GROUP 7: THE UNITED NATIONS MEETS THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY 5.

5. globalization has also unleashed many uncivil society forces like international terrorism; drugs,
people and gun trafficking; and illicit money flows
- The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization tasked with maintaining international
peace and security, developing friendly relations among nations, achieving international co-operation, and Global governance has demonstrated its value in a number of technical areas – such as:
being a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations.  rules and regulations for shipping international air flights,
- International Transaction is typically characterized by order, stability and predictability.  standardization of weather systems and statistics
- Global Governance is the sum of laws, norms, policies, and institutions that define, constitute and  documentation of epidemiological trends
mediate trans-border relations between states, cultures, citizens, intergovernmental organizations and the
market – the wielders and the objects of the exercise of international public power. In his classic Swords into Plowshares, Inis Claude (1971) identified three major
developments:
United Nations (UN) system with universal state membership and mechanisms for involving non-state 1. Congress of Vienna
actors comes as close as we have to a central clearing house for information and action. UN is both a global -A type of concert system of multilateral, high-level political gatherings. Established diplomacy
governance actor and site. by conference among the European powers.
Global giant- a powerful neighbor 2.The Hague system
-Whose goal was a universal membership conference system that would meet regularly to
1. Policy Innovation build a peaceful world politics based on law and reasoned deliberation, as well as to consider specific
- Peacekeeping does not appear in the UN charter, yet is the most characteristic UN activity in peace problems or crises.
and security. 3. Public international unions
2. Institutional Adaptation -Concert and The Hague reflected the significances of the quest for security and the
- Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO)= Peacebuilding Commission importance of high political issues, this third phenomenon was a manifestation of the increasing
3. Organizational Learning complexity of the economic, social, technical, and cultural interconnections of the peoples of the
-Brahimi Report of 2000= The best report of any on peacekeeping, most of whose modern world.
recommendations were accepted and have been implemented.
IDENTIFYING AND DIAGNOSING PROBLEMS, THE UN'SCOMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE
Systematic Factors a. The main gaps that the UN meets in the twenty-first century are those that it has confronted since
a. Nature of the state 1945:
b. Nature of power 1. knowledge
c. Nature of security and threats to international security 2. norms
3. policy
The vitality and survival of international organizations depend on two factors: 4. institutions
a. The capacity to change and adapt 5. compliance
b. Quality of their governance
b. Essential roles in identifying and diagnosing problems and thereby filling gaps:
Governance is as purposeful systems of rules or norms that ensure order beyond what occurs 1. managing knowledge- Process of creating, sharing, and using knowledge and information
‘naturally’. 2. developing norms- Once a threat or problem has been identified and diagnosed, the United
In 1992, James Rosenau and Ernst Czempiel published their theoretical collection of essays Governance Nations helps to solidify a new norm of behavior, often through the summit conferences and
without government. international panels and commissions.
In 1995 the policy-oriented Commission on Global Governance’s report Our Global Neighborhood was 3. promulgating recommendations-
published along with the first issue of the academic journal Global Governance Policy Stage - statement of principles and actions that an organization is likely to take in the
event of particular contingencies.
Globalization Civil Society -heart of global governance
- desirable and an irreversible engine of growth Non- Governmental Organization (NGO) -Roles were peripheral during Cold War because
- underpin growing prosperity and higher standards of living. member states attempted to marginalize non-state voices
- soft underbelly of corporate imperialism 4. institutionalizing ideas- In UN's history, several global institutions are working on significant
- plunders and ravages resources in the pursuit of unrestrained consumerism. aspects of solutions in every problem.

> Downsides of Globalization 3 Casual Pathways which Idea can Affect Policy:
1. the movement of people remains restricted and strictly regulated and, in the aftermath of a. Road maps that point actors in right direction
9/11, even more so. b. Affecting the choices of strategies
2. economic interdependence is highly asymmetrical c. Embedded institutions
3. compared to the post-war period, the average annual rate of world growth has steadily slowed
during the age of globalization. The UN's Role as 'Intellectual Actor' for Global Governance
4. and long before the Occupy Wall Street movement, there was growing divergence, not 1. Identifying and diagnosing problem
convergence, in income levels between countries and peoples. 2. Developing norms
 3. Formulating recommendation
Colonization = Civilization
> The French 'mission civilisatrice’
Declaration by UN on January 1, 1942 -colonization was a necessary tool for the spread of civilization. (Subjugation of vast parts of Africa and
- war-fighting-alliance and component for peace and prosperity Southeast Asia in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.)
>Prominent European international lawyers founded the Institute of International Law in 1873. Members
GROUP 8: THE FUTURE OF THE STATE were those whom they considered civilized and ‘barbaric races’ were outside the ambit of international law
a. Special Characteristics of Territorial State
Sovereign Territorial State or Nation State Georg Wilhelm Frederich Hegel
- a system of organization in which people with a common identity live inside a country with firm borders - Concept of Universal ‘Spirit’=This ‘Spirit’ propelled world history, leading humankind to higher levels
and a single government of consciousness.
1. it consists of a territory - World history began in Asia and finds it apotheosis in European civilization.
2. this territory is sovereign Walt Rostow: Modernization Theory
3. within its territory the state has the monopoly (the laws and the power of coercion) - An outline of historical progress in terms of society’s capacity to produce and consume material
4. the national state rules its citizen or subjects directly and not through intermediate authorities goods which became a key foreign policy concept of the Kennedy administration.
5. implies a certain degree of standardization or even homogenization in treatment of the inhabitants - Did not believe Africa was part of history
6. a nation-state composed of people without political rights or positive participation in its affairs is
possible Interstate Inequalities:
A. Decolonization - Decolonization produced states, now recognized as sovereign under the system of
b. Tendencies Affecting the Major State and Their Future international law promoted by the United Nations.
-The world at present is composed of just under 200 states B. Forced globalization
-25 states with population of over 50 million (three quarters of the global population Samuel Huntington (1996) – Theory of World Politics
-71 political units with population of less than 2.5 million “clash of civilizations is the main source of conflict in the post-cold war, rehashes many of
- 18 with less than 100,000 colonial stereotypes associated with the so-called backward civilizations.”
Francis Fukuyama - End of History Theory
Supranational Forces have weakened the state in three ways: “Complete triumph of Western capitalism and liberalism turns the West into the telos of political
1. Creation of Supranational Economy organization, which all must aspire to.”
- transactions are largely uncontrolled or even uncontrollable by states, restricts the capacity of states to Thomas Friedman – Binary between free trade and being left behind by the pace of international
direct national economies economic and technological developments.
2. Rise of Regional or Global Institutions Manfred Steger - contends that globalism is the dominant political belief system of our time against
- the state has been weakened by the rise of regional or global institutions to which individual states which all of its challengers must define themselves.
defer, either because they are too small to engage in effective international competition c. Poverty - The global south struggle for autonomous governance is largely waged as a struggle to
3. Technological Revolution in Transport and Communications democratize the state in order to make it responsive to the needs of people on the ground rather than the
- territorial borders have been made largely irrelevant demands of external power.

c. Two Unpromising Alternatives: Laissez Faire and 'Small is Beautiful' “Due to fast pace of globalization, poor countries can’t keep up therefore, are left behind.
-Laissez Faire 'Free Market’: ‘Let Alone Policy Consequently, the advancements made by the rich countries are being relied on by the poor countries.
-'Small is Beautiful’: Face to Face Communities The development of the poor country becomes stagnant because of dependency. This distinguishes
the Global North from the Global South.”
d. The Indispensable and Redistributive Function of the State
-Main Mechanism for Social Transfer ANTI-COLONIALISM
> Collecting appropriate fraction of economy’s total income - Notion of solidarity among colonized states.
> Distributing funds among population according to some criterions (Public interest, Common Welfare, - Was also an internationalist project.
and Social Needs) - Largely been a project of the political Left.
SOCIALIST INTERNATIONAL
e. The Uncertain Future - union of social democrats
- did not prioritize the struggle of colonized people in its policies.
GROUP 9: LOCATING THE GLOBAL SOUTH COMMUNIST INTERNATIONAL
GLOBAL SOUTH - Founded by in Vladimir Lenin in 1919.
> Is the imaginary sphere of developing countries/groups of people. - Alternative locus of socialist internationalism.
> “The Third World” - Lenin's views paved the way for theories that examined the world economic system in light of the
> Opposite of Global North which is the sphere of economically dominant countries/group of people. exploitative interactions between core and peripheral economies.
“The underdevelopment of certain states/people and their lack of representation in global political - In 1920, Comintern organized the Congress of the Peoples of the East in Caucasian town of Baku.
processes.”
 > The end of the Second World War was the highpoint of decolonization. - Southeast Asian ‘tigers’: Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore
> Since the creation of the United Nations in 1945, over 80 ex-colonies countries International
have gained Monetary Fund (IMF) initially designed to help rebuild Europe and provided crucial assistance
independence. It was through UN that the international law ceased to formally divide as well
the as
world
a foundation
into for the legitimacy of the authoritarian Suharto regime for Indonesia.
civilized and uncivilized nations.
- International Labor Organization (ILO) highlights how labor practices are undergoing
ASIAN-AFRICAN CONFERENCE significant changes
- Held in the Indonesian City of Bandung in 1955. (Bandung Conference) - The fall of the Suharto regime in Indonesia in 1999: Suharto step down in May 1998 when
- Brought together 29 Asian and African countries. the Asia Financial Crisis brought the country’s economy to its knees, large-scale protests, the
- Notable participants of Bandung Conference included present day heroes of Third World pantheons are: flight of capital and the lack of International support.
Sukarno [“We are united for instance, by a common destination of colonialism in whatever form it - Most prominent idea that globalization is a form of cultural Westernization or called as
appears. We are united by a common destination of racialism.”], Zhou Enlai, Gamal Abdel Nasser, McWorld.
Jawaharlal Nehru
- In the 1960-1970’s, the international Left’s interest in the post-colonial world intensifies. Generating Globalization: The Asia Pacific and South Asia as a Springboard
- The 1968 student protest in France drew inspiration not only from anarchist traditions from Mao Tse- > Asia Pacific and South Asia- engine for globalization
Tung’s peasant communism. > Spice Trade- drew European powers to the region
- The fall of Berlin Wall ended the cold war and paved the way for the withering of the second world. > Asia- site of the world’s most important trade routes
> Colonies- “laboratories of modernity” (Stoler, 2006)
> The “south” in “global south” does not only mean that the south is in the globe. It also signifies that > Colonial Policing- understood as a social experiment that transformed both the Philippine polity as well as
the south continues to be globalized. the US national security state
> The global south is not essentialist, nor does it premise the struggle for global, justice on common > China- one of the world’s largest importers of basic raw materials surpassing Japan, United States and
identities or cultures. Solidarities in the global south are based on common shifting causes. And yet, it is Europe
not an emotionally barren, transactional concept. From its very inception, it has premised one of the > India and China- become a major source of international migrant labor
most morally potent ideas of history: universal human equality. > Philippines- remittances from migrants are now equal to 11% of entire economy
> Regionalism- can act as a springboard for globalization
GROUP 10: GLOBALIZATION AND THE ASIA PACIFIC AND SOUTH ASIA > Open Regionalism- aims to develop and maintain cooperation with outside actors.
AN EXTERNALIST VIEW OF GLOBALIZATION > 1990 Ministerial Declaration- “it was desirable to reduce barriers to trade in goods and services among
> Externalism - a group of positions in the philosophy of mind which argues that the conscious mind is not participants”
only the result of what is going on inside the nervous system, but also what occurs or exists outside the
subject. The Anti Global Impulse: Regional Alternatives to Globalization
- One of the manifestations of this externalist discourse emerges from the historical narratives about > Globalization– the process by which businesses or other organizations develop international influence or
Western arrival to the Asia Pacific and South Asia. start operating on an international scale.
> JS Fumivall (1956) > Exceptionalism– is the perception or belief that a species, country, society, institution, movement,
- direct colonial rule: through colonial administrators’ indirect rule through native administrators. individual, or time period is ‘exceptional’ (i.e., unusual or extraordinary).
> Regionalism– the theory or practice of regional rather than central systems of administration or
19TH Century economic, cultural, or political affiliation.
- Japan which had been closed off during the reign of Tokugawa Shogunate was forced open by the “black > Japan Colonialism (1930s and 1940s)
ships” of Commodore Matthew Perry in the late 19th. - the propaganda during the time centered of the idea of ‘Asia for Asiatics’ and the need to ‘liberate’ the
- King Mongkut (Rama IV) and King Chulalongkorn (Rama V). Rama V is still remembered as a “Great region from Europe.
Modernizer”. - it was said by General Tojo that the Asia had a ‘spiritual essence’ that opposed the ‘materialistic
civilization of the West’.
19th and 20th Century > ‘open regionalism’- East Asian Economic Caucus (EAEC) 1990 is one such example
- movements for nationalism and independence. > Jemaah Islamiyah (JI)- is a Southeast Asian militant extremist Islamist rebel group dedicated to the
- these movements products of an increasingly globalized world. establishment of an Islamic state in Southeast Asia.
- roots of national identity lie in the rise of western industrialization and capitalism. > village of Santik Suk of Thailand created their own currencies. The currency is called ‘bia’ loosely
translated as ‘merit’ and operates through ‘central bank’ located in the village.
WWII > In Japan, Community Supported Agriculture (CSA) and the Seikatsu Club both encourage consumers to
- region comes to be at once integrated and influenced by external forces. buy ethically and locally.
- Rise of Japan and the bombing of Pearl Harbor marked the beginning of the end of Japan’s own imperial > In India including Lok Samiti group which advocates local village level education and development and
domination. campaigns against the Coca cola bottling plant in Mehdiganj.

After WWII GROUP 11: SEARCHING FOR A NEW ROLE IN EAST ASIAN REGIONALIZATION: JAPANESE
- The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) is a legal agreement between many countries, whose PRODUCTION NETWORKS IN THE ELECTRONICS INDUSTRY
overall purpose was to promote international trade by reducing or eliminating trade barriers such as
tariffs or quotas. 1. Global Production Network and Regionalization
 > REGIONALIZATION- is the integration, across national borders but within macro region, of markets for
goods, capital, services, knowledge and labors 4. Hybridization- Partnering with Asian Companies (wala sa ppt)

Who are the integrators? CORPORATIONS LESSON NI SIR PT1: NEOCOLONIALISM

What are the main drivers of regionalization? JAPANIZATION AND AMERICANIZATION Colonialism
> Ernst and Guerrieri (1998), corporate strategies, organization and investment decisions shape trade - Colonialism is a practice of domination, which involves the subjugation of one people to another
patterns and spatial division of labor of economic activities as well as the transfer of technology and Neocolonialism
knowledge diffusion. - An indirect form of control through economic or cultural dependence
> SPEED-TO-MARKET- getting the right product to the largest volume segment of the market right on time - Continues to actively control the affairs of the newly independent state
can provide huge profits - A system where Great Powers (past colonizers) maintain their exploitative relationship with past colonies
> VERTICAL SPECIALIZATION- capacity to selectively source specialized capabilities outside the firm, which Neocolonial Territories
range from simple contract assembly to quite sophisticated design capabilities - become the target market for imports from the imperial center
> Dependency Theory- Depicts a world made up of developmental inequities, noting that metropolitan
> FOUR CHARACTERISTICS OF GPNS THAT INFLUENCES REGIONALIZATION centers, in seeking to be even more developed, “underdeveloped” the peripheries through trade exploitation
1. Scope Peripheral Economies
2. asymmetry - Built upon a few commodities or single commodity
3. knowledge & diffusion - Dependent relationship with core economies that traces its roots to colonialism
4. information system - Mcdonaldization of Society
>It represents a loss of individual choice and creativity
2. Expanding and Upgrading Links with East Asia: Growing Dependence on East Asia >Assembly line production of food (from production to sales)
> Japan's electronics industry critically depends on East Asia: Korea, Taiwan, Hongkong, Singapore, Neocolonialism in Africa by Harold Nyikal
Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, Philippines - Neocolonialism as a new form of colonialism
> DEMAND-SIDE FACTORS- growing sophistication of Asian markets for electronic product and services - Western countries – masked under the pretext of economic support for Africa, directly enforced or
: Priorities for Future Network Expansion and Upgrading institutionalized in the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Trade Organization
> The emphasis is on trying to fine-tune the division of labor between domestic and overseas production, (WTO)
and on reducing reliance on traditional "keiretsu-type “. - The Policies- chained Africa to continue to be dependent on western economies for subsistence
> The rapid internationalization of Japan's domestic supplier base in the electronics industry indicates that - Prevents Self Help to the continent’s economic problems
the widely feared "hollowing out" has hit smaller specialized suppliers especially hard.
> Larger global players on the other hand are under tremendous pressure to combine the expansion of Neoliberal Globalization
production in Asia with a vigorous upgrading of their domestic production and innovation systems. I. Economic Liberalization
- Flooding the market with imported goods destroy local industries and livelihoods
3. Constraints to Change: Systematic Weaknesses - Increasing poverty and unemployment
a. Partial Convergence Persistent Divergence - Locally produced goods suffer from unfair competition by cheaper importers
- Imitation has been an important force of change yet, imitation has not transformed Japanese companies > Mary John Manazan: Group of Seven
and their EAPNs into clones of their American benchmark models. - Control the liberal capitalist market economy
b. Dispersed location - Represent the controlling power of advanced capitalist countries comprising of the G-7
- Japanese and US electronics firms invested heavily in mega plants in a few industrial sites in Malaysia, - G-7: Japan, USA, France, Germany, Great Britain, Canada, Italy
Taiwan, Singapore and Thailand. - Based on the premise that all will benefit from free trade ex. Food Insecurity in the Philippines
- RISK MINIMIZATION: limits the pursuit of vertical specialization, and this sets Japanese companies apart - Unregulated market cause the transnational corporations and richer foreign nations to control the
from their American and European counterparts. local market, forcing local production and local entrepreneurs out of the market.
c. Sales Neglect of Asian Markets
- Asia replaced united states as the main source of Japanese imports for computers, semiconductors, and : Distorted Structure of Economy Implied Two Things:
electronic components. a. Subordination- Reorganization of the economy that it will only produce primary goods for the
- To succeed in China’s telecommunications market, global companies must be willing to share their industrial West and the prevention of local industrialization
accumulated experience in providing “integrated solutions” for complex technology systems. b. External Orientation- Extreme dependency on overseas market,
- According to Davies et al. (2001) “integrated solutions” encompass sets of capabilities:
1. SYSTEM INTEGRATION- designing and integrating components and subsystems into a system II. Deregulation
2. OPERATIONAL SERVICES- maintaining, financing, renovating, and operating systems through the life - ‘neoliberal state’- peripheral neoliberal state since it becomes instrumental to neoliberal policies largely
cycle controlled by core –countries
3. BUSINESS CONSULTING- understanding a customer’s business and offering advice and solutions that
address a customer’s specific needs III. Privatization
4. FINANCE- providing a customer with help in purchasing new capital-intensive systems and managing - The core of IMF/WB’sstructural adjustment policies
a customer’s installed base of capital assets. - Trade liberalization and Market deregulation
 - Privatization of public utility Globalism wishes to spread goods and services.
- Eliminates public subsidies on social services and public sector corporations

IV. Labor Export

- Government strategy to pay debt and regulate unemployment
- Philippines – Top Labor Exporter (IBON 1998) A SENSE OF COMMUNITY IN RELIGION
Feminization of migrant labor – Filipino Women comprise majority of export labor (61% in 1998 and - Membership to a religious group, organization or cult represents a superior affiliation that
70% in 2000) connects humans directly to the divine and supernatural.
- Isolation from the profane influence of civilization
V. International Division of Labor - Monastic Life
- Under the old international division of labor, underdeveloped areas were incorporated into the world
economy principally as suppliers of mineral and agricultural commodities REALITIES IN RELIGION
- As developing economies are merged into the world economy, more production takes place in these "The contemporary world is furiously religious- Berger"
economies. > RELIGION AND MODERN REPUBLICS
- Plan proposed by the STATE DEPARTMENT and the COUNCIL ON FOREIGN RELATIONS - Religions are the foundations of modern republics
- Post War Economic Plan ex # 1: Malaysian Government
- Every part of the new world was assigned a special function “Islam is the religion of the federation and the rulers of each state was also the Head of the religion of
= Industrial countries- “great workshop”: GERMANY AND JAPAN Islam”
= Third world countries – major source of raw materials and a market for the industrial capitalist ex # 2: United States Declaration of Independence
societies > KING HENRY VIII
- The Church of England was shaped by the rationality of modern democratic and bureaucratic culture
Modernization Theory - Broke away from Roman Catholicism and established his own church
- Structure of relationship between the rich and the poor - His desire to annul his first marriage without papal approval led to the creation of a separate Church of
- Top-Down Approach- “One shoe fit all” England.
- USA AID- designed to aid underdeveloped areas and improve their working conditions
- Western Model of Modernization Religion for and Against Globalization
= Strengthen the illusion of independence and the sovereignty of the national developmental state. > Globalization as an opportunity <
- Globalization has “freed” communities from the “constraint of the nation-state”; but in the process also
LESSON NI SIR PT2: THE GLOBALIZATION OF RELIGION threatened to destroy the cultural system that bind them together.
- Religion seeks to take the place of these “broken traditional ties”
What is the Function of Religion in Society? > Religious Fundamentalism <
- It provides an immediate answer to reality - Fundamentalism- a form of religion that upholds belief in the interpretation of scripture
- A Source of Social Cohesion - Religious Fundamentalism is the result of the spread of globalization; both find ways to benefit or take
- Religion may be an attempt to have some kind of order advantage of each other
- Gives us a sense of belongingness > Muslims and Globalization <
What is Religion? - Some Muslims view “globalization” as a Trojan Horse hiding supporters of Western values
- The Physical and the Divine > Secularization Theory <
- A way for man to have a relationship with the divine - The thesis that modernization will erode religious practices

Religion and Globalism The Elementary Forms of Religious Life

> Religion - divine commandment Durkheim’s Primary Purpose
– a communication between humans and the transcendent 1. Durkheim argued that we cannot understand more advanced religion except by analyzing the way they
- A Divine Entity that defines and judges’ human action in moral terms (good or bad) have been progressively constituted throughout history.
> Globalism- abides with human made laws 2. He suggested that the scientific study of religion itself presupposed that the various religions we compare
*A globalist is not worried whether he will end up in hell or heaven are all species of the same class, and thus possess certain elements in common.
*When a religious person aspires to be a saint; the globalist trains to be a shrewd business
person The Most Primitive Religions
*A RELIGIOUS PERSON – His main duty is to live morally upright to be assured of a place other than this 1. Animism
world (ex: Heaven) - Latin: Anima “breath, spirit, life”
- His main duty is to live morally upright to be assured of a place other than this world. - Animism is a belief that all things have souls. All the mountains parries and rivers also have spirits like the
animals and humans that walk the earth
> Religious evangelization is concerned with the spread of holy ideas globally - Oldest belief system not a religion itself that can be found in many religions
EX: “Spreading the Word of God” - These spirits are prayed to like they are gods.
 - This has been a key component in major religions: Hinduism, Buddhism and Pantheism
“Animism is…about personhood, environment, and relational epistemology. "

> Australian Aborginal

- Indigenous People of Australia
- The key aspect of Australian Aborginal belief is dreaming
- Belief: “belief in powerful beings who arose of the land, created or gave birth to people, plant life and animal life,
and are connected particular groups of people with particular regions and language.”
- “People are believed to possess spirits which originate from the dreaming. As children grow up, they undergo a
variety of rites of passage which initiate them into adulthood. Boys would be subjected to practices such as,
circumcision, bloodletting or tooth pulling. Girls would be ritually decorated, and subject to partial seclusion or food
taboos. “
> Shaman
- person regarded as having access to, and influence in, the world of good and evil spirits, especially
among some peoples of northern Asia and North America. Typically, such people enter a trance state
during a ritual, and practice divination and healing.
> Animistic Hypothesis
- Edmund Burnett Tylor
First surveyed animistic belief
Defined religion as the belief in spiritual beings
- religion had evolved from a “doctrine of souls,” arising from spontaneous reflection upon death,
dreams, and apparitions, to a wider “doctrine of spirits,” which eventually expanded to embrace
powerful demons and gods.
>“second self”
- animistic theory, the idea of the human soul was first suggested by the contrast between the mental
representations experienced while asleep (dreams) and those of normal experience. (the soul is
responsible for dreams)

2. Naturism
- natural forces cease being represented in the mind in an abstract form, and are transformed into
personal, conscious spirits or gods, to whom the cult of nature may be addressed; and this transformation
is (allegedly) achieved by language.
- The earliest classes of natural phenomena were thus metaphors for human action; natural forces were
quite naturally conceived as the product of powerful, personal agents
- the roots of their language consisted of very general types of human action

3. Totemic
- Most basic form of religion
- Totem - any animal, plant, or other object, natural or supernatural, which provides deeply symbolic
meaning for a person or social group
- Collective symbols that represent both god and society
- totemism is symbolic: “…the totem is a symbol, a
material expression of something else
- The totem becomes the image of the clan and, psychologically, takes priority over it – a complex reality is
represented in simple form.

" Religious representations are collective representations which express collective realities; the rites are a
manner of acting which take rise in the midst of assembled groups and which are destined to excite,
maintain, or recreate certain mental states in these groups "