Directional Over-current Protection

The over-current protection can be given directional feature by adding

directional element in the protection system. Directional over-current
protection responds to over-currents for a particular direction flow. If power
flow is in the opposite direction, the directional over-current protection
remains un-operative.

Directional over-current protection comprises over-current relay and power

directional relay- in a single relay casing. The power directional relay does
not measure the power but is arranged to respond to the direction of power
flow.

Directional operation of relay is used where the selectivity can be achieved

by directional relaying. The directional relay recognizes the direction in
which fault occurs, relative to the location of the relay. It is set such that it
actuates for faults occurring in one direction only. It does not act for faults
occurring in the other direction. Consider a feeder AC (Fig. 9) passing
through sub-section B. The circuit breaker CB3 is provided with a
directional

(Fig. 9) Principle of directional protection

Relay `R' which will trip the breaker CB3 if fault power flow in direction
C alone. Therefore for faults in feeder AB, the circuit breaker CB3 does not
trip unnecessarily. However for faults in feeder BC the circuit-
breaker CB3 trips
Because it's protective relaying is set with a directional feature to act in
direction AC
Another interesting example of directional protection is that of reverse
power protection of generator (Fig. 10). If the prime mover fails, the
generator continues to run as a motor and takes power from bus-bars.
 (Fig. 10) Reverse powers protection
against motoring action of a generator
Directional power protection operates in accordance with the direction of
power flow.
Reverse power protection operates when the power direction is reversed in
relation to the normal working direction. Reverse power relay is different in
construction than directional over-current relay.
In directional over-current relay, the directional element does not measure
the magnitude of power. It senses only direction of power flow. However, in
Reverse Power Relays, the directional element measures magnitude and
direction of power flow.

 Relay connections of Single Phase Directional Over-current

Relay :

The current coils in the directional over-current relay are normally

connected to a secondary of line CT. The voltage coil of directional element
is connected to a line VT, having phase to phase output (of 110 V). There are
four common methods of connecting the relay depending upon phase angle
between current in the current coil and voltage applied to the voltage coil.

Fig.11 Numerical Over

current, and Overload
Protection Relay

3-Phase Directional over current relays

When fault current can flow in both directions through the relay location,
it is necessary to make the response of the relay directional by the
introduction of directional control elements. These are basically power
measuring devices in which the system voltage is used as a reference for
establishing the relative direction or phase of the fault current.
Although power measuring devices in principle, they are not arranged to
respond to the actual system power for a number of reasons:

1. The power system, apart from loads, is reactive so that the fault
power factor is usually low. A relay

V a , Vb and Vc. Normal system

voltages
V b 1 and V c 1 Voltages at fault
location on faulted phases
V b 2 and V c 2 Voltages remote
from fault location

Fig.12 Phase voltages for a

B-C fault

Responding purely to the active component would not develop a high

torque and might be much slower and less decisive than it could be.
1. The system voltage must collapse at the point of short circuit.
When the fault is single-phase, it is the particular voltage across
the short-circuited points which are reduced. So a B—C phase
fault will cause the B and C phase voltage vectors to move
together, the locus of their ends being the original line be for a
homogeneous system, as shown in (Fig.12)
At the point of fault the vectors will coincide, leaving zero voltage across
the fault, but the fault voltage to earth will be half the initial phase to
neutral voltage. At other points in the system the vector displacement
will be less, but relays located at such points will receive voltages
which are unbalanced in their value and phase position.

The effect of the large unbalance in currents and voltages is to make

the torques developed by the different phase elements vary widely and
even differ in sign if the quantities applied to the relay are not chosen
carefully. To this end, each phase of the relay is polarized with a voltage
which will not be reduced excessively except by close three-phase
faults, and which will remain in a satisfactory relationship to the current
under all conditions.



Relay connections

This is the arrangement whereby suitable current and voltage quantities

are applied to the relay. The various connections are dependent on the
phase angle, at unity system power factor, by which the current and
voltage applied to the relay are displaced.

 Relay maximum torque

The maximum torque angle (MTA) is defined as the angle by which the
current applied to the relay must be displaced from the voltage applied
to the relay to produce maximum torque.
Although the relay element may be inherently wattmetric, its
characteristic can be varied by the addition of phase shifting com-
ponents to give maximum torque at the required phase angle.
A number of different connections have been used and these are
discussed below. Examination of the suitability of each arrangement
involves determining the limiting conditions of the voltage and current
applied to each phase element of the relay, for all fault conditions,
taking into account the possible range of source and line impedances.

 30° relay connection (0° MTA)

The A phase relay is supplied with current la and voltage V ac. In this
case, the flux due to the voltage coil lags the applied V ac voltage by 90°,
so the maximum torque occurs when the current lags the system phase
to neutral voltage by 30°. For unity power factor and 0 .5 lagging power
factor the maximum torque available is 0 .866 of maximum. Also, the
potential coil voltage lags the current in the current coil by 30° and
gives a tripping zone from 60° leading to 120° lagging currents, as
shown in (Fig. 13a).

The most satisfactory maximum torque angle for this connection, that
ensures correct operation when used for the protection of plain feeders,
is 0°, and it can be shown that a directional element having this
connection and 0° MTA will provide correct discrimination for all types
of faults, when applied to plain feeders
If applied to transformer feeders, however, there is a danger that at least
one of the three phase relays will operate for faults in the reverse
direction; for this reason a directional element having this connection
should never be used to protect transformer feeders.
This connection has been used widely in the past, and it is satisfactory
under all conditions for plain feeders provided that three phase
elements are employed. When only two phase elements and an earth
fault element are used there is a probability of failure to operate for one
condition. An inter-phase short circuit causes two elements to be
energized but for low power factors one will receive inputs which,
although correct, will produce only a poor torque. In particular a B—
C fault will strongly energize the B element with lb current and
Vba voltage, but the C element will receive I c and the collapsed
Vcb voltage, which quantities have a large relative phase displacement,
as shown in (Fig. 13b). This is satisfactory provided that three phase
elements are used, but in the case of a two phase and one earth fault
element relay, with the B phase element omitted, operation will depend
upon the C element, which may fail to operate if the fault is close to the
relaying point.

A phase element connected l a Va c

B phase element connected l b Vb a
C phase element connected Ic Vcb
(a) Characteristic and inputs
for phase A element
 (b) B-C Fault with voltage
distortion

(Fig. 13) Vector diagrams for the 30°

connection

 60° No. 1 connection (0° MTA)

The A phase relay is supplied with lab current and Vac voltage. In this
case, the flux due to the voltage coil lags the applied voltage to the
relay by 90°, so maximum torque is produced when the current lags the
system phase to neutral voltage by 60°. This connection, which
uses Vac voltage with delta current produced by adding phase A and
phase B currents at unity power factor, gives a current leading the
voltage Vac by 60°, and provides a correct directional tripping zone over
a current range of 30° leading to 150° lagging. The torque at unity power
factor is 0.5 of maximum torque and at zero power factor lagging 0 .866;
see (Fig.14).
It has been proved that the most suitable maximum torque angle for this
relay connection, that is, one which ensures correct directional
discrimination with the minimum risk of mal-operation when applied to
either plain or transformer feeders, is 0°.
When used for the protection of plain feeders there is a slight
possibility of the element associated with the A phase mal-operating for
a reversed B—C fault.
 A phase element connected la b Va c
B phase element connected I b c V b a
C phase element connected Ic a Vcb

(Fig.14) Vector diagram for the 60°

No. 1 connection
(phase A element)
However, although the directional element may mal-operation, it is
unlikely that the over current element which the directional element
controls will receive sufficient current to cause it to operate. For this
reason the connection may be safely recommended for the protection of
plain feeders.
When applied to transformer feeders there is a possibility of one of the
directional elements mal-operation for an earth fault on the star side of
a delta/star transformer, remote from the relay end. For mal-operation to
occur, the source impedance would have to be relatively small and have
a very low angle at the same time that the arc resistance of the fault was
high. The possibility of mal-operation with this connection is very
remote, for two reasons: first, in most systems the source impedance
may be safely assumed to be largely reactive, and secondly, if the arc
resistance is high enough to cause mal-operation of the directional
element it is unlikely that the over current element associated with the
mal-operation directional element will see sufficient current to operate.
The connection, however, does suffer from the disadvantage that it is
necessary to connect the current transformers in delta, which usually
precludes their being used for any other protective function. For this
reason, and also because it offers no advantage over the 90°
connection, it is rarely used.
 



 60° No. 2 connection (0° MTA)
The A phase relay is supplied with current la and voltage In this
case, the flux of the voltage coil lags the applied voltage by 90°
so the maximum torque is produced when the current lags the
system phase to neutral voltage by 60°. This connection gives

A phase element connected Ia —Vc

B phase element connected Ib — Va
C phase element connected Ic —Vb

(Fig.15) Vector diagram for the 60° No.

2 connection
(phase A element).
a correct directional tripping zone over the current range of 30°
leading to 150° lagging. The relay torque at unity power factor is
0.5 of the relay maximum torque and at zero power factor lagging
0.866; see (Fig.15).
The most suitable maximum torque angle for a directional
element using this connection is 0°. However, even if this
maximum torque angle is used, there is a risk of incorrect
operation for all types of faults with the exception of three-phase
faults. For this reason, the 60° No. 2 connection is now never
recommended.

A phase element connected Ia Vbc

B phase element connected Ib Vca
C phase element connected Ic Vab
(Fig.16) Vector diagram for the 90°-
30° connection
(Phase A element)

 90° relay quadrature connection

This is the standard connection for the type CDD relay;
depending on the angle by which the applied voltage is shifted to
produce the relay maximum torque angle, two types are available.

 90°- 30° characteristic (30° MTA)

The A phase relay is supplied with la current and Vbc voltage
displaced by 30° in an anti-clockwise direction. In this case, the
flux due to the voltage coil lags the applied voltageVbc by 60°, and
the relay maximum torque is produced when the current lags the
system phase to neutral voltage by 60°. This connection gives a
correct directional tripping zone over the current range of 30°
leading to 150° lagging; see (Fig.16). The relay torque at unity
power factor is 0.5 of the relay maximum torque and at zero power
factor lagging 0 .866. A relay designed .for quadrature connection
and having a maximum torque angle of 30° is recommended when
the relay is used for the protection of plain feeders with the zero
sequence source behind the relaying point.

 90°- 45° characteristic (45° MTA)

The A phase relay is supplied with current la and voltage
Vbc displaced by 45° in an anti-clockwise direction. In this case,
the flux due to the voltage coil lags the applied voltage V bc by 45°,
and the relay maximum torque is produced when the current lags
the system phase to neutral voltage by 45°. This connection gives
a correct directional tripping zone over the current range of 45°
leading to 135° lagging.

The relay torque at unity power factor is 0 .707 of the maximum

torque and the same at zero power factor lagging; see (Fig.17).

A phase element connected Ia ,Vbc

B phase element connected Ih Vca
C phase element connected Ic Vab
(Fig.17) Vector diagram for the
90°-45° connection
(Phase A element)

This connection is recommended for the protection of transformer

feeders or feeders which have a zero sequence source in front of
the relay. The 90°- 45° connection is essential in the case of
parallel trans-formers or transformer feeders, in order to ensure
correct relay operation for faults beyond the star/ delta
transformer. This connection should also be used whenever
single-phase directional relays are applied to a circuit
Theoretically, three fault conditions can cause mal-operation of
the directional element: a phase-phase ground fault on a plain
feeder, a phase-ground fault on a transformer feeder with the zero
sequence source in front of the relay and a phase-phase fault on a
power transformer with the relay looking into the delta winding of
the transformer.

It should be remembered, however, that the conditions assumed

above to establish the maximum angular displacement between
the current and voltage quantities at the relay, are such that, in
practice, the magnitude of the current input to the relay would be
insufficient to cause the over current element to operate. It can be
shown analytically that the possibility of mal-operation with the
90°- 45° connection is, for all practical purposes, non-existent.

(Fig.18) Directional relays applied to

parallel feeders.

Parallel feeders
If non-directional relays are applied to parallel feeders, any faults that
might occur on any one line will, regardless of the relay settings used,
isolate both lines and completely disconnect the power supply. With
this type of system configuration it is necessary to apply directional
relays at the receiving end and to grade them with the non-directional
relays at the sending end, to ensure correct discriminative operation of
the relays during line . faults. This is done by setting the directional
relays R'1 and R'2 as shown in (Fig.18) with their directional elements
looking into the protected line, and giving them lower time and current
settings than relays R1 and R2. The usual practice is to set
relays R'1 and R'2 to 50% of the normal full load of the protected circuit
and 0.1 TMS, but care must be taken to ensure that their
continuous thermal rating of twice rated current is not exceeded.

 Ring mains

Directional relays are more commonly applied to ring mains. In the case
of a ring main fed at one point only, the relays at the supply end and at
the mid-point substation, where the setting of both relays are identical,
can be made non-directional, provided that in the latter case the relays
are located on the same feeder, that is, one at each end of the feeder.

It is interesting to note that when the number of feeders round the ring is
an even number, the two relays with the same operating time are at the
same substation and will have to be directional, whereas when the
number of feeders is an odd number, the two relays with the same
operating time are at different substations and therefore do not need to
be directional.

It may also be noted that, at inter-mediate substations, whenever the

operating times of the relays at each substation are different, the
difference between their operating times is never less than the grading
margin, so the relay with the longer operating time can be non-
directional.

 Grading of ring mains

The usual procedure for grading relays in an inter-connected system is

to open the ring at the supply point and to grade the relays first
clockwise and then anti-clockwise; that is, the relays looking in a clock-
wise direction round the ring are arranged to operate in the sequence 1—
2—3—4—5—6 and the relays looking in the anti-clockwise direction are
arranged to operate in the sequence 1'—2'—3'—4'—5'—6', as shown in
(Fig.19)
 (Fig.19) Grading of ring mains

The arrows associated with the relaying points indicate the direction of
current flow that will cause the relays to operate.

A double-headed arrow is used to indicate a non-directional relay, such

as those at the supply point where the power can flow only in one
direction, and a single-headed arrow a directional relay, such as those at
intermediate substations around the ring where the power can flow in
either direction. The directional relays are set in accordance with the
invariable rule, applicable to all forms of directional protection that the
current in the system must flow from the substation bus-bars into the
protected line in order that the relays may operate.
Disconnection of the faulty line is carried out according to time and
fault current direction. As in any parallel system, the fault current has
two parallel paths and divides itself in the inverse ratio of
their impedances.

Thus, at each substation in the ring, one set of relays will be made
inoperative because of the direction of current flow, and the other set
operative. It will also be found that the operating times of the relays that
are inoperative are faster than those of the operative relays, with the
exception of the mid-point substation, where the operating times of
relays 3 and 3' happen to be the same.

The relays which are operative are graded downwards towards the fault
and the last to be affected by the fault operates first. This applies to
both paths to the fault. Consequently, the faulty line is the only one to
be disconnected from the ring and the power supply is maintained to all
the substations.

When two or more power sources feed into a ring main, time graded
over current protection is difficult to apply and full discrimination may
not be possible. With two sources of supply, two solutions are possible.
The first is to open the ring at one of the supply points, whichever is
more convenient, by means of a suitable high set instantaneous over-
current relay and then to proceed to grade the ring as in the case of a
single infeed, the second to treat the section of the ring between the
two supply points as a continuous bus separate from the ring and to
protect it with a unit system of protection, such as pilot wire relays, and
then proceed to grade the ring as in the case of a single infeed.

Directional Earth-Fault Protection

In the directional over-current protection the current coil of relay is
actuated from secondary current of line CT. whereas the current coil of
directional earth fault relay is actuated by residual current.

In directional over-current relay, the voltage coil is actuated by secondary of

line VT. In directional earth fault relay, the voltage coil is actuated by
the residual voltage. Directional earth fault relays sense the direction in
which earth fault occurs with respect to the relay location and it operates for
fault in a particular direction. The directional earth fault relay (single phase
unit) has two coils. The polarizing quantity is obtained either from residual
current

I RS = (Ia + Ib + Ic)

or residual voltage VRs = V a + V b + V c

Where V a , V b and Vc are phase voltages.

Referring to (Fig. 11) the directional earth-fault relay has two coils. One
to the coils is connected in residual current circuits (Ref. Fig. 5). This coil
gets current during earth-faults. The other coil gets residual voltage,

V RS= V a + V b + V c
Where V a , V b a n d V c are secondary voltages of the potential transformer

('Three phase five limb potential transformer or three separate single

phase potential transformers connected as shown in Fig. 20). The coil
connected in potential-transformer secondary circuit gives a polarizing
field.

(Fig. 20) Connections of a directional

earth-fault relay.
The residual current I RS i.e. the out of balance current is given to the current
coil and the residual voltage VRs is given to the voltage coil of the relay. The
torque is proportional to
T = I RS * V RS * cos (Φ - α)
Φ = angle between I RS and VRs
α = angle of maximum torque.

 Summary
Over-current protection responds to increase in current above the pick-
up value over-currents are caused by overloads and short-circuits.
The over-current relays are connected the secondary of current
transformer. The characteristic of over-current relays include inverse time
characteristic, definite time characteristic.
Earth fault protection responds to single line to ground faults and
double line to ground faults. The current coil of earth-fault relay is connected
either in neutral to ground circuit or in residually connected secondary CT
circuit.
Core balance CTs are used for earth-fault protection.
Frame leakage protection can be used for metal clad switchgear.
Directional over-current relay and Directional Earth fault relay responds to
fault in which power flow is in the set direction from the CT and PT
locations. Such directional relays are used when power can flow from both
directions to the fault point.
 Co-ordination
Correct current relay application requires knowledge of the fault current
that can flow in each part of the network. Since large scale tests are
normally impracticable, system analysis must be used. It is generally
sufficient to use machine transient reactance X' d and to work on the
instantaneous symmetrical currents. The data required for a relay setting
study are:
1. A one-line diagram of the power system involved, showing
the type and rating of the protective devices and their
associated current transformers.
2. The impedances in ohms, per cent or per unit, of all power
transformers, rotating machines and feeder circuits.
3. The maximum and minimum values of short circuit currents
that are expected to flow through each protective device.
4. The starting current requirements of motors and the starting
and stalling times of induction motors.
5. The maximum peak load current through protective devices.
6. Decrement curves showing the rate of decay of the fault
current supplied by the generators.
7. Performance curves of the current transformers.
8. The relay settings are first determined so as to give the
shortest operating times at maximum fault levels and then
checked to see if operation will also be satisfactory at the
minimum fault current expected. It is always advisable to
plot the curves of relays and other protective devices, such
as fuses, that are to operate in series, on a common scale. It
is usually more convenient to use a scale corresponding to
the current expected at the lowest voltage base or to use the
predominant voltage base. The alternatives are a common
MVA base or a separate current scale for each system
voltage.
9. The basic rules for correct relay co-ordination can generally
be stated as follows:
10. Whenever possible, use relays with the same operating
characteristic in series with each other.
11. Make sure that the relay farthest from the source has current
settings equal to or less than the relays behind it, that is, that the
primary current required operating the relay in front is always equal
to or less than the primary current required operating the relay
behind it.
  PRINCIPLES OF TIME/CURRENT GRADING
Among the various possible methods used to achieve correct relay co-
ordination are those using either time or over current or a combination of
both time and over-current. The common aim of all three methods is to
give correct discrimination. That is to say, each one must select and
isolate only the faulty section of the power system network, leaving the
rest of the system undisturbed.
1. Discrimination by time
In this method an appropriate time interval is given by each of the relays
controlling the circuit breakers in a power system to ensure that the
breaker nearest to the fault opens first. A simple radial distribution
system is shown in (Fig. 21) to illustrate the principle.

(Fig. 21) Radial systems with time

discrimination

Circuit breaker protection is provided at B, C, D and E, that is, at the

infeed end of each section of the power system. Each protection unit
comprises a definite time delay over current relay in which the operation
of the current sensitive element simply initiates the time delay element.
Provided the setting of the current element is below the fault current
valuethis element plays no part in the achievement of discrimination. For
this reason, the relay is sometimes described as an 'independent definite
time delay relay' since its operating time is for practical
purposes independent of the level of over current.

It is the time delay element, therefore, which provides the means of

discrimination. The relay at B is set at the shortest time delay
permissible to allow a fuse to blow for a fault on the secondary side of
trans-former A. Typically, a time delay of 0.25s is adequate.

If a fault occurs at F, the relay at B will operate in 0.25s, and the

subsequent operation of the circuit breaker at B will clear the fault before
the relays at C, D and E have time to operate. The main disadvantage of
this method of discrimination is that the longest fault clearance time
occurs for faults in the section closest to the power source, where the
fault level (MVA) is highest.
1. Discrimination by current

Discrimination by current relies on the fact that the fault current varies
with the position of the fault, because of the difference in impedance
values between the source and the fault. Hence, typically, the relays
controlling the various circuit breakers are set to operate at suitably
tapered values such that only the relay nearest to the fault trips its
breaker. (Fig. 22) illustrates the method.

(Fig. 22) Radial system with current

discrimination

For a fault at F1, the system short circuit current is given by:

I = 6350 /(Zs + ZL1) A

Where Zs = source impedance = 112 / 250 = 0.485 ohms

ZL1= cable impedance between C and B = 0.24 ohms
Hence I=6350/0.725 = 8800 A

So a relay controlling the circuit breaker at C and set to operate at a fault

current of 8800 A would in simple theory protect the whole of the cable
section between C and B. However, there are two important practical
points which affect this method of co-ordination.

1. It is not practical to distinguish between a fault at Fl and a

fault at F 2, since the distance between these points can be
only a few meters, corresponding to a change in fault
current of approximately 0 .1%.
2. In practice, there would be variations in the source fault
level, typically from 250 MVA to 130 MVA. At this lower fault
level the fault current would not exceed 6800 A even for a
cable fault close to C, so a relay set at 8800 A would not
protect any of the cable section concerned.
Discrimination by current is therefore not a practical proposition for
correct grading between the circuit breakers at C and B. However, the
problem changes appreciably when there is significant
impedance between the two circuit breakers concerned. This can be
seen by considering the grading required between the circuit breakers
at B and A in (Fig. 22).

Assuming a fault at F 4, the short-circuit current is given by:

I = 6350 /(Zs + ZL1 + ZL2 +ZT) A

Where
ZS = source impedance
=112 / 250 = 0 . 485 ohms

ZL1 = cable impedance between C and B 0.24 ohms

ZL2 = cable impedance between B and 4 MVA
transformer 0.04 ohms
ZT = transformer impedance
=0.07(112/4) =2.12 ohms
Hence I = 6350/ 2.885 = 2200 A

For this reason, a relay controlling the circuit breaker at B and set to
operate at a current of 2200 A plus a safety margin would not operate for
a fault at F 4 and would thus discriminate with the relay at A. Assuming a
safety margin of 20% to allow for relay errors and a further 10% for
variations in the system impedance values, it is reasonable to choose a
relay setting of 1.3 x 2200, that is, 2860 A for the relay at B. Now,
assuming a fault at F3, that is, at the end of the 11 kV cable feeding the
4 MVA transformers, the short-circuit current is given by:
I = 6350 /(Zs + ZL1 + ZL2 +ZT)
I = 6350 /(0.485 + 0.24 + 0.04)=8300 Amp.
Alternatively, assuming a source fault level of 130 MVA:
I = 6350 /(0.93 + 0.24 + 0.004)=5250 Amp.

In other words, for either value of source level, the relay at B would
operate correctly for faults anywhere on the 11 kV cable feeding the
transformer
 Discrimination by both time and current
3 Discrimination by both time and current

Each of the two methods described so far has a fundamental

disadvantage. In the case of discrimination by time alone, the
disadvantage is due to the fact that the more severe faults are cleared
in the longest operating time. Discrimination by current can only be
applied where there is appreciable impedance between the two circuit
breakers concerned.

It is because of the limitations imposed by the independent use of

either time or current co-ordination that the inverse time over current
relay characteristic has evolved. With this characteristic, the time of
operation is inversely proportional to the fault current level and the
actual characteristic is a function of both 'time' and 'current' settings.
The advantage of this method of relay
Co-ordination may be best illustrated by the system shown in (Fig.23)
which is identical to that shown in (Fig.21) except that typical system
parameters have been added.
In order to carry out a system analysis, before a relay co-ordination study
of the system shown in (Fig. 23), it is necessary to refer all the system
impedances to a common base and thus, using 10 MVA as the reference
base, we have:

4MVA transformer percentage impedance on 10MVA base=7X (10/4)

=17.5%
11 kV cable between B and A percentage impedance on10 MVA base

= (0.04 X 100 X 10) / 112= 0.33%

11 kV cable between C and B percentage impedance on 10 MVA base

= (0.24 X 100 X10) /112 =1.98 %

30 MVA transformer percentage impedance on 10 MVA base

=22.5 X 10 / 30 =7.5 %

132 kV overhead line percentage impedance on10 MVA base

= (6.2x100x10)/ 1322 =0.36%

1 3 2 kV source percentage impedance on 10 MVA base

= (100 x 10) /3500 =0.29%

The graph in (Fig.23) illustrates the use of 'discrimination curves', which

are an important aid to satisfactory protection co-ordination. In this
example, a voltage base of 3.3kV has been chosen and the first curve
plotted is that of the 200 A fuse, which is assumed to protect the largest
outgoing 3.3kV circuit. Once the operating characteristic of the highest
rated 3.3kV fuse has been plotted, the grading of the over current relays
at the various sub-stations of the radial system is carried out as follows:

Substation B
CT ratio 250/5A Relay over current characteristic assumed to
be extremely inverse, as for the type CDG 14 relay. This relay must
discriminate with the 200A fuse at fault levels up to:

(10 x 100) / (17.5+0.33+1.98+7.5+0.36+0.29) = 35.7 MVA

That is, 6260 A at 3.3kV or 1880 A at 11 kV. The operating characteristics

of the CDG 14 relay show that at a plug setting of 100%, that is, 250 A
and 4.76 MVA at 11 kV, and at a time multiplier setting of 0.2, suitable
discrimination with the 200 A fuse is achieved.

Substation C
CT ratio 500/5A Relay over current characteristic assumed to
be extremely inverse, as for the type CDG 14 relay. This relay must
discriminate with the relay in substation
B at fault levels up to:

(10 X 100) / (1.98 +7.5 +0.36 +0.29) = 98.7MVA

That is, 17,280 A at 3.3kV or 5180 A at 11 kV. The operating

characteristics of the CDG 14 relay show that at a plug setting of 100%,
that is, 500 A and 9.52 MVA at 11 kV, and at a time multiplier setting of
0.7, suitable discrimination with the relay at substation B is achieved.
 (Fig.23) Time and current grading
Substation D
CT ratio 150/1A Relay over current characteristic assumed to
be extremely inverse, as for the type CDG 14 relay. This relay must
discriminate with the relay in substation C at fault levels up to
 (10 X 100) / (7.5 + 0.36 + 0.29) = 123 MVA

That is, 21,500 A at 3.3kV or 538 A at 132 kV. The operating

characteristics of the CDG 14 relay show that at a plug setting of 100%,
that is, 150 A and 34.2 MVA at 132 kV and at a time multiplier setting of
0.25, suitable discrimination with the relay at substation C is achieved.

Substation E
CT ratio 500/1 A Relay over current characteristic assumed to
be extremely inverse, as for the type CDG 14 relay. This relay must
discriminate with the relay
in substation D at fault levels up to:

(10 x 100) / (0.36+ 0.29) = 1540 MVA

That is, 270,000 A at 3.3kV or 6750 A at 132 kV. The operating

characteristics of the CDG 14 relay show that at a plug setting of 100%,
that is, 500 A and 114 MVA at 132 kV, and at a time multiplier setting of
0.9, suitable discrimination with the relay at sub-station D is achieved.
A comparison between the relay operating times shown in (Fig. 21) and
the times obtained from the discrimination curves of (Fig. 23) at the
maximum fault level reveals significant differences. These differences
can be summarized as follows:

Relay Fault Time from Time from

level Fig.12 Fig.14
(MVA) (seconds) (seconds)
B 98.7 0.25 0.07
C 123 0.65 0.33
D 1540 1.05 0.07
E 3500 1.45 0.25

These figures show that for faults close to the relaying points the inverse
time characteristic can achieve appreciable reductions in fault clearance
times.
Even for faults at the remote ends of the protected sections, reductions
in fault clearance times are still obtained, as shown by the following
table:

Relay Fault Time from

level Fig.14
(MVA) (seconds)
B 35.7 0.17
C 98.7 0.42
 D 123 0.86
E 1540 0.39
To finalize the co-ordination study it is instructive to assess the average
operating time for each extremely inverse over current relay at its
maximum and minimum fault levels, and to compare these with the
operating time shown in (Fig.21) for the definite time over current relay.

Relay Fault level Time from Average

(Max./Min Fig.14 time
MVA) (seconds) (seconds)
(Max./ Min)
B 98.7/35.7 0.07/0.17 0.12
C 123/98.7 0.33/0.42 0.375
D 1540/123 0.07/0.86 0.465
E 3500/1540 0.25/0.39 0.32

This comparison clearly shows that when there is a large variation in

fault level all along the system network the overall performance of the
inverse time over current relay is far superior to that of the definite over
current relay.

4 GRADING MARGIN
The time interval between the operations of two adjacent relays depends
upon a number of factors:
1. The fault current interrupting time of the circuit breaker.
2. The overshoot time of the relay.
3. Errors.
4. Final margin on completion of operation.

A. Circuit breaker interrupting time

The circuit breaker interrupting the fault must have completely
interrupted the current before the discriminating relay ceases to be
energized.

B. Overshoot
When the relay is de-energized, operation may continue for a little longer
until any stored energy has been dissipated. For example, an induction
disc relay will have stored kinetic energy in the motion of the disc; static
relay circuits may have energy stored in capacitors. Relay design is
directed to minimizing and absorbing these energies, but some
allowance is usually necessary.
The overshoot time is not the actual time during which some forward
operation takes place, but the time which would have been required by
the relay if still energized to achieve the same amount of operational
advance.
 C. Errors
All measuring devices such as relays and current transformers are
subject to some degree of error. The operating time characteristic of
either or both relays involved in the grading may have a positive or
negative error, as may the current transformers, which can have phase
and ratio errors due to the exciting current required to magnetize their
core. Thisdoes not, however, apply to independent definite time delay
over current relays.
Relay grading and setting is carried out assuming the accuracy of the
calibration curves published by manufacturers, but since some error is to
be expected, some tolerance must be allowed.

D. Final margin
After the above allowances have been made, the discriminating relay
must just fail to complete its operation. Some extra allowance, or safety
margin, is required to ensure that a satisfactory contact gap (or
equivalent) remains.

E. Recommended time
The total amount to be allowed to cover the above items depends on the
operating speed of the circuit breakers and the relay performance. At
one time 0.5s was a normal grading margin. With faster modern circuit
breakers and lower relay overshoot times 0.4s is reasonable, while under
the best possible conditions 0.35s may be feasible.
In some instances, however, rather than using a fixed grading margin, it
is better to adopt a fixed time value, to allow for the operating time of the
circuit breaker and relay overshoot, and to add to it a variable time value
that takes into account the relay errors, the CT errors and the safety
margin.

A value of 0.25s is chosen for the fixed time value, made up of 0.1 s for
the fault current interrupting time of the circuit breaker, 0.05s for the
relay over-shoot time and 0.1 s for the safety margin. Considering next
the variable time values required, it is first assumed that each inverse
time over current relay complies with Error Class E7 .5 defined as normal
British practice in BS 142:1966.

The normal limits of error for an E7.5 relay are ±7.5% but allowance
should also be made for the effects of temperature, frequency, and
departure from reference setting. A practical approximation is to assume
a total effective error of 2 x 7.5, that is, 15%, this to apply to the relay
nearest to the fault, which shall be considered to be slow.
To this total effective error for the relay a further 10% should be added
for the overall currenttransformer error. Hence, for the time interval t'
required between inverse time over current relays it is proposed to adopt
the equation:

t' = 0.25t + 0.25 seconds

Where t = nominal operating time of relay nearer to the fault.

As far as the independent definite time delay over-current relays are

concerned, it is assumed that these comply with Error Class El 0, defined
as normal British practice in BS 142:1966. The normal limits of error for
an El 0 relay are ± 10%, but allowance should also be made for the
effects of temperature, voltage, frequency and departure from
referencesetting. A practical approximation is to assume a total effective
error of 2 x 10, that is, 20%, this to apply to the relay, nearest to the fault,
which shall be considered to be slow. However, unlike the inverse time
over current relay, it is not necessary to add a further error for the
current transformers. Hence, for the time interval t' required between
independent definite time delay over current relays, it is proposed to
adopt the equation:
t' = 0.2t + 0.25 seconds
Where t = nominal operating time of relay nearest to the fault.

 STANDARD I.D.M.T. OVER CURRENT RELAY (TYPE CDG 11)

Limits of accuracy have been considered by various national committees
and (Fig.24) shows a typical example of the limits set by the British
Standards Institution specification BS 142:1966 for the standard inverse
definite minimum time over current relay.
The discriminating curves shown in (Fig.25) illustrate the application of
such a relay to a sectioned radial feeder; it will be seen that with the
assumed relay settings and the tolerances allowed in BS 142:1966 the
permissible grading margin between the over current relays at each
section breaker is approximately 0.5s. With the increase in system fault
current it is desirable to shorten the clearance time for faults near the
power source, in order to minimize damage. It is therefore necessary to
reduce the time errors, which are in this situation disproportionately
large when compared with the clearance time of modern circuit breakers;
this can only be achieved by improving the limits of accuracy, pick-up
and overshoot
(Fig. 24) Typical limits of accuracy set by
BS 142: 1966 for an inverse
Definite Minimum Time over current relay

NORMAL BRITISH PRACTICE ACCURACY

CLASS E7.5% TIME/CURRENT
CHARACTERISTIC ALLOWABLE LIMIT
At 2 times setting 222E
At 5 times setting 1.13E
At 10 times setting 1.01E
At 20 times setting 1.00E

NOTE: The allowance error in operating time should not be less than 100ms

All this must be obtained without detriment to the general performance of

the relay; in other words, there must be no reduction in the operating
torque or weakening of the damper magnets or contact pressures, and the
construction must remain simple with the minimum number of moving
parts. While these requirements present considerable difficulties in
manufacture, owing to variations in materials and practical tolerances, the
progress made in the GEC Measurements relays has made it possible to
discriminate more closely by reducing the margin between both the
current and the time setting of the relays on adjacent breakers.
(Fig.25) application of an IDMT over current
relay to a sectioned
Radial feeder

These relays will thus enable the time setting of the relay nearest the
power source to be reduced, or, alternatively, make it possible to increase
the number
of breakers in series without increasing the time setting of the relays
at the power source.