stresses imposed upon them, the most likely
medium for cooling is the lubricant which cleans, reduces friction and corrosion.
5) Not least among the tasks given to the lubricating oil is that of a hydraulic fluid, in many
turboprop engines the control of the pitch of the propeller blades is achieved by passing some
of the engine lubricating oil into the pitch change mechanism.
LUBRICATING SYSTEMS.
Most gas turbine engines use a self contained re-circulatory lubrication system in which the
oil is distributed around the engine and returned to the oil tank by pumps.
 There are two basic re-circulatory systems, the pressure relief valve system, or the full flow
system.
A schematic layout of the basic system is shown below showing the relative location of the major
components.

THE PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE LUBRICATION SYSTEM.

In the pressure relief valve system a spring loaded valve limits the pressure in the feed line
and so controls the flow of oil to the bearing chambers.
The pressure is restricted to a value which the engine designer considers correct for all
conditions that the engine might encounter. The spring loaded valve opens at the pressure generated
by the oil pressure pump at engine idling speed and consequently gives a constant feed pressure over
the whole of the engine speed and oil temperature ranges.
Figure 16.2. shows the pressure relief valve method and the basic components for a turbo-
prop engine lubrication system. The oil is drawn through a suction filter to the oil pressure pump. The
suction filter protects the pump from damage should any debris enter the tank. The oil is then
passed through the pressure filter to the pressure relief valve which maintains the oil pressure to
the feed jets in the bearing chambers constant.

The oil passes to the feed jets through internal drillings and external oil pipes, in this
particular engine the hollow interior of the compressor 1 turbine shaft is used to transfer oil from the
front of the engine, where it is used in the pitch control mechanism, all the way through to the rear,
where it is used in the turbine bearings.
The torque meter pump shown in this diagram is used to boost engine oil pressure to a much
greater figure, in some turbo-prop engines that figure can be as high as 600 pounds per square
inch. This pressure is utilised to balance the axial thrust of the helically cut gears within the
propeller reduction gear.
Measuring the torque meter oil pressure will give an accurate indication of the torque being
transmitted to the propeller, reference figures which take account of the ambient temperature and
pressure allow the pilot to find the minimum torque pressure which the engine should be capable of
producing in any set of conditions.
 When the oil has completed its tasks of lubricating, cooling, cleaning and acting as a
hydraulic medium, it falls into collecting trays or compartments which communicate with the
scavenge pumps.
The scavenge pumps are mounted in the same oil pump pack which contains the oil
pressure pump. Although there is only one pressure pump, the oil pump pack may contain
several scavenge pumps. This will ensure that the method of lubrication remains a dry sump
system.
The scavenge pumps push the oil through an air cooled oil cooler in this particular engine,
different engines may have different types of oil cooler fitted. Whatever the type of oil cooler,
its job is to drop the temperature of the oil after its journey through the engine.
The next stage for the oil is the de-aerator tray, here any air bubbles which will have been
collected in the oil are allowed to escape and the oil falls to the oil tank, in this case the tank is
contained around the engine intake.
Any air pressure which has been built up within the engine lubrication system, through
leakage from seals or from the de-aerator tray must be allowed to escape. If it was just vented to
atmosphere then any oil mist contained within it will pass to atmosphere also, thus the oil
contents would quickly diminish. To prevent this happening the oil mist is vented via a
centrifugal breather which is positioned in the accessory gearbox.

THE FULL FLOW LUBRICATION SYSTEM.

This system achieves the required oil flow to the engine throughout its entire speed range
by allowing the oil pressure pump to directly supply the oil feed jets without the use of a pressure
relief valve. Using this system allows the use of smaller pressure and scavenge pumps since the
volume of oil passed is less than that in the pressure relief valve system. This happens because
of the large amount of oil which is spilled back to the oil tank by the pressure relief valve at high
engine speed.
In Figure 16.2. the pressure pump picks up oil from the oil tank through a suction filter
and passes it through a pressure filter to the distribution galleries. Across the pressure filter is an
oil differential pressure switch. This can give warning of blockage of the filter. This warning is
usually indicated at the ground crew servicing panel and is sometimes duplicated by a warning
light on the flight deck.
One gallery takes the oil up to an oil pressure transmitter and low oil pressure warning
switch. These are used primarily to give warning in the cockpit of malfunctions in the oil system.
Other parameters indicated in the cockpit are those of oil quantity and oil temperature, the latter
being measured as the oil leaves the oil cooler.
,
It is from this same gallery that oil is taken to lubricate all of the bearings in the accessory
drive gearbox. The other gallery is used to transfer oil to the bearings which support all of the
compressor spools.
The bearings are lubricated by oil jets which are positioned very close to the bearings so
as to minimise the possibility of the oil being deflected from its target by local turbulence. Just
prior to the oil jets are fitted thread type filters, these perform the function of a 'last chance' filter,
removing any debris which may have managed to pass through the main pressure filter.

As in the pressure relief valve system, when the oil has completed its tasks it is collected
and passed back through scavenge pumps. Prior to the oil reaching the scavenge pump it must
pass over a chip detector and through a suction filter.
The scavenge pumps force the oil through to the oil cooling system, in the engine shown
in Figure 16.2 there are two types of oil cooler, a fuel cooled oil cooler and an air cooled oil
cooler.
Normally the fuel cooled oil cooler is sufficieni to cool the oil on its own, but in the event
that it proves inadequate a valve opens automatically and brings the air cooled oil cooler into
operation as well.
As has been seen previously, air pressure escaping from seals cannot be allowed to build
up within the engine and it is vented through the hollow shaft between the intermediate gearbox
and the external gearbox, leaving the latter via the centrifugal breather.
OIL COOLERS

Oil coolers can be either air cooled or fuel cooled, some engines use both systems. If an
engine does use both air and fuel to cool the oil, the oil temperature can be monitored electronically
and the air cooler switched in only when necessary. This maintains the oil temperature at a figure
which improves the thermal efficiency of the engine.
Whether it is fuel or air cooled, the oil cooler is basically a radiator which exchanges heat
from one medium to another.
The fuel cooled oil cooler has a double benefit, the fuel in the aircraft wing tanks is inevitably
very cold and requires warming up before it gets to the fuel filter, the oil is hot and requires
cooling, this device allows both requirements to be carried out within it, a rare chance of
achieving two for the price of one. Incorporated in the fuel cooled oil cooler is an oil by-pass
valve, this is fitted across the oil inlet and outlet.

MAGNETIC CHIP DETECTORS

Chip detectors, which are magnetic plugs, are fitted into the scavenge lines to collect
ferrous material from the oil as it returns to the scavenge pumps.
Aircraft Propellers
The propeller, the unit that must absorb the power output of the engine, has passed through many
stages of development. Although most propellers are two-bladed, great increases in power output have
resulted in the development of four-and six-bladed propellers of large diameters.

Propeller-driven aircraft have several advantages and are widely used for applications in turboprops
and reciprocating engine installations. Takeoff and landing can be shorter and less expensive.

Figure 1. Basic nomenclature of propellers

The basic nomenclature of the parts of a propeller is shown in Figure 1 for a simple fixed-pitch, two-
bladed wood propeller. The aerodynamic cross-section of a blade in Figure 2 includes terminology to
describe certain areas shown.

Figure 2. Cross-sectional area of a propeller blade airfoil

A basic constant-speed system consists of a flyweight-equipped governor unit that controls the pitch
angle of the blades so that the engine speed remains constant. The governor can be regulated by
controls in the cockpit so that any desired blade angle setting and engine operating speed can be
obtained. A low-pitch, high-rpm setting, for example, can be utilized for takeoff. Then, after the
aircraft is airborne, a higher pitch and lower rpm setting can be used. Figure 3 shows normal propeller
movement with the positions of low pitch, high pitch, feather (used if the engine quits to reduce drag),
and zero pitch into negative pitch, or reverse pitch.
Figure 3. Propeller range positions

Basic Propeller Principles

The aircraft propeller consists of two or more blades and a central hub to which the blades are
attached. Each blade of an aircraft propeller is essentially a rotating wing. As a result of their
construction, the propeller blades produce forces that create thrust to pull or push the airplane through
the air. The power needed to rotate the propeller blades is furnished by the engine.

The propeller is mounted on a shaft, which may be an extension of the crankshaft on low-horsepower
engines; on high-horsepower engines, it is mounted on a propeller shaft that is geared to the engine
crankshaft. In either case, the engine rotates the airfoils of the blades through the air at high speeds,
and the propeller transforms the rotary power of the engine into thrust.

Propeller Aerodynamic Process

An airplane moving through the air creates a drag force opposing its forward motion. If an
airplane is to fly on a level path, there must be a force applied to it that is equal to the drag
but acting forward. This force is called thrust. The work done by thrust is equal to the thrust
times the distance it moves the airplane.

Work = Thrust × Distance

The power expended by thrust is equal to the thrust times the velocity at which it moves the
airplane.

Power = Thrust × Velocity

If the power is measured in horsepower units, the power expended by the thrust is termed
thrust horsepower.

The engine supplies brake horsepower through a rotating shaft, and the propeller converts it
into thrust horsepower. In this conversion, some power is wasted. For maximum efficiency,
the propeller must be designed to keep this waste as small as possible. Since the efficiency of
any machine is the ratio of the useful power output to the power input, propeller efficiency is
the ratio of thrust horsepower to brake horsepower. The usual symbol for propeller efficiency
is the Greek letter η (eta). Propeller efficiency varies from 50 percent to 87 percent,
depending on how much the propeller slips.
Figure 1. Effective pitch and geometric pitch

The simplest way to explain prop slip is to think of a screw. Each time a screw makes a complete
turn, it has completed a ―pitch.‖ Pitch is the distance the screw traveled during one complete turn.
A propeller turns in much the same way and also has a pitch. The problem is that water produces
drag against the boat and propeller, so the propeller never actually reaches its full pitch. The lost
distance of the pitch due to drag is called the propeller slip, or prop slip for short. Reducing the
prop slip results in enhanced performance and fuel efficiency.

Geometric pitch – Effective pitch = slip

Geometric pitch is usually expressed in pitch inches and calculated by using the following
formula:

GP = 2 × π R × tangent of blade angle at 75 percent station

R = Radius at the 75 percent blade station

π = 3.14

Although blade angle and propeller pitch are closely related, blade angle is the angle between
the face or chord of a blade section and the plane in which the propeller rotates. [Figure 2]
Blade angle, usually measured in degrees, is the angle between the chordline of the blade and
the plane of rotation. The chordline of the propeller blade is determined in about the same
manner as the chordline of an airfoil. In fact, a propeller blade can be considered as being
composed of an infinite number of thin blade elements, each of which is a miniature airfoil
section whose chord is the width of the propeller blade at that section. Because most
propellers have a flat blade face, the chord line is often drawn along the face of the propeller
blade.
 Figure 2. Propeller aerodynamic factors

The typical propeller blade can be described as a twisted airfoil of irregular planform. Two
views of a propeller blade are shown in Figure 3. For purposes of analysis, a blade can be
divided into segments that are located by station numbers in inches from the center of the
blade hub. The cross-sections of each 6-inch blade segment are shown as airfoils in the right
side of Figure 3. Also identified in Figure 3 are the blade shank and the blade butt. The blade
shank is the thick, rounded portion of the propeller blade near the hub and is designed to give
strength to the blade. The blade butt, also called the blade base or root, is the end of the blade
that fits in the propeller hub. The blade tip is that part of the propeller blade farthest from the
hub, generally defined as the last 6 inches of the blade.

Figure 3. Typical propeller blade elements

A cross-section of a typical propeller blade is shown in Figure 4. This section or blade
element is an airfoil comparable to a cross-section of an aircraft wing. The blade back is the
cambered or curved side of the blade, similar to the upper surface of an aircraft wing. The
blade face is the flat side of the propeller blade. The chord line is an imaginary line drawn
through the blade from the leading edge to the trailing edge. The leading edge is the thick
edge of the blade that meets the air as the propeller rotates.

Figure 4. Cross-section of a propeller blade

A rotating propeller is acted upon by centrifugal twisting, aerodynamic twisting, torque

bending, and thrust bending forces. The principal forces acting on a rotating propeller are
illustrated in Figure 5.

Figure 5. Forces acting on a rotating propeller

Centrifugal force is a physical force that tends to throw the rotating propeller blades away
from the hub. [Figure 5A] This is the most dominant force on the propeller. Torque bending
force, in the form of air resistance, tends to bend the propeller blades in the direction opposite
that of rotation. [Figure 5B] Thrust bending force is the thrust load that tends to bend
propeller blades forward as the aircraft is pulled through the air. [Figure 5C] Aerodynamic
twisting force tends to turn the blades to a high blade angle. [Figure 5D] Centrifugal twisting
force, being greater than the aerodynamic twisting force, tends to force the blades toward a
low blade angle.

At least two of these forces acting on the propellers blades are used to move the blades on a
controllable pitch propeller. Centrifugal twisting force is sometimes used to move the blades
to the low pitch position, while aerodynamic twisting force is used to move the blades into
high pitch. These forces can be the primary or secondary forces that move the blades to the
new pitch position.
A propeller must be capable of withstanding severe stresses, which are greater near the hub,
caused by centrifugal force and thrust. The stresses increase in proportion to the rpm. The
blade face is also subjected to tension from the centrifugal force and additional tension from
the bending. For these reasons, nicks or scratches on the blade may cause very serious
consequences. These could lead to cracks and failure of the blade.

A propeller must also be rigid enough to prevent fluttering, a type of vibration in which the
ends of the blade twist back and forth at high frequency around an axis perpendicular to the
engine crankshaft. Fluttering is accompanied by a distinctive noise, often mistaken for
exhaust noise. The constant vibration tends to weaken the blade and eventually causes failure.

To understand the action of a propeller, consider first its motion, which is both rotational and
forward. Thus, as shown by the vectors of propeller forces in Figure 6, a section of a
propeller blade moves downward and forward. As far as the forces are concerned, the result
is the same as if the blade were stationary and the air coming at it from a direction opposite
its path. The angle at which this air (relative wind) strikes the propeller blade is called angle
of attack (AOA). The air deflection produced by this angle causes the dynamic pressure at the
engine side of the propeller blade to be greater than atmospheric pressure, creating thrust.

Figure 6. Propeller forces

The shape of the blade also creates thrust because it is shaped like a wing. As the air flows
past the propeller, the pressure on one side is less than that on the other. As in a wing, this
difference in pressure produces a reaction force in the direction of the lesser pressure. The
area above a wing has less pressure, and the force (lift) is upward. The area of decreased
pressure is in front of a propeller which is mounted in a vertical instead of a horizontal
position, and the force (thrust) is in a forward direction. Aerodynamically, thrust is the result
of the propeller shape and the AOA of the blade.
The blade angle is also an excellent method of adjusting the AOA of the propeller. On constant-speed
propellers, the blade angle must be adjusted to provide the most efficient AOA at all engine and
airplane speeds.
Types of Aircraft Propellers
There are various types or classes of propellers, the simplest of which are the fixed-pitch and ground-
adjustable propellers. The complexity of propeller systems increases from these simpler forms to
controllable-pitch and complex constant-speed systems (automatic systems).

Fixed-Pitch Propeller
As the name implies, a fixed-pitch propeller has the blade pitch, or blade angle, built into the
propeller. [Figure 1] The blade angle cannot be changed after the propeller is built. Generally, this
type of propeller is one piece and is constructed of wood or aluminum alloy.

Figure 1. Fixed-pitch propeller

Fixed-pitch propellers are designed for best efficiency at one rotational and forward speed. They are
designed to fit a set of conditions of both airplane and engine speeds and any change in these
conditions reduces the efficiency of both the propeller and the engine. The fixed-pitch propeller is
used on airplanes of low power, speed, range, or altitude. Many single-engine aircraft use fixed-pitch
propellers and the advantages to these are less expense and their simple operation. This type of
propeller does not require any control inputs from the pilot in flight.

Ground-Adjustable Propeller

The ground-adjustable propeller operates as a fixed-pitch propeller. The pitch, or blade angle, can be
changed only when the propeller is not turning. This is done by loosening the clamping mechanism
that holds the blades in place. After the clamping mechanism has been tightened, the pitch of the
blades cannot be changed in flight to meet variable flight requirements. The ground-adjustable
propeller is not often used on present-day airplanes.

Controllable-Pitch Propeller

The controllable-pitch propeller permits a change of blade pitch, or angle, while the propeller is
rotating. This allows the propeller to assume a blade angle that gives the best performance for
particular flight conditions. The number of pitch positions may be limited, as with a two-position
controllable propeller, or the pitch may be adjusted to any angle between the minimum and maximum
pitch settings of a given propeller. The use of controllable-pitch propellers also makes it possible to
attain the desired engine rpm for a particular flight condition.

This type of propeller is not to be confused with a constant-speed propeller. With the controllable-
pitch type, the blade angle can be changed in flight, but the pilot must change the propeller blade
angle directly. The blade angle will not change again until the pilot changes it. The use of a governor
is the next step in the evolution of propeller development, making way for constant-speed propellers
with governor systems.

Constant-Speed Propellers

The propeller has a natural tendency to slow down as the aircraft climbs and to speed up as the aircraft
dives because the load on the engine varies. To provide an efficient propeller, the speed is kept as
constant as possible. By using propeller governors to increase or decrease propeller pitch, the engine
speed is held constant. When the airplane goes into a climb, the blade angle of the propeller decreases
just enough to prevent the engine speed from decreasing. The engine can maintain its power output if
the throttle setting is not changed. When the airplane goes into a dive, the blade angle increases
sufficiently to prevent overspeeding and, with the same throttle setting, the power output remains
unchanged. If the throttle setting is changed instead of changing the speed of the airplane by climbing
or diving, the blade angle increases or decreases as required to maintain a constant engine rpm. The
power output (not the rpm) changes in accordance with changes in the throttle setting. The governor-
controlled, constant-speed propeller changes the blade angle automatically, keeping engine rpm
constant.

The governors used to control hydraulic pitch-changing mechanisms are geared to the engine
crankshaft and are sensitive to changes in rpm. When rpm increases above the value for
which a governor is set, the governor causes the propeller pitch-changing mechanism to turn
the blades to a higher angle. This angle increases the load on the engine, and rpm decreases.
When rpm decreases below the value for which a governor is set, the governor causes the
pitch-changing mechanism to turn the blades to a lower angle; the load on the engine is
decreased, and rpm increases. Thus, a propeller governor tends to keep engine rpm constant.
In constant-speed propeller systems, the control system adjusts pitch through the use of a
governor, without attention by the pilot, to maintain a specific preset engine rpm within the
set range of the propeller. For example, if engine speed increases, an overspeed condition
occurs and the propeller needs to slow down. The controls automatically increase the blade
angle until desired rpm has been re-established. A good constant-speed control system
responds to such small variations of rpm that for all practical purposes, a constant rpm is
maintained.

Feathering Propellers

Feathering propellers must be used on multi-engine aircraft to reduce propeller drag to a minimum
under one or more engine failure conditions. A feathering propeller is a constant-speed propeller used
on multi-engine aircraft that has a mechanism to change the pitch to an angle of approximately 90°. A
propeller is usually feathered when the engine fails to develop power to turn the propeller. By rotating
the propeller blade angle parallel to the line of flight, the drag on the aircraft is greatly reduced. With
the blades parallel to the airstream, the propeller stops turning and minimum windmilling, if any,
occurs. The blades are held in feather by aerodynamic forces.