Geotechnics of Fills

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STP 1070
Geotechnics of Waste Fills--

Theory and Practice
Arvid Landva and G. David Knowles, editors
1916 Race Street

Philadelphia, PA 19103
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Geotechnics of waste fills-theory and practice / Arvid Landva and G.

David Knowles, editors.
(ASTM STP ; 1070)
"ASTM publication code number (PCN) 04-010700-38."--T.p. verso
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8031-1285-8
I. Sanitary landfills--Congresses. 2. Engineering geology-
-Congresses. 3. Groundwater flow--Congresses. I. Landva, Arvid,
1930- . II. Knowles, G. David, 1944- III. Series: ASTM
special technical publication ; 1070.
TD795.7.G46 1990
628.3'64--dc20 90-44937
CIP
Copyright 9 by AMERICANSOCIETYFOR TESTINGAND MATERIALS 1990
NOTE
The Society is not responsible, as a body,
for the statements and opinions
advanced in this publication.
Peer Review Policy
Each paper published in this volume was evaluated by three peer reviewers. The authors
addressed all of the reviewers' comments to the satisfaction of both the technical editor(s)
and the ASTM Committee on Publications.
The quality of the papers in this publication reflects not only the obvious efforts of the
authors and the technical editor(s), but also the work of these peer reviewers. The ASTM
Committee on Publications acknowledges with appreciation their dedication and contribu-
tion of time and effort on behalf of ASTM.
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Foreword
This publication, Geoteehnics of Waste Fills--Theory and Practice, contains papers pre-
sented at the symposium of the same name held in Pittsburgh, PA on 10-13 Sept. 1989. The
symposium was sponsored by ASTM Committee D- 18 on Soil and Rock. Dr. Arvid Landva,
Professor of Civil Engineering, The University of New Brunswick at New Brunswick, pre-
sided as symposium chairman. He was also editor of this publication, along with G. David
Knowles, Malcolm Pirnie Inc., Albany, NY.
Contents
Introduction
LANDFILL INVESTIGATIONS, DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION
Settlement and Engineering Considerations in Landfill and Final Cover Design--

D. V. MORRISANDC. E. WOODS
Solid Waste Landfill Performance During the L O M A Prieta Earthquake--

W. R. ORR AND M. O. FINCH 22
Predicting Stratigraphy at Landfill Sites Using Electromagnetics--T. A. LAWRENCE

ANDG. P. BOUTWELL 31
Geotechnical Considerations When Planning Construction on a Landfill--

G. P. GIFFORD, A. O. LANDVA, AND V. C. HOFFMAN 41
Field Measurements of Dynamic Moduli and Poisson's Ratios of Refuse and

Underlying Soils at a Landfill Site--H. D. SHARMA,M. T. DUKES,AND
D. M. OLSEN 57
BoRon Ash as Embankment Material--w-H. HUANGANDC. W. LOVELL 71
Geotechnics of Waste Fill--A. O. LANDVAANDJ. I. CLARK 86
STABILIZATION, COMPACTION, CONSOLIDATION
The Wak Test to Check the Increase in Soil Stiffness Due to Dynamic
Compaction--J.-L BRIAUD, M.-L. LIU, AND PH. LEPERT 107
Engineering and Compaction Characteristics of Boiler Siag--v. n. ACAR,

R. K. SEALS, AND A. J. PUPPALA 123
The Geotechnical Properties of Cemented Colliery Waste for Use in Land F i l l - -

M. C. g. DAVIES 142
Improvement of Mine Spoils in Southern Illinois--D. C. KOUTSOFTASAND

M. L. KIEFER 153
Laboratory Testing of Lime Fixed Flyash and FDG Sludge---N. N. SOUMAN 168
vi CONTENTS
Constitutive Behavior of Clay and Pozzolan-Stabilized Hydrocarbon Refining

W a s t e - - J . p. MARTIN, F. J. BIEHL, J. S. BROWNING lit, AND E. L. VAN KEUREN 185
STABILITY AND SETTLEMENT ANALYSES
Stability Considerations in the Design and Construction of Lined Waste

Repositories--L K. MITCHELL, R. B. SEED, AND H. B. SEED 207
Settlement of Municipal Refuse--T. a. EDIL, V. J. RANGUETTE,AND W. W. WUELLNER 225
Evaluation of the Stability of Sanitary Landfills--s. SlNGn AND B. MURPHY 240
Slope Stability Investigations at a Landfill in Southern California--R. g. SIEGEL,

R. J. ROBERTSON, AND D. G. ANDERSON 259
Stability Consideration of Vertical Landfill Expansions--o. E. T1EMAN,

G. W. DRUBACK, K. A. DAVIS, AND C. H. WEIDNER 285
Landfill Deformation Monitoring and Stability Analysis--N. DUPLANCIC 303
CASE HISTORIES
Geotechnical Analysis of Some Industrial Siudges--F. BELFIORE,M. MANASSERO,

AND C. VIOLA 317
Landfill Site Reclaimed for Commercial Use as Container Storage F a c i l i t y - -

R. D. HINKLE 331
Case History: Use of the Cone Penetrometer to Calculate the Settlement of a

Chemically Stabilized Landfill--R. E. OAKLEYIII 345
Monitoring Landfill Movements Using Precise Instruments--D. P. CODUTOAND

R. HUITRIC 358
Index 371
STPIO70-EB/Jan. 1990
OVERVIEW 1
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this symposium was to explore the geotechnical

properties and behavior of waste fill materials and to compile them into
one volume that could serve as a reference text on a subject that is not
widely addressed in accessible literature.
The symposium was sponsored by ASTM Committee DI8, Subcommittee

D18.14, Geotechnics of Waste Management. STP 1070 will serve as a guide
to Committee DI8 members in their future efforts to address the problems
of landfill geotechnics, such as stability of slopes, settlement of
fills and groundwater (leachate) flow.
The term "waste fill" covers a wide range of materials, from

mineral fills contaminated with relatively small amounts of organic or
vegetal debris through woodwastes and various types of tailings and
slimes, to domestic and industrial refuse. Two categories of fill have
purposely been excluded from this symposium: tailings and hazardous
wastes. Also, we excluded liners, artificial or natural, from the list
of topics. All these three topics have been widely covered in previous
conferences, symposia and numerous papers.
Our involvement in the geotechnics of waste management has shown

that more geotechnical attention should be paid to such aspects as
placing methods, field and laboratory sampling and testing,
classification and in-situ improvement methods. These are the topics
that we sought to explore at this symposium, and the 23 papers presented
here provide a valuable data base for the solution of problems
pertaining to those topics.
The symposium was divided into four sections:
Section I - Landfill investigations, design, construction and closure

(seven papers)
Section II - Stabilization, compaction and consolidation (six

papers)
Section III - Stability and settlement analysis (six papers)
Section IV - Case histories (four papers)
LANDFILL INVESTIGATIONS, DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION
Morris and Woods emphasize the significant changes caused by large

settlements after closure of landfills. These changes may negate
contouring and drainage plans. Settlements can be predicted, but local
regulations may not allow steeper slopes, even if temporary. Case
records indicate necessity of perimeter ditches, proper compaction,
daily covers, retaining structures for ash fills, and limited size of
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2 GEOTECHNICSOF WASTE FILLS
Orr and Finch report on case studies of the effects of

earthquakes on landfills. Their studies pertain to the October 17,
1989, earthquake in the South Bay area east of Santa Cruz, California.
They find that the two most important factors are acceleration and
duration rather than the more commonly used magnitude. The properties
of refuse may dampen or attenuate the effects of earthquakes.
Lawrence and Boutwell claim that electro-magnetic (EM) surveys

have much to offer. They describe a statistical technique they have
developed to interpret EM data: a multivariate regression prediction
(MVRP). Three cases are described, and it is concluded that the
correlation is satisfactory. The MVRP-EMmethod is most practical when
there are time or budget restraints. It is extremely cost-effective
for reconnaissance work.
Gifford et al. report on a geotechnical investigation of an

Albany, New York, landfill to be used as a building site by the City.
The investigation is laid out with due regard to architectural and
structural requirements. The foundation layout is designed to minimize
settlements or to allow for them. Settlements are predicted on the
basis of the nature of the landfill materials and a comparison plot of
case records of long-term settlement in landfill.
Sharma et al. discuss various methods of dynamic laboratory and

field tests, including applicability. They describe the down-hole
geophysical method as used at a landfill site in Richmond, California.
The site is underlain by the San Pablo Bay Mud. The down-hole method
was chosen because only one boring is required at each location, which
makes this method cost-effective. Dynamic shear moduli and Poisson's
ratios are reported for refuse and for the Bay Mud.
Huang and Lovell present a very thorough geochemical and

geotechnical analysis of several sources of bottom ash (incinerated
refuse). This paper constitutes an excellent data base for researchers
and users.
Landva and Clark describe a comprehensive field and laboratory

investigation of various waste fills in Canada. A classification
system is proposed, and index tests and properties are discussed and
presented. Also described is equipment developed for the testing of
waste fill materials, and geotechnical properties are reported and
discussed.
STABILIZATION, COMPACTION AND CONSOLIDATION
Briaud et al. describe a new test (the WAK test) they have
introduced to check soil stiffness improvements after dynamic
compaction. The WAK test appears to be at a preliminary stage, but it
also appears to be a promising test that can be used as a very fast
quality control test on dynamic compaction jobs. The authors also
present their proposed curve fitting technique and stiffness
determination.
OVERVIEW 3
Acar et al. present a comprehensive study of boiler slag. They

discuss the results of laboratory studies and field compaction tests
conducted to evaluate its engineering and field compaction
characteristics. This paper represents another valuable data base for
the geotechnical behavior of incinerated refuse. Recommendations are
given for the optimum design and construction procedures for slag fill.
Davies discusses the reject resulting from the reworking of

colliery waste tips and their use in landfill. The mixing of the
coarser reject with tailings presents problems for compaction, but
these may be alleviated by the addition of cement. The author
discusses the properties of the cement-stabilized waste and conclude
that the stabilizing effects diminish with increasing effective stress
and water content.
Koutsoftas and Kiefer report on a dynamic compaction study of a

mine waste spoil. They find significant improvements in geotechnical
properties to depths of 9 to 12m after compaction with a 16 tonne
weight from 20m height. Most of the improvement occurred during the
later phase of treatment. The authors point out that the depth of
improvement is limited and that another cost-effective and rapid method
of improving waste fills is preloading.
Soliman presents the results of extensive tests on lime fixed

flyash and FGD sludge. His conclusions are of considerable interest:
the strength of the fixed material increases with time, with density,
and with the salinity of the water. Hence the material could be
compacted into blocks and dumped in the ocean to create a reef.
Martin et al. report on a study to stabilize acidic hydrocarbon

sludge lagoons by microencapsulating it in a matrix of clay, which is
neutralized and cemented with a lime-flyash pozzolanic mixture.
STABILITY AND SETTLEMENT ANALYSES
Mitchell et al. draw attention to the potential failure surfaces

along lining system interfaces and their possible control of the
overall stability of hazardous waste fills. Residual friction angles
as low as 5 are reported. They carry out a 3-D stability analysis of
a slope failure in a hazardous waste repository and conclude that, even
though it is possible to plan filling operations on the basis of
adequate factors of safety, this may presently be difficult because of
a lack of a suitable 3-D analysis method and because of uncertainties
about seismic effects.
Edil et al. outline an analysis approach for the settlements of

refuse along the lines of previous analysis methods used for peats and
organic soils. They compare their analytical results with actual field
measurements and conclude that refuse settlement can be modeled
satisfactorily. Another interesting conclusion is that primary
compression is largely completed during the filling operation;
secondary compression is more evident once filling has stopped.
Sinsh and Murphy evaluate studies of shear strength properties

and settlement characteristics of refuse and discuss the inadequacy of
the Mohr-Coulomb theory to account for the large yet non-catastrophic
deformations in refuse. They conclude that a slope failure may not be
the most critical aspect, but rather settlement of the refuse and
bearing capacity of the foundation soil. They draw attention to the
lack of knowledge of the dynamic strength characteristics of refuse.
Siegel et al. report on a comprehensive geotechnical

investigation and slope stability study of an instrumented landfill in
Monterey Park, California. They conclude, among other things, that
CPT's are not useful in refuse, other than to identify weak zones, and
that direct shear test results should be used with caution, depending
on the size of the apparatus. Their tentative calculated factor of
safety of 1.2 is subject to further studies in view of the
uncertainties in determining refuse strength and the potential for
refuse strength to change with time. One important conclusion from an
interpretation of the 1987 Whittier Narrows and the 1988 Pasadena
earthquakes is that landfill can withstand moderate earthquakes with
only minor repairs.
Tieman et al. draw attention to the future needs for piggyback

additions to landfills and illustrate some of the benefits of vertical
piggybacking. But they also point out that such expansions can be
complicated to design and construct. A case record is described where
subgrade reinforcement and slope stability improvement were required.
Each piggyback expansion will be unique with its own set of design and
construction considerations.
Duplancic presents a geotechnical evaluation of deformation

monitoring data on a hazardous waste landfill. The data indicate that
the landfill is deforming similarly to earthfill dams. Deflections are
larger in the fill zone, but almost negligible in rock and native clay
zones. The analyses presented show that standard geotechnical
techniques can be used to monitor the performance, and standard
geotechnical computational methods can be used - with care - for
landfill stability analyses and deformation assessment.
CASE HISTORIES
Belfiore et al. present a conventional soil mechanics approach

to sludge fill investigations, emphasizing the necessity of adapting
and integrating conventional geotechnical tools with the aid of a
comprehensive performance monitoring program. The key objective was
to study the effects of compaction methods on an improvement of the
landfilling operations. On the basis of the results of the two case
history studies, they conclude that the high drained strengths measured
in the laboratory are confirmed by the long-term behaviour of sludges
landfilled with slopes up to 35 ~ without any stability problems. Also
their tests and measurements show the beneficial effects of waste
compaction, such as significant volume reduction and improvement in
strength and deformation properties.
OVERVIEW 5
Hinkle describes the use of a 30m deep closed landfill as a

marine container storage. He demonstrates that landfill property can
be reclaimed and put to profitable use. One important aspect is a
proper seal, and the design and construction of this is described in
detail.
Oakley studies the use of the cone penetrometer (CPT) in a

chemically stabilized waste fill. On the basis of field observations
of settlements in two fills, he finds that settlements calculated from
CPT data are reasonably close to those measured. Calculated rates of
settlement are generally within about ~ 50% of those measured.
Coduto and Huitric monitored settlement and horizontal movements

at different depths within a sanitary landfill. They found, following
two years of monitoring, that vertical strain rates are independent of
depth while horizontal movements on slopes are greatest near the
surface and diminish with depth. No permanent displacement occurred
during a Richter magnitude 6.1 earthquake.
CLOSURE
A broad spectrum of topics have been addressed by the

contributors to this volume. Settlement is analysed in five papers,
stability of slopes in two, field and laboratory investigations in
seven (demolition landfill, bottom ash, refuse, boiler slag, and lime-
fixed flyash and FGD sludge). The effects of earthquakes are outlined
in three papers, and field pilot tests (MVRP-EM survey, down-hole
geophysical, CPT) in four papers. Stabilization by different methods
(cement, dynamic compaction, lime-fixed flyash, clay and lime-flyash
pozzolanic mixture, compaction) are described in five papers. Other
topics addressed are the inapplicability of the Mohr-Coulomb criterion,
the possible non-criticality of slope stability in regular landfills
(compressibility of refuse and bearing capacity of the foundation soil
are perhaps more important), the uncertainty of the strength
characteristics of refuse, precautions required when designing and
constructing piggyback additions to landfills, and the importance of
designing and constructing a proper seal on a landfill to be used as
a building site.
With all these topics addressed by experts in their respective

fields, this volume should be a useful handbook for design and
construction on and in the very large number of closed landfills in
North America and elsewhere.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are pleased to acknowledge ASTM's efficient organization of

this symposium and want to thank Kathy Green, Rita Harhut and Monica
Armata for their help and patience. Dorothy Savini and Bob Morgan
expertly organized the symposium.
We were guided throughout the extensive review process by Dr.

Larry Jackson of GTEL Environmental Laboratories, Inc., who offered
much help and advice.
We are grateful to the former chairman of DI8, Woody Schockley,

and to the present chairman, Dick Ladd, for permission to arrange this
symposium.
Our secretarial staffs at the University of New Brunswick and at

Malcolm Pirnie's assisted ably in the review process.
Arvid Landva
Department of Civil Engineering
University of New Brunswick
Fredericton, New Brunswick
Canada E3B 5A3
G. David Knowles
Malcolm Pirnie Inc
4 Corporate Plaza
Washington Avenue Extension
Albany, NY
USA 12203
Landfill Investigations, Design, Construction
Derek V. Morris and Calvin E. Woods
SETTLEMENT AND ENGINEERING CONSIDERATIONS IN LANDFILL AND FINAL

COVER DESIGN
REFERENCE: Morris, D.V. and Woods, C.E., "Settlement and

Engineering Considerations in Landfill and Final Cover
Design," Geotechnics of Waste Fills - Theory and Practice,
ASTM STP 1070, Arvid Landva and G. David Knowles, Editors,
American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia,
1990.
ABSTRACT: Design of municipal landfills for closure is com-

plicated by the large settlement that normally takes place
for long periods of time after abandonment. This means that
landfill slopes can change significantly with time, negating
careful contouring and drainage provisions. It is possible
to try and forecast this, but regulatory considerations (for
landfills of specific depths especially) may hinder adequate
design for full expected post-closure settlement. Preferred
management techniques are outlined, and specific recommend-
ations made for maintenance and settlement.
KEYWORDS: landfills, municipal waste, fill closure, waste

fills, fill settlement.
Municipal landfills are designed with many constraints, both

technical and legal, which cover not only operation, but also impact
significantly on final closure. Poorly designed or operated landfills
are often more likely to show signs of distress after abandonment,
when little emphasis is placed on control and monitoring, than during
operation, when significant attention is paid to safe compliance.
One of the most awkward technical post-closure considerations is

the large amount of fill settlement that can take place for many
years after abandonment. Predicting so much settlement is difficult
analytically, as municipal fill undergoes large amounts of secondary
consolidation, not easily incorporated into traditional settlement
calculations. Moreover the regulatory situation may make it difficult
legally to develop a closure plan that will continue to perform sat-
isfactorily for an indefinite period.
Drs. Morris and Woods are Associate Professor and Professor in

Civil Engineering at Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843.
(UDESC) Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina ((UDESC) Universidade do9 Estado de Santa Catarina) pursuant to License Agreement. No further reproductions authorize
Copyright9 1990 by ASTM International www.astm.org

Re~u]atorv Considerationm
Frequently the most intractable problem is administrative, in so

far as final slopes are usually severely prescribed by regulation, and
are in many cases not permitted to be formed at slopes that might be
indicated by strict geotechnical design considerations. Regulatory
practice in Texas (and many other states) is to classify municipal
landfills according to whether storage is above or below ground. The
operating plan of landfills licensed for below ground disposal will
generally specify below-ground disposal only. As a result potential
problems arise in the geotechnical design of the final cover, since
this must be sloped to increase the runoff coefficient and minimize
infiltration. However the slope of the final cover of below-ground
landfills is normally limited by permit, in Texas to between 2% and 6%
at the time of closure, irrespective of the recommendations of engineering
analysis. In some states the maximum slope is 5%.
The situation is complicated further by the fact that many landfill

operators choose to ignore the compression (or consolidation) of the
municipal waste during operation, because they stand to benefit from
doing so. Some state taxes are levied in theory on the basis of a unit
rate per mass of deposited fill (e.g. 5r per ton). However rigorous
weighing of every full and empty truckload is uneconomic, so in reality
long-term measurements are made (usually by surveying) of deposited
volume. These are then converted into an equivalent mass of fill, using
an assumed density. In Texas this is currently in the range of 500 to
600 kg/m 3, which is generally a significant underestimate of actual
municipal waste densities, particularly after some compression has taken
place or under significant depths of overburden. This means that the
deposited tonnage computed in this fashion is normally less than actually
stored. More realistic values of density should undoubtedly be used
by landfill operators, but since it would almost certainly result in
a higher tax assessment, this represents a positive disincentive to
support more accurate analysis. It would be preferable if taxes were
levied on a strictly volumetric basis, thereby encouraging compaction.
Three case histories are discussed that demonstrate the consequences

of improper design and operation, as follows:-
Case A. A municipally owned landfill that served approximately
70,000 people was closed approximately fifteen years ago. The location
had an average rainfall of 1.25 m per year and a pan evaporation rate
of 1.7 m per year. The landfilled area was about 150,000 m 2 and was
a "below ground" landfill that utilized an area method of construction.
The initial slopes were approximately one percent. Three years after
closure 80,000 m 2 of the landfill cover would briefly hold ponded water
after a rain. The water did not stay long because there were cracks or
fissures open enough to expose the solid waste below the final cover.
A portion of the final cover had settled below the original ground
level. Leachate springs formed at the interface of the natural ground
and the final cover and springs were almost continuous around the
perimeter of the landfill. Leachate flow continued during dry periods;
however, flow rates increased during wet weather.
The leachate flow rate was higher than could be accounted for assuming
a zero runoff coefficient over the landfilled area. This caused a
concern that there might be a groundwater spring under the landfill.
Closer examination showed that the source of excess leachate was from
an additional area of 150,000 m 2 that discharged runoff onto the
landfilled area and into the solid waste through the portion of the
final cover that had settled below the natural ground level. When this
source of water was eliminated the leachate flow became intermittent.
Fortunately, the city owned enough land adjacent to the landfill, that
they were able to rebuild the final cover without too much difficulty
to a two percent grade, at which point leachate flow ceased.
Within
another
Downloaded/printed by three years, however, the repaired cover had again settled
enoughdo Estado
(UDESC) Universidade to cause further
de Santa Catarina ((UDESC)ponding, open
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Catarina) pursuant new Agreement.
to License leachate No furtherflow.
reproductions authorize
The final cover remained a high maintenance item for nearly ten years.
LANDFILL AND FINAL COVER DESIGN 11
The mistakes made during the operation of this landfill that con-
tributed to the difficult closure included:
* no perimeter ditch to prevent runoff water from adjacent areas

from reaching the landfilled area.
* below ground disposal only with no berm around the landfill area.
The completed final cover had a slope of only about one percent
which caused the final cover to be roughly parallel to the
original ground. The general settlement caused the cover to
sink below the natural grade in some places.
* the solid waste in the landfill was not compacted properly causing
a great deal of differential settlement. The differential
settlement caused the final cover to rupture in many locations.
* the final closure was not given appropriate priority during the
operation of the landfill.
Case B. A privately owned municipal landfill that served approx-

imately 30,000 people was closed approximately two years ago. It was
in an area with 0.81 m of precipitation and 2.0 m of pan evaporation
annually. The landfilled area was approximately i00,000 m 2, and had
both "below ground" and "above ground" disposal.
Approximately three years before closure none of the landfill had

received final cover, the slopes were less than two percent, and ponding
water was extensive when it rained. Fortunately, no leachate was ever
observed at this landfill. The solid waste was not being properly
compacted. At this point a closure plan was developed for the landfill
that included the purchase of compaction equipment, increasing the slope
on the final grades to six percent, installing monitoring wells, and
placing the final cover over completed areas as soon as they were
finished.
In some areas that were being filled there was as much as 6 m of

poorly compacted solid waste. Some of these areas settled as much as
1.5 m when solid waste and final cover were added. Several areas
involving a total area of about 20,000 m z had to be refilled three times
to hold a six percent slope until the landfill was closed.
Within two years after closure the six percent slopes have been
reduced to about four percent due to settlement. No ponding has occurred.
No leachate has been observed.
Case C. A n industrial landfill is located in an area with 1.0 m of

precipitation and 1.8 m of pan evaporation per year. It is an "above
ground" landfill with a high plasticity clay liner and no berm, and is
a "monofill" containing only ash and a final cover of a low plasticity
clay.
The clay liner was constructed over the natural grade. The slopes
of the natural ground ranged from two to four percent with several dry
drainage channels. Only minor modification of the existing topography,
including the channels, was undertaken when the liner was constructed.
Perimeter ditches prevented surface water from entering the landfill
area.
During construction immediately after a rain approximately 40,000

m 3 of ash washed out of the landfill. Fortunately it was captured in
the surrounding sedimentation ponds.
The mistakes made in this operation included:
* No retaining structure was provided for this landfill.

* byDid not use daily cover
Downloaded/printed
The working area with no final cover was too large. This resulted
in low runoff and high infiltration. The rain water entered the
ash, flowed downward to the liner, thence to the channel. As
this water flowed out from under the fill into the perimeter
ditches the ash slope became unstable and significant volumes
of ash escaped from the site.
SIDE SLOPE DESIGN

One of the biggest problem areas in practice occurs at the edge of
landfill sites, where local ponding and erosion often takes place, as
shown in Fi~. I 9 Side slopes that may initially have been uniform,
will tend to become non-uniform after sufficient post-closure settlement.
This is true even if the fill is idealized as undergoing an equal amount
of compressive strain across the site, as the change in slope at the
base of the excavation will inevitably be reflected in a concave change
in slope of the final settled surface.
The effect is magnified by two further complications. Firstly,
compaction of fill is normally more difficult at the edge of a site,
and subsequent settlement therefore greater. Secondly, the average
effective depth of overburden there will be less than in the center of
the site, so that the fill there will be less dense and more compressible,
and compressive strains of the edge will be more than in the middle.
Solutions to this local problem are not easy, but possible techniques
include thickening the soil cover there to compensate. It is in principle
also a good idea to steepen slopes close to the edge, although care
must be taken to prevent erosion. Slopes of overall slope greater than
6% can perform safely, but should be designed with proper provision for
safe drainage - ideally drainage channels or ditches, and a slope should
preferably also be terraced as a series of small slopes, to minimize
potential erosion.
uniform strain change of slQ/Le- ~ initial &

/////~ __.~ ~ final profile
Observations" "/ ~ A I~] I'/I

(strains "/~2~ [.~l !-I (Vertical Scale Exaggerated)
greater at edge) "r/////// //
average slope
Possible Final Edge, P r o f i l e

/'/////~).., 14 - with increased slope & t e r r a c e s
-,/).
FIG. 1 - Settlement at Side of L a n d f i l l
ANALYSIS OF EFFECT OF DALLY COVER
An additional practical complication, that the following computer

program addresses, but which is normally i~nored, is the settlement
behavior of daily cover. Placement of a daily cover of inorganic soil
over waste fill is standard practice at most landfill sites. It is
done in order to keep waste from blowing away, restrict access to
rodents, birds and insects and provide additional overburden pressure.
Typical placement procedures consist of 0.6 m of compacted waste and
0.15 m of soil c o v e r . A simple settlement analysis would probably
assume that this intermediate zone of material would settle as independent
layers between the much thicker layers of waste, remaining largely
intact and undergoing some consolidation settlement of its own.
In fact this conceptual model of cover soil behavior does not

correspond to reality. Although this inert soil component initially
occupies in this case 20% of the total fill volume, observations at
operating landfills indicate that the proportion becomes significantly
reduced as settlement proceeds. This is due to a small extent to the
compression of the soil under self-weight, plus (most importantly)
migration of this material into the voids in the adjacent solid waste
as shown in Fig. 2.. The net result is that this soil layer can reduce
to less than one-quarter of the original volume. The resultant density
of the fill is therefore considerably more than would be expected if
this effect was ignored 9
dc,/, waste fill ~

assimilated
tJ <> <> C,~.Cj <')~ o ~ ? & 2 6 ....d d a i l y cover
" ; ". " > . ....~ . 9 " ,:'.'.'.'dailycover
.~.6 ~C~,6 . . -: boundaries
~ l i f t of waste'?ill6~-'~ ~ dr " of waste fill
?.
"., ' , ,,, .. , " ).' ",," #, (lally cover
~ ~ waste
s ~ ~ f'}_l~e~
Init ial configuration Final configuration
FIG. 2 - Absorbtion of daily cover into waste fill
Further design considerations: This effect has implications also

for daily operation and design. It is often suggested that one way of
increasing the storage efficiency of a landfill is to increase waste
lift thicknesses relative to daily cover thickness, or even to eliminate
daily cover completely 9 The suggestion is superficially appealing as
it would seem to minimize dilution of valuable storage volume with
natural soil. In addition the decreased overall density (since the
soil cover is typically much denser than solid waste by a factor of 2
to 4) should reduce settlement values of the final landfill, and make
design of final closure and abandonment easier. These arguments are
less convincing in reality, however 9
Effect on storage volumes: In fact the net loss of storage due to

the presence of the-extra daily cover of soil, is not large in practice,
for the above reasons. A soil layer that may initially have occupied
20% of the overall disposal volume, will, after assimilation into
adjacent fill, occupy only about 5% of the overall fill volume at depth.
This no longer represents a serious economic loss for the operator.
Indeed the corresponding increase in overall fill density will assist
in self-weight compression of the landfill as a whole, although this
will
Copyright by ASTMbe torights
Int'l (all some extent
reserved); offset
Thu Sep 5 12:03:30 by the reduced compressibility of the
EDT 2019
14 GEOTECHNICS OF WASTE FILLS
adjacent fill. The net result is to largely compensate for even this
small loss of storage volume, which is in fact relatively insensitive
to the thickness of daily cover used.
Effect on settlement: The second argument, that reduction of daily
cover will decrease post-construction settlement by reducing self-weight
densities, is true, but its applicability is debatable. Overall fill
settlement may be less as a result of lower self-weight stresses, but
not by as much as might be supposed, since the absence of the soil
"infilling" of the voids in the solid waste will cause the overall
compressibility to be increased. Furthermore the time taken for
settlement will generally be increased, such that a larger proportion
of the settlement is liable to take place after closure. If this is
the case, then it is possible that post-closure settlement of the
landfill may actually be more than before, although pre-closure
settlement may have been reduced somewhat, as illustrated in the
accompanying Fig. 3.
Landfill
Initiation closure
. ~ - Time
I ~smaller overall settlement
~ ~ . ~ . ~ ~l__greater post-closure settlement
_ ~ l o w overburden pressures
~ high overburden pressures
Settlement ~gmraell er po~ sSue/etiseemtetnltement
FIG. 3 - Possible Settlement Curves for Dense and Light Fills

The result of these conflicting desires is that recommended practice
should be to utilize fairly generous layers of daily cover soil. This
considerably reduces fire hazards etc., and greatly eases landfill
management, at the expense only of relatively trivial reductions in
storage capacity.
GEOTECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Among the practical problems associated with the utilization of the
storage volume created by the fills, settlement may be the most sig-
nfficant engineering problem because of its large magnitude and long-term
nature. Representative field data is very important in this context.
In order to enable this calculation to be performed iteratively with
sufficient accuracy, and incorporation of both primary and secondary
consolidation, it is convenient to use a computer program. A relatively
comprehensive and yet easy to use version is outlined in this paper.
In this program, initial primary compression of solid wastes under
selfweight as well as long-term secondary settlement taking place for
a specified period of time after construction are computed. Also
included in the program is a routine for calculation of unit weights
at different depths of fill, useful if organic content is known.
PROGRAM FOR FILL SETTLEMENT COMPUTATION

The method used in calculation of fill settlement and density with
time, is similar to that outlined by Sowers [I]0 which has been widely
discussed and used for comparison purposes by others ([2], [31).
Downloaded/printedThe
by method is based on the following assumptions, principles and
procedures,
(UDESC) Universidade do Estado dewhich represent
Santa Catarina the domajor
((UDESC) Universidade limitations
Estado de Santa Catarina) pursuant toon the
License use No further
Agreement. of this reproductions authorize
model, as stated herein :-
Initial Primarv ComDresslons
(i) The initial primary mechanical compression due to changes in

overburden pressure occurs rapidly with little or no pore pressure
build-up. The initial and primary phases are complete in less than a
month.
(2) The primary settlement occurring in an arbitrary waste layer

due to construction of an additional layer can be expressed by the
well-known equation:
Cr P.+dP
s n--,og
=
1§176 F.
where,
S = primary compression occurring in the layer under consideration
H = initial (before-compression) thickness of the waste layer under

consideration
Cc = primary compression index. C= is assumed to be proportional to

the initial void ratio of the layer (Co = COEFFI*eo, see Sample
Results for typical COEFFI values).
co= initial (before-compression) void ratio of the layer.
Po = existing overburden pressure acting at the mid level of the

layer.
dP = increment of overburden pressure at the mid level of the layer

under consideration from the construction of an additional layer
(100% of pressure increase at the top new layer is assumed to
be transferred to the layer under consideration).
(3) The daily and final cover soils are not assumed to undergo
compression due to overburden pressures. However, the thickness of a
daily soil cover is assumed to reduce to one-fourth its original thickness
after construction, due to the migration of soils into void spaces in
waste layers. For very clayey soil cover, this value may be greater.
This is an empirical assumption based on limited field observations,
discussed previously in the section entitled "Analysis of Effect of
Daily Cover".
(4) The above computation procedures are repeated for each waste
layer and for each construction stage, and the contribution of that
layer to the overall compression in a particular construction stage is
determined. The sum of the contributions of each construction stage
then constitutes the total compression achieved up to that construction
stage under consideration.
Lonm-term Secondarv Settlements
(i) Settlement of waste fills continues at substantial rates after

construction. The settlement occurring in an arbitrary layer for a
certain period of time after completion of the landfill can be expressed
by the following equation:
C$
where,
SS= long-term secondary settlement occurring in the layer under

consideration, between time periods t I and t 2.
H= initial (before settlement) thickness of the waste layer under

consideration.
Cs= secondary compression index. C s is assumed to be proportional

to the initial void ratio of the layer (C s = COEFF2*eo, see
Sample Results for typical COEFF2 values).
~o~ initial (before settlement) void ratio of the layer.
tl = starting time of the time period for which long-term settlement

of the layer is desired (t I = I month preset in the program).
tz = ending time of the time period for which long-term settlement

of the layer is desired.
(2) The above computation procedure is repeated for each waste

layer for the given time period. The sum of the contributions of each
layer then constitutes the total long-term settlement achieved during
that time period.
SAMPLE RESULTS
An example of such a computation is shown as follows. The following

input data is required:
NPROB number of problems to be analyzed, 1 in this case.

TITLE self-explanatory, up to 60 characters for each
problem.
NLAYER number of waste layers (or lifts) placed, up to 40.
IFLAG 0 if a compression index is to be computed from a
COEFFI.
i if a unit weight to be entered as GAMMAX.
}{WASTE original thickness of a waste layer (or lift), before

compression.
HSOIL original thickness of daily soil cover (assumed to

be reduced to one-quarter of its original thickness
after construction).
HCOVER thickness of final soil cover (assumed to remain

constant).
GAMMAW initial compacted unit weight of waste, typically 3
to 6 kN/m 3 depending on composition and compaction
techniques [2].
GAMMAS initial unit weight of soil cover, typically 2 0 k N / m 3.
WC initial water content of waste, as a decimal.
SG specific gravity of waste, typically 1.5.
DUMMY equal to COEFFI if IFLAG = 0, typically 0.15 to 0.9
and increases with organic content in the waste [I].
equal to GAMMAX if IFLAG = i, expected unit weight

of waste under full overburden at the site, if this
is preferred to entering a value of COEFFI. See Fig.
4 for recommended values.
NTIME number of time intervals for which a settlement

calculation is desired (maximum of 20).
COEFF2 - secondary compression index divided by voids ratio,
typically 0.03 to 0.09 and increases with conditions
favorable to decomposition [i].
TIME(I) - time intervals after landfill completion for which

a settlement calculation is desired (in months).
Unit weight of waste

fill at max. d e p t h t h ~ - - ~ - i~ - - ' ~ dense fill
G A ~ d e p ~ aver age
I0 -- f I
~ light fill
kN/m 3
Max. depth
of fill
i. i i !
5 I0 15 m. 20
FIG. 4 - G A M M A X v e r s u s landfill depth
For a sample problem with 20 layers of waste fill placed initially

750 mm thick at a unit weight of 3.75 kN/m 3, water content of 0.15 an~
specific gravity 1.5, with 1 5 0 m m of soil cover of unit weight 19 kN/m 3
and a final 600 nun soil cover, the following results are obtained, if
the primary compression of the waste can be described by COEFFI = 0.8
and the secondary compression by COEFF2 = 0.06:
Initial as placed total thickness at site = 18.6 m
Initial compression of site = 7.3 m
Initial landfill thickness = 11.3 m
Unit weight of waste at surface = 3.8 kN/m 3
Unit weight of waste at bottom of landfill = 8.7 kN/m 3
Long-term settlement, after I year = 0.31 m
Long-term settlement, after i0 years = 0.60 m
Long-term settlement, after i00 years = 0.89 m
This program enables important settlement parameters to be calculated

rapidly and to an accuracy impossible with hand-calculation, and the
authors have found it to be a useful tool for analysis and design.
REFERENCES
[i] Sowers, G.F., " S e t t l e m e n t of W a s t e D i s p o s a l F i l l s , " P r o c e e d i n g s

8th I n t e r n a t i Q n a l C o n f e r e n c e on S o i l M e c h a n i c s and F o u n d a t i o n
E n g i n e e r i n g , M o s c o w , 1973, pp. 207-210.
[2] Yen, B.C. and Scanlon, B., " S a n i t a r y L a n d f i l l S e t t l e m e n t R a t e s , "
J o u r n a l of the G e o t e c h n i c a l D i v i s i o n , ASCE, Vol. 101, No. GT5,
1975, pp. 475-487,
[3] Rao, S.K., M o u l t o n , L.K., and Seals, R.K., " S e t t l e m e n t of R e f u s e
L a n d f i l l s , " P r o c e e d i n g s , C o n f e r e n c e on G e o t e c h n i c a l P r a c t i c e for
Disposal of S o l i d W a s t e M a t e r i a l s , U n i v e r s i t y of M i c h i g a n , Ann
Arbor, J u n e 13-15, 1977, p u b l i s h e d by ASCE, pp. 574-598.
APPENDIX I - PROGRAM SOURCE CODE LISTING (FORTRAN 77)
C PROGRAM SETT87 - ANALYSIS OF SANITARY LANDFILL SETTLEMENTS

********************************************************************
DIMENSION S(40,40),SS(40,20),H(40,40),HH(40,40),E(40,40),
* CC(40,40),GAMMA(40,40),P(40,40),
* SI(40),SSI(20),SUM(40),GAVE(40),HTOT(40),HHTOT(40),
* TIME(20),TITLE(15)
C
OPEN (UNIT=5, FILE='S.DAT', STATUS='OLD')
OPEN (UNIT=6, FILE='S.OUT', STATUS='NEW')
C
READ (5,100) NPROB
DO 1 IPROB-I,NPROB
C
C**** COMPUTATION OF INITIAL SETTLEMENTS **************************
C
READ (5,105) TITLE
READ (5,100) NLAYER,IFLAG
READ (5,110) HWASTE,HSOIL,HCOVER,GAMMAW,GAMMAS,WC,SG,DUMMY
COEFFIm0.
IF(IFLAG.EQ.0) COEFFI=DUMMY
IF(IFLAG.EQ.I) GAMMAX=DUMMY
i00 FORMAT(2Ib)
105 FORMAT(15A4)
110 FORMAT(8FI0.3)
C
VOID - 62.4*27.0*SG*(I.0+WC)/GAMMAW - 1.0
C
WRITE (6,220)
WRITE (6,200) IPROB,TITLE
WRITE (6,210) NLAYER,HWASTE,HSOIL,HCOVER,GAMMAW,GAMMAS,
* WC,SG,VOID
IF (IFLAG.EQ.0) WRITE (6,211) COEFFI
IF (IFLAG.EQ.I) WRITE (6,212) GAMMAX
200 FORMAT(//' (PROBLEM #',I2,')' ,4X,15A4 //' *** INITIAL',
* ' COMPRESSION OF SOLID WASTE FILLS *********************
210 FORMAT(//' --- INPUT DATA =--'/
* /' TOTAL NO. OF LAYERS (NLAYER) =',Ii0,
* /' INITIAL THICKNESS OF A SOLID WASTE LAYER (HWASTE) =',F10.2,
* ' FT',
* /' INITIAL THICKNESS OF A DAILY SOIL COVER (HSOIL) =',FI0.2,
* ' FT',
* /' INITIAL THICKNESS OF FINAL SOIL COVER (HCOVER) =',FI0.2,
* ' FT',
* /' INITIAL UNIT WEIGHT OF SOLID WASTE (GAMMAW) =',FI0.2,
* ' LB/CY',
* /' INITIAL UNIT WEIGHT OF SOIL (GAMMAS) =',F10.2,
* ' LB/CF'
* /' INITIAL MOISTURE CONTENT OF SOLID WASTE (WC) =',F10.2,
* /' INITIAL SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SOLID WASTE (SG) =',F10.2,
* /' COMPUTED INITIAL VOID RATIO OF SOLID WASTE (VOID) =',FI0.2)
211 FORMAT(' ESTIMATED PRIMARY COMPRESSION INDEX (COEFFI*Eo)',
* 4X,'-',F7.3,' EO')
212 FORMAT(' EST''D MAXIMUM UNIT WEIGHT OF SOLID WASTE (GAMMAX) =',
(UDESC) Universidade *do EstadoF10.2,' LB/CY')
de Santa Catarina ((UDESC) Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina) pursuant to License Agreement. No further reproductions authorize
220 FORMAT(IHI)
PW ~ ( G A M M A W / 2 7 . ) * H W A S T E
PS = GAMMAS*HSOIL
IF ( I F L A G . E Q . 0 ) G O TO 13
W R I T E (6,220)
W R I T E (6,215)
215 FORMAT(//' =m. DETERMINE R E Q U I R E D P R I M A R Y C O M P R E S S I O N I N D E X {CC)',
* ' ==='//' ITERATION CC ACHIEVED-GAMMA REQUIRED-GAMMA'/)
13 CONTINUE
C
DO 10 K - I , 1 0 0
DP = PW+PS
DO 20 J = I , N L A Y E R
IF (J.EQ.NLAYER) DPmPW+GAMMAS*HCOVER
DO 30 I=l,J
IF (I.EQ.J) G O TO 25
P0 = (0.5*PW+PS) + (J-I-I)*(PW+PS)
C
S(I,J) = C C ( I , J - I ) / ( I . + E ( I , J - I ) ) * H(I,J-I) * ALOGI0((P0+DP)/P0)
H(I,J) - H ( I , J - I ) - S(I,J)
H H ( I , J ) - H(I,J) + H S O I L / 4 .
E(I,J) - E ( I , J - I ) - S ( I , J ) * ( I . + E ( I , J - I ) ) / H ( I , J - I )
GAMMA(I,J) - GAMMA(I,J-I)*H(I,J-I)/H(I,J)
GO TO 26
C
25 S(I,J)=0.
H(I,J)=HWASTE
HH(I,J)=HWASTE+HSOIL/4.
IF(J.EQ.NLAYER) HH(I,J)=HWASTE+HCOVER
E(I,J)-VOID
GAMMA(I,J)=GAMMAW
C
26 CC(I,J) ~ C O E F F I * E ( I , J )
P(I,J) - ( J - I + I ) * ( P W + P S )
I F ( J . E Q . N L A Y E R ) P(I,J) - P(I,J) + (HCOVER-HSOIL)*GAMMAS
30 CONTINUE
20 CONTINUE
C
IF (IFLAG.EQ.0) GO TO 16
C
GG = G A M M A X - G A M M A ( I , N L A Y E R )
W R I T E (6,216) K , C O E F F I , G A M M A ( I , N L A Y E R ) , G A M M A X
216 FORMAT(15,FI0.2,'Eo',2FI5.1)
IF (GG-10.) 1 4 , 1 4 , 1 5
15 C O E F F I m C O E F F I + 0.02
10 CONTINUE
C
W R I T E (6,217) K-I
217 FORMAT(///' &&&&&&&& C L O S U R E N O T A C H I E V E D IN',I5,
* ' ITERATIONS &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&')
G O TO 1
C
14 W R I T E (6,218) C O E F F I
218 FORMAT(/' ADOPTED PRIMARY COMPRESSION INDEX (CC) =',F7.2,' Eo')
16 CONTINUE
C
W R I T E (6,220)
W R I T E (6,230)
K=NLAYER-2
DO 40 J = K , N L A Y E R
W R I T E (6,235) J
W R I T E (6,240) ( I , J , S ( I , J ) , I , J , H ( I , J ) , I , J , E ( I , J ) ,
* I,J,GAMMA(I,J), I , J , C C ( I , J ) , I=l,J)
40 CONTINUE
230 FORMAT(///' ==m V A L U E S OF V A R I O U S V A R I A B L E S IN S E L E C T E D ' ,
*' C O N S T R U C T I O N S T A G E S =~='//
* 6 X , ' S ( I , J ) = S E T T L E M E N T OF L A Y E R - I F R O M C O N S T R U C T I O N OF L A Y E R - J ' /
*6X,'H(I,J) = THICKNESS OF L A Y E R - I A F T E R C O N S T R U C T I O N OF L A Y E R - J ' /
* 6 X , ' E ( I , J ) = V O I D R A T I O OF L A Y E R - I A F T E R C O N S T R U C T I O N OF L A Y E R - J ' /
* 6 X , ' G ( I , J ) = U N I T W E I G H T OF L A Y E R - I A F T E R C O N S T R U C T I O N OF L A Y E R - J ' /
* 6 X , ' C C ( I , J ) = C O M P . I N D E X OF L A Y E R - I A F T E R C O N S T R U C T I O N OF L A Y E R - J ' )
Copyright 235 F O (all
by ASTM Int'l R M Arights
T ( /reserved);
/ ' (WHEN Thu Sep L
5A Y E R ' ,EDT
12:03:30 I 3 ,2019
' COMPLETED)'/)
Downloaded/printed
240 byFORMAT(' S ( ' , I 2 , ' , ' , I 2 , ' ) ~ ' , F 5 . 3 ,
, H(,,I2,',',I2,')-',F5.3,
, E(,,I2,,,,,I2,,)=',F5.3,
, G(,,I2,',',I2,')-',F6.1,
, CC(',I2,',',12,')-',F5-3)
SUM(1)-0.
DO 50 JII,NLAYER
SI(J)-0.
DO 55 I-i,J
SI(J)-SI(J)+S(I,J)
55 CONTINUE
IF(J.EQ.I) GO TO 50
SUM(J)-SUM(J-I)+SI(J)
5O CONTINUE
C
TOTI-0.
TOT2=0.
DO 60 J-I,NLAYER
JJ=NLAYER+I-J
TOTI=TOTI+H(JJ,NLAYER)
TOT2-TOT2+HH(JJ,NLAYER)
HTOT(JJ)=TOTI
HHTOT(JJ)-TOT2
60 CONTINUE
C
GTOT=0.
DO 65 J=I,NLAYER
JJ=NLAYER+I-J
GTOT=GTOT+GAMMA(JJ,NLAYER)*H(JJ,NLAYER)
GAVE(JJ)=GTOT/HTOT(JJ)
65 CONTINUE
C
WRITE (6,220)
WRITE (6,245)
DO 70 J-I,NLAYER
THICK- J*HWASTE
PCT1 - SUM(J)/THICK*I00.
WRITE (6,250) J,THICK,SUM(J),PCTI
70 CONTINUE
245 FORMAT(//' -'" INITIAL COMPRESSION VS. CONSTRUCTION',
* ' STAGES -~-'//
* ' WHEN AS-COMPACTED INITIAL PERCENT'/
* ' (} LAYERS WASTE DEPTH COMPRESSION COMPRESSION'/
* ' COMPLETED (FT) (FT) (%)'/)
250 FORMAT(I5,3FI5.2)
C
WRITE (6,220)
WRITE (6,255)
DO 75 J=I,NLAYER
JJ=NLAYER+I-J
95 RATIO = GAVE(JJ)/GAMMA(JJ,NLAYER)
75 WRITE (6,260) jj,HTOT(JJ),HHTOT(JJ),P(JJ,NLAYER),GAVE(JJ),
* GAMMA(JJ,NLAYER),RATIO
255 FORMAT(//' ==m VARIATION OF UNIT-WEIGHTS OF WASTE WITH DEPTH',
* AND PRESSURE'/6X,'(AFTER INITIAL COMPRESSION COMPLETED)',
, ===================================
* LAYER# ACCUMULATED ACCUMULATED ACCUMULATED ACCUMULATED',
* UNIT-WEIGHT RATIO'/
* (BOTTOM DEPTH OF DEPTH OF OVERBURDEN AVERAGE ',
* O F WASTE (AVE.U-W'/
* LAYER=l) COMPACTED COMPACTED PRESSURE OF UNIT-WEIGHT',
* AT EACH /U-W)'/
* WASTES WASTE&SOIL WASTE&SOIL OF WASTE ',
* LAYER'/ (FT) (FT) (PSF) (PCY) ',
(PCY)'/)
260 FORMAT(15,2PI2.2,3FI2.I,FI2.3)
C
C**** COMPUTATION OF LONG-TERM SETTLEMENTS *********************
C
Copyright by ASTM Int'l (allREAD (5,120)
rights reserved); Thu Sep NTIME
5 12:03:30 EDT 2019
Downloaded/printed by IF(NTIME.EQ.0) G O T O 1
READ (5,125) COEFF2
READ (5,130) ( T I N E ( 1 ) , I - I , N T I M E )
120 FORMAT(I5)
125 FORMAT(F10.3)
130 FORMAT(16F5.1)
C
W R I T E (6,220}
W R I T E (6,265)
W R I T E (6,270) N T I M E , C O E F F 2
D O 80 J - I , N L A Y E R
W R I T E (6,275) J , E ( J , N L A Y E R ) , H ( J , N L A Y E R )
80 CONTINUE
W R I T E (6,280) H T O T ( 1 )
C
TIMEINIT-TIME(1)
DO 85 K m I , N T I M E
SSI(K)-0.
DO 86 J = I , N L A Y E R
VOIDO = E(J,NLAYER)
CS - C O E F F 2 * V O I D O
SS(J,K) = C S / ( I . + V O I D O ) * H(J,NLAYER) * ALOGI0(TIME(K)/TIMEINIT)
SSI(K) = S S I ( K ) + S S ( J , K )
86 CONTINUE
85 CONTINUE
C
W R I T E (6,220)
W R I T E (6,285)
DO 90 K ~ I , N T I M E
PCT2 = SSI(K)/HTOT(1)*I00.
90 W R I T E (6,290) T I M E ( K ) , S S I ( K ) , F C T 2
265 F O R M A T ( / / ' *** LONG-TERM SETTLEMENTS OF S O L I D W A S T E FILLS',
, , ***************,//)
270 FORMAT(' ~ - - INPUT DATA ==='//
9 ' NO. OF T I M E S E G M E N T S (NTIME) =',I10/
9 ' SECONDARY COMPRESSION INDEX (COEFF2*Eo) =',F7.3,' Eo'//
9 ' LAYER # VOID RATIO WASTE THICKNESS'/
9 ' AFTER INITIAL AFTER INITIAL '/
9 ' COMPRESSION COMPRESSION '/
9 ' COMPLETED(Eo) COMFLETED(FT) '/)
275 FORMAT(IS,2F20.2)
280 FORMAT(/' TOTAL',I9X,F20.2)
285 F O R M A T ( / / ' =i. RESULTED LONG-TERM SETTLEMENTS ==='//
9 ' T I M E E L L A P S E D (MONTH) S E T T L E M E N T (FT)',
9 ' P E R C E N T S E T T L E M E N T (%)'/)
290 FORMAT(FI5.1,F20.2,F20.2)
C
C PRINTOUT SUMMARIZED RESULTS
C
H0=HWASTE*NLAYER
SA=SUM(NLAYER)
SB=SSI(NTIME)
SC=SA+SB
RA=SA/H0*I00.
RB=SB/HTOT(1)*I00.
RC=SC/H0*I00.
WRITE(6,220)
WRITE(6,295) GAMMAW,GAMMAX
WRITE(6,296) H0,SA,SB,SC,RA,RB,RC
295 FORMAT(' *** SUMMARY *******'///
9 ' INITIAL UNIT WEIGHT =',F10.2,' PCY'/
9 MAXIMUM UNIT WEIGHT -',F10.2,'
' PCY'//)
296 FORMAT(//' AS-PLACED WASTE DEPTH(H0) m',Fl0.2,' FT'//
' PRIMARY S E T T L E M E N T (SA) =',FI0.2,' FT'/
9 S E C O N D A R Y S E T T L E M E N T (SB) =',FI0.2,' FT'/
' TOTAL S E T T L E M E N T (SA+SB) -',FI0.2,' FT'//
' SA / H0 =',F10.2,' %'/
' SB / H0-SA -',F10.2,' %'/
' S A + S B / H0 m',Fl0.2,' %')
CONTINUE
C L O S E (5)
C L O S E (6)
STOP
(UDESC) UniversidadeEdoN DEstado de Santa Catarina ((UDESC) Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina) pursuant to License Agreement. No further reproductions authorize
William R. Orr I and Michael O. Finch 2
SOLID WASTE LANDFILL PERFORMANCE DURING THE LOMA PRIETA EARTHQUAKE
REFERENCE: Orr, W. R., Finch, M. 0., "Solid Waste Landfill

Performance During the Loma Prieta Earthquake," Geotechnics of Waste
Fil%s--Theor~ and Practice, ASTM STP 1070, Arvid Landva, G. David
Knowles, editors, American Society for Testing and Materials,
Philadelphia, 1990.
ABSTRACT: The Loma Prieta earthquake (ML=7.1) produced only minor

damage to solid waste landfills located near the epicenter. Site
personnel were interviewed using a questionnaire to determine
Modified Mercalli Intensity customized for landfills. Questionnaire
results showed maximum intensities of VII near the epicenter and VI
on bay muds. Estimated Peak Horizontal Accelerations for these sites
ranged from 0.10 to 0.45g. Earthquake acceleration and duration
appear to be the most important factors for predicting the seismic
behavior of solid waste landfills.
KEYWORDS: earthquake, solid waste landfill, seismic stability
INTRODUCTION
On October 17, 1989, a strong earthquake shook the South Bay Area
centered in the Santa Cruz Mountains north of Watsonville and east of
the city of Santa Cruz. The tremor measured 7.1 in Richter Magnitude
and was felt as far away as Los Angeles nearly 350 miles (563 km) from
the epicenter. The earthquake heavily damaged many buildings and roads
in the San Francisco Bay and Monterey Bay regions. Utility services
Chief, Standards and Regulations Division, California

Integrated Waste Management Board, 1020 Ninth Street,
Sacramento, CA 95814.
Engineering Geologist, Standard and Regulations

Division, California Integrated Waste Management
Board, 1020 Ninth Street, Sacramento, CA 95814.
22 de Santa Catarina) pursuant to License Agreement. No further reproductions authorize
(UDESC) Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina ((UDESC) Universidade do Estado
Copyright 9 1990 by ASTM International www.astm.org

SOLID WASTE LANDFILL PERFORMANCE 23
including electricity, gas, and telephone were disrupted over a wide area
for an extended period of time.
In California, solid waste landfills are required to be designed to

withstand a Maximum Probable Earthquake (MPE) [I]. The MPE is the m a x i m u m
earthquake a site is likely to experience during a 100-year interval and
no lower than the maximum that has occurred during historic time [2].
California requires final site face slopes steeper than 3 : 1 (horizontal
to vertical) to have a factor of safety of at least 1.5 under dynamic
conditions, or demonstrate that the design can accommodate the seismic
displacement. Proposed federal regulations [3] expected to be finalized
by mid-1990 will require resisting the horizontal acceleration in
lithified material with a 90 percent or greater probability that the
acceleration will not be exceeded in 250 years. The term "lithified
material" is not defined in the proposed rule. Potentially, earthquakes
can disrupt cover material, environmental control systems (including
leachate and landfill gas control systems), monitoring systems (including
ground water and landfill gas monitoring systems), and induce slope
failures that expose wastes or bury structures. Because of the potential
for damage to solid waste facilities, the California Integrated Waste
Management Board (Board) staff conducted damage surveys.
BOARD STUDY
On October 18, 1989, Board staff contacted all local enforcement

agencies (LEAs) within the 12 counties most affected by the earthquake.
LEAs are entrusted with solid waste facility compliance within their
respective jurisdictions as designated under State law. These counties
included: Alameda, Contra Costa, Marin, Monterey, Napa, San Benito, San
Francisco, San Mateo, Santa Clara, Santa Cruz, Solano, and Sonoma.
Board staff conducted field examinations on October 19 and 20, 1989,

of 10 solid waste landfills in the area impacted by the earthquake. Staff
selected locations before the extent of damage to solid waste landfills
was fully known. In anticipation of where damage would likely occur,
locations both near the epicenter and on "bay mud" soils in the South San
Francisco Bay Area were examined. "Bay mud" locations were chosen to
ascertain the affect of weak foundations on landfills. "Bay mud" ranges
in thickness from 0 to 80 feet (24 m) with a water content of typically
100 to 300%, a unit weight of approximately 60 to 90 pounds/cubic foot
(0.96 to 1.44 g/cm3), and a cohesion of 400 to 1000 pounds~square foot (19
to 48 kN/m2). Two teams of four staff each, consisting of engineering
geologists and facility inspectors, investigated these sites for damage
and interviewed waste facility personnel. A questionnaire was developed
for solid waste landfills similar to those used by the United States
Geological Survey and the California Division of Mines and Geology to
determine Modified Mercalli Intensities during an earthquake [4]. The
survey results were compared with the Mercalli index and values were
assigned. Results of these questionnaires are presented in Table i. The
locations of the sites are given in Figure I.
The "bay mud" sites examined were: Durham Road Sanitary Landfill,
Newby Island Sanitary Landfill, Shoreline Sanitary Landfill, and Zanker
Road Sanitary Landfill. The epicentral sites were: Ben Lomond Solid
Waste
Copyright Disposal
by ASTM Site,ThuBuena
Int'l (all rights reserved); Vista
Sep 5 12:03:30 EDT 2019Disposal Site, Crazy Horse Sanitary
Downloaded/printed
Landfill,by Ox Mountain Sanitary Landfill, Santa Cruz City Sanitary
TABLE I QUESTIONNAIRE RESULTS
:STIMATED*
SOLID REPORTED SHAKING 4ODIFIED E A K ON-SITE
WASTE NUMBER OF 4ERCALLI :ORIZONTAL
i
FACILITY RESPONSES Roc :ate S t r o n g ~ i o l e n t INTENSITY ~CCELERATION
Buena
Vista 3 3 VII 0.45g
Ben
Lomond 2 2 VII 0.35g
Watson-
rifle 1 1 VII 0.35g
Santa
Cruz 2 2 VII 0.30g
Crazy
Horse 3 1 1 VI 0.25g
Zanker
Road 1 1 VI 0.20g
Newby
Island 2 2 Vl 0.15g
Shore-
line 1 1 VI 0.15g
Durham
Road 12 6 6 VI-V 0.10g
Ox
Mountair i 1 V 0.10g
* Based on Figure 3.
SAN FB O
SCALE I N MILES
0 10 20
\: o
B = B e n Lomond Solid Waste 0 S
BV = B u e n a Vista Dispoaal Site C
C = Craty Horse Sa.itary Landfill
D = D u r h a m Road S a n i t a r y L a n d f i l l
N = Bewby I s l a n d S a n i t a , y L a n d f i l l
0 ~ Ox N o u n t a i n S a n i t a r y L a n d f i l l E w SALINAS
SC = S a n t a C r u z C i t y s a n i t a r y L SCALE IN k~.
S = Shoreline Sanitazy Landfill
W = W a t s o n v i l l e C i t y S o l i d waste
Z = Z a n K e r Road S a n i t a r y L a n d f i l l 0 2O
~ = Eacthauake Epicenter
Downloaded/printed by F I G U R E 1 Location of Surveyed Solid Waste Landfills.
Landfill, and Watsonville City Solid Waste Disposal Site. None of these
facilities are equipped with liners.
RESULTS
Results of the LEA surveys and field visits concluded that the
State's solid waste landfills experienced only minor damage from the
earthquake. The most common type of damage included minor cracking of
landfill slope surfaces. Staff found little to distinguish
earthquake-induced cracks from normal settlement cracks caused by the
consolidation and decomposition of wastes. Obvious signs of liquefaction,
such as sand boils, were not noticed. No failures were observed through
landfill slopes.
As explained below, many landfill gas recovery systems were

temporarily affected. First, power losses in the distressed areas caused
pumps used in gas recovery and leachate control systems to shut down.
Second, several landfill gas powered generators turned off automatically
due to motion detectors. Furthermore, several above-ground plpes
comprising gas recovery systems broke under the earthquake stress.
However, all gas recovery and leachate control systems were repaired and
back in operation within 24 hours of the earthquake. Underground
structures were not examined in this survey. NO changes in the quantities
of leachate and landfill gas recovery were reported by facility operators
after the earthquake.
A total of 13 solid waste landfills experienced minor damage from

the earthquake. The following summary identifies the solid waste
landfills visited by the Board staff and documents all damages reported
to solid waste landfills by LEAs in each county surveyed:
Alameda
The Board's field team visited the Durham Road Landfill and did not
observe any damage. No damage was reported at any Alameda County site.
Contra Costa
No damage was reported to solid waste landfills in Contra Costa

County.
Marin
The Redwood Sanitary Landfill experienced damage to its gas recovery

system in the form of minor leaks at surface pipe joints. No other damage
was reported in Matin County.
Monterey
The Board's field team visited the Crazy Horse Landfill and did not
observe
Copyright by ASTMany
Int'l (alldamage. However,
rights reserved); Thu the
Sep 5 12:03:30 facility operator reported that the gas
EDT 2019
recovery bysystem was down for 5 hours due to power failure.
Downloaded/printed No other
problems were reported in Monterey County.
Napa
No damage was reported in Napa County.
San Benito
No damage was reported in San Benito County.
San Francisco
No damage was reported to solid waste landfills in San Francisco

County.
San Mateo
The Board's field team observed minor settlement cracks at the Ox

Mountain Landfill. In addition, the site owner reported damage to surface
pipe joints with the gas recovery system at the closed Junipero Serra
Disposal Site. No other damage was reported in San Mateo County.
Santa Clara
The LEA reported minor slope cracking at the Pacheco Pass Landfill,
the City of Palo Alto Disposal Site, and the Guadalupe Disposal Site. In
addition, on-site trailers were displaced off their foundations at the
Guadalupe Disposal Site and the Zanker Road Landfill.
The Board's field team observed damage to a 2-foot (0.61 m) wide

gunite-lined drainage ditch at the Newby Island Disposal Site. They also
reported a small grass fire at the Shoreline Regional Park Landfill.
Sparks from a damaged high voltage tower adjacent to the site apparently
started the fire, which was extinguished within ten minutes of the
earthquake.
Santa Cruz
The Board's field team visited the City of Santa Cruz Landfill, the
Ben Lomond Disposal Site, the Buena Vista Landfill, and the City of
Watsonville Landfill.
The City of Santa Cruz Landfill appeared to be the most severely

damaged site. Staff members observed minor cracking at several points
along the edge of the landfill, some cracks appeared to be leaking
landfill gas. Moderate cracks were also observed in the dikes surrounding
adjacent septage and leachate collection ponds. Because of a power loss,
the gas recovery system was down for 24 hours.
Staff observed minor cracking at the Ben Lomond Disposal Site. The
cracks were located at points along the edge of the site and along the
slope benches.
The Buena Vista Landfill also experienced minor slope cracking.

There was minor cracking to a buried landfill gas header line that was
being excavated to re-locate above ground. The cracks were temporarily
patched pending replacement as part of the re-location. In addition, the
gas recovery system was down for 24 hours due to power failure.
A small landslide on virgin ground crushed and buried drainage

structures at the toe of the City of Watsonville Landfill.
No other damage was reported in Santa Cruz County.
Solano
No damage was reported in Solano County.
Sonoma
NO damage was reported in Sonoma County.
As shown in Table i, the Modified Mercalli Intensities at the I0

inspected facilities ranged from V to VII based on the responses to
questionnaires given to site personnel.
Earthquakes of intensity V are felt by nearly everyone sometimes

breaking dishes, unstable objects, and windows. A few instances of
cracked plaster may be observed. Disturbances of trees, poles, and other
large objects sometimes are noticed.
Intensity VI earthquakes are felt by all and many people run

outdoors. Heavy furniture is moved. A few instances of fallen plaster
or damaged chimneys are reported.
Intensity VII earthquakes cause all people to run outdoors. Poorly

built or badly designed structures sustain considerable damage. The
earthquake is apparent to motor car drivers.
It had been our intention to compare the results of surveys taken

for those on landfilled ground versus natural ground at the time of the
earthquake. However, because of the rural location of the epicenter and
time of the earthquake most of the landfills were closed for the day.
The remaining personnel on-site were typically in maintenance shops and
other buildings. As expected the higher intensities were recorded near
the earthquake epicenter with lower values at greater distances. Figure
2 depicts a contour map of these intensities recorded at the solid waste
landfills. Using the approximate relationship of closest horizontal
distance from the zone of energy release to peak horizontal acceleration
for a Magnitude 7.i earthquakes, as shown in Figure 3 [5], the peak
horizontal acceleration were estimated for the i0 inspected landfills.
These accelerations ranged from 0.I0 to 0.45g and are presented in Table
i.
In contrast strong motion detectors not located on landfills
SAN F~
LEGEND
k.s |RVN
~ I I ~ /I
S ~ Ben L~ond. SOlid. Waste O. S /
9V = Buena V*sta Dls~sal. Site. j C
C ~ Crazy Horse Sanitary ~ n d f x 1 1
D ~ DurUm Road Sanitary Land[
W ~ NewLy Island Sanitary L a n d f i l l A J 9
O ~ Ox ~ u n t a i n Sanitary L a n d f i l l SALI~S SCA~ IN
S ~ Shoreline Sanitar) ~ n d t i l l
W ~ Watsonville City Solid Waste 0 20
Z ~ Zanker Road Sanitary Landf
~ Earthouake Epicentez
FIGURE 2 Extent of Earthquake Intensities at Landfills.
0.6
0.5
0 0,4,
~ 0.3,
M=7.1
H
o 0.2.
0.I.
"' 5 . . . . . I0 2~ 3'0 4'0 5b

CLOSEST H O R I Z O N T A L DISTANCE FROM ZONE OF ENERGY RELEASE, MILES
F I G by
Downloaded/printed ]~ 3 Approximate Relationship Between Distance and Acceleration
(UDESC) Universidade
for M doaEstado
g n i tdeu dSanta
e Catarina
7 . 1 ((UDESC)
E a r t h q Universidade
uake [do
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. de
O nSanta
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i l e pursuant
equals to License
1 . 6Agreement.
0 9 k m ,No further reproductions authorize
recorded peak horizontal accelerations within 20 miles (32 km) of the

epicenter ranging from 0.40 to 0.54g for this earthquake [6]. Detectors
located near San Francisco Bay recorded accelerations of 0.06 to 0.33g
(6].
CONCLUSIONS
Although earthquakes are measured in Magnitude, the two most

important factors for landfill design appear to be acceleration and
duration. Studies of the 1987 Superstition Hills Earthquakes showed that
liquefaction occurred only after an extensive duration (about 45 seconds)
of seismic shaking [7]. The short duration of the Santa Cruz Mountains
Earthquake (about 15 seconds [6]) may have prevented more extensive
liquefaction and foundation failure at solid waste landfills.
Secondarily, the limited surface damage, given the peak horizontal

accelerations estimated for the 10 solid waste landfills suggests that
the properties of solid waste may tend to dampen or attenuate the effects
of earthquakes. The authors hope to place strong motions instruments on
landfilled and natural ground for confirmation of this hypothesis.
Based on this study several recommendations can be made to limit the

impact of earthquakes on solid waste landfills located in seismic zones:
i) locate gas and leachate recovery lines above ground for ready
inspection and access if a leak or rupture occurs, flexible designs will
better accommodate seismic events; 2) use backup generators to keep
environmental control systems functioning; and 3) do not over steepen cut
slopes in proximity to landfill structures to prevent damage from
landslides.
Although the Loma Prieta Earthquake was a major seismic occurrence

it did not approach the destructive potential of a great earthquake.
Little data exists for solid waste landfill performance during a great
earthquake such as the 1906 San Francisco event which would represent the
MPE for many of these solid waste landfills.
Solid waste landfills may contain toxic and/or explosive gases and
fluids. The escape of these waste components may pose an immediate threat
to public health and the environment. For these reasons solid waste
landfills should continue to be prudently protected against failure during
earthquakes.
REFERENCES
[i] California Integrated Waste Management Board, 1989, California Code

of Regulations, Title 14, Division 7, Chapter 5, Article 7.8.
[2] California Division of Mines and Geology, 1975, Recommended
guidelines for determining the maximum credible and the maximum
probable earthquakes, Sacramento, 2p.
[3] Environmental Protection Agency, 1988, Code of Federal Regulations,
Part 258 (proposed).
[4] Wood, H. 0., and Neumann, F., 1931, "Modified Mercalli Intensity
Scale," Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, vol. 12,
No.Int'l4,
Copyright by ASTM December
(all rights reserved); Thu1931, pp.EDT
Sep 5 12:03:30 115-137.
2019
Downloaded/printed
[5] by
Seed, H. B., and Idriss, I. M., 1982, Ground Motions and Soil
Liquefaction Durin 9 Earthquakes, Monograph, Earthquake Engineering

Research Institute, University of California, Berkeley, CA, 87p.
[6] Shakal, A., Huang, M., Reichle, M., Ventura, C., Cao, T., Sherburne,
R., Savage, M., Darragh, R., and Petersen, C., 1989, CSMIP Strong-
Motion Records from the Santa Cruz Mountains (Loma Prieta),
California Earthquake of 17 October 1989, Report No. OSMS 89-06,
California Department of Conservation, Division of Mines and
Geology, Office of Strong Motion Studies, Sacramento, CA, 196p.
[7] Holzer, T. L., 1988, Personal Communication, U. S. Geological
Survey, Menlo Park, CA.
Thomas A. Lawrence and Gordon P. Boutwell
PREDICTING STRATIGRAPHY AT LANDFILL SITES USING ELECTROMAGNETICS
REFERENCE: Lawrence, T. A., and Boutwell, G. P., "Predicting

Stratigraphy at Landfill Sites Using Electromagnetics,"
Geotechnics of Waste Fills - Theory and Practice, ASTM STP
1070, A. Landva and G. D. Knowles, Editors, American Society
for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, 1990.
ABSTRACT: Stratigraphic mapping has been done at several

landfill sites using a statistical method of
electromagnetic (EM) data interpretation which correlates
the stratum depth with EM data at boreholes. The
mathematical relationship developed by multivariate
regression analysis is then used to predict stratigraphy at
EM survey points. This method of Multivariate
Regression-Prediction (MVRP) has been used successfully at a
number of landfill sites for subsurface sand channel
delineation, paleokarstic feature locations, and
stratigraphic mapping between boreholes. MVRP results are in
terms of depth or thickness, and do not require further data
reduction.
KEYWORDS: surface geophysics, electromagnetics,

conductivity, Multivariate Least-Squares Regression
An electromagnetic (EM) survey has much to offer when facing time

or budget constraints. For example, for a particular landfill
geotechnical investigation, a two-day, $2000.00 EM survey with 90
survey points was chosen over drilling 12 boreholes at $1500.00 each.
However, most methods of EM data interpretation cannot produce hard
data such as stratum thickness or contaminant concentration directly
from survey results. A statistical technique for interpretation of EM
data has been developed which allows correlation of actual field data
with EM survey data [i]. A multivariate regression analysis is used to
relate field data and EM readings at known points. The resulting
mathematical relationship is then used to predict values at other
survey locations. This interpretation procedure has been used
successfully in a number of stratigraphic investigations at solid and
hazardous waste landfills.
Thomas Lawrence is Chief Hydrogeologist and Dr. Boutwell is

President at Soil Testing Engineers, Inc., 316 Highlandia Drive, Baton
Rouge, Louisiana 70810.
(UDESC) Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina ((UDESC) Universidade do31Estado de Santa Catarina) pursuant to License Agreement. No further reproductions authorize

INTERPRETATION TECHNIQUES
An EM field survey produces readings of apparent conductivity at

various points. These readings are a measurement of terrain
conductivity, which is a function of the conductivity of the soil or
rock material, porosity and saturation state of the material, and the
conductivity of the pore fluid for each stratum [2]. These
conductivity readings alone are not diagnostic of layer geometries and
in most cases are simply used to observe lateral and vertical
variations.
It is possible to calculate strata thicknesses by relating layer

conductivities and the cumulative response of the layers to the
apparent conductivity [3]. This method is limited in range of
conductivity and requires trial and error to arrive at a reasonable
combination of layer depth and conductivity.
A commercially available forward-inverse method constructs a

theoretical layered-conductivity curve to avoid equivalency problems,
and predicts layer conductivities from instrument readings. The
forward method uses Hankel transforms [4] to produce the sounding
curves, which are then inverted to produce layer conductivities. This
method requires a field data set, consisting of layer thicknesses,
conductivities, and instrument readings for a particular location to
produce the curves. It assumes stratigraphy is relatively uniform in
order to relate the theoretical curve to other points. The method
produces layer conductivities from instrument readings at the other
survey points.
What is needed is a method of EM data interpretation which

produces quantifiable results in terms of stratigraphy from actual
field data, with a definable precision. This has been accomplished by
using the commonly accepted Multivariate Least Squares Regression
analysis to establish a relationship between data taken at known
points and the EM readings at those locations, which is then used to
predict the dependent variable at other EM survey points. The results
of this interpretive technique are in terms of thickness or depth,
with no further data reduction necessary. This method is advantageous
in the fact that the EM survey serves as an extension of hard data,
rather than a method which must be correlated with additional hard
data or another geophysical method.
MULTIVARIATE REGRESSION-PREDICTION
The overall objective of most surface geophysical surveys is to

define some parameter such as contaminant concentration or depth to
stratum at the survey points. The simple contouring method alone
cannot account for the effects of spatial variations in conductivities
on the total response. A layered analysis can, but only for simple
subsurface geometries. For both techniques, the final conductivities
assigned
Copyright by to reserved);
ASTM Int'l (all rights a stratum are then
Thu Sep 5 12:03:30 EDT 2019related in some way to contaminant
concentration,
Downloaded/printed by depth, or thickness of the layer.
PREDICTING STRATIGRAPHY USING ELECTROMAGNETICS
Multivariate Regression-Prediction (MVRP) assumes that there is

some mathematical relationship between the dependent variable (e.g.,
depth of stratum) at a known point or borehole and the measured
responses for various coil spacings and orientations. Regression
analysis provides a "best-fit" relationship in the form of a
prediction equation defining the dependent variable at these "hard
data" points as a mathematical function of the various strengths of
the independent variables
f(Z) = A + B,g(Xl) + C-h(X2) +... (I)
where
Z = Dependent Variable
XI,X2 = Independent Variables
A,B,C = Regression Constants
Equation i is then used to predict the dependent variable at

other EM survey points. This method is not limited to linear
relationships, but can easily be extended to functions of the
variables (e.g., Log, Square, Exponent, etc.). The mathematics are
the same, since going to functions is merely a scale change.
The accuracy of these predicted values is evaluated through the

regression parameters, Coefficient of Correlation (Cc) and Standard
Estimate of Error (SEE). The former indicates the reliability of the
prediction, the latter its precision. A qualitative guide to
reliability is [5] given in Table i. A true Level of Confidence in the
Coefficient of Correlation can also be determined using the "Student's
t" procedure [6].
TABLE I -- Correlation Reliability
Cc
(abs. value) Strength of Relationship
Less than 0.20 Slight, almost negligible

0.20 - 0.40 Low correlation, definite but small
0.40 - 0.70 Moderate correlation, substantial
0.70 - 0.90 High correlation, marked relationship
0.90 - 1.00 Very high correlation, very dependable
The Cc is a measure of the linear relationship of the variables

along the regression line which is defined by the prediction equation.
Obviously, predictions at other points will be more accurate if the
linear relationships between independent and dependent variables is
high (high Co). Also, the greater the number of hard data points
available, the higher the degrees of freedom. This allows a closer
Level of Confidence to be made statistically.
The SEE is a measure of scatter of observed data around the

predicted
Downloaded/printed by regression line. The closer the observed values are to the
predicted values, the lower the SEE and greater the precision of the
predictions. SEE can be used as a quantitative evaluation of the
precision of the predictions using the Two-Sided Tolerance Test
(TSTT). The Tolerance Test procedure [7] determines a level of
confidence that a certain proportion of actual values fall within the
range defined by the predicted values, SEE, and Tolerance Factor (K)
f(Zp) - K, SEE ~ f(Zp) ~ f(Zp) + K, SEE (2)
where
Zp = Predicted value of Z
MVRP analysis has been used with Geonics, Ltd. instruments, but
can be used with any instrument which can give multiple readings at
each station, such as D.C. resistivity. It has been especially
successful when used with the EM34-3 because of the instrument's
varied near-surface and depth response with horizontal and vertical
dipoles, in addition to different reading depths with increased coil
spacings. These two instrument features are often useful in creating
the prediction equation. The dipole orientation that has a stronger
near-surface response can serve as a means of subtracting the effects
of shallow soil or rock strata. The regression equation gives these
readings a smaller, or even inverse, relationship to the dependent
variable, while the readings with a strong depth response are given a
more positive relationship.
When dealing with layers less than one meter in thickness,

especially at depth, it may be more prudent to use D.C. resistivity,
which allows a greater number of depth readings at various electrode
spacings. The ultimate objective is to bracket the zone of interest
with a number of readings, so a regression equation is created which
realistically predicts the dependent variable.
Experience has shown that when performing the Multivariate

Regression Analysis, a higher Cc and lower SEE can be attached if the
logarithm of the independent variables (EM data), is used. In this
case, the SEE is expressed as a logarithm.
CASE STUDIES
To demonstrate the practicality of the MVRP method, a series of

examples are presented. The Geonics, Ltd., EM-31, EM34-3, and EM34-3XI
were used in these case studies.
Case #I
Preliminary boreholes drilled at a landfill site in Northwest

Florida indicated a possible sand channel along one side, which was
thought to be a buried stream channel. Typical stratigraphy at the
site was a 7 meter-thick silty/clayey sand underlain by a clay layer
extending
Copyright by toreserved);
ASTM Int'l (all rights the Thu top
Sep of a limestone
5 12:03:30 EDT 2019 stratum near the 12 meter level.
Downloaded/printed
Threeby boreholes along the west side indicated 12 to 30 meters of sand
PREDICTING STRATIGRAPHY USING ELECTROMAGNETICS 35
beneath the surface veneer. An EM survey was used to delineate the

areal extent and thickness of the sand stratum. Based on simple
contouring of the surface apparent conductivity (Figure i), the sand
body was found to be not a linear channel, but a series of
discontinuous anomalies (shaded zones). These anomalies were most
likely paleosinks, old karstic solution features since filled in by
sediments.
Figure 1 - - - C o n t o u r e d EM Field Data.
A MVRP analysis was performed using EM readings taken at 13

borehole locations (hard data points). Using varied dipole
orientations and spacings, four conductivity readings (independent
variables) were taken at each EM survey point. Two regressions then
were used to predict the thickness of the sand bodies and the depth to
the limestone stratum at the other EM survey points. The accuracy of
the predictions are given in Table 2.
TABLE 2 -- Accuracy of Predictions (Case I)
Predicted Correlation Standard Estimate

Value Coefficient of Error
Sand Thickness 0.90 0.23 (log)

Copyright by ASTMLimestone
Int'l (all rights reserved);
Depth Thu Sep 5 12:03:30 EDT 2019
0.98 0.i0 (log)
While the correlation for predicted sand thickness is very high,

the precision as analyzed by TSTT was only fair. There was a 90t
probability that the real thicknesses would not vary from those
predicted by a factor of more than 29 The actual mean error was 2
meters on an average thickness of 7 meters. Figure 2 is a map of the
clay stratum elevation (land surface elevation minus predicted sand
thickness).
7
Monitor Well
9 EM S t a t i o n
C o n t o u r s of E l e v a t i o n in m e t e r s M S L
0 meters 1OO
t t
SCALE
Figure 2---Elevation of Top of Clay.
Subsequent borings in the vicinity of several "predicted"

sinkholes found that actual depth to limestone was within closer
tolerances to the predicted depths9 However, the filling material in
the paleosinks ranged from clayey sand to clay. Therefore, the lack of
high precision in predicted sand thickness was representing the
variation in sediment size and conductivity 9
Case #2
A RCRA landfill site in Louisiana is predominantly underlain by

Pleistocene clays, with a thin, discontinuous silt and sand layer
about 5 meters below land surface. Several preliminary borings in one
section of the site encountered sand thicknesses-in excess of 3
meters. From these borings, it was suspected that a narrow,
near-surface sand channel existed in the immediate area9 Ordinary
contouring between boreholes less than 60 meters apart indicated the
channel to be about 120 meters wide; the mean observed depth to
base-of-sand
Downloaded/printed by was 8 meters9
PREDICTING STRATIGRAPHY USING ELECTROMAGNETICS 37
An EM survey was used to delineate the actual extent and depth of

the sand between boreholes. Eight borehole locations were used for the
hard data base to produce the regression equation. From this MVRP
analysis, it was predicted that the actual sand channel was about 60
meters wide (Figure 3). Mean error between depths as predicted and
observed in the boreholes was I meter. In other words, the mean
scatter of observed data points around the predicted regression line
was i meter. The maximum error was a prediction of i0 meters when the
actual depth was 12 meters. A comparison of strata interpolated
between boreholes and predicted strata at EM stations 20 meters apart
shows the greater detail available, and the high correlation between
predicted and observed data at boreholes.
GEOPHYSICAL SURVEY
L E G E N D Contours on Depth to Base of Sand ( m e t e r s )
~- Borehole Location ~13 ~ From Borehole D a t a
9 EM Survey Station ~"13~ From EM Survey
A A'
323 316 307
FROM BOREHOLE DATA-~ I
"~ ~ ' ~1~ ~
I
j GEOPHYSICAL
,2J
0 40 ' 80 120
I I I I I l
DISTANCE (.meters)
CROSS-SECTION A-A'
Figure 3---Extent of Sand Channel.
Case #3
During the preliminary site investigation for a proposed sanitary

landfill in Central Louisiana, new State regulatory requirements for
borehole spacings were proposed. In order to satisfy these
requirements, rather than spend time and money adding supplemental
borings, a geophysical survey was proposed for the section of the site
which had already been drilled. This would determine if there were any
Copyrightstructural
by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); Thu Sep 5 12:03:30not
inconsistencies EDT 2019
detected by the borings at the coarser
spacing.
Typical stratigraphy at the site consisted of I0 to 15 meters of

clay, 3 meters of silt, and a lower clay layer. MVRP analyses of the
EM survey were performed using 28 hard data points (boreholes), and
the resulting relationships were used to predict the depths of the
upper three strata. Precision of the predictions are in Table 3.
TABLE 3 -- Accuracy of Predictions (Case 3)
Coefficient of Standard Estimate

Prediction Correlation of Error
Base of First Clay 0.96 0.i0 (log)

Base of First Silt 0.98 0.i0 (log)
Base of Second Clay 0.99 0.08 (log)
The SEE indicates a low scatter of observed values around the

linear regression, and a high degree of confidence in the predicted
values at the survey points. For the predicted depth to upper clay
base, there was a 95% confidence level that 95% of the predicted
values did not vary from real thicknesses by a factor of more than
1.4.
The stratigraphic predictions, along with the hard data points,

were contoured for the desired stratum information (Figure 4). What
appeared to be a silt channel was detected along the eastern boundary
of the survey area, incised in the more regular lower clay stratum. A
cross-sectional comparison of boring logs and EM results shows a good
correlation between contouring and MVRP predicted stratigraphy (Figure
5).
CONCLUSIONS
The common methods of data interpretation available for surface

electromagnetic surveys are not always practical or reliable for use
in stratigraphic mapping. A statistical method of EM data
interpretation has been developed for use in stratigraphic and
groundwater studies. A mathematical relationship is determined
between a dependent variable, such as stratum depth, and EM readings
at known points, using Multivariate Least-Squares Regression.
Predictions of stratum depth can then be made at other EM survey
points using this mathematical relationship. The advantages of using
this Multivariate Regression-Prediction (MVRP) for data interpretation
are the EM survey serves as an extension of hard data, rather than a
method to be correlated with additional data or another method, and
the results from MVRP are in terms of thickness with no further data
reduction necessary.
MVRP-EM
Copyright by ASTM Int'l surveys
(all rights reserved); Thu Sep are most
5 12:03:30 practical when faced with time or budget
EDT 2019
constraints. They are also extremely cost-effective for preliminary
PREDICTING STRATIGRAPHYUSING ELECTROMAGNETICS 39
,l+.j• 9 ~,~
~,/ .,
•! +'4r.
o ~; + 2
§ 9 +"
I + - ~ - ~
DEPTH TO BASE DEPTH TO BASE DEPTH TO BASE
OF 1st CLAY (meters) OF 1st SILT (meters) OF 2nd CLAY(meters)
0 . 100 Boring Location plus EM Reading
SCALE 9 EM Reading Only
Figure 4 - - - E M / M V R P Survey Results.
B-27 B-22 B-14 B-9

7W9 5Wl 4W8 3W5 2W10 1W5 1E6
-24-- 7-1
H
v
z
_o - 8
I-
.J
IJJ
-!
-i6
-0
] CLAY 0 200
l meters I
] SILT HORIZONTAL SCALE
]SILTY CLAY
Copyright by ASTM Int'l (allFigure 5 - -Thu

rights reserved); - P Sep
r e d5 i12:03:30
c t e d EDT
Stratigraphy
2019 versus Borehole Data.
reconnaissance work. For example, in the early stages of a landfill

site selection, geologic maps indicated an abrupt change between clays
from old backswamp deposits and channel sands at one particular site.
For the price of an additional borehole, it was proposed that an EM
survey be run between a minimum number of borings to find the exact
location of the facies change. From this, an assessment of the
suitability of the site for use as a landfill could be made. (For a
general information survey, it is recommended that at least five hard
data points be used.) Results of these and other studies [I] have
shown that MVRP-EM analysis can be an efficient method for predicting
subsurface conditions by extending the usefulness of a limited number
of boreholes. Once the EM method is understood, MVRP can be applied
to develop stratigraphic analyses at landfills and other sites.
REFERENCES
[1] Boutwell, G. P., and Lawrence, T. A., "Electromagnetic Data

Interpretation Using Statistics," Proceedings of the FOCUS
Conference on Eastern Regional Ground Water Issues, National
Water Well Association, Dublin, Ohio, 1988.
[2] McNeill, J. D., Electrical Conductivity of Soils and Rocks,

Geonics, Ltd., Technical Note TN-5, 1980.
[31 McNeill, J. D., Electromagnetic Terrain Conductivity

Measurements at Low Induction Numbers, Geonics, Ltd., Technical
Note TN-6, 1980.
[4] Anderson, W. L., Numerical Integration of Related Hankel

Transforms of Orders 0 and I by Adaptive Digital Filtering,
Geophysics, Voi.44, No.7, July, 1979, Pg. 1287-1305.
[5] Guilford, J. P., Fundamental Statistics in Psychology and

Education, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1950.
[6] Li, J. C. R., Statistical Inference, Edwards Brothers, Inc., Ann

Arbor, Michigan, 1964, pp.301-302.
[7] Miller, I., and Freund, J. E., Probability and Statistics for
Engineers, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1965.
Gregory P. Gifford, Arvid O. Landva, Vernon C. Hoffman
GEOTECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS WHEN PLANNING CONSTRUCTION ON A LANDFILL
REFERENCE: Gifford, G. P., Landva, A. O., and Hoffman, V.

C., "Geotechnical Considerations When Planning Construction
on a Landfill," Geotechnics of Waste Fills - Theory and
Practice, ASTM STP 1070, Arvid Landva and G. David Knowles,
Eds., American Society for Testing and Materials,
Philadelphia, 1990.
ABSTRACT: The closing of landfills has become commonplace.

In many instances these closed facilities are desirable
building sites because of close proximity to urban areas.
Much of the subsurface investigation for foundation design
parameters in landfills is more difficult and more
expensive than for conventional sites underlain by soil or
rock. A subsurface investigation of one particular
landfill site is presented and discussed. The results
obtained guide the decision making process for both further
investigation and foundation type selection. The purpose
of the paper is to inform the practicing engineer of one
approach to the evaluation of geotechnical considerations
of a landfill site.
KEYWORDS: landfill, foundations, settlement, dynamic

compaction, deep foundations, adjustable floor slab.
INTRODUCTION
In recent years the closing of landfills has become common in

New York State. Some of these sites are being used as sites for
building by developers and government agencies. The purpose of this
paper is to present and discuss an approach to the evaluation of
geotechnical considerations of such a site.
G. Gifford is an assistant professor of civil engineering, Union

College, Schenectady, NY, 12308. A. Landva is a professor of civil
engineering, University of New Brunswick, Fredricton, NB, Canada,
E3B5A3. V. Hoffman is principal of Vernon Hoffman, PE, 118 S. Ferry
St., Schenectady, NY 12305.

The referenced site is the North Albany Demolition Landfill

(NADL) in Albany, New York. The landfill was used primarily for
disposal of demolition debris and excess soil. A secondary use was
disposal of municipal solid waste.
SITE INVESTIGATION
Historical Overview
The NADL is situated on approximately 45 acres at the north end

of the city of Albany. The site is bordered by Routes 1-787 to the
east, 1-90 to the south, Erie Boulevard to the west, and the Albany
County Wastewater Treatment Plant to the north. Access to the site is
from Erie Boulevard. The site is part of the Hudson River flood
plain, as the river flows to the south, immediately to the east of 1-
787.
During the early 1900's, a large river-water filtration plant

operated on the site. The plant was abandoned during the 1930's.
Several massive concrete foundations, tanks, and tunnel structures
remain beneath the landfill. The tanks were reportedly demolished
prior to beginning landfill operation.
The northern portion of the site was operated as a municipal

solid waste landfill during the 1960's. The quantity and boundaries
of the municipal refuse are unknown. However, certain records
indicate that the southwest quadrant consists mostly of construction
debris and limited areas of municipal refuse. The fill was placed
with very little sorting or compaction. Soil cover was placed over
the fill at the end of each day.
The thickness of the landfill was estimated from old site plans
to vary between 4.6 and 9.2m. The water table was estimated to be
near original grade. Occasional perched water tables exist within the
landfill.
Preliminary Investigation
The primary purpose of the preliminary investigation phase was to

evaluate the feasibility of building on the landfill. In the case of
the NADL, the "proposed construction involved a 4650m 2 Public Works
garage/office f a c i l i t y w i t h future plans to expand the complex. A
steel structure with metal sheathing is planned. The maximum column
load is estimated to be between 115 and 136 tonnes, and the floor is to
be subjected to truck vehicle loading. Parking lots, roadways, and
utility bedding schemes are also to be evaluated. The preliminary plan
is to support the structure with a deep foundation bearing on bedrock
and to support the floor on the landfill.
The preliminary investigation includes six soil borings and 23

test pits through the fill. The locations of these are shown in
Copyright by Figure
ASTM Int'l (alli.
rights reserved); Thu Sep 5 12:03:30 EDT 2019
The borings were performed with a truck-mounted hollow-stem auger
PLANNING CONSTRUCTION ON A LANDFILL 4;3
PROPERTY L I N E - ~ _ __
/i ~"~ - ~ ~ X PHASE 1 TEST PIT
~-PHASE 2 TEST PIT
/t +t:_+_+.. <- BORING
(,
_ v t
+:':';,\.:,l
,~\
X
i I
§
il
+ + ,,~ I +
ji
~t TURE
II 4---
II § I!
.+p 4, 11
II lI
II +ARACE OFFICE BUILDING
D---, ]z , <~ .J ~ ,.i- +"
4 \ + +
l-I
,:'L-+-'+~ + I Z
X
II MAINTENANCE BLDG.. ~ " +
@
I,-4
[z.1 xX
~.TE'+~~m" ~.__++_~S
. . . . . . . . . . . -- T-- _-- +
0k 20a 40
a
60
FIG. 1 Site Plan with Test Pit and Boring Locations

drilling rig. A 20cm diameter auger was used to advance the hole
through the landfill. In general, the auger was advanced with little
difficulty. However, a few localized refusals were encountered and the
boring relocated. Once virgin material was encountered, standard split
spoon sampling was performed until bedrock was encountered. Virgin
material was found to be glacial lake Albany varved silt and clay and
it varied in thickness between 4 and 5m. Shale bedrock was found at
depths between 12 and 14m. The surface of the bedrock dips gently to
the east.
The landfill material was found to be no more than 8.5m thick.

Test pits yield more continuous visual information on the landfill
material than conventional borings. It was, therefore, decided to
perform the majority of the preliminary investigation with test pits.
A track-mounted backhoe with a 7.5m reach was used to excavate and
backfill the test pits. All test pits were backfilled with the
excavated material. The backfill was not compacted. Excavating the
test pits was relatively easy, and most test pits stayed vertically
open during logging. It required approximately 30 minutes to excavate
each test pit to a depth of 7.5m.
Most of the elongated particles in a landfill end up with their

long axis horizontal resulting in a laterally reinforced arrangement
of the material [I]. This reinforcement helps test pit walls stand
vertically.
During excavation of each test pit the material encountered was

carefully logged and photographed. Particular attention was paid to
distinguishing between material originating from municipal solid waste
and from construction and demolition debris. Several test pits
encountered immovable concrete objects at or near original grade.
These were of particular importance because of the planned deep
foundation and the probable existence of substantial concrete
structures from the previous water treatment facility.
The portion of the landfill which originated from construction

and demolition debris is herein termed construction debris. The
construction debris consisted mainly of sandy silt and clay soil. The
soil was layered with an estimated i0 to 20% man-made debris,
consisting of chunks of concrete, brick, tires, decomposing wood
(decking, beams, tree limbs, and stumps), and various metal pieces.
The layers of debris varied up to Im in thickness. Soil layers of 0.2
to 0.4m thickness and more were used as daily covers. The random
placement of the pieces of debris results in localized voids and an
overall loose deposit.
The portion of the landfill which originated from municipal solid

waste is herein termed municipal refuse. The municipal refuse
consisted mainly of silt and clay soil, although not as much as in the
construction debris. Interbedded with the soil was an estimated 20 to
40~ of varied w~ste including paper, glass, plastic, cloth, ashes,
decomposing wood, brush, brick, concrete, tires, and metals. Even
though putrescible refuse such as food waste was not present, the
municipal refuse had a much stronger odor than the construction debris
Copyright and in
by ASTM Int'l some instances
(all rights reserved); Thu Sep 5was
12:03:30warm.
EDT 2019
PLANNING CONSTRUCTION ON A LANDFILL 45
Figures 2a and 2b are photos of test pit spoil piles from

municipal refuse and construction debris, respectively. The sides of
the test pits were littered with a variety of waste. Some waste was
cut cleanly with the bucket, but often the waste protruded from the
wall. When viewed from the edge of the test pit, the waste protruding
from the wall concealed the wall beneath. This can result in
overestimating the quantity of waste. The mixing of waste and soil
during excavation allows for a more realistic estimate of quantities.
In fact, during backfilling, the waste (especially decomposing wood)
disintegrates and mixes with soil and results in the mixture having the
appearance of contaminated soil.
The landfill had been capped with 0.6 to 0.9m of clayey silt and
sand. People familiar with the site indicate that sinkholes were
commonly observed over the past years and that soil was used to fill
these sinkholes. The cap was noted to be a meter or more thick in
these localized areas. The sinkholes were the result of raveling or
collapse of hollow structures not compacted during placement of the
fill.
In general, the amount of municipal refuse increased to the north

and east. Subsurface profiles were prepared and studied to select the
better areas for the building and the less desirable for parking and
green areas. The southwest quadrant of the landfill consisted mainly
of construction debris. The water table was near original grade, and
perched water tables existed within the landfill. It was concluded
that this area was best suited for building. Some of the fill in this
area had been in place for seven to eight years and some for decades.
The debris consisted mainly of soil mixed with partially decomposed
wood, metals, concrete, brick and tires.
At the completion of the preliminary investigation phase the

following tentative conclusions were drawn:
I. It is feasible to build on the NADL and the building complex

would best be located within the southwest section of the
landfill.
2. Feasible foundation types include piles or caissons to
bedrock or shallow spread or combined footings. A shallow
foundation would require extensive subgrade improvements.
3. The floors could be designed as slabs on grade on an
extensively improved subgrade, provided the owner was
willing to accept some differential settlement after several
years of service.
4. The settlement of slabs could be halted and the slabs
releveled by pressure grouting under the slabs at certain
locations.
5. Dynamic compaction (DC) could be used to improve bearing,
reduce settlement, and improve stability at locations of
structures, pavements, and utilities.
On the basis of these tentative conclusions, the location of the

complex was decided and a site plan was developed with the guidance of
the geotechnical engineer. Also, the scope of work was increased from
Copyrightone
by ASTM
toInt'ltwo
(all rights reserved); Thu Sepafter
buildings 5 12:03:30 it
EDT 2019
had been concluded that building on the
landfill was indeed feasible.
(UDESC) Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina ((UDESC) Universidade The owner
do Estado de Santa decided to
Catarina) pursuant found
to License theNobuilding
Agreement. further reproductions authorize
FIG. 2a Photo of Municipal Refuse Snoil Pile
Downloaded/printed by FIG. 2b Photo of Construction Debris Spoil Pile
structures on piles or caissons bearing on bedrock. However, he did

not want to support the floor or parking areas on piles and agreed
consequently to accept greater than normal settlements.
Main Investigation
The main investigation phase was subsequently planned to

examine the subsurface in the vicinity of the proposed foundations and
utilities in the southwest quadrant of the landfill. Final design
recommendations for building foundations, floors, parking lots, and
utility bedding were made at the conclusion of this investigation.
Two soil borings were performed and 54 test pits were excavated.
One boring was advanced through the fill with a 15cm diameter hollow-
stem auger and the other with a 10cm diameter rotary wash-drilling
operation. The wash fluid was pressurized air.
The test pits were located at all column locations and other
areas of interest. The test pits were excavated with a track-mounted
backhoe and carefully logged and photographed. Bag samples were
obtained for organic and moisture content tests. The organic contents
varied between 5 and 12% and the moisture contents between 14 and 68%.
It is not practical to test laboratory samples in conventional

devices, therefore, a soils engineer should log test pit. A
universally accepted classification system should be adopted for
landfill materials such as suggested by Landva and Clark [2].
In the vicinity of the proposed construction the existing

landfill material was, in general, found to be construction debris. A
limited area at the northwest corner of the garage/office facility
contains municipal refuse. The settlement caused by decay of the
municipal refuse is expected to be relatively large. Therefore, it
was decided that the floor system in that area should be supported by
deep foundations.
The floor plan was designed so that the lightly loaded office
section of the floor was supported by the deep foundations. The
remainder of the floor in the garage section of the building would be
supported on the landfill. A control joint in the floor at the
transition had to be incorporated.
At the completion of the main investigation, the following design

recommendations were made:
i. Perform dynamic compaction wherever it is desirable to

minimize post-construction settlement, for example, under
floor slabs, pavements, and utilities.
2. Support the building structure and one portion of the floor
on deep foundations to ensure normal settlement tolerances.
3. Support floor slabs, driveways, and parking lots on the
dynamically compacted landfill.
4. Incorporate a slab support system which allows releveling
should settlement magnitudes warrant.
(UDESC)These
Universidaderecommendations are Universidade
do Estado de Santa Catarina ((UDESC) discussed do Estadoin more
de Santa detail
Catarina) pursuant to below.
License Agreement. No further reproductions authorize
DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS
Dynamic Compaction (DC)
The purpose of dynamic compaction is to densify the landfill,

thereby decreasing post-construction settlement. Since future
expansion at the site is planned, the compaction should be planned so
that future DC will not cause excessive vibrations of the initially
constructed buildings.
Densification of the entire depth of landfill is needed. Not

only should deep-seated settlement be avoided, but adequate bearing
capacity at the subgrade is needed to spread traffic and floor
loading.
Based on engineering judgement, it was decided to spread a 0.6m

thick layer of a granular soil over the entire area to be subjected to
DC. The layer would provide a working mat, thereby improving access of
construction vehicles. This layer will provide good bearing and
promote drainage of the pavement subgrade. Also, the layer would
provide some confinement of the landfill upon DC impact and lessen
heave.
It was recommended that the compacted fill be demonstrated to

have a minimum coefficient of subgrade reaction (Ks) under building
areas of 270kPa/cm at design subgrade and at 1.5m below design
subgrade; and under pavement areas of 400kPa/cm at design subgrade and
270kPa/cm at 1.5m below design subgrade. These magnitudes were back-
calculated from subgrade moduli recommended by the Asphalt Institute of
America and the Portland Cement Association.
Plate bearing tests performed in accordance with ASTM

Specification DI194 using a circular plate with a minimum diameter of
0.Sm will be utilized to verify the criteria. Ks will be calculated
from the load versus settlement curve generated during each test.
These tests will be performed at both the subgrade level and in test
pits l. Sm below the subgrade level. This quality assurance will be
required throughout the entire project. A demonstration test area of
at least 300m ~ will be closely scrutinized as adjustments are made to
the DC procedure.
Peculiar weight behavior upon impact is common in landfill

deposits. Springy weight behavior is an indication of concentrations
of large wood or steel. These pieces should be removed, because they
inhibit effective densification of adjacent areas.
The DC may also reveal soft spongy areas. These areas will
either be removed and replaced with more suitable material, or coarse
gravel with cobbles will be pounded into the spongy areas.
Records will be kept of the crater sizes and of the net change of
volume after each pass, since the change of volume is a measure of the
effectiveness of compaction. A larger crater volume may indicate
compressible material in a certain location, and these locations will
require
Downloaded/printed by more compactive energy.
Lukas [3] and Welsh [4] indicate that the net settlement of a
landfill subjected to DC will vary between 5 and 25%. The low end of
this range represents old landfills and fills with low percentages of
refuse. The high end represents recent landfills with high percentages
of refuse. It was estimated that the NADL would lose 10% of its volume
during DC and settle approximately 0.6m. This estimate was made from
the literature review and discussions with DC specialty contractors.
Buildinm Foundations
Since the landfill is more compressible and less uniform than

inorganic soils, settlement of a shallow foundation supported on the
landfill could be large and differential. A well performed DC program
would minimize settlement. However, large voids could remain after DC,
especially at the location of concrete vaults, tanks, and tunnels at
the previous water treatment facility. A flexible structure with
provisions for jacking and grouting column bases could be used.
Figure 3 illustrates how adjustable column bases could be used to
relevel a light building.
COLUMN
WALL ~ Z ~ TEMPORARY CLIP

EXTERIOR SIDE
II IF--F
SLOTTED BOLT HOLE ~ II I~ ~ ~--SLAB

iN
tI I ~EXPANsI~ JOINT
1
_ L "-J
ITH EXTRA EXPOSED THREADS
FIG. 3 lllustration of Adjustable Column Base
Deep foundations are an alternative, since bedrock is relatively

shallow (approximately 9 meters). Obstructions such as concrete rubble
and steel debris are present in the landfill. Driving piling may be
difficult and result in damage of the piles. Some areas may require
excavation and removal or breaking of the obstruction. Rebar, conduit,
wire or other obstructions may make augering or percussion drilling
difficult locally.
A negative skin friction load of 15 to 20% of the pile or caisson

design capacity should be included because of the high compressibility
of
Copyright the Int'llandfill.
by ASTM These
(all rights reserved); Thu percentages
Sep 5 12:03:30 EDT 2019 were determined by estimating the
shear bystrength of the refuse and soil mixture and its adhesion to the
Downloaded/printed
pile or caisson.
The corrosivity of the landfill is expected to be greater than

that of inorganic soil because of the harsh chemical and biological
environment. Its effect on the piles, caissons, or caps must be
addressed.
Floor Slabs and Pavements
Figure 4 gives a section view of the slab support system which

can be used on a compacted landfill material.
S LAB THICKNESS AND REINFORCEMENT

/ BY STRUCTURAL ENGINEER
.~KEYED JOINTS
[~9~o~ ~c0=sE SAND AND GRAVEL GROUTING ~TTRESS

0.3m
.1 PRO CT D
0, 3m
/:'~.~9~COARSECRUSHED.STONE
tGEOFABRIC AND/OR SAND ON COMPACTED SUBGRADE
FIG. 4 Slab Releveling Mattress and Vent Systems
A subgrade vent system is required for removal of gases emitted

from the landfill. This system was designed by others and envisioned
as a layer of coarse crushed stone separated from the supporting soil
by a geofabric. A network of perforated pipe will be placed at the
upper limit of the layer of crushed stone. The layer will be covered
with an impermeable membrane to trap the gas. This membrane may be
placed on another layer of geofabric and/or filter sand to prevent
puncture.
This membrane also serves as the lower bound of a foundation

mattress. This mattress will be a 0.3m thick layer of compacted sand
and gravel. The membrane should be protected from puncture. This
mattress was designed to support the floor slab and allow releveling of
the slab by selectively pressure injecting grout beneath the slab.
Articulated and well-keyed reinforced slabs may be used to

localize differential settlement and limit faulting of the slabs at
the joints. Separation is needed to prevent the slabs from hanging up
on pile caps and grade beams.
A less expensive option is to pave the floor with a more flexible

Copyright byasphalt
ASTM Int'l (all concrete orSep stabilized
rights reserved); Thu 5 12:03:30 EDT 2019 granular surface. Provisions would have
to beby made to allow future shimming and repaving as necessary.
Downloaded/printed
The driveways and parking areas were designed according to

recommendations of the Asphalt Institute of America. The design
included a geofabric laid on the subgrade coupled with either a 45cm
layer of compacted run-of-bank gravel, or a 35cm layer of compacted
crushed stone base. This design would bridge voids in the subbase
adequately at a reasonable cost and provide a substantial life before
repaying.
Utility Foundations
Four fuel tanks (total capacity of 120 cubic meters), water,

sewer, and power lines will be placed on a dynamically compacted
imported granular fill after removal of the landfill material to 0.6m
below these utilities. The gas line will be placed on the same fill
after removal of all the landfill material to original grade.
Post-Construction Settlement
Natural settlement of landfills occurs by several mechanisms:

consolidation or decreasing voids; ravelling or washing fine material
into large voids; collapse of hollow structures; creep; and chemical
and biological decay accompanied by gas production and reduction in
solid volume. The first three mechanisms are accelerated by DC. The
creep and decay cannot, however, be substantially c h a n g e d b y DC. On
the other hand, the rate of anaerobic decay is substantially less than
aerobic decay [5], and densification will decrease the amount of oxygen
in the landfill resulting in a decreased rate of decay. The planned
development will also reduce the quantity of water percolating into the
landfill, thereby slowing the rate of decay.
The NADL is many years old, and much of the expected settlement
due to consolidation, ravelling and structural collapse will occur
during DC.
The settlement due to decay has at least two causes: conversion

of material to liquid or gas (that is, disappearance of the material);
and decay of hollow structures coupled with collapse and ravelling.
The settlement due to decay and collapse of hollow structures coupled
with ravelling may result in local sinkholes and differential
settlement of structures supported by the landfill. Effective DC and
sealing the ground surface will minimize the occurrence of sinkholes.
The settlement due to creep is analogous to secondary

consolidation of conventional soil. Creep settlement and conversion
to liquid or gas will be more uniform than settlement due to decay and
subsequent collapse. Furthermore, the magnitude of long-term
settlement due to creep is probably substantially greater than that
due to decay, except in the event of a sinkhole caused by structural
collapse.
The literature on predicting long-term settlements of landfills is

scant. A study of case records reported in the literature was made.
The reported settlement was normalized by dividing by the landfill
Copyrightthickness andreserved);
by ASTM Int'l (all rights plottedThu Sep 5versus
12:03:30 EDTlog
2019 time in Figure 5. The case records
Downloaded/printed
plotted by are summarized in Table i.
Time, yrs.
0.I i I0
Q\~ 0 ' ' ~' '''I
- 0 | = _ [lO] A
o ~ [ s] ~h DC
l
2
O DC
o
E 3 B
| [ 6] |
0
,-4
[111 0
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.~ Os] E!
obl 5 5c DC
.M
[12] Q
~ 6
o
z
I i i i I I i f I I ! I I I I il
FIG. S Normalized Settlement Versus Log Time
Diagrams by Sowers[5] differentiate aerobic and anaerobic decay

conditions. His data is plotted as two curves in Figure 5. The
landfill material contained garbage refuse and building debris. The
stress on the landfill varied between 25 and 50kPa. The age and
thickness of the landfill or any treatment are unknown.
Another paper by Sower[6] reports the long-term settlement of a

one-story building constructed on a 3m embankment which was placed on
an old landfill. The landfill varied in thickness up to 7.5m and
received no treatment prior to construction. Settlement of the
building was measured annually over a seven year period.
Welsh[4] reports on the DC of a 10m thick municipal landfill

which had been closed four years prior to the DC treatment (750 tonne-
meters per square meter). A roadway embankment was placed over the
site [7] and is reported by Lukas[8] Settlement was measured three and
one-half years after treatment.
Charles et al.[9] report on the DC of a 6m thick municipal

landfill which was 15 years old when treated (250 tonne-meters per
square meter). Settlement was measured at the location of a 3m high
embankment two and four years later.
Lukas[3] reports on DC of an 18m thick burned refuse with

miscellaneous material landfill which was more than 30 years old when
treated (200 tonne-meters per square meter). Settlement of a two-story
building was measured 6 months after construction.
Downloaded/printed byChang and Hannon[10] report on a roller-compacted 5.5 to 6m thick
landfill
(UDESC) Universidade which
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included 105 passes with a 45 tonne roller. Settlement was measured at

the location of a 3m thick embankment thirteen months after
construction.
Moore and McGrath[ll] report on a roller-compacted 1.5 to 7.5m

thick dump fill which was 4 to 18 years old when treated. The
treatment included 8 passes with a 27 tonne roller and 38 passes with a
45 tonne roller. Settlement was measured at the location of a 0.6 to
im thick embankment five years after construction.
Burlingame[12] reports on a surcharge compacted 2 to 9m thick

residential and industrial waste landfill which was 5 to 15 years old
when treated. This landfill was partly underlain by organic silt and
peat. Settlement was measured 3 years after removal of the 2m
surcharge.
Yen and Scanlon[13] report on three recent residential refuse

landfills which were bulldozer compacted in 1.5 to 6.1m lifts during
placement. Settlement was measured under selfweight over a nine year
period and average values are shown in the figure.
An examination of Figure 5 and Table i indicates that surface

roller compaction of an existing landfill is less effective at limiting
the magnitude of settlement than dynamic compaction.
The available data shown in Figure 5 are scattered and limited in

extent. However, it is useful to predict a range of settlement up to a
decade after construction, but more data are needed to conclude that
such a figure represents true settlement behavior and to refine the
time-settlement relationship.
Using Figure 5 it is estimated that after I0 years the NADL site

will experience settlements between one and two percent (8 and 16cm).
It is the opinion of the authors that the site will experience
settlement near the low end of the range.
This paper was submitted before construction was started. It is

expected that a future publication will cover the construction of the
facility and the post-construction performance.
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions were reached during the investigation

at NADL. Much of the information discussed herein can be utilized when
planning construction on a landfill.
i. A phased subsurface investigation program should be used when

planning construction on a landfill. The results obtained guide
the choice for further investigation and foundation type
selection.
2. The landfill should be zoned and identified by potential
foundation design schemes.
3. A universally accepted classification system for landfill
materials should be developed and used by practitioners.
4. The settlement due to decreasing voids, ravelling, and collapse
(UDESC) Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina
of hollow ((UDESC) Universidade
structures will do Estado
be demuch
Santa Catarina)
lesspursuant
afterto License
a Agreement.
landfill No further
hasreproductions
been authorize
dynamically compacted [Figure 5]. Heavy surface rolling is not

as effective at limiting settlement.
5. The magnitude of long-term settlement can be estimated from
Figure 5. More data are however needed to refine the time-
settlement relationship of landfills. These data should include
detailed descriptions of the landfill material, placement
method, and any treatment such as grouting, dynamic compaction,
and other ground improvement.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank the City of Albany, NY, and Smith and
Mahoney, PC, of Albany, NY.
The views expressed in this paper are those of the authors.
REFERENCES
[i] Landva, A. O., and LaRochelle, P., "Compressibility and Shear

Characteristics of Radforth Peats," Testing of Peats and Organic
Soils, ASTM STP 820, Philadelphia, 1983.
[2] Landva, A. O., and Clark, J. I., "Geotechnics of Wate Fills,"
Geotechnics of Waste Fills - Theory and Practice, ASTM STP 1070,
Philadelphia, 1990.
[3] Lukas, R. G., "Dynamic Compaction for Highway Construction Volume
I: Design and Construction Guidelines," U.S. Department of
Transportation, FHWA/RD-86/133, McLean, Va., 1986.
[4] Welsh, J. P., "Dynamic Deep Compaction of Sanitary Landfill to
Support Superhighway," Proceedins of the 8th European Conference
on Soil Mechanics and Foundation En~ineerln~, Helsinki, 1983.
[5] Sowers, G. F., "Settlement of Waste Disposal Fills," Proceedings
of the 8th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering, Moscow, 1973.
[6] Sowers, G. F., "Foundation Problems in Sanitary Landfills,"
Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division, ASCE, Vol. 94, No.
SAI, Feb. 1968.
[7] Research Section, Materials and Research Division, Arkansas State
Highway and Transportation Department, "Dynamic Compaction of a
Sanitary Landfill Progress Report," U.S. Department of
Transportation, FHWA-TS-85-227, Washington, DC., 1985.
[8] Lukas, R. G., "Densification of Loose Deposits by Pounding,"
Journal of the Geotechnical Engineering Division, ASCE, Vol. 106,
No. GT4, April 1980.
[9] Charles, J. A., Burford, D., and Watts, K. S., "Field Studies of
the Effectiveness of Dynamic Consolidation," Proceedings of the
lOth International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering, Stockholm, 1981.
[i0] Chang, J. C., and Hannon, J. B., "Settlement Performance of Two
Test Highway Embankments on Sanitary Landfills," New Horizons on
Construction Material, Envo Publishing Company, Inc., Lehigh
Valley,
Downloaded/printed by Pa., Vol. i, 1976.
[ii] Moore, L. H., and McGrath, M. E., "Highway Construction on

Refuse Landfills," Highway Focus, Vol. 2, No. 5, Dec. 1970.
[12] Burlingame, M. J., "Construction of a Highway on a Sanitary
Landfill and Its Long-Term Performance," Transportation Research
Record 1031, TRB, National Research Council, Washington, D.C.,
1984.
[13] Yen, B. C., and Scanlon, B., "Sanitary Landfill Settlement
Rates," Journal of the Geotechnical Engineerin~ Division, ASCE,
Vol. i01, No. GT5, May 1975.
Hari D. Sharma 1, Michael T. Dukes 2, Donald M. Olsen 3
FIELD MEASUREMENTS OF DYNAMIC MODULI AND POISSON'S RATIOS

OF REFUSE AND UNDERLYING SOILS AT A LANDFILL SITE
REFERENCE: Sharma, Hari D., Dukes, Michael T., and

OIsen, Donald M., "Field Measurements of Dynamic Moduli and
Poisson's Ratios of Refuse and Underlying Soils at a Landfill
Site", Geotechnics of Waste Fills - Theory and Practice, ASTM
STP 1070, A. Landva, G. D. Knowles, editors, American Society
ABSTRACT: This paper briefly discusses the applicability of
laboratory and field test methods commonly used to determine
the dynamic moduli and Poisson's ratio of undisturbed soil and
rock and soil-rock fill and refuse fill materials. Down-Hole geo-
physical methods were used to measure dynamic shear and
compression wave velocities of municipal refuse fill and the un-
derlying soils at a sanitary landfill. These data are used to com-
pute the in situ elastic and shear moduli and Poisson's ratio of
the materials at the landfill site and are compared with values re-
ported in the literature. Finally, conclusions are drawn regarding
the use of dynamic moduli and Poisson~ ratios obtained with the
Down-Hole test method.
KEYWORDS: Dynamic Shear Moduli, Dynamic Elastic Moduli,

Poisson's Ratio, Field Measurements, Down-Hole Test, Mu-
nicipal Refuse, and Sanitary Landfill.
INTRODUCTION
The dynamic moduli, Poisson's ratio, and strength characteristics of na-

tural materials (i.e., soil and rock) and of man-made materials (i.e., soil-rock
fills and refuse fills) must be estimated if their engineering behavior is to be
understood when subjected to dynamic Ioadings, such as, machine vibrations,
blasting, and earthquakes.
-1 Har, D. Sharma, Ph.D., Chief Geotechnical Engineer, EMCON Associates, 1921 Ring-
wood Ave., San Jose, CA 95131.
2 MichaelT. Dukes, Executive Manager, EMCON Associates, 1921 Ringwood Ave., San
Jose, CA 95131.
3 Donald M. Olsen, Project Geotechnical Engineer, EMCON Associates, 1921 Ringwood
Ave., San Jose, CA 95131.
57

This paper addresses measurements of the dynamic moduli (Young's

elastic modulus and shear modulus) and Poisson's ratios of municipal refuse
and of the underlying soils at a landfill site in Richmond, California. These
data can be used to evaluate deformations under earthquake Ioadings for a
landfill. The following presents a summary of the various commonly used test
methods to determine dynamic properties of materials, the site conditions
evaluated, the dynamic test method used, a discussion of the test results, and
conclusions.
TESTING METHODS
Dynamic properties of materials are determined by either laboratory or

field test methods. Generally, field test methods are preferred because:
1) they measure actual properties over a large area rather than the properties
of a discrete sample, and 2) it is difficult to duplicate field conditions in the lab-
oratc-y. The following presents a brief discussion of several laboratory and
fie,L] test methods. Determination of the dynamic material properties from the
test data are presented at the end of the paper.
Laboratory Test Methods

In general, cyclic triaxial compression, cyclic simple shear, and resonant
column laboratory test methods have been used to measure the dynamic pro-
.perties of materials. A brief discussion of each method is given in the follow-
rag:
Cyclic Triaxial Compression Test: The test apparatus consists of a stan-

dard flexible wall triaxial compression load cell with a cyclic loading mecha-
nism, and an electronic recording system to collect stress-strain and pore
pressure data. The major disadvantage of this test is that the field conditions
are not adequately simulated. For example, during actual earthquake loading,
there is cyclic reorientation of the principal stress direction through some angle
relative to its initial position, while in the laboratory triaxial compression test,
the major principal stress can only act in either the vertical or horizontal direc-
tions. Additionally, the triaxial compression test apparatus can not simulate
plane-strain conditions which are believed by the authors to be more repre-
sentative of actual field conditions.
Cyclic Simple Shear Test: The test apparatus consists of a simple shear
box, a cyclic loading mechanism, and an electronic recording system that col-
lects stress-strain and pore pressure data. A typical simple shear box used for
both static and dynamic testing contains a square sample specimen with side
lengths of s centimeters (cm) and a thickness of 2 cm. The box has two fixed
side walls and two hinged end walls so that the sample can be subjected to
simple shear deformations. The stress-strain conditions developed in the sim-
ple shear test are very similar to those of a soil element in the ground when
subjected to upwardly propagating shear waves during an earthquake. Thus,
the simple shear test apparatus is generally preferred over the tdaxial test ap-
paratus.
FIELD MEASUREMENTSOF DYNAMICMODULI 59
Resonant Column Test: The test apparatus consists of a flexible wall tri-
axial compression cell, modified so that the soil specimen can be excited by ei-
ther longitudinal (compression) or torsional (shear) vibrations. The test is per-
formed by adjusting the excitation frequency until the specimen resonates.
The dynamic moduli are computed from the resonant frequency and geometric
properties of the specimen according to the theory of wave propagation in pris-
matic rods. The damping property of the specimen can also be estimated
from this test.
One of the drawbacks of all laboratory tests is that representative samples

can not always be tested in the laboratory apparatus. This is a major problem
with refuse materials which are usually heterogeneous and anisotropic be-
cause they may typically consist of a mixture of soil, concrete blocks, metals,
plastics, organics, and other materials. Therefore, field tests are the most ap-
propriate methods used for measuring the dynamic properties of refuse fills.
Field Test Methods

Field test methods frequently used are: Cross-Hole, Up- or Down-Hole,
and Refraction Wave Propagation Methods. Less commonly used and more
complex methods are the Rayleigh and Love Waves Propagation Test, Block
Resonance Tests, and Cyclic-Plate-Load Tests. The Cross-Hole, Up- or
Down-Hole and Refraction Wave Propagation methods are briefly described in
the following:
Cross-Hole Wave Propagation Method: This method measures the veloci-

ties of compression and shear waves propagating from a bore hole equipped
with a down-hole hammer to at least one other bore ho~e equipped with direc-
tional geophones. The hammer is used to generate both compression and
shear waves. The compression and shear wave velocities are measured at
specific depths as they propagate away from the source bore hole. To obtain
high quality data usually requires a near vertical set of borings with the down
hole equipment set at the same elevation. These condition will allow the
shortest path of wave propagation to be measured, which is assumed to be
the distance between the borings at the surface. This method is described in
detail in ASTM [1].
The Cross-Hole method is capable of locating thin, low velocity strata

which are of importance to ground settlement studies. The minimum thickness
that can be identified depends on the vertical measurement interval used, bore
hole separation and the velocities in the surrounding materials.
Up- or Down-Hole Wave Propagation Method: Both the Up- and

Down-Hole methods can be used with a single bore hole. The Up-Hole test is
performed by placing the geophone at the surface and the wave-generating
hammer at various depths in the bore hole. The Down-Hole test is performed
with the wave-generating hammer at the surface and the geophone placed at
various depths in the bore hole. The Down-Hole test method was used at the
Richmond
Copyright by ASTM Int'l (allSite. Both
rights reserved); methods
Thu Sep yield
5 12:03:30 EDT 2019 the average vertical compression and
shear wave
velocities between the hammer and geophone for each measure-
ment location in the bore hole. Average velocities are measured because the
propagating waves are affected by both overburden pressure increases and
changes in material types with depth.
Interpretation of Up- and Down-Hole velocity data can be very difficult if

the surface waves generated by the hammer reach the bore hole casing be-
fore the compression and/or shear waves. The surface wave causes the bore
hole casing and geophone to vibrate with a large amplitude and low frequency.
As a result the arrival of both the compression and shear waves will be difficult
to detect. The surface waves that travel down the bore hole casing are called
"tube waves."
Refraction Wave Propaqation Method: This method measures the gross

velocity of materials and allows interpretation of the subsurface structure lying
between the point of wave generation on the surface and a series of collinear
aligned geophones. Both compression and shear waves are generated at the
surface in the same manner as described for the Down-Hole Test Method.
The average velocities, thicknesses, and dip angle of each layer overlying a
refracting boundary are determined from the travel times of the refracted
waves.
The successful use of this method is dependent on the following factors:

1) a distinctive velocity contrast between adjacent material layers, and 2) each
layer should be relatively isotropic and homogeneous. A major disadvantage
of this method is that a low velocity layer lying below a high velocity layer can
not be detected and therefore, will appear as part of the overlying higher ve-
locity layer.
Applicability of Test Methods

Use of the appropriate test method, whether in the laboratory or in situ, is
highly dependent on the magnitude of strains expected to occur at the site
both during and following construction. However, it is recommended that dy-
namic moduli be determined for a wide range of strain levels by several me-
thods prior to choosing a value or range of values to use for design purposes.
Table 1 summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of the various field
methods used to measure dynamic materials properties.
SITE CONDITIONS
The landfill site is located in the City of Richmond, California along the
southeastern shores of San Pablo Bay. The active landfill area encompasses
about 180 acres of reclaimed marshland. The site has been in continuous op-
eration as a solid waste and liquid waste disposal facility since the early
1950's.
FIELD MEASUREMENTS OF DYNAMIC MODULI 61
Numerous subsurface im, c-stigations have been performed at the site for
the purpose of characterizing the vertical and horizontal limits of the refuse fill,
geologic and hydrogeologic conditions, and geotechnical engineering proper-
ties of the underlying natural soils. These investigations have revealed the
following general site conditions. The refuse fill ranges in thickness from 15 to
95 feet (4.6 to 28.9 meters). The landfill is predominantly underlain by silts
and clays with discontinuous lenses of sand that are locally known as Bay
Mud. Ground water is usually encountered at about elevation 3feet
(0.31 meter) above mean sea level (MSL). The Bay Mud soils are considered
to be saturated, while the refuse fill is considered to be saturated below
elevation +3 feet (0.31 meter) MSL and unsaturated above elevation +3 feet
(0.31 meter) MSL.
TABLE 1 -- Advantages and Disadvantages of Field Methods 1
FIELD TECHNIQUE ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

AND
MEASUREMENTS
Refraction Reversible polarity, works Misses low velocity zones,

P-Wave Velocity from surface, samples low strain amplitudes
S-Wave Velocity large zone, preliminary
studies
Cross-Hole Known wave path, re- Needs two or more holes,
P-Wave Velocity versible polarity, works in need to survey holes for ver-
S-Wave Velocity limited space ticality
Down-Hole or Up-Hole Need only one hole, re- Measures average velocities
P-Wave Velocity versible polarity, works in
S-Wave Velocity limited space
Surface Vibratory Works from surface Uncertain about effective
S-Wave Velocity depth, need large vibrator
Attenuation of
Rayleigh waves
1 After Woods [2], as cited by Prakash [3].
Three borings were drilled for the purpose of measuring dynamic material
properties of the refuse fill and underlying natural soils. Each boring was
completed by grouting a Slope Indicator Casing with a cement-bentonite mix-
ture, and installing a permanent surface seal with a locking top device. Bor-
ings GT-1 and GT-2 were drilled through the eastern perimeter levee and into
the underlying Bay Mud soils. GT-3 was drilled in the refuse fill and was ter-
minated above the Bay Mud. Figure 1 shows the location of each boring and
a generalized geologic cross-section through the borings.
62 G E O T E C H N I C S O F W A S T E FILLS
Z 0 z
'" o ~-
u. c/)
og og
~-~0~
~ ~
~
0
o~
O.J
~'EtB.
o
9 .
\ \,,....1 ,,, Q)
co
.o
i
O
~N "O
(1)
N
!
I'--
oooo oo =~
o o~,r, ~ ~ . ~ . ~
~t
I11
' ! ~
ooooo~,ooooo
i i !
( 1 S I n l - l e e d ) N OI".LYA 3 "13
The sediments were logged in accordance with the Unified Soils Classifi-
cation System (USCS). The Bay Mud lying above elevation minus 60 feet
(18.3 meters) MSL generally consist of saturated, dark gray, soft to firm, nor-
mally- to over-consolidated, low- to high-plasticity, clayey silts (ML to MH) and
silty clays (CL to CH). The Bay Mud lying between elevations minus 60 feet
(18.3 meters) and minus 130 feet (39.6 meters) MSL generally consist of satu-
rated, grayish brown to brown, stiff to very stiff, normally- to over-consolidated,
low- to high-plasticity, clayey silts (ML to MH) and silty clays (CL to CH). The
Bay Mud also contains sand layers that are encountered at various depths.
TEST PROCEDURE AND RESULTS
The Down-Hole test method was used at each boring location to measure
the dynamic material properties of the refuse fill and Bay Mud soils. This
method was selected on the basis of cost because it requires only one boring
to be drilled at each location. This is an important point since the cost of
drilling and completing two borings to depths of 130.5 and 136.5 feet (39.8 and
41.6 meters) in the Bay Mud and one boring through 50 feet (15.2 meters) of
refuse is high. The compression and shear wave velocities were measured
and reported by Redpath Geophysics[4].
Down-Hole Test Procedure

The shear- and compression-wave velocities were determined by measur-
ing the time required for a seismic pulse to travel from the surface to a geo-
phone placed at various depths within the bore hole as shown in Figure 2.
Use of casing with tracks to guide the geophones significantly aided in the
collection of high quality data. The casing tracks enabled the azimuthal ori-
entation of the geophone to remain fixed (in line with the shear-wave source)
while being lowered down the bore hole.
TRIGGEREOSLEDGEHAMMER
VEHIGLEDEADWEIGHT
J
s /--WOOD PLANK
/ ( S N E 4 R WAVE
~ / 80URGE
)
:l ii ]111
'~(~'SHEAR WAVE
~SLOPE INOICATORCASING
?'~"-CF..MENTBENTON{TEGROUT
, ~ - GEOPHONEASSEMBLY
CwOA~RESSION/~z_
B0RiNG ~"~'----SOIL OR REFUSE
NOTTO SCALE
FIGURE 2 -- Down-Hole Test Method Set Up
64 G E O T E C H N I C S OF W A S T E FILLS
Shear-wave pulses of opposite polarities were generated by horizontal

sledge-hammer blows to opposite ends of a 7-foot long (2.1-meter), 6-in2
(15.2-cm2) wood plank, which was held in contact with the ground surface by
parking the front wheel of a vehicle on the plank. Compression-wave pulses
were generated by vertical sledge-hammer blows to a 1-inch (2.54-cm) thick,
6-in2 (15.2-cm 2) metal plate placed on the ground surface. In order to improve
the signal-to-noise ratio of each travel time record, four hammer blows were
recorded and stacked. Seismic records were recorded at 10-foot (3.1-meter)
intervals for the full depth of each boring.
Velocity Profile Results

The travel-time data recorded at each geophone location were evaluated
to determine the first arrival times for both the shear- and compression-waves.
Figure 3 shows a plot of the shear- and compression-wave first arrival times in
milli-seconds (msec) versus depth in feet (ft) and interpreted velocities for the
levee fill and underlying natural soil encountered in boring GT-1 and GT-2.
Figure 4 shows similar plots and interpreted velocities for the refuse fill en-
countered in boring GT-3.
GENERALIZED TIME (rose9 TIME (meee)

BORING LOG 0 IOO 200 300 0 20 40 60
LEVEE 0 O
FILL
SOFT
TO
ElI2
20 ,;.o...4 0 f/s
20
Vs '
: 1 , 3 5 0 f/s
FIRM I 40 40 Vcavo
BAY MUD
, 7 0 0 f/s
~'60 =: v
6O 60
,',.'.? i-
FIRM ,'x'~ ,,=, 8o 80
TO ~'~" Q
STIFF
BAY MUD =:, IOO IO0
,1{
o~ IZO 120
135
140 140
~,9oo f,~
160 160
SHEAR WAVE COMPRESSION WAVE
GT-t , GT-t
GT-2 -- -- GT-2 ~
FIGURE 3 -- Shear- and Compression-Wave Velocity

Profiles for Borings GT-1 and GT-2
The velocity profiles of borings GT-1 and GT-2 clearly show the levee fill
lying between 0 and 12 feet (0 and 3.7 meters) below the surface, the soft to
firm Bay Mud lying between 12 and 60 feet (3.7 and 18.3 meters) below the
surface, and the firm to stiff Bay Mud lying between 60 and 130 feet (18.3 and
39.6 meters) below the surface. The velocity profile of the refuse encountered
in boring GT-3 was also of excellent quality. The average shear- and com-
pression-wave velocities measured for each material encountered in borings
GT-1, GT-2 and GT-3 are summarized in Table 2. These velocities were used
to estimate the dynamic moduli and Poisson's ratios of the municipal refuse
and underlying soils.
BQRING LOG TIME (mser TIME (mseo)

0 I00 200 300 0 20 40 60
o i i i 1 i 0 i i i i i
MUNICIPAL A
REFUSE ~ 20
20
5 4o 40
50 ~
o 60 ~~VVsovg = 650 f/s 60 Vcav0 : 2,35Of/s
Z
< 80 80
-I
W
I00
SHEAR WAVE ;OMPRES$1ON WAVE
GT-3 GT-3
FIGURE 4 -- Shear- and Compression-Wave Velocity

Profiles for Boring GT-3
TABLE 2 -- Average Velocity Data
SHEAR COMPRESSION
MATERIAL DEPTH vs vC
TYPE (meter) (feet) (m/s) (f/s) (m/s) (f/s)
Refuse Fill 0-15.3 0-50 198.3 650 716.8 2350

Levee Fill 0-3.7 0-12 164.7 540 411.8 1350
Soft Bay Mud 3,7-18.3 12-60 122.0 400 1128.5 3700
Stiff Bay Mud 18.3-39.7 60-130 234.9 770 1799.5 5900
DYNAMIC MODULI AND POISSON'S RATIO
The dynamic shear modulus, modulus of elasticity, and Poisson's ratio of a

material can be estimated from its mass density and characteristic shear-wave
velocity. The shear modulus can be determined from Equation 1 as follows:
G = Vs2 p (1)
where
G = shear modulus (F/L 2)
v~ = shear-wave velocity (L/T.)
mass density =3'/g (M/L~)
y unit weight (F/L ~)
g = acceleration due to gravity (L/T 2)
Units: L = length, T = time, M = mass, and F = force
The elastic modulus (Young's Modulus) can be determined from the mass
density, shear-wave velocity, and Poisson's ratio of the material as follows:
E = 2Vs2 p(1 + ~) (2)
where
E = modulus of elasticity (F/L 2)
u = Poisson's ratio (dimensionless)
The elastic modulus of a material can also be determined from the mass
density, compression-wave velocity, and Poisson's ratio as follows:
E = Vc2 p(1 + ~)(1-2~)/(1-~) (3)
where
v c = compression-wave velocity (L/T)
From Equations 2 and 3 the Poisson's ratio can be expressed as follows:
= (Vc2-2Vs2)/(2 (Vc2-Vs2)) (4)
Mass densities or unit weights of natural soils are readily obtained from re-
latively undisturbed soil samples. On the other hand mass densities or unit
weights of refuse fills are not as easily determined because they must be indi-
rectly estimated from weigh station records and volume changes of the landfill
over a given period of time. The volume changes can be estimated from his-
toric topographic relief maps of the landfill surface that are periodically pre-
pared by land surveyors. The average unit weight of the compacted refuse
placed at the Richmond landfill was estimated to be 46 pcf (736.9 kg/m3), Al-
though, the unit weight of refuse fill varies considerably this value is in reason-
able agreement with typical values reported by others as summarized in
Table 3.
TABLE 3 -- Refuse Fill Average Unit Weights
SOURCE REFUSE PLACEMENT CONDITIONS UNIT WEIGHT

(kg/m3) (pcf)
NAVFAC [5] Sanitary Landfill

a) Not Shredded
9 Poor Compaction 320 20
9 Good Compaction 641 40
9 Best Compaction 961 60
b) Shredded 881 55
Sowers [6] Sanitary Refuse: Depending on Com- 481-961 30-60

paction Effort
NSWMA [7] Municipal Refuse:

In a landfill 705-769 44-49
9 After Degradation and Settlement 1009-1121 63-70
Landva and Clarka Refuse Landfill 913-1346 57-84

[8] (Refuse to soil cover ratio varied from
about 2:1 to 10:1)
EM~ON Associatesb For 6:1 refuse to daily cover soil 737 46

[9]
These values were obtained from test pit measurements of refuse at eleven municipal
landfills located in Canada. Values measured for the Halifax landfill and the August
1983 measurements at the Edmonton and Calgary landfills have not been included, as
suggested by the authors.
Based on tonnage records and areal survey maps recorded during the period from April
1988 through April 1989.
The average unit weights of the levee fill, soft to firm Bay Mud, and firm to
stiff Bay Mud materials were estimated to be about 105 pcf (1683 kg/m3),
100 pcf (1602 kg/m3), and 105 pcf (1683 kg/m3), respectively. These average
unit weights were determined from relatively undisturbed samples taken during
drilling of borings GT-1 and GT-2. The samples were taken with either
Osterberg Piston or Pitcher Barrel Samplers equipped with Shelby Tubes.
A review of Table 3 indicates that refuse unit weights can vary signifi-
cantly. Accordingly, computation of the shear modulus (G) from the unit
weight and measured shear-wave velocity (Vs) by Equation [1] will also vary
significantly. Thus, site specific measurements of the refuse unit weight
should be made. The dynamic moduli and Poisson's ratio of the refuse landfill
were estimated by substituting the shear- and compression-wave velocities,
and mass densities measured at the site into Equations [1], [2] or [3] and [4].
The results of these computations are summarized in Table 4.
TABLE 4 -- Dynamic Moduli and Poisson's Ratios
MATERIAL SHEAR ELASTIC POISSON'S

TYPE MODULUS MODULUS RATIO
G E
(MPa)a (ksi)b (MPa) (ksi) (dimensionless)
Municipal Refuse 28.9 4.19 84.4 12.24 0.49

Levee Fill 45.5 6.60 127.5 18.49 0.49
Soft to Firm Bay Mud 23.8 3.45 70.9 10.28 0.49
Firm to Stiff Bay Mud 92.6 13.43 275.9 40.01 0.49
a MPa = units of megapascals.

b ksi = units of kips per square inch.
Table 5 presents a summary of typical shear moduli and Poisson's ratios

for soils as reported by Bowles [10]. A comparison of Tables 4 and 5 indicates
that field measurements of the shear modulus for soils underlying the landfill
are higher than the values summarized by Bowles. The Poisson's ratios in
both cases are comparable with saturated clays. This is reasonable because,
the Bay Mud soils underlying the landfill site consist predominantly of satu-
rated silts and clays. A comparison of the dynamic shear moduli and
Poisson's ratio obtained for the refuse fill was not possible due to a lack of
published values.
FIELD MEASUREMENTSOF DYNAMICMODULI 69
TABLE 5 -- Typical Shear Modulus and Poisson's Ratio
SHEAR MODULI POISSON'S RATIOS
Material Type G, MPa ksi I [ MaterialType 1)

I /
Clean dense quartz sand 12.4-20.7 1.8-3.0 Clay,saturated 0.4-0.5

Micaceous fine sand 15.9 2.3 Clay,unsaturated 0.1-0.3
Berlin sand 17.2-24.1 2.5-3.5 Sandyclay 0.2-0.3
Loamy sand 10.3 1.5 Silt 0.3-0.35
Dense sand-gravel 69+ 10+ Sand,gravelly sand 0.3-0.4
Wet soft silty clay 9.0-13.8 1.3-2.0 Rock 0.1-0.4
Dry soft silty clay 17.2-20.7 2.5-3.0 Loess 0.1-0.3
Dry silty clay 27.6-34.5 4.0-5.0 Ice 0.36
Medium clay 13.8-27.6 2.0-4.0 Concrete 0.15
Sandy clay 13.8-27.6 2.0-4.0
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions can be made:
1) The in situ dynamic shear and elastic moduli, and Poisson's ratio
estimated for the municipal refuse disposed at the landfill site
studied are 4.2 ksi (28.9 MPa), 12.2 ksi (84.4 MPa), and 0.46,
respectively. These values were determined from down-hole
seismic field test data.
2) Site specific refuse densities must be measured and used to

compute dynamic moduli from shear and compression wave
data because, the moduli are highly sensitive to changes in ma-
terial density and because refuse densities are extremely var-
iable. The refuse density at the landfill site studied was esti-
mated to be 46 pcf (737 kg/m~).
3) The dynamic moduli measured for underlying soils at the site are
higher than published values. However, the Poisson's ratios
measured at the site are comparable. The dynamic shear and
elastic moduli, and Poisson's ratio estimated for the soft to firm
Bay Mud are 3.5 ksi (23.8 MPa), 10.3 ksi (70.9 MPa), and 0.49,
respectively. The dynamic shear and elastic moduli, and
Poisson's ratio estimated for the firm to stiff Bay Mud are 13.4 ksi
(92.6 MPa), 40.0 ksi (275.9 MPa), and 0.49, respectively.
70 GEOTECHNICS
OF WASTEFILLS
REFERENCES
[1] ASTM, "Standard Test Methods for Cross-Hole Seismic Testing," Designa-
tion: ASTM D4428/D4428M-84, in American Society for Testing and
Materials, Sec. 4, Vol. 04.08, 1989, pp. 661-670.
[2] Woods, R.D.,"Measurements of Dynamic Soil Properties - State of the

Art," Proc. ASCE Speciality Conference on Earthquake Engineerin.q
and Soil Dynamics, Pasadena, California, June 1978.
[3] Prakash, S., "Dynamic Stress Deformation and Strength Characteristics of

Soils," in Soil Dynamics, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1981, pp. 71-127
[4] Redpath Geophysics, "Down-Hole Velocity Survey, West Contra Costa

County Sanitary Landfill, Richmond, California," letter report to EMCON
Associates, Sept. 9, 1989, pp. 1-12.
[5] NAVFAC DM 7.3M, "Soil Dynamics, Deep Stabilization, and Special

Geotechnical Construction," United States Navy, Naval Facilities Engi-
neering Command, Design Manual 7.3, April 1983, pg. 7.3-78.
[6] Sowers, G.F., "Foundation Problems in Sanitary Landfill," Journal of the

Sanitary En.qineering Division, American Society of Civil Engineers,
Vol. 94, SA1, February 1968, pp. 103-116.
[7] NSWMA, "Basic Data: Solid Waste Amounts, Composition and Manage-
ment Systems," National Solid Waste Man.aqement Association,
Technical Bulletin No. 85-6, October 1985, pg. 8.
[8] Landva, A., and Clark, J., "Geotechnical Testing of Wastefill," 39th
Canadian Geotechnical Conference., Ottawa, Canada, 1986,
pp. 371-385.
[9] EMCON Associates, Personal communications between Mr. Larry Burch

and Had Sharma, July 1989. ~
[10] Bowles, J.E., Foundation Analysis and Design, McGraw-Hill Book Com-
pany, 1988, pg. 100 and 912.
Wei-Hsing Huang* and C. William Lovell*
B O T T O M ASH AS E M B A N K M E N T M A T E R I A L
R E F E R E N C E : Huang, W. H. and Lovell, C. W., ' B o t t o m Ash as

Embankment Material," Geotechnics of Waste Fills- Theory and
Practice, A S T M STP 1070, Arvid Landva, G. David Knowles,
editors, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia,
1990.
A B S T R A C T : The physical and chemical characteristics and

engineering properties of power plant b o t t o m ash, a byproduct
produced from the combustion of coal, are presented. Laboratory
studies included evaluation of chemical and index properties,
permeability, compaction, shear strength, and compressibility. The
results of these tests conducted on Indiana b o t t o m ashes are
compared with representative values obtained for granular soils.
The leaching behavior of b o t t o m ash and its effects on ground water
quality have been studied by laboratory extraction techniques. The
findings suggest t h a t untreated b o t t o m ash m a y be used as a fill
material, including backfill for retaining structures, highway
embankments, and structural fills.
KEYWORDS: b o t t o m ash, boiler slag, e m b a n k m e n t , landfill, waste

materials, leaching test, leachates, ash disposal
The utilization of power plant ash as a construction material has received

increasing attention because it not only solves a potential solid waste problem
but also provides an alternative construction material. Disposal of ash is a
serious and expensive problem, especially in urban areas. As supplies of natural
construction materials diminish rapidly, obtaining natural material for fills is
also becoming more difficult. Thus, it is desired to convert the burdensome
waste material into a useful resource; and this can be accomplished at a saving,
on a local or regional basis, to both the utility and construction industries.
* Research Assistant and Professor, School of Civil Engineering, Purdue

University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907.
71
Copyright9 by ASTM lntcmational www.astm.org

The residual materials produced from the combustion of coal in utility

power plants are collected in two forms: b o t t o m ash and fly ash. Bottom ash is
the ash which builds up on the heat-absorbing surfaces of-the furnace, and
which subsequently falls through the furnace b o t t o m to the ash hopper below.
Fly ash is the fine-grained dusty material that is recovered and collected from
furnace flue gases by ash precipitators.
While there is considerable information accumulated on the properties of

fly ash and its applications, very little has been developed in the constructive
use of bottom ash, primarily because of the lack of information on properties of
this material. The purpose of this paper is to provide the physical, chemical,
and engineering properties that are likely to affect the use of b o t t o m ash as fill
material, based on laboratory investigations conducted on Indiana b o t t o m
ashes. Also, the potential environmental effects of b o t t o m ash utilization, which
are of growing concern to the public, are evaluated.
P R O D U C T I O N AND NATURE OF B O T T O M ASH
Uncombustible, mineral m a t t e r accounts for 10-20% by weight of the coal

consumed in power plants. Ash characteristics are affected as much by the type
of coal burned, as well as by the type of boiler. Today's large utility boilers
burn pulverized coal and have d r y - b o t t o m furnaces, which produce dry b o t t o m
ash. In a dry b o t t o m furnace, b o t t o m ash solidifies and agglomerates into
coarse particles and then fall into the ash hopper at the b o t t o m of furnace.
The ash particles are vesicular and irregularly shaped, and have a rough, gritty
texture. Dry b o t t o m ash represents about 20% by weight of the ash originally
in the coal. The remaining 80% is collected as fly ash.
Wet b o t t o m ash, often referred to as boiler slag, is generated from a slag-

tap furnace. The word "wet" refers to the molten state of the ash which leaves
the furnace as a liquid. The molten ash is then quenched in the water-filled
hopper to form boiler slag. As it is solidified from a molten state, boiler slag is
a hard, black, glassy, angular material with a smooth surface texture. It can
also be vesicular in nature, especially for coarse sizes, if gases are trapped in the
molten slag as it is tapped from the furnace. In a wet b o t t o m furnace, much
higher percentages of ash are produced in the form of boiler slag. In cases
where fly ash is returned to the furnace and recovered as boiler slag, the
percentage of slag can be as high as 100 percent [1].
DISPOSAL AND U T I L I Z A T I O N
Basically, ash handling and disposal is accomplished either by wet or dry

methods. Dry disposal implies transport and deposition of dry or moistened
ash. This m a y involve t e m p o r a r y storage of ash in silos, subsequent hauling by
trucks, byand compacting at a landfill. Most power stations operating in urban
Downloaded/printed
BOTTOM ASH AS EMBANKMENT MATERIAL 73
areas handle ash by the dry method, due to land limitation. An alternative
method of disposal is to add sufficient amount of water to produce a slurry and
enable transport of the ash by pipeline to settling ponds or lagoons. This is
termed wet disposal, and is more commonly used, because of economy. Ash
ponds also minimize dust problems and are simple to operate. Generally,
crushing of b o t t o m ash from the hopper is required for both dry and wet
disposal methods to facilitate handling.
About 17.5 million tons of b o t t o m ash and boiler slag were produced in the
United States during the year 1986. Of this, 13.4 million tons were dry b o t t o m
ash and 4.1 million tons were boiler slag. About 27 percent of the dry b o t t o m
ash and 51 percent of the boiler slag were utilized. Areas of utilization include
fills, embankments, road base, and aggregate in concrete products and
bituminous mixtures. On a national scale, ash disposal costs ranged from $5 to
$10 per ton and the total cost of ash disposal to the electric utility industry in
1980 ranged from $375 to $740 million [2].
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
Selection of Ash Sources
A total of 11 b o t t o m ashes were collected for study from l0 power stations,

with consideration to boiler type, source of coal burned, geographic
distribution, and ash disposal method. Of the samples selected for testing, 2
were of the wet ash type, and 9 were of the dry ash type. Only two plants
disposed of their ashes by dry method and specimens in this case were collected
directly from the hoppers or silos. For the other 9 ashes that were wet-
disposed, b o t t o m ashes were collected as grab specimens from ash deposits at
the end of sluice pipe. The approximate locations of the selected sources of
b o t t o m ash are shown in Figure 1.
In order to study the variability of ash properties, each source was sampled
at least twice. All ashes were subjected to a series of chemical and physical
characterization tests, and then representative ashes were chosen for detailed
testing on the engineering properties and the potential environmental effects of
ash materials.
Chemical Analyses
The chemical compositions of b o t t o m ashes were determined by atomic

absorption spectrophotometric techniques and the results are shown in Table 1.
The principal constituents are silica (SiO~), alumina (A120~), and iron oxide
(Fe~O3). There are smaller quantities of calcium oxide (CaO), magnesium oxide
(MgO), potassium oxide (KeO), sodium oxide (N~O), and sulfur trioxide (SO3), as
well as minute traces of other elements. As can be seen from Table 1, the
chemical composition of each bottom ash shows a reasonable degree of
MICHIGAN
eSchahfer(2) I,,
I
[ OHIO
ILLINOIS INDIANA
I
Perry Richmonedi
g,
9'~a ba sh Stout )L
"'~"k...~ .--
/. /...._...3
/eGibson Gallegher./
..J...--~..~--~ .~....~
..f KENTUCKY
F I G U R E 1 -- Approximate locations of b o t t o m ash sources in Indiana
uniformity, except those ashes from Perry, Stout, and Richmond. These
stations were burning different sources of coal just prior to the dates of
sampling, and this is reflected by greater variations in the chemical composition
of the b o t t o m ash. The loss on ignition determined at 600~ gives an
approximate indication of the u n b u r n t carbon content.
For purpose of comparison the typical range of chemical composition for

most ashes [3] are shown at the b o t t o m of Table 1. B o t t o m ash from Stout
shows a rather high content of iron, otherwise the ashes are reasonably typical.
Gradation
Grain size analyses were performed using sieve analysis in accordance with
A S T M C136 procedures. Figure 2 shows the range of gradation for the 11
b o t t o m ashes, as well as for fly ash from the same sources, which was
determined in a previous study [4]. The fine portions of b o t t o m ash passing the
No. 200 sieve are non-plastic and range from 0 to 12% by weight. Particles
coarser than 38 m m (1.5 in.) are rarely found.
Among the 11 b o t t o m ashes studied, 10 ashes are classified by the Unified

Soil Classification System as sand. The other one is classified as gravel. Ten
out of 11 samples have the coefficient of uniformity ranging from 7 to 33, while
the
Copyright most
by ASTM uniform
Int'l (all ashThuhas
rights reserved); a uniformity
Sep 5 12:03:30 EDT 2019 coefficient of 3.7. By and large, b o t t o m
ash is a relatively well-graded, sand-sized material.
TABLE 1 -- Chemical composition of b o t t o m ashes
P e r c e n t by weiEht
Ash date SiOc Fe~O:~ Al~O:~ CaO MgO K.,O Na• SO:~ loss on
source sampled ignition
Schahfer 6-19-87 60.1 5.2 10.4 16.6 5.7 0.9 0.4 0.9 0.3
unit 14 5-12-88 53.4 6.0 13.5 18.5 5.7 1.2 0.3 1.0 0.1
Schahfer 6-19-87 58.1 15.2 12.7 7.0 0.8 1.9 0.3 2.2 0.1
unit 17 5-12-88 52.1 23.2 13.2 4.8 0.9 1.4 0.2 1.5 0.8
Gibson 5-18-87 58,7 14.6 14,1 3.1 0.8 2.0 0.4 1.3 0.4
5-17-88 53.6 20.8 14.8 2.6 1.0 1.9 0.5 I.I 1.0
Gallagher 5-26-87 41.2 28.4 11.2 12.6 0.7 1.6 0.3 1.0 0.9
5-14-88 49.3 24.2 16.4 3.9 0.9 1.7 0.2 2.6 1.4
P e r r y :~ 5-19-87 48.9 22.2 13.0 0.8 0.7 2.2 0.3 0.6 7.2
7-19-88 52.5 6.0 24.3 0.9 0.I 2.3 0.4 0.6 6.2
Mitchell 6-19-87 58.8 6.8 7.8 7.9 2.2 1.4 0.i 3.3 8.1
5-12-88 51.3 6.5 14.2 8.5 3.0 0.9 0.3 1.0 8.0
Wabash 6-23-87 55.7 21.5 14.3 1.7 0.7 1.9 0.3 0.8 0.2
4-26-88 51.7 23.0 16.0 1.7 0.9 1.9 0.3 0.6 l.O
Richmond a 8-17-87 48.3 33.3 11.9 1.3 0.4 0.9 0.2 1.7 2.2
5- 5-88 41.6 20,9 18.6 1,3 0.6 I.I 0.I 1.9 14.1
Stout ~ 5-27-87 24.2 42.0 8.9 2.2 0,4 0.6 0_2 0.8 18.4
6-20-88 54,9 20.2 16.7 1.6 0.9 1,9 0.8 1.8 0.3
Culley 8-21-87 35,6 30.1 11.7 14.6 0.8 1.4 0.3 1.0 0.0
5-14-88 32.0 31.1 11.8 13.9 1.1 0.5 0.2 0.9 0.3
Brown 8-21-87 48.1 27.6 13.4 3.1 0.8 2.1 0.3 1.7 1.9
5-17-88 38.5 38.0 12.6 3.8 0.7 1.3 0.2 3.3 I.I
Average 48.6 21.2 13.6 6.0 1.4 1.5 0.3 1.4 3.4
Typical range[31 20-60 5-35 10-35 1-20 0.3-4 1-4 b 0-12 ...
P l a n t s w e r e b u r n i n g d i f f e r e n t s o u r c e s of c o a l p r i o r t o t h e d a t e s o f s a m p l i n g .
t, R a n g e for t h e s u m of K , , O a n d N a c O
The gradation curves for b o t t o m ashes sampled at different times provide

an indication of the potential variability in the gradation. Figure 3 gives
typical variations in the gradation of b o t t o m ash. Generally, the ashes with
uniform gradations tend to have less variation in the gradation between
samplings.
Specific Gravity
The results tabulated in Table 2 show that the specific gravity of bottom
ashes, as determined by A S T M D854 procedures, ranges from 1.94 to 3.46.
This is by
Downloaded/printed a much wider range than for most soils (range from 2.5 to 2.8 [5]). The
SIEVE SIZE
3" 3/2" 314 " 3/8 " 4 10 20 40 60 100 200
1~ lltlll
I \
E
::iii 'i Irlll IIFrFTT-t-. Ililll f
Illll
.=,
Z
,7
IIlll tl ' lfllIJN
IIIll
IIIll JfJfJl\l IIIJll' . JJI IIJ l I "
[(11( IIIIIIIIb,,~ II I~.
III1[
100
IIIIIIII I
10 1.0 0.1
1 II II I
0.01 0.001
GRAIN SIZE IN M I L L I M E T E R
F I G U R E 2 -- Ranges of gradation for b o t t o m ash and fly ash
SIEVE SIZE
3" 312" 3 / 4 9 3/8 " 4 10 20 40 60 100 200
80
Iltllll I I',~I~X.I~ I~t llirllll t I 9 Culley
8-21-87 , ~ 6-19-87 9 Gibson
LU
>-
L~
~ol(l[llJS~fllllCrll I I ~""~'
UJ 30
O
n-
LU 2O
O.
100 10 1.0 0.1 0.01 0.001
GRAIN SIZE IN M I L L I M E T E R
F I G U R E 3 -- Typical variations in gradation of b o t t o m ash
specific gravity of the ash is a function of the chemical composition. Obviously,

high carbon content will result in a low specific gravity, whereas high iron
content will produce high specific gravity. To some degree, specific gravity is
an indicator of the quality of b o t t o m ash. Poor ash t h a t contains large a m o u n t
of porous and popcornlike particles, which are undesirable for engineering
purposes,
Downloaded/printed by can have a specific gravity as low as 1.6 [6I.
T A B L E 2 -- Specific g r a v i t y of b o t t o m ashes
Ash source type of ash 1st sample 2nd sample

Schahfer
unit 14 wet 2.82 2.81
unit 17 dry 2.57 2.61
Gibson dry 2.67 2.56
Gallagher dry 3.08 2.64
Perry* dry 2.12 1.94
Mitchell dry 2.44 2.47
Wabash dry 2.56 2.48
Richmond* dry 2.90 2.40
Stout* wet 3.46 2.45
Culley dry 3.21 3.23
Brown dr)" 2.71 2.97
* Plant burned different sources of coal.
Permeability
T h e coefficient of p e r m e a b i l i t y of b o t t o m ash was m e a s u r e d b y falling h e a d

p e r m e a b i l i t y tests. T h e p e r m e a m e t e r h a d a 10 c m (4 in.) d i a m e t e r a n d ash
s p e c i m e n s were a b o u t 20 c m (8 in.) high. T a b l e 3 gives t h e results of
p e r m e a b i l i t y tests c o n d u c t e d on b o t t o m ashes c o m p a c t e d to 95 p e r c e n t of t h e
m a x i m u m d r y d e n s i t y d e t e r m i n e d using A S T M D698 before testing. T h e
p e r c e n t a g e of fines seems to h a v e a p r e d o m i n a n t effect on t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y of
b o t t o m ash. G e n e r a l l y , t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y of b o t t o m ashes are c o m p a r a b l e to
those of soils w i t h s i m i l a r g r a d i n g s .
T A B L E 3 -- Coefficients of p e r m e a b i l i t y of b o t t o m ashes
Materials Particle size Permeability Percentage

classification (cm/sec) of fines
Schahfer
unit 14 uniform coarse sand 0.101 0
unit 17 well-graded sand 0.034 3
Gibson well-graded sand with gravel 0.005 6
_Gallagher well-graded sand with gravel 0.002 10
Uniform coarse sand [5] 0.4 0
_Well-graded sand and gravel [51 0.01 0
Moisture-Density Relation
T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t a n d u n i t w e i g h t was
d e t e r m i n e d for several selected s a m p l e s of b o t t o m ash using A S T M D698
m e t h o d C. T h e resulting r e l a t i o n s are shown in F i g u r e 4. T h e s h a p e of t h e
c o m p a c t i o n curves is t y p i c a l of t h a t for cohesionless m a t e r i a l s [7,8]. T h e s e
curves by
Downloaded/printed a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a f a i r l y high u n i t w e i g h t for t h e a i r - d r i e d c o n d i t i o n ,
low unit weight at low water contents, and high unit weight at the high water
contents. The variation in dry unit weight for each ash is relatively small with
respect to the wide change in moisture content.
Schahfer unit 14
1.80
Gallagher
1.75 I ~ IB/ IB 9 Gibson
y.
1.oo
1.45 I I =
-
I
.
I I
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
MOISTURE CONTENT (%}

F I G U R E 4 -- Compaction curves for b o t t o m ashes
Because the compacted unit weights at the air-dried conditions are

comparable to those at o p t i m u m moisture contents, it m a y be beneficial to
compact ash air-dried. Thus, much effort and cost in the control of moisture
content during compaction can be saved. However, some b o t t o m ashes are
reported to lose stability when dry [9]. To date, little data on the relative
effects of gradation and water content on the compacted unit weight of b o t t o m
ash are available. Therefore, more research on the compaction characteristics
of b o t t o m ash, especially field compactions, is highly desired.
Angle of Shearing Resistance
The shear strength of b o t t o m ash is of major importance if it is to be used

in structural fills and embankments. A n u m b e r of direct shear tests were
conducted on dry b o t t o m ash. The direct shear box has a diameter of 64 m m
(2.5 in.), and only materials finer than 3.6 m m (3/8 in.) were used. The tests
were conducted at various relative densities with the normal stress varied from
34 k P aby(5 psi) to 240 k P a (35 psi).
Downloaded/printed
BO-I-I'OM A S H A S E M B A N K M E N T M A T E R I A L 79
Figure 5 shows the angles of friction obtained for b o t t o m ash, along with
the range of friction angles generally obtained for various sandy soils [10]. It is
found that, at a given initial relative density, the friction angle of b o t t o m ash is
higher than that obtained for natural sandy soils. This can be attributed to the
rough surface texture and angularity of the b o t t o m ash particles, such t h a t a
higher degree of interlocking was developed in the shearing process. If b o t t o m
ash is used as an e m b a n k m e n t material, the stability of the e m b a n k m e n t can be
higher than that for natural sandy soils.
65
9 Schahfer unit 14
60
55
~.~ 5O
a
Z
0 45
I.-
0
rT"
u_ 4O
LL
0
LU
"-J 35
.::,.
<
30
25
0 20 40 60 80 100
RELATIVE DENSITY (%)
F I G U R E 5 -- Angle of friction of b o t t o m ash at varying relative densities
One-Dimensional Compression
One-dimensional compression tests were performed using a consolidometer.

Samples were loaded incrementally in an electronically controlled hydraulic
loading system. The consolidation ring had a diameter of 102 m m (4 in.) and
the b o t t o m ash samples were 38 m m (1.5 in.) high. Initially, the samples were
subjected to a seating pressure of 5 k P a (ASTM D2435), and then soaked for at
least 24 hours to measure swelling/collapse of the sample. Finally, the samples
were maintained under m a x i m u m stress until no further deformation was
observed.
Downloaded/printed by Due to the high permeability of b o t t o m ash, the deformations took
place in a very short time. No measurable creep was found. One bottom ash
experienced a small swelling of 0 . 0 5 ~ and the swelling pressure was later found
to be only 30 k P a (4 psi).
The stress-strain relationships for several bottom ashes obtained from one-
dimensional compression tests are presented graphically in Figure 6. In order to
relate the compressibility of bottom ashes to more familiar soil materials, the
stress-strain curve obtained for a uniform medium sand is also shown ill]. It
can be seen that bottom ashes are slightly more compressible than the sand.
This can be expected because an angular material is known to be more
compressible than a well-rounded material I121.
2.4 . o u r. c e ' V. o i d . r a t i. o
S 0r(%)' ' '
I l l Schahfer 0.48 98
| unit 14
2.0 reGo.ogher 0.55 90 //,~,
I" Gi.on o.. 85
1O Medium / /
Z 1.6 Sand[11] 0.58 89
1.2
C.)
0.8
0.4
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
VERTICAL STRESS (kPa)
F I G U R E 6 -- Stress-strain curves for bottom ashes
If b o t t o m ash is used as a fill material the compression of the bottom ash

layer is usually estimated by elastic theory. When vertical loads of large lateral
extent are applied to the b o t t o m ash layer, the compression behavior becomes
one-dimensional and the parameter used in estimating settlement is the secant
constrained modulus.
The secant constrained modulus is the rate of change of vertical stress with
respect to the vertical strain under conditions of zero lateral strain, and can be
expressed
Copyright asrights
by ASTM Int'l (all [13]reserved); Thu Sep 5 12:03:30 EDT 2019
Z~Tv CTV~ - - (TV]

D _
AE v Ev2 --Evl
where D ---- secant constrained modulus,

cv1 ---- vertical strain at a stress level of ~vl, and
%2 z vertical strain at a stress level of ~rv2.
Figure 7 shows the secant constrained modulus calculated from zero stress
to various stress levels. A comparison is made between the D values for bottom
ash and those for a uniform medium sand [11], and the results are shown in
Table 4: It is found that the moduli for one ash (Schahfer unit 14) are
comparable to those of the well-graded sand. The values for the other two
ashes are somewhat lower than those for sand, especially at the high stress level.
The crushing of angular particles at high stress may play an important part in
the phenomenon [13].
120 Source Void rat'io Or(%)'

9 Schohfer
C~ u n i t 14 0./.8 98
100~eGo.oghe~ 0.55 90
X & Gibson 0.56 85
a It Medium
O..
80
.-I
1:3 60
0
rt
ILl 4O
Z
m
r~
20
z
o
(J
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
VERTICAL STRESS (kPa)
FIGURE 7 -- Relationship between constrained modulus and vertical strain
Environmental Effects
The environmental concerns regarding the use of ash center around

possible leaching of heavy metals and soluble salts from ash-constructed
embankments. The potential environmental effects are determined by the
amount byof heavy metals and salts leached from a fill. Small amounts of heavy
Downloaded/printed
TABLE 4 -- Secant constrained modulus of bottom ashes
Modulus (kPa x 103)

Materials Relative O'vl = 45 kPa O'vl = 770 kPa
density O'v2 = 98 kPa o'v2 = 1010 kPa
Schahfer
unit 14 98 51.5 145.8
Gibson 85 26.5 82.8
Galla~her 90 30.5 73.1
Uniform medium sand[ll l
~0.1mm<d*(0.6mm) 89 53.9 178.4
* d ~ particle size
metals released to the environment may constitute a hazard both to

environment and health. The high content of salts may adversely affect the
quality of ground water, although it does not constitute any danger to human
health. These salts are principally calcium and sulfate, but also chloride,
sodium, potassium, and magnesium.
The chemical composition of ash is important to the leaching processes but

it forms an insufficient basis for an estimate of the leachate composition
(contaminants and concentrations). Consequently, the environmental effects
resulting from ash fills must be evaluated based on direct analyses of the
leachate properties.
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) designed an Extraction

Procedure (EP) toxicity test to simulate the leaching a solid waste will undergo
in a sanitary landfill [14]. In this test a representative sample of a solid waste is
extracted with deionized water maintained at a pH of 5 using acetic acid. The
maximum contaminant levels (MCL) specified for characterizing hazardous solid
wastes are such that they are one hundred times the National P r i m a r y Drinking
Water Standards. Table 5 summarizes the results from the analysis of bottom
ash leachate generated by the EP toxicity test. The concentrations for bottom
ash extract are far below the maximum contaminant levels specified by the
EPA. Therefore, bottom ashes are characterized by the EP toxicity test as
nonhazardous. Moreover, it seems that bottom ash extracts would also satisfy
the primary drinking water standards.
The salt content of bottom ash leachate was tested by the leaching method
test specified in the Indiana Administrative Code 329 IAC 2-9-3 [15]. The
Indiana leaching method test is conducted as specified for the EP toxicity test,
except with no addition of acetic acid. Table 6 summarizes the test results and
the maximum concentrations specified for restricted waste site in the code,
along with the Secondary Drinking Water Standards. Again, the salt
concentrations of the bottom ash extracts meet all the requirements.
T A B L E 5 -- R e s u l t s of E P t o x i c i t y t e s t s
Concentrations (rag/L)
Contaminant Schahfer Gibson Schahfer Perry EPA
unit 17 unit 14 MCL*
Mercury 0.0002 0.0001 <0.0001 0.0002 0.2
Silver 0.001 ~0.001 ~0.001 ~0.001 5.0
Cadmium 0.0008 0.025 0.0007 0.0004 1.0
Chromium 0.0009 0.0005 0.0012 0.0009 5.0
Arsenic 0.020 0.010 0.005 0.008 5.0
Selenium 0.005 0.005 0.003 0.004 1.0
Barium 0.098 0.103 0.136 0.108 100.0
Lead 0.007 0.002 <0.001 0.005 5.0
* MCL = maximum contaminant level
T A B L E 6 -- R e s u l t s of I n d i a n a l e a c h i n g m e t h o d t e s t s
Concentrations (ms/L)
Contaminant Schahfer Gibson Schahfer Perry Indiana Secondary
unit 17 unit 14 MCL* MCL*
Barium 0.098 0.103 0.136 0.108 1 1
Copper <0.1 ~0.1 <0.1 <0.1 0.25 1
Chlorides <1 <1 <1 1 250 250
Iron 0.1 0.4 0.1 0.1 1.5 0.3
Sodium 0.8 1.0 <0.5 1.5 250 ...
Sulfate 31 55 19 26 250 250
Total Dissolved
Solids 90 140 10 145 500 ...
Calcium 19 24 2 30 . . . . . .
Magnesium 0.7 2.0 0.2 0.1 . . . . . .
Potasium 1.0 0.7 0.1 2.0 . . . . . .
Zinc 0.1 0.3 <0.1 <0.1 2.5 5
* MCL ~ maximum contaminant level
D u e t o t h e n a t u r e of t h e t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m , it w a s n o t p o s s i b l e t o s a m p l e
b o t t o m ashes t h a t h a d n o t b e e n e x p o s e d to s o m e d e g r e e of l e a c h i n g , if t h e ash
w a s w e t - d i s p o s e d . In t h i s s t u d y , o n l y P e r r y ash c o u l d be s a m p l e d d i r e c t l y f r o m
t h e h o p p e r ; a n d s u p p o s e d l y , it w o u l d h a v e t h e h i g h e s t p o r t i o n o f l e a c h a b l e
m e t a l s a n d salts. H o w e v e r , n o s i g n i f i c a n t difference in t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f
l e a c h a t e w a s o b s e r v e d b e t w e e n P e r r y a n d o t h e r ashes.
I n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t e r o s i o n , soil c o v e r i n g a n d p l a n t g r o w t h o n t h e ash-
f i n i s h e d fills a n d slopes a r e e s s e n t i a l . In a d d i t i o n , v e g e t a t i o n r e d u c e s l e a c h a t e
p r o d u c t i o n e f f e c t i v e l y b y i n c r e a s e d e v a p o r a t i o n [16]. E v a p o r a t i v e t r a n s p i r a t i o n
g e n e r a t e d b y v e g e t a t i o n is e s t i m a t e d to r e m o v e m o r e t h a n h a l f o f t h e y e a r l y
precipitation and thus limits leachate production significantly.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Laboratory studies on the chemical and physical properties of bottom ash,

and potential environmental effects resulting from the use of bottom ash have
been presented. Based on the laboratory studies, it can be concluded that the
properties of power plant bottom ash compare favorably with those of
traditional natural granular soils, and that the material can be successfully
utilized as a fill material, e.g., backfills for retaining structures, highway
embankments, and structural fills. Before this can be achieved, effective
construction techniques need to be developed through trial uses in the field.
Based on the results from leaching tests performed in the laboratory, it is

believed that the bottom ashes produced from coal-burning power plants are
nonhazardous and that their effects on the quality of ground water are minimal.
It is obvious that utilization of such an extensively produced byproduct of

the power industry as a construction material could become more desirable in
the future. From a technical standpoint, if the conclusions from the present
work hold true for other power plants, bottom ash shows very good promise for
use as a fill material.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank the Indiana Department of Highways and
the Federal Highway Administration for support of this work. The invaluable
cooperation of the utility companies who provided information and samples is
gratefully appreciated. The authors are especially indebted to Mrs. Janet
Lovell for her technical advice and assistance in laboratory testing.
REFERENCES
[1] Steam, Its Generation and Use, The Babcock and Wilcox Company, New
York, 1972.
[2] Valley Forge Laboratories, '~)evelopment of Federal Procurement Guidelines
for Use of Power Plant Ash in Transportation Products," Devon,
Pennsylvania, August 1983.
[3] Seals, R. K., Moulton, L. K., and Ruth, B. E., '~Bottom Ash: An
Engineering Material," Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering Division, ASCE, Vol. 98, No. SM4, April, 1972, pp. 311-325.
[4] Diamond, S., "Selection and Use of Fly Ash for Highway Concrete," Report
JHRP-85-8, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, 1985.
[5] Hough, B. K., Basic Soils Engineering, 2nd ed., The Ronald Press Company,
New York, 1969.
[6] Anderson, D. A., Usmen, M., and Moulton, L. K., 'q3se of Power Plant
Aggregate in Bituminous Construction," Transportation Research Record 595,
1976, pp. 18-24.
[7] Foster, C. R., '~Field Problems: Compaction," in Foundation Engineering, G.
A. Leonards, editor, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1962, pp. 1000-1024.
[8] Lee, P. Y., and Suedkamp, R. J., "Characteristics of Irregularly Shaped
Compaction Curves of Soils," Highway Research Record 381, 1972, pp. 1-9.
[9] Moulton, L. K., Seals, R. K., and Anderson, D. A., 'Utilization of Ash from
Coal-Burning Power Plants in Highway Construction," Highway Research
Record 430, pp. 26-39.
[10] Zeevaert, L., Foundation Engineering for Difficult Subsoil Conditions, 2nd
ed., Van Nostrand Reinhold Company Inc., New York, 1982.
Illl Schultze, E., and Moussa, A., '~'actors Affecting the Compressibility of
Sand," Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Soil Mechanics
and Foundation Engineering, Vol. 1, 1961, pp. 335-340.
[12] Roberts, J. E., and De Souza, J. M., "The Compressibility of Sands,"
Proceedings of the American Society for Testing and Materials, Vol. 58, 1958,
pp. 1269-1277.
[13[ Hendron, A. J., Jr., The Behavior of Sand in One-Dimensional
Compression, Ph.D. thesis, University of Illinois, Urbana, 1963.
[14] Environmental Protection Agency, "Test Methods for Evaluating Solid
Waste, Physical/Chemical Methods," 2nd ed., Report SW-846, Washington,
D.C., 1985.
[15] Indiana Register, Volume 12, Number 5, February 1, 1989.
[16] Gidtey, J. S., and Sack, W. A., '*Environmental Aspects of Waste
Utilization in Construction," Journal of Environmental Engineering, ASCE,
Vol. 110, No. 6, Dec., 1984.
Arvid O. Landva and Jack I. Clark
GEOTECHNICS OF WASTE FILL
REFERENCE: Landva, A.O. and Clark, J.l. "Geotechnics of Waste

Fill" Geotechnics of Waste Fill - Theory and Practice, ASTM STP
1070, Arvid Landva, G. David Knowles, Editors, American Society
ABSTRACT: Geotechnical investigations of waste fills are rarely

undertaken, and consequently far too little is known by the
geotechnical community about the engineering properties of fill,
particularly waste fill such as refuse and woodwaste. In many
communities waste fills a r e being used to create recreational
areas to elevations significantly above the original terrain.
Slope stability then becomes an important consideration. In
addition many communities have expanded to encompass waste fill
areas once thought to be beyond the limits of development. The
engineering properties and long-term behaviour of these fill
areas are therefore important to land use considerations.
In 1983 the authors initiated a programme of investigations of

the geotechnical properties of waste materials. Particular
emphasis was placed on refuse landfills and woodwastes such as
barkfill (hogfuel), sludge and ash wastes. Novel equipment and
methods had to be introduced both in the field and in the
laboratory. The field investigations were carried out in waste
fills across Canada. Much of this work had to be concerned with
the development of suitable equipment and test procedures.
It is concluded that geotechnical investigations of these unusual

and difficult materials are feasible, as long as it is recognized
that conventional testing methods and analyses may not apply and
that a different approach is required. No direct evidence was
found that the shear strength of refuse changes with the degree
of decomposition.
KEYWORDS: geotechnical investigations, refuse landfill, waste

fill, woodwastes, unconventional equipment and testing methods,
placing methods, settlement and stability
Dr. Landva is a Professor of Civil (Geotechnical) Engineering at the

University of New Brunswick, Department of Civil Engineering, P.O.Box
4400, Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada, E3B 5A3. Dr. Clark is the
Director of C-CORE, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's,
Newfoundland, Canada, AIB 3X5.

GEOTECHNICS OF WASTE FILL 87
INTRODUCTION
Waste fill is a term used here to denote man-made fill consisting of

(i) any type of waste material or (ii) mineral fill contaminated with
waste materials.
The geotechnical engineer, when called upon to give advice on

foundations in waste fill or on the stability of waste fill areas,
faces two major problems: firstly, he will be dealing with an
unusual soil, one that he is probably not well equipped to deal with,
and secondly, he will have to cope with a degradable material whose
geotechnical properties may change with time. Geotechnical
deterioration as a result of decomposition is a topic that has so far
received little attention in the geotechnical world. One reason for
this may be that we generally have tended to avoid sites underlain bv
waste fills, or if they could not be avoided, we may have been able
to base our design on a relatively short term only. Expanding
communities now frequently encompass waste fill areas once thought to
be beyond the limits of development. As a result we have to build
more frequently in disposal areas and over wasteland, and we
sometimes have to operate with a design life of several generations.
Moreover, new waste fill areas are being designed and constructed in
more creative ways, the end use of the land being designated at the
outset. For example, several waste fill areas in Canada are
designated for recreational use, including ski hills. By
constructing grades well above the original ground level, a much
greater volume of waste can be handled. It is important therefore to
be able to quantify the geotechnical properties of the waste and of
the often poor foundation soils underneath, and it is necessary to do
this for both the short-term and the long-term conditions.
Quantification of geotechnical properties of waste materials can

obviously be very difficult, particularly in the case of
heterogeneous materials such as urban refuse and contaminated fill.
An attempt has been made by the authors to develop testing and
sampling methods for these materials that can yield useful
geotechnical parameters. A description of these methods is given in
the present paper, and some typical results from field and laboratory
testing are presented.
FIELD INVESTIGATIONS
Field Reconnaissance
A study of old fills should always be connnenced with an examination

of maps, plans and aerial photographs. The authors have found that
it is not advisable to rely too heavily on estimates based on local
memory. For example, estimates of fill thickness or depth are
usually too high, sometimes by factors of two or three.
It is often possible to obtain survey records of the fill area for

the period before the fill was started, and this will generally yield
the necessary information on the thickness and extent of the fill.
Information
Copyright onreserved);
by ASTM Int'l (all rights the Thuplacing
Sep 5 12:03:30of
EDTthe
2019 fill may or may not be on record.
Again, it is the authors' experience that descriptions based on
memory can lead to conflicting conclusions.
Drilling and Sampling
The type of drilling and sampling used in waste fill depends entirely
on the type of fill being investigated. Conventional standard
penetration tests are possible in fine-grained fill but cannot be
used at all in wastes such as domestic and industrial refuse or in
barkfill and other woodwastes.
Sampling was attempted [I] with a "Becker" type of drill in recent

fill (active domestic refuse) as well as in old domestic refuse.
Practically no material could be sampled, mostly because the drive
shoe constantly became clogged with wooden debris or other large
particles. Also, progress was quite slow, and drilling came to a
complete stop whenever large objects were encountered, which was
qu~te frequent. In such cases drilling could be continued only by
relocating the drill hole.
Attempts were also made to use split spoon samplers of various

diameters in refuse (domestic) landfill, but again the results were
negative. Very little material was recovered in the sampler, and the
blow counts were extremely erratic. This was also the case with
dynamic cone penetration in a recent domestic refuse landfill [2]
Auger drilling proved to be the most suitable method for probing and
sampling waste fill, both old fill of all kinds and recent domestic
refuse. Continuous augers of diameters varying between 100 and 230mm
were tried out. The best overall auger with respect to production
rate and quality and size of sample was a solid-stem 130mm auger
(140mm bit). A reasonably heavv drill rig was generally required in
order to penetrate or displace very resistant materials such as wood,
tires, rocks, concrete blocks, steel objects etc. In order to obtain
samples representative of a certain depth, it was necessary to
withdraw the auger completely every 1.5 or 3m depth interval.
Sampling was carried out to depths of 30m in both old and active
refuse landfills and to 20m in a seafill that had been placed about
30 years ago.
Below the ground water level the augered borehole is likely to

collapse if the fill contains much sand or gravel. In typical
refuse, however, the auger may simply be advanced to the previous
sampling depth whether the borehole collapsed or not, and further
auger advance secures a sample of the underlying fill.
An experienced driller is required for auger sampling in waste fill.
Test Pits
Test pits are useful for most fills, although they are generally
limited to the upper 4 m depth or so. In general, it is not feasible
to excavate below the ground water level.
Sampling and classification: Sampling from test pits in waste

fill should be accompanied by classification in situ. The
description should be supplemented by colour photographs.
Downloaded/printed
Analysesby of numerous types of waste and a comprehensive review of the
literature led the Bureau of Solid Waste Management to select the
following categories for purposes of classification: (i) food waste,

(ii) garden waste, (iii) paper products, (iv) plastic, rubber,
leather, (v) textiles, (vi) wood, (vii) metal products, (viii) glass
and ceramic products, and (ix) ash, rocks, dirt.
Observing that some waste constituents are readily biodegradable,

some are slowly biodegradable, and some are not degradable or very
slowly degradable, the following broad classes are suggested for use
in engineering applications:
(0) Organic
(OP) Putrescible (monomers and low-resistance polymers,
readily biodegradable):
Food waste
Garden waste
Animal waste
Material contaminated by such wastes
(ON) Non-putrescible (highly resistant polymers,

slowly biodegradable):
Paper
Wood
Textiles
Leather
Plastic, rubber
Paint, oil, grease, chemicals, organic sludge
(I) Inorganic
(ID) Degradable
Metals (corrodible to varying degrees)
(IN) Non-degradable
Glass, ceramics
Mineral soil, rubble
Tellings, slimes
Ash
Concrete, masonry (construction debris):
The last three groups (ON, ID, IN) may contain numerous void-forming
constituents that will affect the geotechnical behaviour of the fill:
Hollow containers - boxes, crates, cans, bottles, jars, drums,

barrels, pipe, tubing, etc.
Platy or elongated items - beams, sheets, plates, etc.
Bulky items - furniture, appliances, auto bodies, etc.
Visual examination alone is generally not sufficient for geotechnical

classification purposes. The examination should be supplemented with
index properties such as water content, organic content, and specific
gravity. Another useful classification test is the particle size
analysis.
Unit weight in situ: The unit weight of waste is difficult to

obtain
Copyright because
by ASTM Int'l of the
(all rights reserved); Thu Seperratic
5 12:03:30 EDTand
2019 often coarse nature of waste
materials. A very large sample of material is required. A test pit
excavated with a small backhoe is generally suitable and may even
be o~ the small side. Typically, the volume of such a pit is around

10 m , and this is generally sufficient to include some of the larger
constituents found ~n refuse, such as tires, beams, planks, drums,
construction debris, etc.
The volume measurements of test pits in the waste fills investigated

by the authors were carried out with a sliding stick attached to a
survey rod. This arrangement served the purpose of measuring the
width and the length at different depths and sections (typically at
about 50 points) without entering the pit. The generally iagged
nature of the walls and the often very considerable variations in
width (say between 0.6 and 1,2 m) do, however, render such
measurements somewhat imprecise.
The weights of the excavated material and the truck tares are usually
obtained at the site by the fill operators, or the trucks are taken
to weigh scales somewhere else. We have found, however, that the
possibility of weighing errors is fairly high. It seems likely that
some confusion may be arisin~ from the interruption of the normal
busy work schedule and perhaps also from over-emphasizing the
necessity of obtaining accurate weights. Another contribution to
inaccurate weight could be a lack of calibration of the scale or
simply an inaccurate scale.
On the basis of relatively extensive field experience, the authors

would estimate that the maximum volume error is •
The unit weights of waste as measured by the authors in various test

pits in refuse landfills across Canada have been reported in detail
in [Y'. The refuse in all cases appeared to contain no free water
between the various constituents. Under these conditions the unit
weights could be expected to be within in a range of about 7 to 14
kN/m , as discussed under "Index Properties" below. The u~it weights
measured in situ varied within a range of 6.8 to 16.2 kN/m . Any
value greater than 14 kN/m is almost certainly a result of weighing
or measuring errors. For example, a volume error of -15% (i.e. the
measured volume is 15% smaller than the actual volume) ~ould reduce
the maximum measured unit weight from 16.2 to 14.1 kN/m ~. A weighing
error of +10% (i.e. the recorded weight is 10 T too high) would
further reduce the maximum value to 12.8 kN/m J. The authors have
found that such an error in weighing, although generally not likely,
could conceivably occur.
The determination of unit weights on the basis of test pits is often

complicated by the presence of one or several "dirt" (earth cover)
layers. It is generally not possible to predict with any certainty
the configuration of the refuse and dirt layers below the surface,
because slopes and flats covered with various combinations of dirt,
old access roads and construction debris may exist almost anywhere,
and as a rule it is not possible to obtain any exact information on
the configuration.
Since cover soils exist almost everywhere, either at the surface or

at depth, or both, their unit weight should be measured separately.
This
Copyright by ~s(allmost
ASTM Int'l conveniently
rights reserved); Thu Sep 5 12:03:30 done
EDT 2019with a nuclear density probe. Fig. 1
shows the results of some measurements of the unit weight of earth
covers used in Calgary, Edmonton and Mississauga. The water contents
G E O T E C H N I C S OF W A S T E FILL 91
~Yo =dryunit weight

24 = G--------E-~s "yw (Gs = 2.75)
22
9 LEOENO
~20 ..I~'~%~ O Edmonton (Clover Bar)
z
~%,IL ~ ~ 9 Mississaugo(Britonnio)
-~ 1 8
i,--
-'t-
o 16
14
Z
12
r --,-- "~ ~0.60----.....~...~__
Q
10
6 ,o ;2 ;4 /8 ;4 2'6 3b 3'2 3'4

WATER CONTENT, % BY DRY WEIGHT
FIG. 1 -- In-service water content and dry unit weight of various earth covers as
determined in situ
shown are those measured with the probe, i.e. they are not the
as-placed water contents.
The large size of sample obtained from test pits may present a
problem with respect to determining water contents and organic
contents. However, relatively large samples can be handled in a
pottery type of kiln, as long as provisions are made for proper
ventilation. The 90cm diameter kiln used at UNB has a temperature
control which is sufficiently accurate for both water content
(90-I000C) and organic content (450-500~
Permeability (hydraulic conductivity): The field permeability

of some of the waste fills investigated by the authors was estimated
by carrying out large-scale percolation tests in the pits excavated
for unit weight measurements. Water supplied by a vacuum truck was
dumped into the pit. The permeability was estimated on the basis of
the rate of water level recession and on the basis of flow nets
applicable to any particular level considered [3].
Permeabilities measured in test pits in Calgary, Edmonton,

Mississauga and Waterloo are plotted against unit weights in Fig. 2.
The values shown are based on an intermediate stage of water level
recession, after the flow had stabilized and before any debris would
clog the voids. The measured coefficients of permeability (Ix10-5 to
4x10-4 m/s) correspond to those associated with clean sand and
gravel.
Plate load tests: Another geotechnical test conducted on the

various
Copyright by ASTM Int'lrefuse landfills
(all rights reserved); across
Thu Sep 5 12:03:30 EDT 2019 Canada was the plate load test 2 The
plate used for these tests had a diameter of 1.13 m (area = 1 m ).
Construction equipment was used as counterweight. Typically, a
1oo
Z
LEGEND
a ,0 E oMioE /
Ud
ri- oWA oMl /
D m Calgary C
<E toE /
/ oWA Edmonton
Mississauga
E
MI
o
Waterloo WA
i~ , .... /
fig ~'-
~--Expecled type of trend
(decreasing permeability
WI.IJ with increasing unit weight}
to ;, I'~ 8 t~. ,5 t6
UNIT WEIGHT MEASURED IN
TEST PITS, kNIm 3
FIG. 2 -- Unit weight and permeability (from percolation) as measured in test pits in situ
Caterpillar D8 dozer or equivalent could supply a reaction of about

20 tonnes (about 200 kPa), while a backhoe or drilling rig would not
exceed 2 or 3 tonnes (about 20 or 30 kPa).
Ideally, a load test on waste and other materials exhibiting

significant long-term (creep) settlement should last for at least
several hours and preferably longer. This is of course not possible
when construction equipment is involved, and the test duration
therefore had to be limited to 10-15 minutes. These tests
consequently do not yield any information on long-term behaviour.
However, the plate load tests do reflect in a meaningful way the
density or degree of compaction of the fill. The large size of the
plate generates a correspondingly large influence zone, say about
twice the diameter or about 2 m, which is typical of the thickness of
refuse lifts between earth covers. The 1.13 m diameter plate is
therefore a reasonable compression test for an entire lift of fill.
The results of plate load tests of various refuse landfills in Canada

have been reported in detail in [17. The values of K , which were
determined as the ratio of an applied pressure (150 k~a) to the
settlement at that pressure after two to five minutes of load
application, varied between 1 and 15 MPa/m. Typically, the lower
values of K (less than 2 MPa/m) are associated with cases of poor
compaction~Swhile the higher values (5 MPa/m and higher) correspond
to (i) a particularly good compaction or (ii) to a better grade of
fill or (iii) to thicker, well compacted earth covers.
In Fig. 3 an attempt has been made to relate the subgrade modulus

values to the unit weight of the material. The unit weights were
Copyright byobtained from
ASTM Int'l (all rights test
reserved); pits
Thu Sep excavated
5 12:03:30 EDT 2019 close to or at the location of the
Downloaded/printed
plateby load tests. Fig. 3 indicates that there is a tendency for the
subgrade modulus to increase with increasing unit weight, although
251 I !
dense
sond (11)
T
Calgary D
E
Edmonton
Edmundston
9
o
/
\ Holifax NOTES:
o 20
o. Hississauga ~ / ~. mixed with dirt
Honcton
Ot tawa " / 2.20cm dirt cover
Red Deer 3.25cm dirt cover
Vancouver
Z WaterlOO 4.30crn dirt cover
o 15 I "
Winnipeg
' / 5.40cm dirt cover
6. 50cm dirt cover
t~A
9 / 7.70cm dirt cover
8. 90cm dirt cover
~10'
,<
oc 9. no dirt cover
,-n 10. settlement 25mm under 100kFb press.
:D
o', 11. settlement 25ram under 600kPa press.
~s
ID
::D
121
/, /
O ~ [
0
0 tO 15 20
UNIT W E I G H T , ~ , KN/m 3
FIG. 3 -- Modulus of subgrade reaction (144 kPa/settlement, 1.13m dia. plate) and unit
weight measured in adjacent test pits in various refuse fills. Sand results from
conventional relationships of allowable pressure for 25ram settlement (ref. 4)
the range of K appears to be rather large. For example, at the

typical unit w~ighs of i0 kN/m j, K = I to 5 MPa/m, i.e. the
calculated settlement under say 10~ kPa applied pressure would range
from 2 to 10 cm.
If a comparison is made with sand, it is found, somewhat

surprisingly, that the range of K -values for loose to dense sand
appears to he considerably greater, as calculated on the basis of
allowable bearing pressures under footings on sand [4].
In general, since the composition of waste fill and the thickness and
type of earth cover tend to be so erratic, it is desirable, after the
load test, to excavate a test pit exactly at the location of the
test.
Test Fills
The very heterogeneous nature of waste fills and the very wide range
of densities to which they have been placed give rise to a wide range
of compressibility. Some idea of the magnitude of this range is
given by Fig. 4, in which various case records of observed
Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights
settlements ofreserved);
waste Thu Sep 5 12:03:30
fills EDT 2019
have been plotted. A study of these
records has not yielded any consistent
(UDESC) Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina ((UDESC) Universidade do Estado de relationships between
Santa Catarina) pursuant to License Agreement.the type
of material, the magnitude of the loads, and the magnitude and rate
TIME, DAYS NOTES

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 1 = ref.6
2 = ref.7
2oo~ -~ ' '~ 3 = ref.8 (rain.)
4 = ref.8 (max.)
5 = ref.9 (eastbound)
6 = ref.10
~' 8~176 ~7 7 = ref.9 (westbound)
12001 ' ' t ,
8 = refs.2 and 11
F I G . 4 -- C a s e records o f settlement in refuse landfills
of settlement. For example, the refuse landfill of curve 6 was only

3 m thick, while the Fredericton landfill (curve 8), consisting of
the same type of refuse, was about 17 m thick. The applied load was
in both cases about 50 kPa, yet the shallower fill settled more.
The Fredericton test fill was about 2.5 m high and had base
dimensions of 19 x 16m and crest dimensions of 7.5 x 5m. This
corresponds to a significant depth in the order of 20 m, i.e. the
entire thickness of the landfill was affected ~y the applied load.
The quantity of f~ll used was only about 400 m . The cost of such
test fills may be relatively low if, as in the Fredericton case, the
fill used is material hauled in and stockpiled for earth cover.
The authors would strongly recommend that test fills be used for an
assessment of the compressibility of waste fill. Such large-scale
tests are quite reliable, and their cost can be relatively low.
Also, if no further treatment of the waste is planned, the test fill
serves the purpose of preloading the waste and thus reduces the
settlement of the planned structure. For this reason, and also for
the purpose of obtaining reliable parameters for the long-term
behaviour of the waste material, the test fill should be planned and
placed well ahead of construction, preferably as much as a year
ahead.
LABORATORY INVESTIGATIONS
Conventional geotechnical laboratory tests are generally not

applicable for waste fill, chiefly because of the coarse and erratic
nature of such materials. It is necessary therefore to introduce new
and larger testing apparatus that is more suitable for the generally
coarse and variable waste materials.
Index Properties
Waste fill generally consists of many different types of constituent,

and these constituents are often porous and not fully saturated. The
determination of index properties then becomes a formidable task
requiring
Downloaded/printed by special equipment and procedures. Also, since these
materials are often very compressible, properties such as unit weight
and water-holding capacity (and also permeability) must be

determined as a function of porosity, which again is a function of
the method of placing and of the applied pressure.
The determination of the index properties of samples of refuse fill

is a long and somewhat complex procedure, but it is possible to
determine reliably the following properties: water content, organic
content, grain size distribution, average specific gravity for the
cases of (i) saturated intraparticle voids and (ii) dry intraparticle
voids, and waterholding capacity at different densities.
Since waste fill contains porous constituents, it is necessary to

distinguish between intraparticle (within, inside of) and
interparticle (between particles) voids. It is entirely possible,
for example, and indeed not uncommon, to have saturated or partly
saturated intraparticle voids and dry interparticle voids.
An instructive example is an aggregate of metal cans. If made of

shee~ steel, the unit weight of the solid material would be about 80
kN/m3, while the unit weight of each empty can could be as low as 2
kN/m (for a porosity of 97.5%) and that of a water-filled can would
be about ,2 kN/m . With an interparticle (i.e. inter-can) porosity
of around 40%, the unit weights of the aggregate would be
approximately as follows:
Intraparticle voids Interparticle voids Unit weight, kN/m 3

Dry Dry 1
Semi-saturated Dry 4
Semi-saturated Semi-saturated 6
Saturated Dry 7
Saturated Saturated Ii
The average unit weight of the individual constituents of the waste

depends on the unit weight of the solid portion of each constituent
and on its porosity and degree of saturation. In general, the
average unit weight of the constituents is
1 (I)
Yc = n Wi 1
l
where Wi/W = weight of constituent i as a fraction of the

C
total weight W of the constituents,
c
Yi = unit weight of constituent i, and
n = number of constituents.
On exposure to water, the unit weight of any constituent absorbing
water would increase (e.g. that of food waste, garden refuse, paper,
textiles, wood, ash, etc.). The new average unit weight y'c of the
constituents could be recalculated from (I), or it could be expressed
as
Y'c = Yc I + ~ ~- x (2)
I
(UDESC) Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina ((UDESC) Universidade YiJ
c do Estado de Santa Catarina) pursuant to License Agreement. No further reproductions authorize
TABLE 1. Typical refuse composition (from ref. 1)
Percent of uni~ weight, kN{~

Category total weight Dry Saturated
Food waste 5-42 ].02 ].02
Garden refuse 4-20 0.33 0.6

Paper products 20-55 0.44 1.25
Plastic, rubber 2-15 1.] l.l
Textiles 0-4 O. 3 0.6
Wood 0.4-15 0.45 !.0
Metal products 6-15 6.0 6.0
Glass & ceramics 2-15 2.9 2.9

Ash, rock & dirt 0-15 ].8 2.0
NOTES :
I
With respect to intrapartlcle voids
2 Assumed value
3 Assume n = 0.8 and G = 1.5
s
4 Average density of Bpaper is 0.6 g/cm3 and of
cardboard 0.2 g/cm
5 G = 1.55, n = 0.6
s
where Wi/Wc, Yi and Yc are the same as above, and AYi = increase in
unit weight of constituent i.
A typical composition of a refuse landfill is shown in Table I,

together with typical unit weights of the constituents in the dry and
saturated conditions. These unit weights have either been obtained
from handbooks and other literature or they have been measured in the
laboratory. The possible range of average unit weights of the
constituents can be determined by combining (i) the lightest
materials and their dry unit weights and (li) the heaviest materials
and their saturated unit weights, as shown in Table 2. The lightest
combination yields an average unit weight of the constituents of 3.8
kN/m J, and the heaviest combination gives 16.3 kN/m ~. It is again
emphasized that these are the average unit weights of the constituent
particles and not the unit weight of the waste aggregate. The latter
could be calculated only if the interparticle porosity at which the
constituents co-exlst is known and also if the water content is known
(for waste located above the ground water level, the water content
will generally be a function of the water-holding capacity).
The refuse landfills investigated by the authors always appeared

practically dry with respect to the interparticle voids. Assuming a
small amount of moisture (w = 5%) and a range of interparticle
porosity of 30 to 60% (depending on the amount of compaction), the
lighest combination shown.in Table 2 would yield an overall unit
weight of 1.6 to 2.8 kN/m j and the heaviest would yield 6.8 to 12.0
kN/m
Copyright by The reserved);
ASTM Int'l (all rights rangeThu Sep
of 5 overall unit weights measured in situ was 6.8
12:03:30 EDT 2019
9 3
Downloaded/printed
to 16.2 by kN/m . The latter value is of course not possible,
considering that the highest conceivable average unit weight of
T A B L E 2. Lightest and heaviest combinations o f refuse constituents (from Table 1)
Llghtest combination Heaviest combination

Category % of Dry unlt" % of Saturated
total weight total unlt weight
weight (kN/ma) weight (kN/m3)
Food waste 6 1.0
Garden refuse 20 0.3
Paper
products 55 0.4 40 1.2
Plastic,
rubber 15 l.l
Textiles 4 0.3
Wood 15 0.45
Metal
products 15 6.0
Glass &
ceramics 15 2.9
Ash, rock,
dirt 15 2.7
constituent particles is 16.3 kN/m 3. The highest conceivable overall

unit weight for, say, a w a t e r content of 10% and an interparticle
porosity of 20% is 14.3kN/m ~.
All the values of water content and organic content determined on the
various refuse samples from across Canada are compiled in Fig. 5. In
general, the w a t e r content does seem to increase with increasing
organic content, as is usually the case.
100 o i o ~ i
75
z
bJ
i--
z
8 s0 o
o o o
~ 2s
o
5o ,;0 300
w,,eR co,,e,g../.
FIG. 5 -- Organic contents and water contents of samples from old fills across Canada
The apparatus shown in Figs. 6(a) and (b) is a combination unit used
for specific gravity, saturation, permeability, water-holding
capacity, and compression testing with pore pressure measurements.
The larger container in Fig. 6(b) is used for saturation of
especially coarse samples.
Consolidation and Permeability Tests
Consolidation tests on coarse waste materials may be carried out in

the 470mm diameter units shown in Figs. 6(c) and (d) and in the 250mm
diameter apparatus in Fig. 6(a). The 500 kN apparatus in (d) has
provisions for measuring permeability at constant or falling head up
to about 3 m heads. The load plate may be sealed at any vertical
compression for measurement of the permeability, or the measurements
may be done through overflow without a seal, but still under vertical
load. The I000 kN apparatus in Fig. 6(c) is used for consolidation
tests for which measurements of wall friction are desired.
The high compressibility of waste fill is evident from Fig. 7, where

consolidation results from five locations are plotted. These tests
were all done in the 470mm diameter apparatus. The samples were
placed in the container in about 5cm lifts and lightly compacted.
The gradient of the log pressure vs strain is the compression number
C' = C /(l+eo), where C = compression index (i.e. the gradient of
th~ e-l~g p curve) and eS = void ratio before the load was increased.
The range of C' c in Fig. 7 is 0.2 to 0.5. This is high in comparison
with inorganic soils, and this is to be expected.
The coefficient of secondary consolidation c (the gradient of the

compression vs. log time relationship) was f~und to be in the range
0.2 to 3.0 percent per log cycle of time, depending on the type of
waste involved. Too few tests have been carried out for any firm
relationship to be established between the value of c and the type
of waste, but it does appear that c increases with increasing
organic content.
Shear Tests
The shear test results shown in Figs. 8 and 9 were obtained with the
large direct-shear apparatus shown in Fig. 6(e). The horizontal
dimensions of this apparatus are 434 x 287 mm. The vertical load and
the shear load are both applied with hydraulic rams. In cases of wet
samples, a rubber membrane is installed prior to sample preparation.
The membranes are fabricated in the laboratory with a latex product
[1].
The shear rate used was about 1.5 mm/minute unless pore pressure
measurements indicated that a lower rate was required to maintain
drained conditions. This was generally not a problem with the
relatively coarse samples tested, but at higher pressures the
permeability could decrease sufficiently that the rate had to be
lowered.
An examination of the waste materials in both the natural and the

dried conditions showed that they possessed a granular and fibrous
nature.
Downloaded/printed by In the large direct shear box, therefore, it could be
a = 250mm diameter multitester for specific gravity,

water-holding capacity, compressibility, and
permeability
b -= (1) 250ram diameter multitester with cover for
application of suction
(r) 450mm diameter container for application of
suction to extra large or coarse samples
c = 470mm diameter 1000 kN consolidometer with
provisions for wall friction measurements
d = 470mm diamter 500 kN consolidometer and
permeameter
e = 434x287mm direct shear apparatus
f --- 240x124mm ring-shear apparatus
FIG. 6 -- Laboratory equipment used for testing waste materials

PRESSURE, kPo
10 100 1000
L -- ! I
lo
.~ LEGEND I
z9 20 KI KINGST ON (ok:l landfill) ~'~.~'~,~" (old fill)

EA EDI'40N
30 H HANTSPORT. NS ,,,
(old ta~dfi|[ and woodwaste) ",,
a.
"s"
0 OTTAWA " \ ~,'ENA
o 40 (old leundfilI,Ridge Rood)
F-NB EDMUNDSTON.NB
(woodwaste)
50
(fresh,
shredded )
50
KI Cc'= 0.17 (p 20-200kPa)= O Cc'= 0.21 (p = 100-400kP~

EA C c' = 0.35 (p = 80-200 kPa) ENB Cc'= 0.36 (p= 100-400kPa)
H C c' = 0.22 (p = 80-200 kPa)
FIG. 7 -- Compressive strain vs log pressure for various fills in Canada (laboratory
tests in 450mm dia. consolidometer)
expected that friction parameters similar to granular soils would be

obtained. As seen from Figs. 8 and 9, this was indeed the case, the
friction angle @ varying between 24~ 41 ~ These materials also
had a cohesion parameter c of between zero and 23 kPa.
The fresh shredded refuse from Edmonton consisted of a large amount

of plastic sheet waste, and this is no doubt the reason for the low
friction angle of 24 ~ . The direction of shear is at right angles to
the direction of the principal consolidation stress, and fibrous and
elongated particles have been found to tend to align themselves in
this direction. Separate direct shear tests on plastic bags stacked
horizontally and allowed to slide along the shear plane gave a
friction angle of 9 ~ , as shown in Fig. 9.
The shear strength parameters obtained for woodwaste (Fig. 9), viz.
co0 and ~=36 ~ were obtained independently also in ring shear tests
in the apparatus shown in Fig. 6(f). The dough-nut-shaped specimen
had an outside diameter of 240 nnn and an inside diameter of 124 mm.
It is tempting to draw the conclusion from Fig. 8 that aging of

refuse reduces its shear strength, in this case from c=19kPa and
~=39 = to c=16kPa and ~=33 ~ for the old Blackfoot (Calgary) refuse.
However, the test results shown in Fig. 9 clearly indicate that a
large range of shear strength parameters (@=27 ~ to 41 ~) is possible
in waste fill. On the basis of the results shown in Figs. 8 and 9, it
must be concluded that the shear strength of waste fill is highly
variable, depending on the type of material involved. It should be
noted
Copyright by ASTM Int'lthat
(all rightsthe same
reserved); Thu Seprange
5 12:03:30of shear strength parameters, or even a
EDT 2019
larger range, is found for conventional soils of different densities
400
~. 3OO
aoo
ioo
(n
/ ~ ~j~'2'5"=J~
c ~ o Old refuse, Blackfoot, 1983
9 Old refuse, Blackfoot, 1984
+ Shredded refuse, Edmonton
| * 9 9 9 I i I
200 400 800
Normal stress kPa

FIG. 8 -- Large direct-shear tests on samples from old flu in Calgary and from fresh
shredded fill in Edmonton
300
o §
a
I1.
9" 200
r-
4J
c~
c
t-
4J
m
/oY0
r.
m t00
m JJIP" / o Hantsport, old flU
f + Edmundston, woodwaste
/~'~ Aj ,,o ~ n B U ? a ~ i ficial refuse, fresh
.~j~j c~.0,r 9
~ / - ~ - A UNB, artificial refuse, 8 yrs old
, , 9 Slidingplastic bags ,
0
0 t00 200 300 400
Normal stress kPa

FIG. 9 -- Large direct-shear tests on samples from old woodwaste/refuse fill in
Hantsport, N.S., Fraser woodwaste stockpile in Edmundston, N.B.,
artificial UNB samples, and sliding garbage bags
and mineral compositions.
The concept of a linear relationship between shear strength and

normal stress, as applied to conventional soils, may not apply in the
case of highly compressible and erratic refuse fill. For example, as
the refuse is compressed by higher normal stresses, it becomes
denser, and this could lead to higher shear strength parameters if
increased interlocking occurs.
If an assessment were to be made of the stability of a landfill on

the basis of the results shown in Figs. 8 and 9, the lowest strength
would have to be used for the stability today. For the long-term
stability, any change in the shear parameters would depend on the
nature of the waste fill concerned. For sanitary landfill type of
refuse the authors are aware of no direct evidence that the shear
strength parameters change significantly with time. The overall
shear strength could of course decrease if there is substantial local
decomposition which leaves weak zones or cavities, but this type of
deterioration could not easily be detected through laboratory shear
tests.
Another aspect of landfill stability is the possible existence of local

zones of weaker material within the landfill. Large collections of
plastic sheet waste, for example, if placed in a potentially critical
shear zone, could contribute to an overall low factor of safety. The
tests described above for Edmonton suggest that the friction angle
could be in the range 9 ~ - 24 ~ in such a zone. Other sources of low
strength include that due to seepage along the laminated composite
structure made up of horizontal or sloping layers of refuse and less
pervious daily covers. Such seepage has also caused internal erosion
which eventually led to slope instability.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The field and laboratory work with waste fill as described herein has
shown that it is in general feasible to conduct geotechnical
investigations of fill materials, regardless of its nature and degree
of decomposition. Undisturbed sampling is not, of course, possible,
and field determinations of unit weight and strength are limited to
the upper zone. Resort may, however, be had to the use of test fills
(e.g. stockpiles of earth cover) for an assessment of the
compressibility of the entire depth of fill.
Laboratory testing of waste materials requires special equipment, as

described briefly in this paper. All samples are necessarily
disturbed, in fact completely destructured as compared with the state
in which they existed before sampling. This is not, however, a major
drawback, because the samples, upon replacing in the large containers
used for waste fill in the laboratory, can be recompacted and
reconsolidated. The density of the samples, after reconsolidation to
the field value at the depth from which they were taken, is not
likely to be significantly different from the field value.
Copyright byThe
ASTM laboratory investigations
Int'l (all rights reserved); reported in this paper were carried out
Thu Sep 5 12:03:30 EDT 2019
on samples reconsolidated to pressures between 20 and 400 kPa. This
range of pressure corresponds to that between depths of 2 and 40 m in
a typical refuse landfill.
The waste materials investigated were extremely variable and erratic.

For example, their organic content varied within the wide range of 5
to 92 percent. Yet their compression and shear behaviour was not
significantly more erratic and variable than that of inorganic soils.
The reason for this somewhat surprising conclusion seems clear:
waste materials are particulate materials just like inorganic soils,
and the same general laws of compression and shear behaviour can
therefore be expected to apply, regardless of the nature of the
constituents.
The ~eotechnical hehaviour of waste fill can be compared to that of a

loose soil containing a variety of fibres. In ~eneral, the shear
strength may be expected to be at its minimum on planes of failure
parallel to the alignment of the fibres. In refuse and other waste
landfills, this alignment tends to be parallel to the compacted
]ayers, that is, generally horizontal or sloping up to about 10 ~ from
the horizontal.
REFERENCES
I. LANDVA, A.O. and CLARK, J.l. 1986. Geotechnical testing of

waste fill. Proc. 39th Canadian Geotechnlcal Conference,
Ottawa, Ontario, pp. 371-385.
2. LANDVA, J. 1982. Investigation of the geotechnlcal properties
of sanitary landfills. Senior Report, Department of Civil
Engineering, University of New Brunswick.
3. HEALY, K.A. and LAAK, R. 1973. Factors affecting the
percolation test. Journal WPCF, Voi.45, No.7, July,
pp.1508-1516.
4. TERZAGHI, K. and PECK, R.B. 1967. Soil mechanics in engineering
practice. Wiley, 729 pp.
5. LANDVA, A.O. and LA ROCHELLE, P. 1982. Compressibility and
shear characteristics of Radforth peats. ASTM STP 820. Testing
of Peats and Organic Soils, P. Jarrett, ed.
6. SOWERS, G.F. 1968. Foundation problems in sanitary landfills.
ASCE Journ. Sanitary Eng., 94, SAI, February, pp. 103-182.
7. CHANG, J.C. and HANNON, J.B. 1976. Settlement performance of
two test highway embankments on sanitary landfill. New Horizons
in Construction Materials, Vol. i, Int. Symposium, November i-3,
Lehigh University, Envo Publishin~ Co., Pennsylvania,
pp.139-157.
8. KEENE, P. 1977. Sanitary landfill treatment, Interstate Highway
84. Proc. Conf. Geotechnical Practice for Disposal of Solid
Waste Materials. Univ.of Michigan, Ann Arbor, June 13-15, ASCE,
New York, pp.632-644.
9. SHEURS, R.E. and KHERA, R.P. 1980. Stabilization of a sanltarv
landfill to support a highway. Transp. Research Board, Transp.
Research Record No. 754, pp. 46-53.
I0. RAO, S.K., MOULTON, L.K. and SEALS, R.K. 1977. Settlement of
refuse landfills. Proc. Conf. Geotechnical Practice for
Disposal of Solid Waste Materials. Univ.of Michigan, Ann Arbor,
June 13-15, ASCE, New York, pp.574-598.
Copyright
II.by ASTM Int'l (all rights
KWONG, A.reserved);
1982. Thu SepGeotechnical
5 12:03:30 EDT 2019 investigation of sanitary
landfills. M.Sc.Eng. thesis,
(UDESC) Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina ((UDESC) Universidade Department
do Estado de Santa Catarina)of Civil
pursuant Engineering,
to License Agreement. No further reproductions authorize
University of New Brunswick.
Stabilization, Compaction, and Consolidation
J.-L. Briaud, M.-L. Liu, and Ph. Lepert
THE WAK TEST TO CHECK THE INCREASE IN SOIL STIFFNESS DUE TO DYNAMIC
COMPACTION
REFERENCE: Briaud, J.-L., Liu, M.-L., Lepert, Ph., "The WAK

Test to Check the Increase in Soil Stiffness due to Dynamic
Compaction," Geotechnics of Waste Fills Theory and Practice.
ASTM STP 1070, Arvid Landva, G. David Knowles, Eds., American
Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia 1990.
ABSTRACT: A test is proposed to check the increase in soil

stiffness brought about by dynamic compaction. It consists
of hitting the dynamic compaction weight, after it has been
dropped by the crane and while it is resting on the ground,
with an instrumented sledge hammer, recording the response of
the weight through geophones simply placed on the weight. The
analysis of the recorded signals gives the stiffness of the
soil under the weight. The test is of very short duration
and can be used after the weight has been dropped a number of
times with the crane at one location to decide whether the
soil has become stiff enough or if further compaction is
necessary. The test is particularly useful for waste fills
where other more conventional tests to check the increase in
soil stiffness are very difficult if not impossible to perform.
KEYWORDS: impact test, clay, sand, wastes, dynamic compaction,

stiffness, load test, soil dynamic.
INTRODUCTION
In the case of Dynamic Compaction of Waste Fills it is very difficult

to obtain a reasonable evaluation of the stiffness of the fill: indeed
it is very difficult to obtain the modulus of deformation of a rusted
refrigerator or of an old tire. Common sampling techniques, and in
situ techniques all fall short of being as helpful as they are for
classical soils. This is why the following method was developed by
the authors.
Dr. Briaud is head of the Geotechnical Engineering and Surveying

Division in the Department of Civil Engineering at Texas A&MUniversity.
College Station, Texas, 77843-3136, USA. Mr. Liu is a graduate student
working with Dr. Briaud. Mr. Lepert is an engineer at the Laboratoire
Central des Ponts et Chaussees, B.P. No. 19, Bonguenais, 44340, France.
(UDESC) Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina ((UDESC) Universidade do 107
Estado de Santa Catarina) pursuant to License Agreement. No further reproductions authorize

Dynamic compaction consists of dropping a weight from a certain

height with a crane in order to increase the stiffness of the waste
fill. Once the weight is dropped with the crane and while it is resting
on the ground, the WAK test can be performed by using an instrumented
sledge hammer to impact the weight (Figure I). The impact is created
by a person swinging the hammer on the weight. The force-time signal
of the impact is recorded and the response of the soil-weight assembly
is recorded by using two geophones placed on the weight. These geophones
measure the vertical velocity with which the weight vibrates. The
force-time signal from the dynamic load cell on the hammer and the
velocity time signal from the geophones on the weight are analyzed
using Fast Fourier Transforms and the stiffness K of the soil mass
under the weight is extracted from the transfer function of the system.
The test is nicknamed the WAK test: Wave Activated Stiffness (K) test
(Figure i) and allows to measure the stiffness of the waste fill within
the zone of influence under the weight.
MODELLING PROCESS
The footing is modelled as a single degree of freedom system (Figure

2). The stiffness of the soil underlying the footing is K, the internal
and geometrical damping is C, and the mass of the footing plus the
added mass of soil, if any, is M. The equilibrium equation leads to
[1]:
MSc +C~c + K x - F(t) (l)
where x is the vertical displacement of the footing subjected to a

dynamic force F(t). For a harmonic force F(t)= Fo~ j~' and after a few
moments the solution to equation I reduces to [2]:
x(t) = Fo e jco._b) (2)

( ( K - Mooz)2 + C 2 ~ Z ) ~
with t a n b = C ~ / ( k - M ~ 2) . Therefore the response to a harmonic force

excitation is also harmonic after a certain time. The velocity is
then:
v(t) = FoCO ej(,~,_b.9o. ) (3)

( ( K - Moo2) 2 + cZo02) 0 s
The transfer function is defined here as the ratio of the velocity

over the force:
u to
'~ ( LO") ( ( K _ / ~ Lo 2) 2 + C 2(.K)2)0, 5 e j(-b*00") (4)
The modulus of the transfer function is a function of uu (Figure 3):
u Lk)
I ~ ( o o ) I= (S)
( ( K - MOO2)2+ C2oo2) 0"5
The maximum value of the modulus is obtained when the denominator is

Copyright minimum. This
by ASTM Int'l (all rights occurs
reserved); Thu Sep when
5 12:03:30ou is equal to the damped natural frequency
EDT 2019
~ d : by
Downloaded/printed
THE WAK TEST 109
LOAD
Fig.1 - The WAK test: Wave Activated Stiffness (K) test.
Ii M I
f f f f, f
Fig. 2 - T h e footing /soil model.
(6)
~ -4--M-E)
The maximum value of I~(c~)l is then:
IFU,= ~ ) (7)
Since C is usually s m a l l c o m p a r e d t o ~J~ a g o o d e s t i m a t e of C is:
I
C- v
(8)
The WAK test is aimed at obtaining the stiffness of the soil. It

can be seen from equation 5 that the slope of the tangent to the origin
of the Iv/FI versus oo curve is the stiffness K. Therefore once this
curve is obtained experimentally one can obtain the soil stiffness K.
K= =2~ (9)
at the orioin at the orloi.
OBTAINING THE Iv/Fi VERSUS oo CURVE
Experimentally this process is relatively simple. It consist of

using a 1500 dollar (1988) instrumented sledge hammer (most of the cost
is in the dynamic load cell), two I00 dollar (1988) geophones and a
microcomputer with a data acquisition board and a Fast Fourier Transform
software package for 5000 dollars (1988),
The geophones are placed symmetrically with respect to the center

of gravity of the weight. The sledge hammer is used to hit the weight
close to its center of gravity. The force-time signal of the dynamic
load cell on the hammer and the velocity-time signal given by the
geophones are recorded.
The signals recorded for the velocity and the force are a function
of time. Yet the modulus of the transfer function lo/Fl is a function
of oo , The Fourier Transform technique [3] is used to go from the
time domain to the frequency domain and allows to obtain the transfer
function. This technique is described in some details in [3].
The stiffness of the soil can be obtained from the tangent to the
origin of the transfer function curve as mentioned earlier (Figure 3).
However a more reliable technique consists of curve fitting the transfer
function. This curve fitting technique allows to obtain not only the
stiffness K but also the damping C and the mass M, The curve fitting
technique is described later.
EXPERIMENTAL DATA
A first experiment was performed while the first author was on

Copyright sabbatical leave
by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); at the
Thu Sep Laboratoire
5 12:03:30 EDT 2019 Central des Ponts et Chaussees in
France.
Downloaded/printed by The details are presented in [3] and are summarized here. A
0.3 m x 0.3 m x 0.3 m concrete block was placed on a 0.55 m thick bed
of loose dry sand. Geophones were placed on the weight (concrete block)
THE WAK TEST 111
x x x x MEASURED CURVE: CYCLIC TESTS

- - MEASURED CURVE: IMPACT TEST
.... ADJUSTED THEORETICAL CURVE
A CURVE K - 107 N/m

V I~ FITTING M " 64 ks j
~ RESULTS C " 2.4 x i0 N/m/s
(10-4mls/N)
I I*, SLOPE K = Lvu. x 29 - i0 Nlm
-oo ,o-
.,,~-~"~'~,. , , , ' .!_ ' -~-

8 5~ 18~ 150 ~u~
8
FREQUENCY (Hz)
Fig.3 - Measured Transfer Function and Stiffness Calculation.
16
12
Kimpac~est: (kN/mm) .
/ I i I I" I I I I '
0 4 8 12 16
Fig.4 - Comparision of the Stiffness obtained with the
Impact Tests and with the Monotonic Test.
which was hit with an instrumented mini sledge hammer. The signals
were recorded, then analyzed and gave the soil stiffness as predicted
by the impact test, K~mpo=, t,,t 9 A static load test was also performed
on the weight and gave the soil stiffness as predicted by the static
load test, K~=o~ ,,,t 9 Figure 4 shows the comparison; the two stiffnesses
match reasonably well.
A second set of experiments were carried out at Texas A&MUniversity.

Whereas the first experiment was carried out in the laboratory, the
second set of experiments were carried out in the field with more
rudimentary equipment. Two weights were tested; the smaller one was
1.5 m x I m x 0.3 m and the larger one was 3.3 m x 1.5 m x i.I m
(approximate dimensions). They will be referred to as the small mass
and the large mass in the rest of this article.
Figure 5 shows the force-time signal due to the sledge hammer

impact. The two signals are plotted on the same graph for convenience.
Note that with a 53 N sledge hammer one can generate a peak dynamic
force of 23000 N. In this case the mean deceleration of the hammer
head during the impact is 430 g, where g is the acceleration due to
gravity. Note also that the sledge hammer is simply swung by a person.
Such a procedure does not generate a standard dynamic force. This is
of no consequence however because the geophones record the velocity
response to whatever the input force is and because it is the ratio
of the velocity over the force which leads to the stiffness.
Figure 6 shows the velocity-time signal for the two masses. The
response is very damped with very little vibrations; this is probably
due to the high internal damping on the stiff clay and the very high
geometric damping since all the input energy radiates in the half space.
A much smaller damping was observed in the laboratory because of the
low internal damping of the dry sand and the low geometric damping due
to the fact that the sand was in a finite container (1.5 m x 1.5 m x
0.55 m). Indeed in the case of the laboratory experiment the waves
will bounce back on the wall and the energy will not dissipate as
readily. The other important observation is the noise which is obvious
on the velocity signal. Indeed this signal is not as smooth as it
could be.
Figures 7 and 8 show the transfer functions for the small and the
large mass respectively. These transfer functions which are obtained
from field experiments are not as smooth as the transfer function which
was obtained in the laboratory experiment [2]. The following parametric
study was undertaken to study the reasons for the difference.
PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS
The influence of the following factors was studied numerically:

stiffness K, mass M, damping C, noise content. The reference parameters
were K = I 0 7 N / m , M =64kg,C =2400N/m/s . T h e impact used had a peak
force of 2200 N and lasted 0.02 seconds.
Figure 9 shows the response to two impacts: one for the reference
stiffness of 1 0 7 N / m and one for a stiffness of l O a N / m . As can be
seen on Figure i0 the transfer function is very sensitive to the
Copyrightstiffness
by ASTM Int'l (all rights
K. reserved); Thu Sep 5 12:03:30
The ratio of the EDT initial
2019 tangent of the transfer function
for the first case to the one for the second case is i0 which matches
THE WAK TEST 1 13
25000
20000 -
LARC~: MASS
(RIVEESIDE
CAIUS)
150OO -
i,i
L.)
O_
o 10000 SMALL ~ S S
(IN FRONT
OF CE
BUI~ING)
5000
I I I I I I I I I I
0.02 o.o4 0.06 0.08 olo o.12 o.~4 o.16 o,8 0.20
TIME (S)
Fig.5 - Force - Time Signals.
0.6-
0.4-
0.2
LARGE MASS ~ SHALL MASS
0.0
0
>.. -0.2
5
O
.j -0.4
hi
>
-0.6
-0.8
-1.0 i" I" T 1 1[ i[ ,{ 1- 1

0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20
TIME (S)
Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); Thu Sep
F i g5 .12:03:30
6 - EDT
V e 2019
locity - Time Signals.
0.000004
K - 3 , 9 x 107 N/m
. - z123 kg
C - 215965 N / m / s
O.OO0003 D - 51.6 Z
t.n
0.000002-
>
0.000001
0,000000 I I I I I I J I I
20 40 60 80 1O0 120 140 160 180 200
FREQUENCY ( H z )
Fig.7 - Transfer Function for the Small Mass.
0.0006
K = 4 . 0 5 x 10 8 N/m
"% H'8878 kg
0.0005 -
%
K
0.0004- -
z
3E 0.0005
l
v
i,
>
0.0002
0.0001
0.OOO0 I l I ! I I I I I
20 r 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
FREQUENCY (HZ)
Fig.8 - Transfer Function for the Large Mass.
THE W A K TEST 1 15
0.02 -
VELOCITY SIGNAL
K = 10 7 N/m
0.01 M = 3 2 kg
M ~ 64 k g
~-~
(/1 0.00
>"
I-.-
-.01
o
0
_,.I
la.l
> -.02
-.05
-.04
1 I f T T
0.00 0.05 010 0.1s 0.20 0.25 0.30
TIME (S)
Flg.9 - Influence of the Stiffness on the Results.
0.00005
TRANSFER FUNCTION
M = 64 kg M ~ 32 kg K = 107 N/m
0.00004,
0.00003-
0.00002-
>
0.00001
0.00000 I l J I J 1 ! | I J ~ l
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240
FREQUENCY (Hz)
Fig.
Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights 10 Thu
reserved); - Sep
I n f5 l u e n cEDT
12:03:30 e 2019
of t h e S t i f f n e s s o n t h e R e s u l t s .
the ratio of the stiffnesses. This is due to the fact that the slope
of the initial tangent is I/K as shown earlier (Equation 9). Note
that on Figure I0 the frequency scale represents f and n o t ~ ( ~ 2 ~ f ) .
Figure Ii shows the response to two impacts: one for the reference
mass of 64 kg, one for a mass of 32 kg. As can be seen on the transfer
functions (Figure 12) the larger mass leads to a lower resonant frequency
and lower content in high frequencies.
Figure 13 shows the response to three impacts: one for the reference
damping of 2400 N/m/s, one for a damping of 1200 N/m/s and one for a
damping of 24000 N/m/s. The velocity signal shows that an increase
in damping reduces the number of oscillations. Very few oscillations
and therefore h l g h d a m p i n g was observed in the field tests. The transfer
functions (Figure 14) show that an increased damping decreases the peak
value without changing the resonant frequency by much. Equation 8 can
be verified on this example.
Figure 15 shows the response to two impacts: one with noise in the
velocity signal and one without noise in the velocity signal. As can
be seen on the transfer function (Figure 16) the effect of the
artificially created noise is twofold: I) it makes the transfer function
start from a nonzero ordinate and 2) it creates some post-peak undu-
lations. Another numerical simulation showed that such post-peak
undulations are generated when the recording of the velocity signal
is stopped before the end of the free vibrations. Indeed in this case
some frequencies are missing in the response.
This parametric analysis has allowed to explain the features of
the transfer functions obtained in the field and leads to the following
comments. The noise level is an important factor and must be decreased
to a minimum in order to obtain quality data in the field. The damping
in the field experiment is high. Obtaining the stiffness K from the
initial tangent to the transfer function is not a reliable means of
obtaining K and a curve fitting technique must be used.
PROPOSED CURVE FITTING TECHNIQUE AND STIFFNESS DETERMINATION
It is observed from the transfer functions obtained in the field

and in the parametric analysis that the portion of the curve which is
the least affected by the ambient noise is around the peak value and
in particular the post-peak part of the curve close to the peak. Use
is made of this part of the curve as follows.
First, the peak point is used to obtain the damping C (Equation

7):
I
C= (10)
i Jo.
This requires that (Equation 7),
C << K M (1 1 )
and this condition must be verified. Second, the peak point is also
Copyrightuby
s eASTM
d t Int'l
o (all
o brights
t a i nreserved);
a rThue l aSep
t i o5n12:03:30
b eEDT
t w e2019
en K and M (Equation 6):
THE WAK TEST 1 17
0,03
VELOCIT~ ~IGNAL H - 6/~ kg

C 9 2~00 N t = / s
O,O2 -
K - 10 7 N/= K - [ 0 8 I,l/m
"to
" 0.01
>"
t--
0.00
c.)
0
bJ
> -,01
-.02
-.03 i I " I .... I " I '"1 . . . . . I " I ..... r i i

0,16 0.18 0.20 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.28 0,30 0.32 0.34 0.36 0.38
T,ME (s)
Fig. ll - I n f l u e n c e of the M a s s on the R e s u l t s
0.00005
TRANSFER FUNC~ ION
K ~ l.O x 10 7 N/m__ K - 1.0 x I0 ~ N/m
M" 64 kg
z
0.00003-
~. 0.00002-
>
0.00001
0.00000
20 40 60 80 100 120 14-0 160 180 200 220 24-0
FREQUENCY (Hz)
F i g . 1Thu
Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); 2 Sep
- I n f l u eEDT
5 12:03:30 n c e2019of the M a s s on the R e s u l t s .
0.04 T
VELOCITY SIGNAL
M " 64 kg
C = 2400 N t m / s
K " 10 7 N/m
0.01 C = 24000 N/mls
0.00
L~ --.01
>
--.02 -
--.03
-.04 [ T T F I---
0.1 0.2 0.5 0.4 0.5
0.0
TIME (S)
Fig.13 - Influence of the D a m p i n g on the Results.
0.0005
C - 2400 N / m / s ~RA~SF~R FUNCTION

0.0004
M - 64 kg
K - 107 N/m
x 0.0003
ch
0.0002
>
= 12000 N/m/s
0.0001
0.0000 , l , , , I I I I
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250
FREQUENCY(Hz)
Fig. 14 - Influence of the Damping on the Results.

THE WAK TEST 1 19
0.02
VELOCITY SIGNALS
WITH
0.0t NOISE WITHOVr

/~/ K - ]0. 7 N/m
NOISE
M " 64 k S
C = 2400 N/m/s
(.o
-.~ 0.00
>.-
F.-.-
0_J -.01
'Vt
LIJ
>
-.02
-.03 l f i i i '~ i
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 O12 0.~r 0.~6 0.18
TIME (S)
Fig.15 - Influence of N o i s e on the Results.
0.00005
TRANSFER FUNCTION
~
WITHOUT NOISE
0.00004 - K = 107 N / =
f-~.
z
0.00003
0.00002
>
0.00001
0.00000 I I I 810 I I I I I I I I
20 40 eo 100 120 t40 ~60 180 200 220 240
FREQUENCY (Hz)
Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved);

F i gThu
. Sep
1 6 5 -12:03:30
I n f l EDT
u e n 2019
ce of Noise on the Results,
This requires that (Equation 6)
16KM- 4Ca) ~
16KM_3Cz j 1 (13)
and this condition must be verified. Third, a point on the post-peak

part of the curve but fairly close to the peak is selected. For this
point B (Equation 5):
I-~la t~ (14)
((K- M~l)2+ C~ ~B)2 o.5
Combining Equation 12 and Equation 14 leads to:

0.5
I
M= ~ - (,5)
t,
then Equation 12 gives K. The damping ratio is then given by:
C
D=- - (16)
~[KM
Once K, M, and C are known the curve corresponding to equation 5
represents the regression curve for that test. These curves are shown
on Figures 7 and 8 together with the experimental transfer function
and the backfigured values of K, M, C, and D for the two field tests
which were performed.
The following is an example of how to calculate the stiffness by

hand. Note that this technique is not recommended because the precision
required for the coordinates of the points on the transfer function
can only be obtained electronically. Indeed slight errors in the
coordinates can change the calculated stiffness drastically. Consider
the large mass of Figures 5, 6, and 8. In order to use Equation I0,
the coordinates of the peak point A on the transfer function curve are
determined electronically (Figure 8).
v rrn/s
fn=34Hz;IF IA=S'747x10- N
A second point B is selected as shown on Figure 8. The coordinates

are
/'~ = 4 9 H z ; I v_7I= 4 . 4 5 6 x 10 - r m / s
/- N
Therefore Equation I0 gives:
C = ~-- ~ 1739829
I~'1 s
THE WAK TEST 121
The circular frequencies are then obtained:
h/4 = 3 4 x 2 ~ = 213.63 rd/s
V~=49x2~=307.87 rd/s
Equation 15 leads to:
M=
(( 307.87 )2 z
4.4S~6x10_ z -(1739829) x-(307.87)
z) 0.5 ]
x(307.87)2 (213.63) 2
M = 8879.67kg
Then Equation 12 gives the stiffness K:
K = 8 8 7 9 . 6 7 x ( 2 1 3 . 6 3 ) z= 4 . 0 S x l O S N / m
Equations ii and 13 need to be verified:
C << K M ;1739829 << 4.05x 108x8879.67 OK
-4C ' r5.754 10' -1.211 10'"

(IKM
16KM-3c 2) =0.968 OK
CONCLUSIONS
A test called the WAK test is proposed in order to check the

increase in soil stiffness brought about by dynamic compaction (D.C.).
The WAK test consists of placing two geophones on the D.C. mass after
it has been dropped by the crane and hitting the mass with an instrumented
sledge hammer. The force-time and velocity-time signals are recorded.
The Fourier Transform analysis gives the stiffness of the soil under
the mass. The test is very fast and can be used as a quality control
test on dynamic compaction jobs.
The small scale laboratory experiment showed that the stiffness
obtained by the WAK test and the stiffness obtained by the static load
test matched reasonably well. The large scale field experiment showed
that the noise in the signal influences the results and that the damping
in the field is relatively high. A curve fitting technique is proposed
to circumvent the influence of the noise. All measured data was found
to be consistent with the trends indicated by a parametric analysis.
This WAK test can be used on any soil, fill or even rock. The
depth of influence for the WAK test is argued to be similar to the one
involved in the dynamic compaction process simply because the two
processes are dynamic tests with one generating much smaller strains
than the other. As such the WAK test can be used to check the stiffness
improvement
(UDESC) brought
Universidade do Estado about
de Santa Catarina by Universidade
((UDESC) dynamicdo Estado
compaction.
de Santa Catarina) pursuant to License Agreement. No further reproductions authorize
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study was started while the first author was on sabbatical
leave at the LCPC in France. The results of this follow-up work were
sponsored by the Texas Engineering Experiment Station and by AMOCO.
Dr. Richardson of TEES and Mr. Funegard of AMOCO are thanked for their
support.
REFERENCES
[I] Clough, R.W. and Penzien, J., Dvnamics of Structures, McGraw-Hill

Book Company, 1975.
[2] Briaud, J.-L., Liu, M.-L., and Lepert, Ph., "Impact Method to Find
Soil Stiffness Under a Rigid Mass," Research Report to AMOCO, Civil
Engineering, Texas A&M University, 1990.
[3] Brigham, E.O., The Fast Fourier Transform, Prentice Hall, 1974.
Yalcin B. Acar, Roger K. Seals, and Anand J. Puppala
ENGINEERING AND COMPACTION CHARACTERISTICS OF BOILER SLAG
REFERENCE: Acar, Y. B., Seals, R. K., and Puppala, A. J., "Engineering

and Compaction Characteristics of Boiler Slag,"Geotechnics of Waste Fills -
Theory and Practice, ASTM, STP 1070, Arvid Landva, G. David Knowles,
Editors, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, 1990.
ABSTRACT: Engineering and compaction characteristics of boiler slag are

presented. Laboratory and field compaction tests are conducted in
assessment of these characteristics. Field tests are conducted on a slag fill
of 0.92 m (3 ft) in thickness. A smooth drum vibratory roller 56 kN
(12.5 kips) is used for compaction. The densification is evaluated after 2, 4,
6, 10 and 16 passes of this roller. A methodology is presented for estimating
the lift thickness and the number of passes required for a desired level of
densification.
KEYWORDS: compaction, slag, lift thickness, roller pass, friction angle,

cohesion intercept, relative density, and specific gravity.
INTRODUCTION
Many regions in the United States and the world are facing a severe shortage of
natural aggregates. The significant increase in the cost of aggregate processing and
handling operations necessitates studies to locate and evaluate the engineering
characteristics of various types of synthetic aggregates such as flyash, slag and boiler
slag [1].
A by-product of the power generation industry, boiler slag, has been used in a
variety of applications in West Virginia, Maryland and Florida, as filter material, structural
fill, roofing shingles, roadbeds, embankments and sandblasting grit. In other
applications, when mixed with sand, it has been reported to produce a road surface with
improved skid resistance [2,3].
This paper presents the results of laboratory studies and field compaction tests
conducted to evaluate the engineering and field compaction characteristics of boiler slag
Drs. Acar and Seals and Mr. Puppala are, respectively, Associate Professor,
Professor, and Graduate Research Assistant, Department of Civil Engineering, Louisiana
State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803.
(UDESC) Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina ((UDESC) Universidade do123

produced as a by-product of the synthetic gas generation by the Dow Chemical

Company in Plaquemine, Louisiana.
NATURE AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Boiler slag is one portion of the inorganic residue that is produced when coal is
burned in a furnace at temperatures between 2500~ to 3100~ (1301~ to 1704~
It is produced either in wet bottom (slag tap) or cyclone boilers. The fundamental
difference between the two boilers is that crushed coal is burned in the cyclone boiler,
while pulverized coal is burned in the wet bottom boiler. The slag constitutes 70 to
80 percent of the total ash produced in a cyclone boiler, while this quantity decreases
to 40 to 50 percent in a wet bottom boiler. The molten slag flows out from the furnace
into cold water and crystallizes, solidifies and forms angular, black, glassy particles.
Plate 1 presents a view of the slag used in this study. The needle-like long (I/4 in. to
3/8 in.) crystallized particles are common to boiler slags.
It is estimated that 25 percent of all power plant ash produced in the USA is boiler
slag, 65 percent is flyash and 10 percent is dry bottom ash and cinders [2]. In recent
years, its use is getting more common as construction material. However, national
utilization still lags production rate.
The typical chemical analysis of the Dow gasifier slag is presented in Table 1.
The principal constituent is silica as in sand. The U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, RCRA toxicity tests on evaluation of Dow gasifier slag and other slags
produced from Western (Peabody), Ohio and Kentucky coals indicate that barium is the
only heavy metal detectable and only at levels (0.02 to 0.5 ppm) much below the
specified standard (100 ppm) [2]. As a consequence, the Louisiana Department of
Environmental Quality has declassified this material from the list of potentially
hazardous wastes. In addition, the State of Maryland has classified it as a natural
resource. Therefore, this material should be considered as a valuable resource rather
than a waste. However, the effects of post-construction changes in the environment
should be carefully evaluated.
PHYSICAL AND ENGINEERING CHARACTERISTICS
Representative samples each weighing approximately 27 kg (60 Ib) were collected

from five different stockpiles at the Plaquemine facility of Dow Chemical Company.
These samples were tagged as 1,3, 4, 18, 19 in sequence with their production cycles.
Tests were conducted to assess the physical and engineering characteristics of

the material and provide values that could be used in evaluating the factors which
influence construction and performance of a structural fill. All tests were conducted in
accordance with applicable ASTM standards.
Specific Gravity
Table 2 compares the specific gravity values determined for the selected samples
of each pile with values reported in previous studies for other slags. The samples from
pile 1 and pile 3 had relatively low values of specific gravity. However, such variations
are expected
Downloaded/printed by due to variability in chemical composition and friable material content.
BOILER SLAG CHARACTERISTICS 125
PLATE 1 -- General view of slag used in the study.
TABLE 1 -- Chemical Constituents of Dow Gasifier Slag
Constituent Amount (%) Amount (%)

Dow Gasifer Slag Power Plant
Bottom Ash Slag
Silica, SiO 2 48.8 46 - 54

Alumina, At203 20.2 22 - 28
Ferric Oxide, Fe203 9.6 6 - 14
Calcium Oxide, CaO 15.8 0.4 - 1.4
Magnesium Oxide, MgO 3.9 4 -5
Sulphur Trioxide, SO 3 0.8 N.R.*
Titanium Dioxide, TiO 2 0.8 N.R.
Sodium Oxide, Na20 0.1 0.7 - 1.2
*N.R. - not reported.
It has been reported that the specific gravity of solids decreases with an increase in
friable particle content [1]. The production process is also expected to affect the
specific gravity.
TABLE 2 -- Specific Gravity of Solids for Selected

Boiler Slags
Source Specific Gravity

of Solids (GS)
Kammer [1] 2.72

Muskingham [1] 2.47
Willow Island [1] 2.61
Dow
Pile 1 2.63
Pile 3 2.53
Pile 4 2.76
Pile 18 2.73
Pile 19 2.74
Downloaded/printed by FIG. 1 -- Grain size distribution of slag.
Grain Size Distribution
The quantitative determination of distribution of particle sizes of the slag was

conducted separately using dry sieving procedures [4]. The variation of grain size
distribution for the Dow slag samples are compared with other slags in Figure 1. The
boiler slag is uniform and most of the material is retained on No. 10 (2 mm) to No. 20
(0.85 mm) sieves. The uniformity coefficient, C ' and concavity coefficient ' CC ' values
were found to vary between 2.8 to 3.5 and 1~ to 1.8, respectively. The slag can
therefore be described as a poorly graded medium to fine granular material with
angular, glassy particles and is classified as SP according to the Unified Soil
Classification System. The grain size distribution for the Dow slag is within the ranges
reported for other electric generating coal boiler slags [2,5].
Proctor Compaction Tests
The relationship between the moisture content and dry density of soils was
determined on samples collected from pile 19, using standard and modified Proctor
compaction tests (ASTM D-698 and D-1557, respectively) [6,7].
The moisture content-dry density relationship of the slag is shown in Figure 2.

Over the range of moisture contents considered, the highest densities were obtained
when the water content was very high (approaching saturation).
Table 3 compares the maximum dry density and optimum moisture content for
this boiler slag with others. It is noted that the Dow slag has a higher maximum dry
density possibly due to variations in grain size distributions. High energy input may
lead to particle breakdown or degradation in the slag. Thus, sieve analyses were
performed both before and after the standard and modified Proctor compaction tests
to describe the possible effect of degradation. The degradation of the slag was
insignificant in case of the standard Proctor compaction test. However, it was
significant when the compactive effort was increased beyond that of the standard
Proctor test [8]. It is then envisioned that higher compactive efforts in the field may
change the grain size distribution, maximum dry density and hence the maximum and
minimum void ratios.
Maximum and Minimum Void Ratios
1. Maximum Void Ratio - Minimum Index Dry Density
All boiler slag particles pass a 3/4 inch (19 mm) sieve. Therefore, ASTM D4254-
83 [9] Method B was selected to determine the maximum void ratio. The minimum
index dry density and maxj,[num void ratio values corresponding to the Ioosest possible
condition were 14.2 kN/m~' (88.6 pcf) and 0.93, respectively.
2. Minimum Void Ratio - Maximum Index Dry Density
The maximum index dry density may be described as a densified state in which
the soil mass has been densified so as to occupy the least possible volume. The
determination of the maximum possible index dry density and the corresponding value
of the minimum void ratio is often a difficult task. However, it is known that if granular
Copyright by ASTM
soils areInt'l (all rights reserved);
subjected Thu Sep 5 12:03:30
to continuous EDT 2019 vehicular vibration, they will approach such
induced
122 \
2O
18
16 Proctor \,~o/%
tj
{:1_
v
~4~-
>-
t---
Z
LU \\
,~8I
r~
>-
n"
O StandordP ~ \
O2
O0 I I I I I I t I I
12 14 16 18 20 22
MOIS'[URE CONTENT ( %)
FIG. 2 -- Dry density-moisture content relationships.
TABLE 3 -- Standard Proctor Compaction Results for Boiler

Slag
Maximum Dry Optimum Moisture

Source Density Content
(pcf) (%)
Kammer 102.0 13.8

Muskingham 91.1 22.0
Willow Island 92.4 21.0
Dow 109.0 18.5
a state. Impact compaction may be used as an indirect way to evaluate the maximum
index dry density for some soils [10]. This method was used for the slag.
The maximum index dry density was determined to be 17.5 kN/m 3 (109.2 pcf)
from the standard Proctor test. The corresponding void ratio for this dry density value
is 0.57. The maximum dry density and t~e corresponding value of the minimum void
ratio were determined to be 19.4 kN/m ~' and 0.41, respectively, with the modified
Proctor test. It is noted that this 19.4 kN/m 3 (121.1 pcf) may be taken as the maximum
density only if there were no particle degradations during compaction.
The sieve analysis conducted before and after the standard and modified Proctor
compaction tests indicated that the higher energy resulted in a significant amount of
degradation in the slag when the energy is increased beyond that of standard Proctor
[5].
Therefore 7 the actual value of minimum void ratio J e I_I I i_I I ' should be lower than
what is determined from the standard Proctor test, but be somewhat higher than that
obtained from the modified Proctor test. In order to establish emi n, a study was
conducted where the energy of compaction was varied. First, the hammer used in
standard Proctor test was dropped from 2 in: and the number of layers was varied from
one to six. Figure^3(a) indicates that 4 lifts would provide the optimum lift height for
emi n in the 1/30 ft a standard Proctor mold. Subsequently, keeping the number of lifts
as 4, the number of blows were increased. Figure 3(b) indicates that emi n decreases
to 0.51 with further increase in the number of blows.
The density value of 18.1 kN/m 3 (113.2 pcf) and 0.51 may be interpreted to be
the values of maximum index dry density and the minimum void ratio of the
undergraded boiler slag.
Compressibility
One-dimensional compression tests were carried out as per the procedures of

ASTM D2435-80 [11] with normal loads ranging from 50 to 400 kPa on specimens of
8 cm (3 in.) diameter and 1.9 cm (0.75 in.) thick. Specimen was prepared at a relative
density of 50 percent. The compression index, C c, for the Dow slag was calculated to
be 0.107. This value is considerably higher than the 0.031 value reported for the
Kramer slag [8]. The difference may be attributed to the procedures used in
determining the compressibility. The Dow slag was tested saturated, while the Kramer
slag was reported to be tested under dry conditions.
Shear Stren,qth
The effective angle of internal friction for the boiler slag at different relative
densities was determined by displacement-controlled direct shear tests. Both tangential
force and vertical deformation value were recorded as a function of horizontal dis-
placement up to a total displacement of 5 mm. Tests were conducted at vertical
stresses of 20, 40, 62 and 82 kPa. The tests were performed on specimens with a
relative density values varying from 0 to 66 percent. The density was directly controlled
in the shear box by tamping. Figure 4 presents the failure envelopes and Figure 5
presents the change in friction angle with relative density. It is interesting to note that
thebyslag
Copyright ASTMdisplays
Int'l (all rights both a Thu
reserved); cohesion intercept
Sep 5 12:03:30 EDT 2019 and an angle of internal friction. In addition,
a substantial internal friction angle is mobilized at relatively low densities. This may be
35
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t~ 5
z
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VOID RATIO
to 55 odified Proctor Test

0
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/ Varied
~- 40
i
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VOID RATIO
FIG. 3 -- The effect of compaction effort on void ratio.
attributed to the angular characteristics and the interlocking capability of this material.
For comparison, the values of internal friction angle for other boiler slags are also
summarized in Table 4.
It is quite surprising that a cohesion intercept is indicated in Figure 4. The slag,

being granular and noncohesive, would not be envisioned to display such a charac-
Copyrightteristic.
by ASTM Int'lIt(all
isrights
then hypothesized
reserved); that
Thu Sep 5 12:03:30 EDTthis
2019 display of cohesion intercept may have been
due to:
IO0
I '~ Dr : 0.0 I6 : 30.40

~0 F" 9 Dr : 50% 15 = 5 9 . 4 ~
~
q_ ' ~ Dr=66~176~S: 43"8~ ~ ~
_.~ ~ Dr : Relative Density
I
~6oP
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b
co 4 0 ~-
< ~-
20 ,L
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0L . . . . ~L___ t I I I -- ] I J__
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NORMAL STRESS(kPa)
FIG. 4 -- Failure envelopes.
LU
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RELATIVE DENSITY(%)
FIG. 5 -- Variation of friction angle with relative density.
1. Any moisture in the tested sample leading to suction and a confinement

which is greater than that applied vertically,
2. The reinforcement effect due to the short (2 mm to 2 cm) needle-shaped,

fibrous particles in the slag (Plate 1).
TABLE 4 -- Angles of Internal Friction for Boiler Slag
Source Average Void Angle of

Ratio Internal Friction
(~
Kammer 0.88 41.0

Muskingham 1.33 40.0
Willow Island 1.32 42.0
Dow 0.93 30.4
0.80 39.4
0.65 43.8
175
150
( : : e.r
•:D r i~l ir 9
125
Z
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A x i a l S l r e s s : 19.4 k P a
0 l i ! /
4
HORIZONTAL DISPLACEMENT(ram)
IO0
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u~
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IT
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NORMAL STRESS (kP0}
FIG. 6 -- Influence of saturation effect on shear force-

Downloaded/printed by displacement behavior and failure envelope.
In order to test these hypotheses, a series of tests were conducted:
1. samples were first saturated and then tested and
2. tests were conducted after removing the fibers longer than 1 cm.
Figure 6 shows the effect of saturation on the shear force-displacement behavior

and the failure envelope for the slag. The test was performed on slag samples at a
relative density of 30 percent. It is noted that the cohesion intercept was somewhat
reduced.
Figure 7 presents the influence of the fibrous particles on the shear force-
displacement behavior and the failure envelope. This test was performed at a relative
density of 66%. The figure depicts the decrease in strength due to removal of the
fibers. When the slag material is sheared in the direct shear box, it tends to dilate (the
amount of dilation is dependent upon its relative density and confining stress). The
friction mobilized at the slag-fiber interfaces restrains any relative displacement
between the slag particles and the fibers. Consequently, tensional forces are
developed on the fibers. These forces increase the average normal stress on the
failure surface and reduce the average shear stress carried by the soil. Thus, it is
believed that the fibers are the main sources of the cohesion intercept and as a
consequence, the higher shear resistance of the slag. Parallel displacement of shear
envelopes suggests that the fibers do not affect the frictional properties of the slag.
The existence of the fibrous particles will improve the characteristics of the slag.
In general, the fibrous particles restrain the volume expansion and provide an
interlocking effect to the slag mass. This, in return, leads to the emergence of the
cohesion intercept. The critical state diagram obtained from the volume changes in the
direct shear test is presented in Figure 8. The slag displays similar characteristics as
that of coarse, angular sands.
FIELD TESTS
Procedure
A field study was conducted to assess the field compaction characteristics. Since
the gradation of the slag is similar to that of granular soils, a smooth drum vibratory
roller (Galion Model 490012) was selected for compaction. The dead weight of this
roller was 56 kN (12.4 kips). The roller can be operated at a frequency of 1800 vib/min
and the additional equivalent static weight at this frequency was 27 kN (6.1 kips). The
following procedure was used:
1. The slag was spread in an area 30.5 m (100 ft) by 6.1 m (20 ff). A 0.61
m (2 ft) thick base layer was compacted by ten passes of the roller over
the existing vegetation. No stripping was done since the vegetation would
help confine the slag and facilitate compaction. The subgrade consists of
clay, silty clay and some silt.
175
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,~,~ o--4 Slog with
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Void R~,iio 0 6 5 =
' Relative Density = 6 6 %

-- Its A x i a l .Str = 19.4 k P ~
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i' i i l
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HORIZONTAL DISPLACEMENT(rnm)
i O O [
~J
-'~ 8 0 F e--..~ S l a g with
t Reduced f i b e r s
h, 20 i./.S55-
(/9
0 L I i ; L ] I
0 20 40 60 80
NORMAL STRESS (kPa)
FIG. 7 -- The effect of fibrous particles on force-displacement

behavior and failure envelope.
. A 0.92 m (3 ft) thick layer of slag was placed over the base layer with a
dozer. In-situ density tests were conducted in this fill in a zone excluding
the outer 1.53 m (5 ft). This eliminates any boundary effects due to the
sloping sides.
3. The fill was wetted with water to achieve as high a water content as
permitted but below the saturation level and was compacted with two
passes of the roller. Density tests were conducted at randomly selected
locations
Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights by Sep
reserved); Thu using a random
5 12:03:30 EDT 2019 number generator in a hand-held calculator.
\
\
\
\
\
\
i.O \
\
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0 I \
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~" o I g L Dilating "~
I
o3- I-!
o.8F
t
0.7 i i
0 20 4O 60 80 I00
CONFINING PRESSURE (kPo)
FIG. 8 -- Critical state diagram for slag.
X OFFSET (ft)
0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 I0 If 12 I5 t4 15
0
o 0 2
6 i
~0
IO q
1
,/jy,~ Number of Passes !
8o L ,6 I
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F I G 9 -- Location of tests.
4. The fill was sequentially recompacted by additional number of passes.

The total roller passes were 2, 4, 6, 10 and 16. The density tests were
repeated after each phase as described above.
The locations of all tests and a schematic view of the test pad are presented in
Figure 9. It is noted that the tests scatter diagonally across the fill. This was due to
using the same random number in scaling the test location in both horizontal and
vertical directions.
The weather conditions were dry during the time when the first 10 passes were
completed. However, there was a heavy rain after the 10th pass. Rolling for the last
phase (16 passes) was done immediately after this rain.
The sand-cone method [12] was used to determine the insitu density. Tests were
conducted at depths of 10 cm (3.9 in.), 25 cm (9.8 in.) and 45 cm (17.7 in.). When the
total number of passes were 10, the last test depth was changed to 50 cm (19.6 in.)
and another was added at 70 cm (27.6 in.).
Grain size distributions [13] and minimum density tests [9] were conducted on
samples of slag collected from the fill after 16 passes of the roller. Grain size
distributions before and after compaction did not indicate any difference. This implies
that there was not a significant crushing of the particles due to compaction, as was
observed in the Standard Proctor laboratory compaction tests.
The minimum density tests indicated a density of 14.3 to 14.4 kN/m 3 (89.1 pcf to
89.6 pcf) as compared with 14.2 kN/m ~' (88.9 pcf) in the uncompacted specimens.
These results compared favorably with previous test results [5,14]. It was therefore
concluded that compaction with 16 passes of the roller did not result in a change in the
grain size distribution and minimum density of the slag.
Analysis
Field dry density values are plotted along the depth of the fill for each compaction
sequence. A smooth curve is passed through the mean values. Figure 10 compares
this line passing through mean values of field density after each phase of compaction
with the range of initial field densities. As expected, the number of passes increases
the compaction results in densification at increasingly greater depths.
The effective depth of densification, h e, is defined as that depth below which a

specified relative density cannot be achieved. For example, for a relative density of
50 percent, the effective densification depth increased from 12 cm (5 in.) to almost
55 cm (22 in.) with an increase in the number of passes from 2 to 16.
The relative density, D r , of granular soils such as sand is the principal parameter
that controls the angle of internal friction, ~', and, therefore, the shearing resistance.
Such soils are conventionally classified as [15]:
I. Very loose, D r < 15%, ~' ~ 28 ~
2. Loose, 1 5 % < D r < 3 5 % , 2 8 ~ ~

Downloaded/printed3.
by Medium, 35% < D r < 65%, 30 ~ < ~' _<36 ~
FIG. 10 -- Dry density versus depth in field tests.
FIG.
Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights 11 Thu
reserved); -- The influence
Sep 5 12:03:30 of number of passes on the
EDT 2019
effective depth of densification.
4. Dense, 6 5 % < D r < 8 5 % , 3 6 ~ ~
5. Very dense, Dr > 8 5 % , ~'>41~
The internal friction angle for the slag is 30 ~ in its Ioosest state (D r ~ 0 % ) [5].
Therefore, even in its Ioosest condition, slag has a higher internal frictio~ angle than
typical sands because of its interlocking capability. This loose state corresponds to
medium dense conditions in sands. Even though the slag would generally exhibit a
higher angle of internal friction than sand at a comparative relative density value, it may
require more shear and volumetric strain to fully mobilize the shearing resistance.
Thus, it is better to require relative density values that will minimize the volume change
potential of the slag and, correspondingly, produce high angles of internal friction.
Figure 11 presents a plot of the effective depth of densification versus the

number of passes. The bands in this figure represent the data within one standard
deviation around the mean. Regions I, II and III defined in the figure represent relative
densities less than 40 percent, between 40 and 60 percent, and greater than
60 percent, respectively. It should be pointed out that relative density values of 40 and
60 percent correspond to relative compaction values of 86 and 90 percent, respectively.
The highest dry density value achieved in the field test, 109 pcf, corresponded to a
relative density of 86 percent and a relative compaction of 96 percent. For most
geotechnical and highway applications, a maximum relative compaction of 98 percent
(D r = 93 percent) would be specified.
It should be noted that relatively high friction angles are readily achieved during
the initial placement of the slag. However, in this state the slag is very
nonhomogeneous. This inhomogeneity may lead to differential settlements of
structures or roads founded upon such uncompacted fills. Therefore, it is
recommended that the slag be densified to relative densities exceeding 60-70 percent
(or relative compactions of 90-93 percent) when used as a base for structural or
pavement loads. The chart given in Figure 11 could readily be used to estimate the
number of passes and the lift thicknesses required to achieve an appropriate relative
density (or relative compaction). This is based on the premise that a roller of similar
design and size would be used. Increased densities could be achieved at greater
depth and with fewer passes using heavier rollers. The effective depth of densification
in this figure can be taken as the maximum lift thickness for the desired level of
densification. For the specific roller utilized in this study, the approximate number of
passes to achieve the indicated relative densities for lift thicknesses of 1 ft and 2 ft are
reported in Table 5.
Since Figure 11 indicates that the number of passes required to achieve a

desirable densification increases exponentially, lift thicknesses of greater than 60 cm
(2 ft) are not recommended unless additional tests verify that adequate compaction can
be achieved.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Boiler slag is a valuable resource. In the last decade, its use as a construction
material has become more common.
TABLE 5 -- Number of Passes Needed for Different Lift

Thicknesses
Number of Passes
Lift
Thickness
(ft) 40% < D r < 60% D r > 60%
(86% < R.C. < 90%) (R.C. > 90%)
1.0 6 12
2.0 10 20*
*Based on extrapolation of test data.
Dow slag studied in this paper is a poorly graded, medium to fine granular
material. The slag displays slight crushing and degradation characteristics in the
modified Proctor test. Compactions with a smooth drum vibratory roller in the field did
not result in any particle degradation in the slag.
Due to its angularity and interlocking capability, the internal friction angle and the
shearing resistance of the slag are higher than expected in similar granular material.
A cohesion intercept is displayed due to the presence of long fibrous slag particles.
Based upon the field compaction studies, the following recommendations are made for
the optimum design and construction procedures for a slag fill:
1. A base should be prepared in construction of a controlled fill using the

slag. This base provides the necessary confinement for proper
compaction of the overlaid slag. A base course of about 30 cm (1 ft)
should be laid over the ground surface and compacted with 16 passes of
the roller,
2. Subsequently, a lift thickness should be selected. Figure 11 should be

used for this purpose. For compactors essentially equivalent to that used
in the field study, a maximum initial lift thickness of 30 cm (12 in.) is
recommended. For this thickness, adequate densification can be achieved
in 8 to 12 passes,
3. The fill should be wetted for efficient densification. This could be

accomplished by wetting the fill with water before rolling. The fill should
be wetted above the optimum water content since bulking at lower water
contents will result in reduced dry densities. However, subgrade softening
associated with such an operation should be considered and adequate
underdrainage should be provided,
4. For temporary roads, multi-purpose fills, and fills with light structural loads
(generally less than 48 kPa), a relative density in the range of 40-
60 percent (relative compaction of 92-96 percent) is recommended,
5. For permanent facilities and heavier structural loads, a relative density of

60 percent (relative compaction of 96 percent) is recommended. If these
facilities involve foundations for reciprocating equipment, a relative density
exceeding 70 percent (relative compaction of 98 percent) should be
specified,
6. The performance of a fill or a structure placed on a fill will be dependent

on the properties of the soils underlying the fill as well as the fill itself.
Thus, an adequate subsurface exploration and laboratory testing program
should be considered an integral part of a slag fill project.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was funded by Dow Chemical Co., Plaquemine, Louisiana. The funds
provided by this company are gratefully acknowledged. Messrs. Laique Haider and
Halis Ider assisted in the laboratory studies pertaining to the engineering characteristics
of the slag. Messrs. Pradeep Kurup and Rainer Echle assisted in the field compaction
study.
REFERENCES
[1] Seals, R. K. and Moulton, L. K., "Bottom Ash - An Engineering Material," Journal
of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Division, ASCE, No. SM4, 1972, pp. 8817.
[2] Dow Chemical Company and Louisiana Gasification Technology, Inc., "Petition
for Exemption of Slag from Section 4.2 of Louisiana Solid Waste Rules and
Regulations," August 1985.
[3] Moulton, L. K., "Utilization of Ash from Coal-Burning Power Plants in Highway
Construction," Highway Research Board 430, Utilization of Waste Materials and
Upgrading of High Quality Aggregates, National Academy of Sciences, 1973.
[4] ASTM D422-63, D2487-85, "Standard Test Method for Classification of Soils for
Engineering Purposes," Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 4, Construction,
1989, pp. 288-298.
[5] Seals, R. K., Ider, H. M. and Acar, Y. B., "Assessment of Optimum Design
Considerations for the Slag Fill Project - Part I. Laboratory Investigation," Report
No. GE86-04, Department of Civil Engineering, Louisiana State University, 1986,
18p.
[6] ASTM D698-78, "Test Methods for Moisture-Density Relations of Soils and Soil-
Aggregate Mixtures Using 5.5 Ib (2.49 kg) Rammer and 12-in (305-mm) Drop,"
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 4, Construction, 1988, pp. 149-153.
[7] ASTM D1557-78, "Test Methods for Moisture-Density Relations of Soils and Soil-
Aggregate Mixtures Using 10 Ib (4.54 kg) Rammer and 18-in (457-mm) Drop,"
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 4, Construction, 1988, pp. 206-210.
[8] Acar, Y. B., Ider, H. and Seals, R. K., "Assessment of Optimum Design
Considerations for the Slag Fill Project - Part 2. Site Reconnaissance Study and
Preliminary Compaction Specifications for the Slag Fill Project," Report No.
GE87-01, Department of Civil Engineering, Louisiana State University, 1987,
23 p.
[9] ASTM D4254-83, "Minimum Density of Soils and Calculation of Relative Density,"
Annual
Copyright by ASTM Book
Int'l (all rights of Thu
reserved); ASTM Standards,
Sep 5 12:03:30 EDT 2019 Vol. 4, Construction, 1989, pp. 572-578.
[10] ASTM D4253-83, "Test Methods for Maximum Index Density of Soils Using a
Vibratory Table," Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 4, Construction, 1988,
pp. 554-565.
[11] ASTM D2435-80, "Test Method for One-Dimensional Consolidation Properties of
Soils," Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 4, Construction, 1988, pp. 278-282.
[12] ASTM D1556-82, "Density of Soil in Place by the Sand-Cone Method," Annual
Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 4, Construction, 1989, pp. 206-210.
[13] ASTM D2487-85, "Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes," Annual Book
of ASTM Standards, Vol. 4, Construction, 1988, pp. 283-292.
[14] Seals, R. K., Acar, Y. B. and Puppala, A., "Assessment of Optimum Design
Considerations for the Slag Fill Project - Part 3. Laboratory Calibration Studies
with the Dynamic Penetrometer, Department of Civil Engineering, Louisiana State
University, 1988, 21 p.
[15] Gibbs, H. J. and Holtz, W. G., "Research on Determining the Density of Sands
by Spoon Penetration Testing," 4th ICSMFE, Vol. 1, 1957, p. 35.
Michael C.R. Davies
THE GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF CEMENTED COLLIERY WASTE FOR USE IN

LAND FILL
REFERENCE: Davies, M.C.R., "The Geotechnical Properties of

Cemented Colliery Waste for Use in Land fill". Geotechnics of
Waste fills - Theory and Practice, ASTM STP 1070, Arvid
Landva, G. David Knowles, Ed., American Society for Testing
and Materials, Philadelphia, 1990.
ABSTRACT: The reject resulting from the reworking of colliery

waste tips may be utilised for landfill. When the coarser
reject is mixed with the tailings from the washing process the
mixture presents problems for compaction, which may be
alleviated by the addition of cement. A test program was
conducted to characterise the geotechnical properties of the
cemented material. The properties of the tailings were
observed to be governed by the moisture content at which
cement was added and the level of effective stress. The
properties of the mixed spoil varied according to the
proportions of coarse material to tailings. As a result of
the testing program conclusions regarding the acceptability of
cemented colliery waste for use as a fill material can be
made.
KEYWORDS: waste fills, colliery discard, geotechnical

properties, cement stabilization, tailings disposal.
INTRODUCTION
Land reclamation in coal mining areas of the U.K. often

entails the removal of colliery waste tips. These tips, which may
be up to and in some circumstances in excess of a century old,
contain quantities of coal which may be commercially recovered. The
attractiveness of the benefits from coal recovery means that this
process frequently accompanies land reclamation schemes. The
unrecovered material from the tip being used for landfill in the
program of reclamation.
The process of "washing" used in the mining industry for

maximising coal recovery - is used in the "reworking" of colliery
waste tips. This process involves the use of water, vast quantities
of which, polluted with fine particles of coal (smaller than
Dr. Davies is lecturer in Soil Mechanics at University of Wales,

College
Copyright by ofrightsCardiff,
ASTM Int'l (all P.O.
reserved); Thu Sep Box
5 12:03:30 EDT 917,
2019 Cardiff, CF2 IXH, U.K.
142

GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIESOF CEMENTED COLLIERY WASTE 143
approximately 1.0mm), has to be treated prior to disposal.

Environmental considerations require that this water cannot he
disposed of without treatment. It is also necessary to treat the
plant water prior to recycling. Hence techniques have been devised
to separate as much of the water as possible from the waste
material - which is then tipped. Methods of dewatering include
centrifuges, filter presses and deep cone thickeners. The result
of treating contaminated water with such a process results in the
production of a tailings material, the moisture content of which
varies very much with the process adopted and its method of
operation.
The tailings produced from such processes are mixed with the
coarser discard prior to placement as land fill. Despite
dewatering the railings still have a relatively high moisture
content; which can be in excess of the liquid limit. When mixed in
quantity with coarse discard this results in a very wet material
which proves difficult to handle. The technique of increasing the
strength of the tailings by the addition of small quantities of
cement - typically between 2% and 4% by wet weight - prior to
mixing with the coarser material has been adopted in some instances
to alleviate the problems of handling these mixtures [I].
In order to design slopes, highways, excavations and

foundations in the fill material it is necessary to know the effect
of the cement addition on the Geotechnical properties of the
discard. This paper describes a program of laboratory tests to
investigate consolidation, strength and stress-strain
characteristics of specimens of cemented tailings and mixed spoil,
in which the specimens were constitute to represent the typical
extremes of field conditions experienced in the United Kingdom.
COMPOSITION OF REJECT
In the process of coal washing from tips the ratio of

railings to the coarser material in the reject can be highly
variable. Of the material leaving the washery (i.e. coal product
and waste materials) typically some 10% is recoverable coal
product; the remainder of the material leaving the plant being
discard. The discard is of two types (i) coarse discard - which can
constitute between 60% to 80% of all the material leaving the plant
and (ii) tailings - constituting between 10% and 30% of the total.
Therefore, the ratio of tailings to coarse material in the reject
typically varies between 11:89 and 33:67. Hence the "as tipped"
mixture of coarse reject and tailings can be highly variable.
The coarse discard is separated from the plant water in a screening

process; the smallest particle size being retained on the screens
being 1.0mm. Sieve analysis of the coarse material from a number of
plants indicated that 95% of the course material passes the 20mm
sieve - the largest particle size is typically 100mm - and the
material may be classified as a well graded gravel, GW [2]. The
tailings constitutes all the reject material passing the Imm
Copyright screen.
by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); Thu
Depending onSepthe
5 12:03:30 EDT 2019
dewatering technique adopted, the moisture
content (weight of water/weight ofde Santa
(UDESC) Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina ((UDESC) Universidade do Estado dry material),
Catarina) w, of
pursuant to License Agreement. the
tailings can vary between 25% and 66.6%. Classification tests

indicate that typically the LL = 37 and the PL = 18; the material
being a sandy lean clay, CL [2]. When cement is added to the
tailings this is generally mixed with the wet railings in ratios of
between 2:100 and 4:100 (weight of cement:weight of wet tailings)
prior to being mixed with the coarse reject.
TEST PROGRAM
In order to investigate the large variations in grading and

moisture content of colliery reject, two series of tests were
conducted. In the first the effect on the cemented tailings of
variation of the moisture content was investigated, by conducting
consolidation and triaxial tests on specimens of tailings mixed
With cement at the highest and lowest moisture contents
encountered, i.e. 66.6% and 25% respectively, with a control series
of similar experiments conducted on specimens of uncemented
tailings. The second series involved triaxial testing of four
different mixtures of tailings and coarse material. The program
entailed testing specimens which reflected the extremes of moisture
content and mixture of tailings to coarse reject encountered, as
shown in Tables I and 2.
TABLE I -- Tailings tests - specimen identification
Test I.D. (s) Moisture content Cement Test

when mixed, wi, % Type
COND N/A NO C
CONW N/A NO C
CONCD 25.0 YES C
CONCW 66.6 YES C
NI, N2, N3 a N/A NO T

DI, D2, D3 a 25.0 YES T
WI, W2, W3 a 66.6 YES T
c = I-D consolidation, T = 3 No. Triaxial tests

a Confining pressures I - 230 kPa, 2 - 400 kPa and 3 - 600 kPa
TABLE 2 -- Mixture tests - specimen identification
Test I.D. (s) Moisture content Coarse Tailings

when mixed, wi, % % %
ADI, AD2 25.0 89 11

AWl, AW2 26.6 89 11
BDI, BD2 25.0 67 33
BWI, BW2 66.6 67 33
SAMPLE PREPARATION
All specimens were prepared from oven dried material

(obtained from a spoil tip) which had previously been subjected to
a coal recovery process. Comparison of the results of tests
conducted on plant tailings (i.e. undried) and reconstituted dried
tailings have indicated differences in measured engineering
properties (such as strength parameters), but not in the general
pattern of material behaviour. Since the study described herein
was fundamental rather than specific, the effects of drying were
not detrimental to the observations. The tailings specimens were
reconstituted at the required moisture content and cement added
(when specified) at 4% by wet weight. In an industrial context the
moisture content would have been obtained by moisture content
reduction using one of the methods mentioned above. When using a
cone thickener or centrifuge quantities of floeculant are added to
the slurry to accelerate the settle process. Studies have shown
[3] that the presence of flocculant in the doses commonly found in
U.K. coal washeries (typically up to 500 g/tonne) has no measurable
effect on the geotechnical properties of the railings and
consequently none was added to the powered fines and water in the
preparation of the tailings.
The tailings to be mixed with the coarse material for the

mixture tests were prepared using the method described above prior
to mixing with the coarser fraction of the spoil. Specimens were
prepared by compacting the materials in 3 layers, with 27 blows per
layer from a standard 2.5 kg compaction hammer falling through 0.3
m [4], into a specially prepared mould 200mm high and 100mm in
diameter. Following preparation the specimens containing cement
were immersed in a tank of water and permitted to cure for at least
28 days prior to testing.
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Tailings Tests
Consolidation tests: Standard oedometer tests were conducted

following the procedures of B.S. 1377 [4]. The specimens were
100mm diameter and with an initial height of 19mm. The plots of
vertical effective stress v. voids ratio for the tests, Fig. I,
clearly show, in agreement with other studies of cemented railings
[3,5], that the consolidation behaviour of cemented railings is
dominated by the moisture content, w i. Comparison of the curve for
the cemented specimen CONCW (w i = 66.6%) with the results of the
uncemented specimens CONW and COND indicates that during the
initial stages of the tests (i.e. at low stress levels) the change
in voids ratio with increasing vertical stress was lower in the
cemented specimen. Following this initial stage, as the vertical
stress was increased the cemented specimen displayed larger changes
in voids ratio than the uncemented specimens. The curve for the
cemented tailings mixed at the lower moisture content , CONCD (w i =
25%), displays similar behaviour at low stress levels; the volume
change during consolidation of CONCD was lower than that for CONCW
(UDESC)as a result
Universidade do Estado deof Santathe
Catarinalower value do
((UDESC) Universidade ofEstado
w i,de SantaResults for
Catarina) pursuant theAgreement.
to License uncemented
specimens were very typical of natural soils. The plot for CONW
was linear whilst the plot for COND (mixed at the lower moisture
content) tended to the plot of the initially wetter material with
increase in effective vertical stress.
1.6 " x A Test CONCD

o o....o....O~o o B Test CONCW
\ o C Test CON D
~ A D Test CONW
O
, m
\o
O I I I
4
Log O~v.kPo
FIG. I -- Consolidation tests - cemented and uncemented tailings
The results of these one-dimensional consolidation tests

indicate that the presence of cement allows the tailings to sustain
a higher voids ratio than the uncemented material in the range of
stress tested, a condition known as "meta-stability". This
phenomenon has been observed in other artificially bonded and
natural residual soils [6]. Studies of meta-stable soils have
indicated that as consolidation stresses are increased so the
compression curve of the meta-stable soil converges on that of the
completely de-structured, i.e. remoulded, material [6]. Figure I
shows the relative positions of the compression curves for the
cemented and uncemented specimens; from which it can be seen that
the compression curve for the cemented material (CONCW) is
converging on the normal consolidation line for the uncemented
tailings,
Triaxial tests: The results of the triaxial tests,

summarized in Table 3, indicated that the effective stress
parameters are strongly affected by the presence of cement and by
the moisture content at which the cement was added to the tailings.
The values of the effective strength parameters for the W series
show a greater similarity to those of the uncemented tailings than
do the parameters for the D series. Comparison of the values of
theInt'lapparent
Copyright by ASTM cohesion
(all rights reserved); measured
Thu Sep 5 12:03:30 EDT 2019 in each series of tests (Table 3)
reveals that at low levels of effective stress the cemented
GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF CEMENTED COLLIERY WASTE 147
tailings have a greater strength than uncemented tailings; the

tailings mixed with cement at low moisture content having a greater
strength than those mixed at high moisture content.
TABLE 3 -- Results of triaxial tests on tailings
Test I.D. Moisture content Friction Apparent

when mixed, % angle, @' Cohesion, c'
N no cement 37.04 0
W 66.6 38.14 25kPa
D 25.0 45.00 50kPa
A greater understanding of the relationship between strength

and consolidation pressure for the tailings may be obtained by
plotting for each specimen the undrained shear strength against the
consolidation pressure, Fig.2. Results of the tests on the
uncemented material indicate that the uncemented tailings behave
like a normally consolidated frictional soil. It is well
established that for most normally consolidated soils the undrained
shear strength is directly proportional to the effective confining
pressure [ 7 ] . Hence, a straight line may be plotted through the
points obtained from the specimens of uncemented tailings in Fig.2.
For the W series of tests the points plotted for the lowest
confining stress lie above the uncemented strength line. However
the other two tests indicate that the undrained shear strength of
the W series cemented material was of very similar value as the
uncemented material; being consistently slightly lower in strength.
By contrast the results of the D series of tests were significantly
greater than the N and W tests at all stresses.
500 X
X
emented
o W cemented
I-L , ,o5-I
fl I I I l
XD
I I
iii ented
l l l
0 500
Effective confining pressure, kPa
FIG. 2 -- Tailings tests undrained shear strength v.

consolidation
Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); pressure
Thu Sep 5 12:03:30 EDT 2019
The consolidation behaviour of cemented tailings, discussed

above, has indicated that the voids ratio of specimens depends on
the moisture content of the material when mixed. Hence, at the
same effective confining pressure the voids ratio of specimens in
the three series of tests would not have been the same. In
naturally occurring soils the undrained shear strength is a
function of the voids ratio (or if fully drained the moisture
content) hence the interpretation of the triaxial test data may be
best undertaken by considering the moisture content of each of the
specimens following isotropic consolidation.
For naturally occurring, normally consolidated, fully

saturated soils it may be shown [8] that at failure there is a
linear relationship between the moisture content and the natural
log of the mean effective stress. In addition, as has been shown
above, a linear relationship exists between the undrained shear
strength and the effective confining pressure (i.e. mean effective
stress) of the uncemented railings. Hence, if the natural log of
undrained shear strength of the uncemented tailings is plotted v.
the moisture content th6 result will be a linear plot; as displayed
in Fig.3. The Figure shows that at the same values of moisture
content the undrained shear strength of the cemented specimens is
consistently higher than that of the uncemented material. As the
moisture content decreases (i.e. as has been seen from the results
of the consolidation tests, the voids ratio of the cemented
material tends to the voids ratio of the uncemented tailings) the
results would imply that the undrained shear strength of the
cemented railings might be approaching that of the uncemented
railings.
0
0.
tJ
or*
o N uncemented
o W cemented
x D cemented
I i I I I ! I I
0 8O
Moisture content %
FIG. 3 -- Tailings tests natural log of undrained shear

strength v. moisture content
Copyright by ASTM Int'l (allThe results

rights reserved); indicate,
Thu Sep 5 12:03:30 EDT 2019 therefore, that there is some
consistency
Downloaded/printed by in the total stress parameters for the cemented
GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF CEMENTED GOLLIERYWASTE 149
railings (i.e. the undrained shear strength is a function of

moisture content (or voids ratio). During consolidation the
contribution to the strength of the tailings of the cemented matrix
reduces and at the same time, due to the increase in effective
stress, the contribution to the strength of the friction in the
material increases. Ultimately at high effective stress and low
moisture content the matrix is fully ruptured and the tailings will
behave in the same manner as the uncemented material.
The results above indicate that, since in cemented tailings

the moisture content at a particular confining pressure depends on
the initial moisture content when mixed, the undrained strength
parameters of normally consolidated cemented tailings (with a
consistent ratio of railings to cement) are a function of voids
ratio and not confining pressure. Whereas in naturally occurring
normally consolidated soils since voids ratio is a function of
confining pressure the undrained strength parameters are a function
of either.
Results of Mixture Tests
Compaction of specimens: Compaction of the mixture of

tailings and coarse material resulted in specimens with values of
dry unit weight between 1.681 and 1.767 Mg/m 3. The moisture
content, w, of the specimens following consolidation to the
required confining pressure lay between 10.95 and 17.34%. These
values are all within the range of typical values recorded on
existing spoil heaps constructed from cement stabilised material
[5].
Triaxial ..Tests
... - Compressibility: Prior to the shearing
stage of the triaxial tests the specimens were consolidated to the
required preconsolidation pressures. Values of the coefficient of
volume change (for isotropic consolidation) for an initial
increment of 100kPa were similar for all mixtures - the average
being 0.11 m2/MN - reflecting the similar consolidation
characteristics of cemented railings at varying initial moisture
content, wi, at low stress levels, c.f. Fig.1. When consolidated
to higher levels of stress the mixtures containing the higher
quantities of tailings displayed a greater change in volume.
However, no substantial difference was observed in the compression
behaviour of samples with railings at varying initial moisture
content, wi. This was most probably because the maximum
consolidation pressure achieved (400kPa) was insufficient to cause
substantial rupture of the cemented matrix in the tailings. Hence,
the compression characteristics of cement stabilised mixed spoil in
the stress range investigated are dominated by the quantities of
cemented tailings and not their initial moisture content.
Triaxial Tests Shear strength: The effective stress

parameters obtained from the results of the triaxial tests are
summarised in Table 4. The tests on the mixtures with the larger
proportion of coarse material, i.e. AD and AW, indicated very
Copyright similar
by ASTM Int'l (allparameters.
rights reserved); Thu Sep 5 This
12:03:30 EDT 2019
indicates that at this mixture of 89%
coarse material to 11% tailings
(UDESC) Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina ((UDESC) Universidade do the
Estadoinitial moisture
de Santa Catarina) content
pursuant to License offurther
Agreement. No thereproductions authorize
railings has very little effect on the effective strength

parameters of the material. It has been shown above, that the
strength parameters of the cemented tailings are strongly effected
by w i of the railings. Hence, it may be deduced that for the ratio
of coarse material to tailings in the AD and AW mixtures that the
strength parameters are dominated by the coarse component.
TABLE 4 -- Results of triaxial tests on mixture
Test I.D. Friction Apparent

angle, @' Cohesion, c'
AD 32.3 30kPa
AW 33.44 25kPa
BD 28.5 175kPa
BW 32.8 80kPa
Markedly different behaviour was observed in the tests on the

BD and BW mixtures, where it can be seen from table 4 that the
strength parameters were significantly different in the two series
of tests. The values of the effective strength parameters obtained
from the BW tests are between those of the BD tests and the A
mixture tests (AD and AW). This displays that the strength
parameters of the B mixtures are effected by the initial moisture
content of the tailings. A series of consolidated drained triaxial
tests conducted on samples of uncemented mixed colliery discard
indicated that the effective stress strength parameters for this
material were ~' = 28 ~ and c' = 0. Thus the influence of the
cemented tailings is to provide higher strengths at lower confining
pressures.
COLLIERY SPOIL AS A LANDFILL
It is desirable that the areas of landfill on which

construction is planned to take place provides a material which
will minimise the cost of providing foundations. Thus placement
should result in a material with as low a compressibility and as
high a bearing capacity as can be achieved. To ensure this it is
necessary to compact the landfill during placement.
As has been mentioned above, the high moisture content of the

mixed spoil renders it a material which is very difficult to
handle. For the discard discussed herein, the limiting moisture
conditions for the uncemented material were assessed by means of
the "Moisture condition test" (MCV) [9]. The limiting moisture
content for accessibility of compacting plant being 11.5%.
Triaxial testing of compacted cemented mixed shale indicated
typical moisture contents varying between 10.95% and 17.34%
following consolidation. From which it should be noted that the
sample with the lowest moisture content lies close to the limit of
acceptability. To avoid mixing the two components, and thus permit
Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights
limited reserved); Thu Sep 5 12:03:30
compaction, EDT 2019
a technique of layering the coarse material and
railings has been adopted
(UDESC) Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina ((UDESC) Universidadein dotheEstadoformation of colliery
de Santa Catarina) pursuant spoil
to License Agreement. tips.
Only the capping layer of coarse material is compacted. However,

the compressibility of the railings layer can result in settlements
unacceptable for commercial development of a site. Experience has
shown [I] that when small quantities of cement are added to mixed
colliery discard compacting equipment can operate on the fill. The
results of the experiments described herein, indicate that cement
addition enhances the effective stress parameters of mixed discard,
hence improving its bearing capacity.
The consolidation tests on the mixed spoil indicated that the

quantity of tailings present did not greatly affect the
compressibility characteristics. However, it should be noted that
the maximum consolidation pressure in the testing program was
400kPa. At higher levels of confining stress it would be expected
that mixtures containing larger quantities of tailings at high
moisture content (i.e. BW mixture) would display greater
compressibility due to consolidation of the cemented tailings.
Therefore, when subjected to high stresses, differential settlement
might occur on a site where the proportions of coarse discard to
tailings varied greatly during placement. At lower stress levels,
due to the meta-stable state of the tailings, cemented mixtures
containing high quantities of tailings would display less
compressibility than uncemented materials.
CONCLUSIONS
Investigations into the geotechnical properties of typical

colliery discard materials following washing have been conducted to
investigate the suitability of this material for use in landfill.
The following conclusions may be made from the investigations.
I. The process of coal washing results in the ratio of tailings to

coarser reject being highly variable. The coarse material
typically constitutes 67%-89% of the reject from the process whilst
the tailings, which have a moisture content varying between 25% and
66.6%, constitutes 11%v33%. Hence the "as tipped" mixture of
coarse reject and railings can be highly variable.
2. Testing of the mixed colliery spoil indicated that the

compressibility, effective stress strength parameter and stress-
strain behaviour of the specimens for the mixtures containing the
least tailings were dominated by the properties of the coarse
material. Conversely the mixtures containing the highest amounts
of tailings were greatly inf]uenced by the properties of the
railings.
3. The high moisture content of the railings results in a material

which is highly compressible and not suitable for compaction.
Cement addition results in an increase in the undrained shear
strength and a meta-stable material which displays reduced
compressibility at low stress levels. However, as effective stress
is increased the voids ratio of the cemented material converges on
that of the uncemented material. Ultimately, at high effective
stress
Copyright by ASTM Int'land low moisture
(all rights reserved); content,
Thu Sep 5 12:03:30 EDT 2019 evidence suggests that the
cemented tailings return to the properties of the uncemented

material.
REFERENCES
[1] Llewellyn, L.I.D, "Cement stabilisation of tailings and the

security of tips", Mine and Quarry, May 1984, pp 28-33.
[2] American Society for Testing and Materials, "Annual book of

ASTM standards: Soil and Rock; Building Stones; Geotextiles",
Vol. 04.08, ASTM, Philadelphia, PA, 1989.
[3] Williams, K.P., Johnston, A.G. and Davies, M.C.R., "Cement

stabilization of tailings", Report to British Coal, 1986.
[4] British Standards Institution, "Methods of test for soils for

civil engineering purposes", BS 1377 : April 1975.
[5] Sir William Halcrow and Partners, "Methods of disposal of

artificially cemented tailings", Report, 1982.
[6] Vaughan, P.R., Maccarini, M. and Mokhtar, S.M., "Indexing the

Engineering Properties of Residual Soil", Quarterly Journal
of Engineering Geology, Voi.21, No.l, 1988, pp 69-84.
[7] Skempton, A.W., Discussion on "The planning and design of a

new Hong Kong airport", Proceedings of the Institution of
Civil Engineers, 7, 1957.
[8] Schofield, A.N. and Wroth, C.P., Critical State Soil

Mechanics, McGraw Hill, London, 1968.
[9] Parson, A.W. and Boden, J.B., "The Moisture Condition Test
and its Potential Applications in Earthworks", Supplementary
Report 552, Transport and Road Research Laboratory, U.K.,
1979.
Demetrious C. Koutsoftas, and Michael L. Kiefer
IMPROVEMENT OF MINE SPOILS IN SOUTHERN ILLINOIS
REFERENCE: KOUTSOFTAS, D.C., and KIEFER, M.L. " I m p r o v e m e n t of

Mine Spoils in Southern Illinois", Geotechnics of Waste Fills -
T h e o r y and Practice, ASTM STP 1070, A r v i d Landva, G. David
Knowles, editors, American Society for T e s t i n g and Materials,
Philadelphia, 1990.
ABSTRACT: Field tests were conducted to evaluate the feasibility

of p r e l o a d i n g and dynamic c o n s o l i d a t i o n to improve the compressi-
b i l i t y characteristics of a mine waste spoil a p p r o x i m a t e l y 30 m
deep. The mine spoils consisted of coarse granular materials
ranging in size from sand to boulders for the lower ii m and a
h e t e r o g e n e o u s mixture of materials ranging from clays to b o u l d e r
size rock fragments for the upper 19 m.
A test fill a p p r o x i m a t e l y 7.6 m high was c o n s t r u c t e d in i0 days,

and settlements were m e a s u r e d at various depths over a period of
200 days. Settlements as large as 45 cm were m e a s u r e d and most
of the settlement occurred as soon as the test fill was completed.
Dynamic c o n s o l i d a t i o n was performed in two test areas using

different p o u n d i n g grid configurations. The test areas were
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0.2 and 0.4 hectares, respectively. Dynamic consol-
idation was p e r f o r m e d w i t h a 16 ton pounder falling a p p r o x i m a t e l y
20 m. Geophysical tests as well as pressure meter tests indicate
significant improvement of the spoils over depths of 9 m to 12 m.
KEYWORDS: preloading, dynamic consolidation, settlement, com-

pressibility, mine spoils, geophysical tests.
INTRODUCTION
A p r o p o s e d industrial complex was to be c o n s t r u c t e d at a site of

a p p r o x i m a t e l y 50 hectares in Southern Illinois, underlain by the
wastes of coal strip mining operations. P r e l i m i n a r y investigations
revealed that the waste fills were a p p r o x i m a t e l y 30 m deep, e x t r e m e l y
heterogeneous, and quite compressible. Deep foundations were
considered impracticable and p r o h i b i t i v e l y expensive because of the
presence of large boulders within the fill and because
Mr. Koutsoftas is an Associate at Dames & Moore, 221 M a i n Street,

San Francisco, CA 94105; Mr. Kiefer is a Principal at W o o d w a r d - C l y d e
Consultants, 203 North Golden Circle Drive, Santa Ana, CA 92705.

of the potential for d o w n d r a g loads that could be caused b y the fill

due to settlements under the fill's own weight. The objective of the
study was to develop c o s t - e f f e c t i v e techniques to improve the com-
p r e s s i b i l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the waste fills so that the p r o p o s e d
structures could be supported on shallow foundations w i t h tolerable
post c o n s t r u c t i o n settlements.
T h e r e has been r e l a t i v e l y little e x p e r i e n c e w i t h the c o m p r e s s i -

b i l i t y of waste fills created by open strip m i n i n g and even less
e x p e r i e n c e on the actual performance of structures c o n s t r u c t e d on
mine w a s t e fills. In E n g l a n d [i, 2], e x p e r l m e n t a l houses were con-
s t r u c t e d over strip m i n i n g waste fills to evaluate their s e t t l e m e n t
behavior. Dynamic c o n s o l i d a t i o n and p r e l o a d i n g were found effective
in i m p r o v i n g the c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y of wet, cohesive, h e t e r o g e n e o u s mine
waste fills. Similar studies p e r f o r m e d elsewhere in E n g l a n d [3]
c o n f i r m e d the potential for large and variable settlements under even
light loads, p l a c e d on u n i m p r o v e d waste fills.
In v i e w of the limited prior experience w i t h the c o n s t r u c t i o n of

h e a v y facilities over mine waste spoils and in v i e w of the potential
for large and erratic settlements, a c o m p r e h e n s i v e test p r o g r a m was
u n d e r t a k e n to evaluate the settlement c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the waste
fills and the feasibility of improving the c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y of the
fills by dynamic c o n s o l i d a t i o n and preloadlng.
The site d e v e l o p m e n t history, g e o t e c h n l c a l investigations, the

field tests and their results are p r e s e n t e d w i t h an a s s e s s m e n t of the
f e a s i b i l i t y for improving the waste fills by p r e l o a d i n g and d y n a m i c
consolidation.
SITE G E O L O G Y AND M I N I N G H I S T O R Y
Geology
The site is located in Perry County in S o u t h e r n Illinois. Prior

to mining, it was a m o d e r a t e l y d i s s e c t e d till p l a i n w i t h an average
surface e l e v a t i o n of a p p r o x i m a t e l y +143 m (above M e a n Sea Level).
The thickness of o v e r b u r d e n soils, c o n s i s t i n g of loess and g l a c i a l
till was a p p r o x i m a t e l y 6 m. The o v e r b u r d e n soils were d e p o s i t e d
u n c o n f o r m a b l y over the P e n n s y l v a n i a n Carbondale formation, w h i c h
formed the p r e m i n i n g b e d r o c k surface in the area. The C a r b o n d a l e
F o r m a t i o n consists of a l t e r n a t i n g layers of sandstone, shale, silt-
stone, limestone and coal (Figure I). W i t h i n the site areas, two
layers of coal are present w i t h i n depths that can be c o m m e r c i a l l y
mined. The first coal layer known locally as the H e r r i n coal, was
p r e s e n t at an average depth of about 19 m b e l o w g r o u n d surface w i t h
an average thickness of 1.7 m. The second coal layer known as the
H a r r i s b u r g Coal was p r e s e n t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 6 m b e l o w the H e r r i n coal,
with an average thickness of 1.2 m.
Mining History
M i n i n g started in late 1964 or early 1965 and was c o m p l e t e d by

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MINE SPOILS IN SOUTHERN ILLINOIS 155
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t r e n d i n g cuts (face of mine) and p r o c e e d e d from east to west. Each

separate n o r t h - s o u t h cut averaged about 20 m in width, and b o t h coal
seams were recovered in a single pass. The upper coal seam was m i n e d
first, after w h i c h the p a r t i n g m a t e r i a l b e t w e e n the two coal seams
was b l a s t e d and removed to expose the lower coal seam. The p a r t i n g
m a t e r i a l e x c a v a t e d b e t w e e n the two coal seams was p l a c e d b e h i n d (east
of) the area being m i n e d and stacked up to form a buckwall approxi-
m a t e l y ii m high (Figure I). D u r i n g the next pass the m a t e r i a l
r e m o v e d above the upper coal seam was p l a c e d b e h i n d and over the
buckwall, forming a new llft of fill a p p r o x i m a t e l y 19 m high. All
m a t e r i a l above the top coal seam, including the topsoil, loess, till
and P e n n s y l v a n i a n rocks, was removed in a single pass, and thus the
m a t e r i a l above the buckwall consists of a h e t e r o g e n e o u s m i x t u r e of
m a t e r i a l s r a n g i n g from clays to boulder size rock fragments. The
lower p o r t i o n of the fill, forming the buckwall consists p r i m a r i l y of
rock fragments that are hard and durable w i t h little t e n d e n c y to
b r e a k or d i s i n t e g r a t e under the w e i g h t of the o v e r b u r d e n or from
exposure to air and groundwater. The buckwall m a t e r i a l could be
c l a s s i f i e d as rockfill, w i t h w e a t h e r e d materials p a r t i a l l y f i l l i n g
the voids.
The p r o c e s s of m i n i n g and d i s p o s i n g the spoils c r e a t e d a sur-

ficial t o p o g r a p h y c o n s i s t i n g of a series of n o r t h - s o u t h t r e n d i n g
ridges (windrows) separated by dips (gullies). On the average, the
d i f f e r e n c e in levels b e t w e e n the ridges and the dips is on the order
of 4.5 m, a l t h o u g h g r e a t e r variations in e l e v a t i o n were evident.
GEOTECHNICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WASTE FILLS
The g e o t e c h n i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n included boreholes d r i l l e d w i t h

c o n v e n t i o n a l d r i l l i n g e q u i p m e n t as well as boreholes d r i l l e d w i t h a
Becket Model 180 hammer drill. Because of the h e t e r o g e n e o u s nature
of the fill and the frequent presence of gravel and rock fragments,
only drive type samplers could be used to sample m a t e r i a l s from the
b o r e h o l e s d r i l l e d w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l d r i l l i n g equipment. A standard
split spoon sampler and a larger drive sampler capable of r e t r i e v i n g
samples 64 m m in diameter were used. P e n e t r a t i o n resistances were
r e c o r d e d but it is quite likely that the m e a s u r e d b l o w counts (Fig-
ure 2) have little numerical s i g n i f i c a n c e other than serving as a
c o m p a r a t i v e index of the range of materials e n c o u n t e r e d at any one
level and of the change in p e n e t r a t i o n resistance w i t h depth. It is
e v i d e n t from the m e a s u r e m e n t s (Figure 2) that there is a g r a d u a l
increase in resistance w i t h depth, s u g g e s t i n g a p o s s i b l e increase in
s t r e n g t h of the m a t e r i a l s with depth.
D r i l l i n g with the Becker drill c o n s i s t e d of d r i v i n g a double wall

drill pipe with a double acting diesel hammer w i t h a m a x i m u m rated
e n e r g y of 10,850 joules. The plpe had an outside diameter of 168 m m
and an inside diameter of 113 mm. The inside diameter of the bit was
c o n s t r i c t e d to I00 mm so that the cuttings w o u l d be small enough to
avoid b e c o m i n g lodged in the drive pipe. Drill cuttings were b r o u g h t
to the surface by air forced from the surface down through the annu-
lar space b e t w e e n the interior and exterior pipes and up through the
interior pipe. The cuttings were d i s c h a r g e d to a cyclone for
recovery.
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e n o p e n - e n d e d or closed-ended. The
m a j o r i t y of the tests were p e r f o r m e d with o p e n - e n d e d pipe. A small
MINE SPOILS IN S O U T H E R N ILLINOIS 157
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number of tests were also p e r f o r m e d w i t h the tip closed. Driving a

c l o s e d - e n d e d pipe simulates pile d r i v i n g and provides useful inform-
ation r e g a r d i n g potential d i f f i c u l t i e s during i n s t a l l a t i o n of pile
foundations. At the end of the d r i l l i n g operation, the pipe was
e x t r a c t e d by p u l l i n g w i t h hydraulic jacks and the p u l l o u t force was
recorded. Typical records of p e n e t r a t i o n resistances and p u l l o u t
forces are p r e s e n t e d (Figure 3). The p u l l o u t resistances were less
v a r i a b l e b e c a u s e they were not affected by o b s t r u c t i o n s from rock
fragments as was the case for the driving resistances. A summary of
the p u l l o u t resistances recorded in 6 tests (Figure 4) shows a
gradual and c o n s i s t e n t increase in p u l l o u t resistance with depth.
PULLOUT RESISTANCE, TONS

00 5 10 1,5 2O 2S 30
9 PENETRATION TEST 1
O PENETI:IATIONTEST2 ' -
PENETRATION TEST 3
[3 ~ = ~ PENETRATION TEST 4
6 Z.~.~ 9 - ~ -- ~ PENETRATION TEST 5
09 ' ~' L 9 PENETRATION TEST 6
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FIG. 4 Summary of pullout resistances from boreholes

drilled with Becket drill.
M o s t of the samples recovered from the boreholes were e s s e n t i a l l y

u n t e s t a b l e either due to d i s t u r b a n c e or because of the presence of
gravel w h i c h w o u l d render the results of tests on small diameter
samples v i r t u a l l y meaningless. Therefore, l a b o r a t o r y t e s t i n g was
l i m i t e d to a small number of index tests w i t h e s s e n t i a l l y no engi-
n e e r i n g p r o p e r t y testing b e i n g possible.
E x a m i n a t i o n of soll samples recovered from c o n v e n t i o n a l borings

and the cuttings from the Becket drillholes c o n f i r m e d that the w a s t e
fills were
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formed b y c o m p l e t e l y m i x i n g materials c o n s i s t i n g of clays, silts,

sands, g r a v e l s and rock fragments of v a r y i n g sizes and hardness. The
fill in this upper layer appears to consist of rock fragments w i t h i n
a silty or clayey soll matrix. It is similar in general appearance
to a b o u l d e r - c l a y till. Groundwater o b s e r v a t i o n s revealed only
l i m i t e d free w a t e r in the boreholes, suggesting a deep w a t e r table
c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the general h y d r o g e o l o g y of the area and the low
p e r m e a b i l i t y of the upper layer of spoils w h i c h prevents s i g n i f i c a n t
i n f i l t r a t i o n of w a t e r from surface runoff to form a p e r c h e d
g r o u n d w a t e r table w i t h i n the fill.
The lower 11 m of the waste fill consist p r i m a r i l y of a random

m i x t u r e of fragments of shale, mudstone, llmestone, h i g h l y w e a t h e r e d
m u d s t o n e and o c c a s i o n a l very stiff to hard clay. The lower ii m
c o n t a i n s l g n i f i c a n t l y more rock fragments than the upper spoil, and
have the general appearance of rockfill or rock fragments s e p a r a t e d
by w e a t h e r e d m a t e r i a l or hard clay. The lower spoil is signifi-
c a n t l y more p e r m e a b l e as e v i d e n c e d by the a b i l i t y to pump w a t e r from
the lower spoil w i t h rates of discharge as high as 750 liters per
minute.
G r o u n d w a t e r levels were g e n e r a l l y e n c o u n t e r e d at depths ranging

from 12 m to 21 m b e l o w e x i s t i n g g r o u n d level.
FIELD T E S T I N G P R O G R A M
Test Fill
The c o m p r e s s l b i l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the w a s t e fills were

e v a l u a t e d b y c o n s t r u c t i n g a test fill a p p r o y l m a t e l y 24 m square at
the top and about 61 m square at the base with average fill height
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 8 m. There was c o n s i d e r a b l e concern and d e l l b e r a t i o n
d u r i n g the p l a n n l n g of the test fill regarding m i n i m u m plan dimen-
sions, test locations and w h e t h e r the fill surface should be leveled
(to fill the gullies) before the test fill was constructed. Cost and
schedule c o n s i d e r a t i o n s d i c t a t e d the plan d i m e n s i o n and height of the
test fill. O n e - d l m e n s i o n a l conditions were desirable for ease of
m o d e l i n g of the test fill and for d a t a interpretation. Furthermore,
o n e - d l m e n s l o n a l conditions simulate the c o n d i t i o n of many of the
structures such as slabs on ground, large diameter tanks and mat
foundations. R e c o g n i z i n g that the seat of the settlement was m o s t
likely to be w i t h i n the top 19 m of the spoil, the 24 m wide
d i m e n s i o n at the top of the test fill is c o n s i d e r e d adequate in
p r o v i d i n g r e a s o n a b l y o n e - d l m e n s i o n a l conditions under the center of
the test fill. By appropriate i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n and data
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n it was judged u n n e c e s s a r y to level the test area
b e f o r e f i l l i n g began.
I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n c o n s i s t e d p r i m a r i l y of deep s e t t l e m e n t points
(Fig. 5) as well as settlement m e a s u r e m e n t s w i t h i n the test fill.
Optical s u r v e y i n g techniques were u t i l i z e d to m o n i t o r settlements,
always starting and closing back to a deep b e n c h m a r k a n c h o r e d in the
natural rock formation near the test fill site.
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POSITION 3 LIMIT OF
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POSITION 0
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POSITION 9
ORIGINAL
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FIG. 5 Typical section through the test fill and

settlement monitoring devices.
fill was probably partially saturated and the lower ii m of fill was
too porous and therefore pore pressure response would not be a signi-
ficant indicator of the compression characteristics of this layer.
Construction of the test fill was completed in i0 days and in-

volved placement of approximately i0,000 cubic meters of fill.
Dynamic Consolidation
Dynamic consolidation was performed on two test pads approxi-

m a t e l y 0.2 and 0.4 hectares in size respectively. The tests were
p e r f o r m e d by Menard Inc. and involved pounding the soll surface along
p r e d e t e r m i n e d grid patterns (Fig. 6). The pounder weighed approxi-
mately 16 tons and was dropped repeatedly at designated grid points
from a height of 20 m.
The pounding operations were carried out in several phases and

after each phase of pounding crushed stone was used to fill the
craters formed by pounding. ~In the first area, labeled test area
(Fig. 6), the first two phases consisted of pounding over the primary
grid points with phases 3 and 4 involving pounding over the secondary
grid points. The last phase of pounding, called the ironin~ phase,
involved pounding by a single drop per grid point along a 3 m x 3 m
grid. Primary and secondary grid points were spaced on 7.6 m centers.
In the second area, termed area 8, the first phase involved

pounding over the primary grid points and the second phase involved
pounding over the secondary grid points. The third phase involved
pounding on a 6 m x 6 m grid within an area approximately 18 m x 18 m
atby the
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162 G E O T E C H N I C S OF W A S T E F I L L S
TIME, DAYS
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FIG. 7 Typical settlement records.
d e s c r i b e d for area ~ w i t h i n the central p o r t i o n w h e r e the third

phase p o u n d i n g took place. P r i m a r y and secondary g r i d points were
spaced on 12 m centers.
P r e s s u r e m e t e r tests were p e r f o r m e d at each of the two test pads

before d y n a m i c c o n s o l i d a t i o n b e g a n and after each phase of p o u n d i n g
to m o n i t o r the progress of improvement of the spoil.
Before and after the test, cross hole g e o p h y s i c a l tests were per-
formed to v e r i f y the degree and the depth of improvement.
RESULTS OF THE SOIL IMPROVEMENT TESTS
Test fill
T y p i c a l records of fill p l a c e m e n t and the d e v e l o p m e n t of settle-

ments w i t h time at the center of the test fill are p r e s e n t e d (Fig.
7). The m e a s u r e m e n t s show a very rapid d e v e l o p m e n t of settlements
w i t h c o n s o l i d a t i o n c o m p l e t e d e s s e n t i a l l y in 200 days. Settlements
m e a s u r e d at various levels at the center and at q u a r t e r p o i n t s along
the p e r i m e t e r of the test fill (at the top), were c o r r e l a t e d w i t h the
h e i g h t of fill (Figs. 8 and 9). It is e v i d e n t by c o m p a r i s o n of the
data in Figures 8 and 9 that a p p r o x i m a t e l y one-half of the m e a s u r e d
settlements o c c u r r e d as a result of c o m p r e s s i o n of the fill b e t w e e n
(UDESC)e lUniversidade
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The d i s t r i b u t i o n of settlements w i t h depth was further e v a l u a t e d

from plots of settlements m e a s u r e d at various levels b e l o w the test
fill (Figs. i0 and ii). It is e v i d e n t that 70% to 80% of the total
settlements o c c u r r e d as soon as c o n s t r u c t i o n was completed. The
rapid d e v e l o p m e n t of the settlements is c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the p a r t i a l l y
s a t u r a t e d conditions of the upper fills and the high p e r m e a b i l i t y of
the lower ii m of waste fill.
The s e t t l e m e n t m e a s u r e m e n t s were a n a l y z e d using Janbu's m e t h o d

[4], a s s u m i n g that the settlements were e n t i r e l y due to o n e - d i m e n -
sional consolidation. It is recognized that some lateral d e f o r m -
ations m u s t have d e v e l o p e d under the test fill as a result of
i n s t a n t a n e o u s lateral spreading of the foundation soils. This
immediate lateral spreading w o u l d have caused some settlement w h i c h
w o u l d be in addition to settlements due to o n e - d i m e n s l o n a l
consolidation. Therefore, one dimensional conditions were not
strictly applicable to this test fill. However, the a s s u m p t i o n of
o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l c o n s o l i d a t i o n is quite instructive in p r o v i d i n g an
approximate assessment of the c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the
w a s t e fills.
The results of the analyses indicate a range of c o n s t r a i n t

m o d u l u s for effective stress levels up to i00 KP a, ranging from 2.4
M P a to 7.2 M P a with an average modulus value 6f 4.8 MPa. At higher
stress levels the constraint modulus increases e s s e n t i a l l y l i n e a r l y
w i t h c o n s o l i d a t i o n stress level in accordance w i t h Eq. i.
M = mav' (i)
where:
M is the c o n s t r a i n t modulus
m is a constant, and
~v' is the vertical effective c o n s o l i d a t i o n stress
The results of the analyses indicate m values ranging from 40

to 55.
Dynamic Consolidation
The e f f e c t i v e n e s s of the dynamic c o n s o l i d a t i o n treatment m e t h o d

was e v a l u a t e d from the results of p r e s s u r e m e t e r and g e o p h y s i c a l tests
p e r f o r m e d before and after treatment of the two test areas.
The results of the g e o p h y s i c a l tests (Fig. 12) indicate

s u b s t a n t i a l improvement w i t h i n depths of 6 m for area ~ and 8 m for
area ~. The results of p r e s s u r e m e t e r tests were in g o o d agreement
w i t h the results of the g e o p h y s i c a l tests, regarding the d e p t h of
i m p r o v e m e n t a c c o m p l i s h e d by dynamic consolidation. These depths are
g e n e r a l l y c o n s i s t e n t with p u b l i s h e d c o r r e l a t i o n s [5] b e t w e e n d e p t h of
i m p r o v e m e n t and energy per drop applied to the soil.
The total energy input was a p p r o x i m a t e l y 300 ton-meters per square

m e t e r of area treated, for both area ~ and ~. The s i g n i f i c a n t
d ibyfASTM
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SHEAR MODULUS, G, MPa
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IMPROVEMENT
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FIG. 12 Improvement in shear modulus,

after dynamic consolidation.
The results of pressuremeter tests showed only marginal improve-

ment during the initial phase of the treatment with most of the im-
provement occurring during the later phases of the treatment (prior
to the ironing phase).
CONCLUSIONS
From the results of the field tests described earlier, the follow-
ing conclusions can be drawn:
Preloading is a cost-effective and rapid method of improving

the waste fills encountered at the southern Illinois mining
site.
Dynamic consolidation was effective in treating the mine

spoils; however, the depth of improvement is limited and can
be seriously affected by procedural details of the treatment
method. The need to fill the craters formed during pounding
with crushed stone, (for the conditions encountered at this
site) to effectively transfer the energy to the treated soil,
is a drawback and may have a significant cost impact depend-
ing on availability of crushed stone in the vicinity of the
site.
Copyright by ASTM Int'lA(allcombination

rights reserved); Thu Sepof dynamic
5 12:03:30 EDT 2019 consolidation followed by preloading
Downloaded/printed by may provide excellent ground conditions for the support of
even heavy loads using shallow foundations.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge the contributions of colleagues

William Babcock, Roy Bell, and John Trapp who were responsible for
much of the planning and execution of the work.
REFERENCES
[1] Charles, J. A., Farle, E. W., and Burford, D., "Treatment and
Subsequent Performance of Cohesive Fill Left by Opencast Ironstone
Mining at Snatchhill Experimental Housing Site, Corby," in Clay
Fills Proceedings of the Conference held at the Institute of civil
Engineers, London, 1978, pp. 63-78.
[2] Penman, A. D., and Godwin, E. W., "Settlement of Experimental

Houses on Land Left by Opencast Mining at Corby," in Settlement of
StructureS, Proc. of the British Geotechnical Conference, Cam-
bridge, 1974, pp. 53-61.
[3] Charles, J. A., Nalsmith, W. A., and Burford D., "Settlement of

Backfill at Horsely Restored Opencast Coal Mining Site," Building
Research Establishment Paper 46/77, 1977.
[4] Schmertmann, J. H., "Dilatometer to Compute Foundation Settlement,"

in Proceedings of the Conference on Use of In Situ Tests in
Geotechnlcal Engineering, ASCE, Geotechnical Special Publication
No. 6, 1986, pp. 303-321.
[5] Leonards, G. A., Cutter, W. A., and Holtz, R. D., "Dynamic

Compaction of Granular Soils", Journal of the Geotechnlcal
Engineering Divisions, ASCE, Vol. 106, No. GT1, pp 35-44.
NASSEF N. SOMMAN
LABORATORY TESTING OF LIME FIXED FLYASH AND FGD SLUDGE
REFERENCE: Soliman, N.N., 'Laboratory Testing of Lime Fixed Flyash and FGD
Sludge,' Geotechnics of Waste Fills - Theory and Practice, ASTM STP 1070, A.
Landva and G.D. Knowles, Eds., American Society for Testing and Materials,
Philadelphia, 1990.
ABSTRACT: The operation of coal-fired power plants results in generating a

considerable amount of flyash and flue gas desulfurization sludge. The properties of
such material have not been widely reported and little is known about the field
performance of this material when placed in landfills. This paper presents the
results of extensive laboratory testing programs on six different mixes with variable
flyash to sludge ratio. Lime was added as a fixing agent. Also, field samples from
two operating power plants were tested in similar fashion, and results are presented
and compared to laboratory testing results. In addition, a test pad was constructed
from material produced by one of the operating power plants, and samples taken
from the pad were tested.
Fixation of the flyash and FGD sludge by combining them with lime produces a
mixture with improved properties over the flyash and the sludge. Generally there is
significant improvement in structural characteristics, especially strength, and
reduction in permeability by more than an order of magnitude. Therefore, the fixed
material, with good quality control, could be handled and compacted easily in
landfill.
Observation indicates that strength increases with time and with increase in density.
The increase in strength when the mix was prepared utilizing brackish water is an
important aspect observed during the study. Permeability results measured on
samples prepared in the laboratory were found to be much lower than those
obtained from field samples. Also, permeability was found to decrease with
increasing density.
KEYWORDS: Fixed Flyash, Flue Gas Desulfurization Sludge, Strength,

Permeability, Durability.
Nassef Soliman is a Senior Professional Associate at Parsons Brinckerhoff, Quade and

Douglas, Inc., One Penn Plaza, New York, New York, 10119.

LIME FIXED FLY ASH AND FGD SLUDGE 169
INTRODUCTION
Coal-fired power plants and the expansion in the use of coal will result in generating a
considerable amount of flyash. In addition, the use of Flue Gas Desulfurization (FGD) units,
required to minimize the sulfur content in the air, will result in additional amounts of sludge.
Therefore, the disposal of flyash and sludge in an environmentally sound manner is
becoming the major concern of utilities seeking to use coal as fuel.
There are several known processes for mixing flyash-sludge material and adding fixing
agents such as lime. The result is a cementitious type of reaction in the sludge and flyash
which binds the solids together to reduce the permeability and increase the shear strength,
thereby enhancing physical stability and environmental acceptability.
The objective of combining FGD sludge with dry flyash and lime is to obtain a mixture
suitable for landfill disposal or ocean dumping. A mixture at or near the optimum moisture
content for compaction is the most desirable end product. When initially placed in landfill,
the behavior of fixed ash-sludge is much the same as a silt material. Upon curing, the
material gains strength, develops concrete-like properties, and does not show any
tendency to reslurry when exposed to water.
The lime-flyash reaction (pozzolanic) is a slow process that takes place without any heat
generation. However, external heat will accelerate curing. When water and flyash are
mixed with lime, the silica and alumina will react with lime and the resulting product is
tricalcium silicate and tricalcium aluminate. Further reaction takes place when the product
is mixed with the scrubber sludge. The calcium sulfite and/or sulfate in the sludge will react
with the tricalcium aluminate to form Tricalcium sulfate/sulfite Aluminate [1] [2].
This paper presents the results of field and laboratory testing that were made on six mixes
of fixed ash sludge to determine their geotechnical properties, in connection with a new
coal-fired unit located on Maryland's eastern shore.
LABORATORY TESTING
The laboratory testing program was designed to provide enough reliable data to assist in
evaluating the properties of the fixed flyash/sludge material (fixed material). All testing was
done according to ASTM specifications [3]. Six mixes labeled A to F of fixed material were
prepared in the laboratory for testing. The special mixes were prepared using flyash from
Delmarva Power & Light's Indian River plant and scrubber sludge from Gulf Power's Scholz
plant. In addition, calcium oxide (quicklime) was added to Mixes A through E, and chlorides
(in the form of calcium chloride, sodium chloride, and magnesium chloride) were added to
Mixes A and B.
The fixed material of each batch was mixed thoroughly in electric mixers and stored in
refrigerators during sample preparation as the pozzolanic reaction is very slow at low
temperature.
In addition to the fresh samples prepared in the laboratory for testing, all samples obtained
from field cured material were also tested, including:
9 Hand-trimmed samples from block masses obtained from Plant X

9 Cored samples from block masses obtained from Plant Y (six to eight months old)
9 byCored
Copyright samples
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(all rights reserved); Thu Sep masses obtained
5 12:03:30 EDT 2019 from the test pad (four years old)
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Classification Tests
Classification tests such as grain size distribution, specific gravity, and moisture-density
compaction were performed on all samples (Table 1). For Mixes A to F, a target density
was selected to correspond to a moisture content equal to what is expected during plant
operation. The material was then compacted into tubes (2.4 inches by 6 inches, 2.875
inches by 6 inches and 2.4 inches by 1 inch) and stored in humidity room for curing. For
fixed material obtained from the test pad, the target density was chosen to correspond to
the moisture content equal to those measured in sltu at the test pad during construction.
Strength Tests
To evaluate the strength of the fixed material, a comprehensive testing program was
undertaken. Seventy-five unconfined compression tests and thirty unconsolidated
undrained tests were performed on laboratory cured samples at 7, 14, 28, 56, and more
than 56 days. Only maximum shear strength results are presented (Table 2).
TABLE 2--SHEAR STRENGTH OF FIXED FLYASH SLUDGE

Maximum Sheer Stren.cfth ksf Freeze/Thaw Test
Days Days Days Days
Mix U_~C Cured U__M_U Cured C._D_D Cured U._.CC Cured
A 126.00 28 120.00 28 68.97 48 68.0 - 120.0 28-28

B 126.00 56 120.15 28 75.6 - 98.4 28-56
C 68.40 28 62.52 28 43.2 31" 25.3 - 69.2 56-28
D 109.35 56 116.76 28 95.04 28 53.0 -102.0 28-56
E 81.36 56 89.04 28 67.00 33 31.2 -101.2 56-28
F(1)
Test Pad
Lab Cured 62.88 66 59.40 28 44.26 28
FieldCured 58.60 1,400
PlantX 45.99 180 ,312 l~ 2;.93 18o
PlantY 51.28 240 34.20 240
1 ksf- 47.9kN/m2
UC: Unconfinedcompressiontest
UU: Unconsolidatedundrained
CD: Consolidateddrained
(1) Samplescollapsedbeforetesting.
The results indicate that the shear strength increased with curing time up to 40 days, then
generally tended to level off. The shear strength varied from one mix to another. Mix A and
B yielded higher shear strength, 126 ksf, compared to Mix C which yielded a maximum
shear strength of 68.4 ksf. The three mixes (A, B, and C) have the same flyash/sludge ratio,
0.7:1; however, Mixes A and B were prepared using brackish water. Mixes D and E yielded
109.35 ksf and 81.36 ksf respectively. It appears that a flyash/sludge ratio of 1.34:1 is the
best (in the C, D and E group) because of the high shear strength obtained by this mix as
long as all other factors are the same.
Fresh materials from the test pad were tested at 7, 14, 28 and 66 days. Results indicate that
the maximum shear strength is 62.88 ksf, which is lower than Mix D that has more or tess
the same flyash/sludge ratio. This is attributed to the care in mixing and handling of the
special mixes in the laboratory compared to quality control at operating plants that handle
large quantities.
Samples obtained from the test pad (4 years old) were tested and results indicated that the
field cured material has a shear strength from 38.88 ksf to 58.61 ksf. Similarly, samples
obtained from the Plant X and Plant Y landfill operation were tested and results indicate a
shear strength of 45.99 ksf for Plant X and 51.28 ksf for Plant Y. Results from Plant Y are
comparable to those obtained from test pad. Some of the reasons for the difference in
performance between the laboratory mixes and those of the field pad/plant x and plant y is
the source of the flyash/sludge and the high moisture content of the material. The source of
the fly ash resulting from coal burning is different in both cases. Any variation in the sulfur
content has an effect on the chemical reaction. The high moisture content of the material
obtained from operating plants resulted in lower density. These factors have a direct
impact on the strength of the material.
Fourteen consolidated drained triaxial tests were performed to evaluate the behavior of the
fixed material under drained condition (long term). The results were generally lower than
those obtained from unconfined compression test. It is probable that saturations utilizing
back pressure may have an adverse effect on the shear strength.
Freeze/Thaw Tests
To evaluate the durability of the fixed material, tests for wetting and drying and for freezing
and thawing were performed on special Mixes A through E. Since fixed ash-sludge differs
from soil cement mixtures designated in ASTM specifications (D-559, D-560) in its
components, the following modifications were made to the specifications:
9 The fixed ash-sludge was not mixed with cement; however, the lime added to each mix
served as the cementing agent.
9 Samples were heated at 120~ (49~ and dried at 135~ (57~ temperatures which
are lower than the specified 221 o F (105 o C). The temperature was lowered to avoid
dehydrating the lime.
9 Samples were compacted according to ASTM D1557, Method D, consistent with the
preparation of all the samples.
Four types of freeze/thaw tests were designed to evaluate the behavior of the fixed ash-
sludge in response to variable weather conditions. Eight samples from each mix were
sub j,ected to different cycles of freezing, thawing, and heating from 10~ (-12~ to 120~
(99vC). All samples were checked for visible sample deterioration and change in
dimension (shrinking or swelling). At the end of the cycling process for each test, samples
were tested for unconfined shear strength. For all the tests, cycle 1 started immediately
after compaction. Samples were frozen, thawed in the humidity room, moved into the oven
at 120~ (49~ then cooled at room temperature and placed back into the freezer for the
next cycle, according to following plans:
9 Two samples from each mix were subjected to three 48-hour freeze/7-day thaw cycles
(28 days).
9 Two samples from each mix were subjected to one 48-hour freeze/26-day thaw (28
days).
9 Two samples from each mix were subjected to fourteen 48-hour freeze/48-hour thaw
cycles (56 days).
9 Two samples from each mix were subjected to four 7-day freeze/7-day thaw cycles (56
days).
Consolidation Tests
To evaluate the compressibility of the fixed material under loading, samples from laboratory
cured fixed material of the special mixes and field cured material from Plants X and Y were
tested. Consolidation tests indicated that the fixed material behaves like a very stiff soil.
Mixes A through F had a void ratio of 0.63 to .73. Fresh material from Plant Y had a void
ratio of 1.71 and field cured material from Plant Y had a void ratio of 1.67 and Plant X 2.47.
Generally, material exhibited very little deformation up to 10 ksf.
Permeability Tests (cm/sec)
Permeability tests were performed to estimate the coefficient of permeability of the fixed
material. Two types of tests were run: forty four falling head permeability in a permeameter,
and forty eight constant head tests in the triaxial cell. Surcharge and head were varied for
each test and from one test to another to determine whether these factors had an effect on
the measured permeability (Fable 3).
TABLE 3 -- PERMEABILITY RESULTS
Sealed
Samples
Sealed MoreThan MoreThan
Mi.xx % Lime 28 Days 28 DaysOnly 56 Days 56 Days
A 2.5 1,76xl0-6 8.7xl 0-7

B 2.5 5.61-10-6 1.93x10-6
C 2.5 5.53x10-6 1.67-10-6
D 2.5 2.89x10-6 3.86xl0-7 2.34xl 0-6 2.34xl 0-6
E 2.5 1.76x10-5 3.2x10-5
F 4.91x10-5
C 4 1.32xl0-6 3.05x10-7 4.85x10-6
D 4 1.32:<10-6
Flyash 1.8x10-5
Sludge 8.7x10-5
PlantX 2.5 2.98xl0-6

PlantY 2.5 -- 4.44xl0-6
Test Pad
Lab Cured 2,5 1.71x10-6 1.43x10-6
Field Cured 2.5 3.xl 0"7
Test for Interaction Between Fresh and Cured Material
The fixed material could be placed in lifts and stages during actual landfill operations. To
simulate the gain in shear strength at the interface between freshly placed material on top
of cured material, a special direct shear test was performed. Four samples, 2.4 inches in
diameter and 1 inch in height, were prepared in the following manner.
Material was compacted into a ring and allowed to cure in the humidity room for seven
days. After seven days, one-half of this material was extruded, leaving 1/2 inch empty in the
ring. Fresh material was then compacted in a new ring, and the fresh material was pushed
into the first ring until contact was made with the cured material. The remaining fresh
material was then trimmed and a ring containing one-half new material and one-half cured
material was obtained. The rings were allowed to cure together for various time periods
and were sheared with various normal pressure. The results represent the shear strength
atbythe
Copyright interface
ASTM between
Int'l (all rights cured
reserved); Thu Sep 5 and fresh
12:03:30 mixes (Table 4).
EDT 2019
Special Testing
To evaluate the effect of curing under different conditions on the shear strength of the fixed
ash-sludge, several samples were subjected to the following tests and then tested for
unconfined shear strength (Table 5).
9 Samples were cured for one week, then submerged in water for 28 days.
9 Samples were placed in a heater at 120~ (49~ for 28 days.
9 Two samples from Mix D were refrigerated (40~ (4~ for 28 days.
9 Samples were cured for one week, then sealed in plastic for 28 days.
DISCUSSION
The fixed ash-sludge material consists mainly of scrubber sludge, flyash and fixing material.
Lime was used as fixing (cementing) agent for all the mixes and field cured material tested
for this study. The properties of any fixed or stabilized material depend mainly on the
following factors:
9 The physical behavior of the individual components of the material.

9 The ash-to-sludge ratio.
9 The suffate-to-suffite ratio.
9 Curing time and condition.
9 Percentage of the fixing agent (cementing).
9 Degree of compaction, i.e., density.
9 Grain size distribution of each individual component.
9 Degree of mixing and how thoroughly the fixing agent is mixed.
From these factors and the test results, it can be seen that the properties could vary even
within one mix due to slight variation in lime content density or degree of mixing.
Moisture Content and Dry Density
Fresh fixed material could be compacted in landfill operation. Compaction tests have
indicated that the material behaves like silt soils in general. To obtain the best performance
from any material, it should be compacted to the maximum dry density, which can be
achieved only at the corresponding optimum moisture content. For the fixed material that
would be uneconomic and impractical because it would require drying to bring the moisture
content to the optimum value. It is more practical to compact the material to the anticipated
moisture content during plant operation. During the placement of the waste material,
compaction to the target density could be achieved by placing the material in 18- to 24-inch
lifts and compacting it with a few passes by a bulldozer or a sheepsfoot roller. In addition,
the use of sheepsfoot roller will allow better interlocking between the consecutive layers,
thus creating better healing and increased bond. Gradation curves are presented in
Figure 1, and relationships between dry density and moisture content are presented in
Figure 2.
Strength
The strength of any material is an indication of its stability and its ability to support loads
and withstand severe weather conditions. The stronger the material, the better it will
perform under weather changes.
The strength of the fixed material is a function of the curing time. Also, temperatures higher
than 40 o F (4 o C) accelerate the curing process.
T A B L E 4 -- R E S U L T S O F D I R E C T S H E A R T E S T S
Interface Strength M e a s u r e m e n t
Maximum
Normal Pressure Shear Strength
Mix Days Cured(l) (ksf) (.ksf)
C 7;7 1.0 1.05

C 7;7 3.0 3.05
A 8;17 1.0 0.75
E 7;29 1.0 1.05
In all cases, the ~amples were sheared along the interface of the two lifts.
ksf = 47,9 kn/m
T A B L E 5 -- S P E C I A L T E S T I N G
Submer.qed 28 Days Sealed 28 Days
Unconfined Unconfined
Compressive Dry Compressive Dry
Strength Density M.C. Strength Density M.C.
Mi.__.xx (ksf) (pcf) ~ (ksf) (pcf) 2)
A 77.23 88.8 16.1 62.07 89.5 12.3
B 73.33 90.2 16.0 83.16 90.9 14.6
C 29.63 86.1 18.7 32.18 80.5 19.1
D 1O9.8O 88.7 6.6
E 75.84 93.3 13.2 150.00 93.4 8.0
Heated 28 Days 28 Days Refri.qerator
Unconfined Unconfined
Compressive Dry Compressive Dry
Strength Density M.C. Strength Density M.C.
iM
.._.xx (ksf) (pcf) ~ (ksf) (pcf)
A 92.76 89.7 3.2

B 120.00 89.3 5.1
C 65.88 82.7 5.4
D 92.16 89.4 0.7 48.20 89.3 2.5
E 101.04 88.6 2.4
ksf = 47.9 kn/m 2
176 G E O T E C H N I C S OF WASTE FILLS
U.S. Standard r ==e
4 10 2O 40 6O 100 zOO
100 %"
90
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Gradation Curve
1--Sludge
2--Fly Ash
3--Rsnge Mix A to E
4--Plant Y
Figure 1
Mo~ture Conteflt In % of Dry Weight
O 5 10 15 20 25 30
120
Mix E
;90 ~~
90 ~
7o
Mix A
/'
/
Plant Y
Relation B e t t ~ e n the Dry Denelty i n d Moisture Content
pcf =o.16kN/m~
Figure 2
During testing, it was observed that the majority of the samples failed along a vertical plane,
usually near the center of the sample which indicates that failure is structural and not a
result of friction [4]. This is consistent with the fact that the strength of this material is
gained through cementation. Within the anticipated height of a waste disposal pile and the
corresponding stresses, no relation between the confining pressure and shear strength was
found. Reported values of angle of internal friction for the fixed material could not be
confirmed during this testing program [5] [6].
Strength test results for the special mixes seem to be generally within the published ranges
[7] [8] [9] [10] [11] for the fixed ash-sludge, with the exception of Mixes A, B, and F. Mixes
A and B are generally higher which is attributable to the calcium chloride that had been
added to simulate the effect of the use of brackish water as the scrubber makeup. Yoder
and Witczak [12] reported that calcium chloride can be added to lime-soil mixtures to
improve the physical characteristics of the mix and to speed up the reaction. Calcium
chloride benefits the reaction by holding the compacting moisture in the soil and by
providing additional calcium ions to the mix. Mix F exhibited very low strength
characteristics, obviously due to the absence of the fixing agent (lime). The majority of the
samples from this mix collapsed during handling and those which came into contact with
water disintegrated.
In order to evaluate the long-term shear strength, results are plotted versus curing time (see
Figure 3) for Mix D as a sample. Because of the wide scatter in data, a least squares curve
fitting technique was employed to obtain the strength- versus-time curves. Data from
unconfined compression, unconsolidated undrained, and consolidated drained tests were
used in a computer program which provided the "best fit" for log log, semi log and 1/x
curves. The consolidated drained tests were given more weight than the others, because
this test is representative of the long-range strength of the material.
120,000.
8 o
E" O
8O,0OO ~
F
|
i 6O,0OO
|
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20,00084
00 40 60 8~ 100
Time (Days)
6ox O
Strength vii T i m e
Key
psf =0.0479 kN/m~ 0 Unconfined Compression
z~ UnconsOlidated Undrained
[3 Consolidated Drained
| Freeze Thaw, Test 1
B Freeze Thaw, Test 2
,7 Freeze Thaw, Test 3
9 Freeze Thaw, Test 4
9 Sealeo Samples
Downloaded/printed by Figure 3
Examination of the data showed that the 1/x equation was most representative of the data
because the curve leveled off with time which is expected for the strength. The general
equation used was:
y=A+B/x
where A and B are constants. The curves present the recommended values with time for
the different mixes (see Figure 4). Based on this data, well-prepared fixed material similar to
Mixes A, B and D could have a shear strength of 80 ksf. For field operation with less quality
control, a shear strength of 50 ksf is more practical.
To evaluate the effect of density on strength, several samples from Mixes A, D and E were
prepared to densities ranging from 60 pcf to 90 pcf. The results indicate increase in
strength occurs at approximately 70 pcf (see Figure 5).
The behavior of the special mixes under extreme weather conditions, was evaluated by
subjecting samples to variable cycles of freeze and thaw. Evaluation of the material
behavior indicated that no cracking or deterioration were apparent. All samples were tested
for unconfined compression strength and are plotted in Figure 3 for comparison with other
results. Generally, the strength values for these tests were less than those obtained from
normal curing. However, durability tests performed on special mixes indicated that the fixed
material will deteriorate slightly during a freeze-thaw-freeze cycle if water is made available
to the material during the thawing period. It should be anticipated that during winter the
upper few inches of the surface of the compacted material will deteriorate when subjected
to a thawing period with rain followed by a freezing period.
To further evaluate the strength of the fixed material if subjected to variable conditions, a
sample of each mix was cured for 28 days under the following conditions: submerged,
sealed, heated, and kept at 40~
Compared to unsealed samples cured in the humidity room for the same period, the
submerged samples yielded a lower compressive strength. The sealed samples yielded
lower strengths except for Mixes D and E, which yielded higher strengths. Heated samples
yielded generally the same strengths with the exception of Mixes B and E, which gave lower
values. Apparently the number of samples tested (one each) was not enough to give a
representative value for each case. Two samples prepared from Mix D were kept at 40~
(4vC) for 28 days, then tested for unconfined compression strength. Strength of these
samples was about half of those for samples cured at 70~ (21~ for 28 days. This shows
that the curing rate is affected by temperature (Table 5).
Permeability
During the testing program, it became obvious that the permeability determined in the
laboratory seemed to be generally lower than some described in published data [8] [9]
[10]. Accordingly, several efforts were undertaken to evaluate the results and the methods
of testing used.
Samples for special mixes were cured in the humidity room but they were not sealed in
plastic bags to contain the moisture content of the samples. During testing it was noticed
that moisture content dropped dramatically with time. Additional samples (C and D) were
prepared. Most of the samples were sealed and cured in humidity room, while some were
kept unsealed. Permeability tests were performed at 7, 14 and 28 days. No obvious
difference was found between results obtained from tests performed on sealed samples
and unsealed samples for curing time up to 28 days. However, samples left to cure more
Copyrightthan
by ASTM
28Int'ldays
(all rightsyielded
reserved); Thu Sep 5 12:03:30
lower EDT 2019
permeabilities than those obtained from previous mixes
140,000
Mix B
~. 80,O00
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i f f l
40,000
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. Mix C
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0 o 2O 40 6O SO I(X]
(Day=)
Strength vs Time
psf =0.0479kN/m2 (1) Projected based o. field cured
testing reSults,8 months & 4 years
Figure 4
140,400
40~
....
~ /o
60,000 /
40,0O0
.... //
050 40 7O 80 40
O~ ~ r (pcf)
Unconfined Compression vs. Density
psf = 0.0479 kN/m ~ All Samples
pcf = 0.16 kN/ma Cured 28 Days
0 Mix D
Mix E
DMIxA
Figure 5
Compressibility
Several consolidation tests were performed on samples from Plant X, samples prepared
from fresh material from Plant Y, and samples prepared from special mixes. All samples
exhibited very small elastic deformation until 10 to 12 kips per square foot (ksf); then the
samples exhibited a plastic deformation. The compacted fixed ash-sludge is very
incompressible within 10 to 12 ksf, which is a normal range of working stresses. However,
beyond that range the material experienced a relatively higher deformation, probably due to
structural failure (see Figure 9).
Interaction Between Fresh and Cured Material
During the landfill operation, fresh material will often be placed on cured material. In order
to evaluate the gain in shear strength between freshly placed material on top of cured
material, a special direct shear test was performed. The results indicate that friction
resistance between cured and fresh material takes place. The gain in frictional resistance is
a function of normal stress. There is no obvious increase in frictional resistance with time
(Table 4).
Durability
The durability tests are considered to be severe; however, the majority of samples survived
the 12 cycles and generally performed very well. As these tests are designed to evaluate
the ability of the material to resist stress, mixes with high strength were expected to be more
durable than those with low strength. It was found that during freeze-thaw test, material
loss from Mix B (highest strength) was minimal, while material loss from Mix C was maximal.
It was also observed that the material losses for wet-dry were generally less than those
observed for freeze-thaw tests. This is attributed to the water which was made available
between freeze and thaw cycles. After the water penetrated the sample by capillary action,
it became frozen and increased in volume during the freezing cycle. The increase in frozen
water volume resulted in internal stresses which affected the material performance. Based
on this observation, it is anticipated that a freeze-thaw cycle will cause slight deterioration in
the upper few inches of the surface of the waste material. Field observation of the test pad
seems to agree with this conclusion.
Conclusion
Fixation of the flyash and FGD sludge by combining them with lime produces a mixture with
improved properties over the flyash and the sludge. Generally there is significant
improvement in structural characteristics, especially strength, and reduction in permeability
by more than an order of magnitude. Therefore, the fixed material, with good quality control
could be handled and compacted easily in landfill. This will result in less volume of material
which require less use of land. The decrease in the coefficient permiability will reduce the
water perculation into the landfill and the tendency of leaching. The increase in shear
strength will permit land filling with stable steep slopes.
The study concluded:
9 The strength of fixed material increased with curing time, with the increase in density,
and when mixed with brackish water.
The fixed material could be compacted into blocks and dumped in the ocean to create a
reef, similar to a coral reef, as the ocean water will enhance the strength of the material.
This could solve the problem of disposal of the fixed flyash sludge material generated by
Copyright bythe power
ASTM plants.
Int'l (all rights reserved); Thu Sep 5 12:03:30 EDT 2019
prepared with the same ratio of flyash to sludge. These lower values are obviously due to
~.ealing effect (Table 3).
Several relationships were developed to better understand and delineate the relation
between permeability and other physical properties. The strength of the material and the
corresponding permeability were plotted on a semilog chart. It was noted that the
permeability decreased with increase in strength, which means that curing time and
percentage of fixing agent (lime) are factors that affect permeability results (see Figure 6).
Also, the dry density versus the permeability was plotted on a semilog chart. It was
observed that the permeability decreased slightly with the increase in dry density, until
about 83 pcf, when the observed decrease in permeability became larger (see Figure 7).
This relationship is limited, however, by the maximum practical bulk density that could be
achieved in the field. All samples were compacted in the laboratory to the maximum
anticipated dry density.
m m = . y (pc-I)
(l~f x 1000) ShealrStPlmg~
50 6O
0 20 40 60 60 100 120 140
5~10"
\
-'-,\
~ lX10~ I
\o L
z~
A 5~10 ~
Relation Between Shear Strength and Permeability Density vs. Permeabglty

psf = 0 0479 kN/m ~ Key Pcf = 0.16 kN/m ~ Key
O Mix A
Unconfined Compression Test
Mix D
0 Consolidated Drained Test [:3 MixE
Figure 6 Figure 7
To evaluate the effect of saturation, three samples were tested in the triaxial equipment.
Two of the samples were soaked in water for five and ten minutes, respectively; one was not
soaked; and then permeability values were computed as a function of time. The results
were plotted on a log chart (see Figure 8). From this chart, it can be seen that permeability
decreased with time until the sample began to become saturated; then the coefficient
started to increase with the increase of the degree of saturation. When the samples
approached 100% saturation, the permeability coefficient exhibited very small changes.
The permeability decreased with time and sealing of the samples which simulate field
conditions. However, the study could not confirm published values for the fixed material
of 10-8 to 10"10 cm/sec.
A direct relationship exists between permeability and unconfined compressive strength

of the material.
The permeability coefficient decreases exponentially with linear increase in unconfined

compressive strength, the permeability of the special mixes were lower by an order of
magnitude than material from Plants X and Y.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Laboratory testing for this study was done at the University of Maryland, College Park;
Dames and Moore, Crawford, N.J.; and I.U. Conversion System, Inc., Philadelphia, Pa.
REFERENCES
[1] FGD Sludge Disposal Manual, 1979. Electric Power Research Institute, Final
Report, Prepared by Michael Baker, Inc., January.
[2] GAI Consultants, Inc., "Ash Disposal Reference Manual, Draft Report." Prepared for
Electric Power Research Institute.
[3] Annual Book of American Society for Testing and Materials Standards, 1979,
Part 19.
[4] Rossoff, J. et al., of the Aerospace Corporation, 1977. "Disposal of By-Products

from Non-regeneratable Flue Gas Desulfurization Systems, Second Progress
Report." Prepared for EPA, May, PB-271 728, EPAo600/7-77-052.
[5] IU Conversion System, Inc. "Poz-O-Tec Process for Economical and Environmental
Acceptable Stabilization of Scrubber Sludge and Ash." University City Science
Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104.
[6] IUCS: A&H Corporation, 1978. "Consultant's Report on Laboratory Testing and
Analysis of Poz-O-Tec Material at Columbus and Southern Ohio Electric Company's
Conesville Generating Station." Conesville, Ohio.
[7] San Juan Testing Laboratory, Inc. "Laboratory Tests Completed on Poz-O-Tec
Stabilized Fly Ash at Four Corners Power Plant, Fruitland, New Mexico." For IU
Conversion Systems, Inc., May 1975.
[e] Ulldch, C.R.; Hagerty, D.J.; and Van Ness, R.P. 'Physical Properties of FGC Waste
Deposits at the Cane Run Plant of Louisville Gas and Electric Company."
[9] IUCS: GAI Consultants, Inc. "Evaluation of Poz-O-Tec Material for Use as Landfill -
Demonstration Project, Phillips Generating Station, South Height, Pa." Consultant's
Report to IU Conversion Systems, Inc., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
[lo] Hurt, P.R., et al., of Aerospace Corporation. "Flue Gas Desulfurization Sludge
Disposal - The Shawnee Field Evaluation Project." Presented at U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency Fifth Industry Briefing on Results of Lime/Limestone Wet
Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved);
Scrubbing Thu Sep 5Raleigh,
Programs, 12:03:30 EDT 2019 Carolina, December 1979.
North
[11] Rossoff, J., and Rossi, R.C. 'Flue Gas Cleaning Waste Disposal - EPA Shawnee
Field Evaluation.' Prepared by Aerospace Corporation for presentation at EPA Flue
Gas Desulfurization Symposium, New Orleans, La., March 8-11, 1976.
[12] Yoder, E.J. and Wirczak, M.W., 1975. Principles of Pavement Design, 2nd Edition.
[13] Soliman, N., Houlik, C., and Schneider, M., "Geotechnical Properties of Lime Fixed
Flyash and FGD Sludge,' International Conference on Environmental
Geotechnology, Lehigh University, Pa., 1986
Joseph P. Martin, Francis J. Biehl,
John S. Browning III and Edward L. Van Keuren
CONSTITUTIVE BEHAVIOR OF CLAY AND P O Z Z O L A N - S T A B I L I Z E D

H Y D R O C A R B O N REFINING WASTE
REFERENCE: Martin, J. P., Biehl, F. J., Browning, J.

S., III, and Van Keuren, E. L., "Constitutive Behavior
of Clay and Pozzolan-Stabilized Hydrocarbon Refining
Waste," Geotechnics of Waste Fills - Thoery and
Practice, ASTM STP 1070, Arvid Landva and G. David
Knowles, Eds., American Society for Testing and
Materials, Philadelphia, 1990.
ABSTRACT: A project to s t a b i l i z e acidic hydrocarbon

sludge lagoons for l a n d f i l l d e p o s i t i o n is described.
The sludge will be m i c r o e n c a p s u l a t e d in a clay matrix,
neutralized and cemented with a lime and fly ash
pozzolanic mixture. The m e c h a n i c a l improvement and
contaminant immobilization provide dimensional
stability and low leachate p r o d u c t i o n rates. Two types
of clay were used as the aggregate in the
s t a b i l i z a t i o n mixture: a spent p r o c e s s i n g a t t a p u l g i t e
and an onsite silty clay. Results of leaching,
strength, and compression tests are p r e s e n t e d for
mixtures using each clay, as is p r e l i m i n a r y analysis of
the porous monolith response to in-situ stresses.
KEYWORDS: STABILIZATION; MICROENCAPSULATION; SLUDGE;

IMMOBILIZATION; LANDFILL; COMPRESSIBILITY; POZZOLANS
INTRODUCTION
Modern landfills provide space for waste disposal while
m i n i m i z i n g the potential for release of gases, liquids and
particulates. Most landfills rely upon external containment
(liners and caps) to isolate solid wastes from the local
environment, and drains (leachate collectors and gas vents)
to c o n t r o l c o n t a m i n a t e d fluids. Sludges present special
problems. In the past, they were often p l a c e d in landfills
J. Martin is Assoc. Professor of Civil Engineering, Drexel

University, Philadelphia, PA 19104. F. Biehl is an Environ.
E n g i n e e r at DuPont, Newark, DE 19714. J. B r o w n i n g is a
S e n i o r E n g i n e e r at N T H - R u s s e l l and E. Van K e u r e n is a
Project Engineer at ERM Consultants, both Exton, PA 19341.

cr stored i n d e f i n i t e l y in lagoons, neither p r a c t i c e being

c u r r e n t l y acceptable. When d e s t r u c t i o n or r e p r o c e s s i n g of
historic sludge deposits are not feasible, m o d i f i c a t i o n is
n e c e s s a r y for landfill deposition. The m i n i m u m acceptable
treatment is d e w a t e r i n g to r e m o v e free liquids, but
stabilization, i.e., i m p r o v i n g m e c h a n i c a l b e h a v i o r and
decreasing contaminant mobility, is more desireable.
Sludge s t a b i l i z a t i o n often employs an admixture of

h y d r a u l i c cements, often including b y p r o d u c t s such as fly
ash and kiln dust as pozzolans(l,2,3). This m e t h o d of waste
treatment would be e x p e c t e d to generate lower maintenance
costs after closure than conventional cellular solid waste
landfills (4,5,6). S o l i d i f i c a t i o n (the m e c h a n i c a l effect)
to produce a d i m e n s i o n a l l y stable m o n o l i t h provides a firm
s u b g r a d e for the final cap. C o n t a m i n a n t immobilization
reduces d e p e n d e n c y on l e a c h a t e and gas collectors. The
immobilization may consist only of physical isolation in an
impermeable matrix (microencapsulation), but chemical
fixation mechanisms may also be active, such as
neutralization, precipitation, p a r t i t i o n i n g and sorption.
This paper describes a project to stabilize a group of

acidic hydrocarbon sludge lagoons. The waste is an
a s p h a l t i c e m u l s i o n with a wide range of low v o l a t i l i t y
compounds, the b y p r o d u c t s of a d i s c o n t i n u e d p e t r o l e u m
refining process. Conventional solidification with portland
and p o z z o l a n i c cements only gave poor results. However,
sludge encapsulation in a clay matrix bound with a lime-fly
ash a d m i x t u r e r e s u l t e d in a m a t e r i a l of m e d i u m stiff
consistency, low permeability, and low carbon solubility. A
conceptual model of the structure is shown on Figure i.
Figure I. Model of Sludge-Clay-Pozzolan Matrix

HYDROCARBON REFINING WASTE 187
The clays available a r e an a t t a p u l g i t e - b a s e d spent

f u l l e r ' s e a r t h a n d the local s i l t y clay, a r e s i d u a l soil.
The p r o p e r t i e s of the s l u d g e - c l a y - p o z z o l a n mixtures depend
upon component proportioning, m o i s t u r e content, age, sludge
consistency and compactive effort. These factors were
v a r i e d in an e m p i r i c a l study u n t i l t h e y y i e l d e d m i x t u r e s of
a s o i l - l i k e c o n s i s t e n c y that p r o d u c e d b a s i c e f f l u e n t of low
carbon content when permeated with distilled w a t e r or
dilute acidic solvents (8,9,10). A field study including
c o n s t r u c t i o n of test cells d e m o n s t r a t e d the p r a c t i c a l i t y of
the m e t h o d (ii) . D e v e l o p m e n t of the m i x t u r e s is d e s c r i b e d
in d e t a i l e l s e w h e r e (10,12).
The c o n c e n t r a t i o n h e r e i n is on s e t t i n g site s t a n d a r d s
and laboratory studies associated with developing a product
to limit leachate generation and provide dimensional
s t a b i l i t y in the i n - s i t u e n v i r o n m e n t . The a n a l y s i s employs
a d a p t a t i o n s of t r a d i t i o n a l soil m e c h a n i c s m e t h o d s .
CUSTOMARY STABILIZATION CHARACTERIZATION
Solidification with hydraulic cements was initially

developed w i t h i n o r g a n i c wastes such as e l e c t r o p l a t i n g and
flue gas d e s u l f u r i z a t i o n sludges (3) . T h i s p r a c t i c e uses
established and economical construction technologies, and
results in c o n c r e t e - l i k e m a t e r i a l s . C o n t a m i n a n t s are either
i n c o r p o r a t e d in the h y d r a t i o n p r e c i p i t a t e s or i s o l a t e d in
the h a r d e n e d paste (7). T h e m o r e r e c e n t f o c u s has b e e n
s t a b i l i z a t i o n of sludges w i t h h i g h o r g a n i c content, r a i s i n g
a concern with regards to interference with cementing
reactions. The result is m o r e l i k e l y to be e n c a p s u l a t i o n of
organics in a p o r o u s matrix, and rely upon reversible
f i x a t i o n m e c h a n i s m s such as n e u t r a l i z a t i o n (2,7).
Characterization of a stabilization technique or

formulation is c u s t o m a r i l y done with material property
tests, i n c l u d i n g u n c o n f i n e d c o m p r e s s i o n (ASTM D-2166), EP
Toxicity or T C L P p r o c e d u r e s , and saturated permeability
(ASTM D - 2 3 3 4 or f a l l i n g - h e a d tests) . T h e s e tests i n d i c a t e
mechanical, chemical fixation, and transport behavior,
respectively (13). Durability tests also indicate
r e s i s t a n c e to m a t r i x d e t e r i o r a t i o n in a g g r e s s i v e climates.
A l a n d f i l l is s u b j e c t e d to a c o m p l e x mechanical and
b i o c h e m i c a l stress e n v i r o n m e n t , as i l l u s t r a t e d on F i g u r e 2.
Understanding of the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t e s t r e s u l t s and
the i n - s i t u p e r f o r m a n c e of a s t a b i l i z e d d e p o s i t is still
under development. Stabilized landfills are s i m i l a r to
e a r t h dams w i t h r e s p e c t to the n e e d for s e l f - s u p p o r t and
r e s t r i c t i o n of fluid m o v e m e n t , but the f l u i d s are r e t a i n e d
w i t h i n the e m b a n k m e n t . Quantifying deformations, leachate
and gas p r o d u c t i o n rates and quality, a n d m a t r i x l o n g e v i t y
requires detailed engineering analysis. Such analysis would

seem to be n e c e s s a r y to p r o v i d e the basis for s p e c i f y i n g
appropriate material properties. Nevertheless, certain
regulations and rules of thumb are also applied.
Freeze-Thaw
~n~iltratio~ Moist-Dry
Blodegradatlon
$ubgrade Settlement
Figure 2. In-situ Environment of a Stabilized Landfill
The u n c o n f i n e d c o m p r e s s i o n test is readily u n d e r s t o o d

by n o n - t e c h n i c a l persons, and is a d a p t a b l e to e m p i r i c a l
o p t i m i z a t i o n of proportioning, m i x i n g methods, mixing time
effects, etc. In s t a b i l i z a t i o n by m i c r o e n c a p s u l a t i o n , the
s t r e n g t h i n d i c a t e s e n t r a p p i n g s t r u c t u r e development, but
does not in itself assure isolation has been achieved. This
test may also be used as a design s t a n d a r d for m e c h a n i c a l
stability, and an u n c o n f i n e d c o m p r e s s i v e strength (qu) of
340 kN/M 2 (50 psi) is often specified for stabilization of
h a z a r d o u s wastes. This s t a n d a r d is readily met with many
inorganic wastes, but can be u n a t t a i n a b l e with organics. In
any case, the s c e n a r i o of Figure 2 doesn't require such
strength for physical stability.
The key m e c h a n i c a l c o n c e r n is d i m e n s i o n a l stability,

indicated by the s t i f f n e s s . If u n c o n f i n e d compression
results show very high stiffness, low m o n o l i t h deformations
are probable. For porous monoliths, however, deformation
behavior is better predicted with results of the
one-dimensional compressibility or consolidation test (ASTM
2435). This allows calculation of the total and
d i f f e r e n t i a l settlements due to g r a v i t y (self-weight) and
cap loads. Such data is i m p o r t a n t in p r e d i c t i n g cap
a l i g n m e n t s t a b i l i t y and r a i n f a l l runoff efficiency. High
settlements also indicate fluid (gas and leachate)
expulsion during consolidation.
However, consolidation
tests by are time c o n s u m i n g and mask the effects of ongoing
Downloaded/printed
hydration. Consequently, they are best run on o p t i m i z e d

mixtures after initial screening with the simpler
u n c o n f i n e d compression test.
Characterization of i m m o b i l i z a t i o n is g e n e r a l l y done
with leaching and p e r m e a b i l i t y tests. The former is often a
b a t c h e q u i l i b r i u m test that subjects p u l v e r i z e d samples to
agitation in an a g g r e s s i v e acidic solvent, i.e., EP
T o x i c i t y and TCLP tests. Results are used in a pass-fail
mode to determine if a waste or treated waste is hazardous,
and also to i n d i c a t e the types and r e l a t i v e order of
mobilized contaminants (14). However, these tests provide
little data on m o b i l i z a t i o n rates.
S e q u e n t i a l batch tests (15) or c o l u m n p e r m e a t i o n (16)

provide more insight into the probable contaminant leaching
rates and changes in l e a c h a t e quality (strength and
constituents) with a c c u m u l a t e d solvent exposure. One issue
is whether a leaching test should be done on p u l v e r i z e d or
intact stabilized material. The former discounts the
c o n t r i b u t i o n of p h y s i c a l m i c r o e n c a p s u l a t i o n , and is thus
more conservative. However, in a large monolith, only the
s u r f i c i a l p o r t i o n is s u b j e c t e d to e x p a n s i o n / c o n t r a c t i o n
cycles under climatic variations. Below the surface layer,
not only is the waste m a t e r i a l insulated, but it is also
laterally confined. P e r m e a b i l i t y tests on intact specimens
w o u l d thus be more a p p r o p r i a t e for p r e d i c t i n g leachate
quality, and also indicate internal transport ease as well.
Some adjustments to c o n v e n t i o n a l s t a b i l i z a t i o n practice

were appropriate at this site. The waste is not hazardous,
but c l a s s i f i e d as an i n d u s t r i a l residue, w h i c h will have
practical effect of allowing design to be more performance
than prescription based. Capacity restrictions limited
final landfill volumetric "swell" to at most 100% (relative
to the e x i s t i n g sludge volume). The c o n s t r u c t i o n plan at
this site was to place and compact a fresh m i x t u r e of a
soil-like consistency and allow further hydration in place.
A high strength c e m e n t - p o z z o l a n s t a b i l i z i n g mixture with
50% sludge-filled porosity was developed. However,
immobilization was poor, as indicated by results with water
or dilute acid permeation. With s u b s t i t u t i o n of cemented
clay as the b a s i c matrix, standards and a n a l y s i s more
appropriate to soils were a2plied. An as-compacted
c o m p r e s s i v e strength of 50 kN/M z and a d o u b l e d value when
h a r d e n e d was s p e c i f i e d to a s s u r e e q u i p m e n t s u p p o r t and
slope s t a b i l i t y . Settlement from gravity (self-weight)
compression was seen as unavoidable.
WASTE MATERIALS
Hydrocarbon Sludge
The sludge consists primarily of long-chain aliphatics

and polycyclic
Downloaded/printed by aromatics, but also has considerable sulfur.
It p a s s e s b o t h EP T o x i c i t y a n d TCLP tests in terms of

hazardous m a t e r i a l concentrations. C o n s t i t u e n t s classified
as h a z a r d o u s v o l a t i l e s (Boiling p o i n t < 100~ were not
detected a b o v e the m i c r o g r a m s / l i t e r (ppb) range. Some
hazardous listed materials l i s t e d as s e m i v o l a t i l e s and
nonvolatiles are p r e s e n t up to the range of several
hundred ppm. Only small traces of c h l o r i n a t e d compounds or
heavy metals were detected.
The sludge from the most liquid lagoon used in all tests
r e p o r t e d herein has an ash content of 4.5% and an organic
carbon content(TOC) of 35.3%. The c o n s i s t e n c y is similar
to that of a slow-curing roadway asphalt.
Spent and Na%ive Clays
The spent clay or fuller's earth was used for color and
metal removal in lubricant production. It was originally
deposited in piles at 10% to 20% oil content, but expulsion
of oils by c o n s o l i d a t i o n and clay h y d r a t i o n has occured.
The native clay is a c t u a l l y on the s i l t - c l a y borderline.
Table 1 is a summary of clay properties:
TABLE 1
Clay Properties
Property Spent Clay
Coarse fraction minerals quartz quartz
Clay fraction minerals attapulgite kaolinite
Cation exchange capacity 105 m e q / g m 49 meq/gm

(EPA m e t h o d 9081)
In-situ moisture content 50% to 100% 10% to 20%
In-situ oil & grease content 4% to 8% 0
Index properties
specific gravity 1.98 2.72
liquid limit 140% 31%
plastic limit 76% 22%
shrinkage limit 30% 12%
finer than #200 mesh 78% 86%
finer than 0.002 mm 10% 6%
Compacted properties
max. dry unit weight 8.2 kN/m 3 17.5 kN/m 3
optimum moist, content 30% 16%
H Y D R O C A R B O N REFINING W A S T E 191
The specific g r a v i t y (Gs) was m e a s u r e d on samples oven

d r i e d at I05~ for 24 hours. M o i s t u r e c o n t e n t s are also
b a s e d on this dry weight. However, the "moisture" lost in
the drying includes volatile organics as well as water. The
oil & grease content of the spent clay was reported by the
site owner, and is part of the m e a s u r e d moisture content.
The h i g h i n - s i t u m o i s t u r e of the spent clay p o s e d

p o t e n t i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n problems. A d m i x i n g 5% to 10% lime
allowed a i r - d r y i n g to about 60% m o i s t u r e in a few hours,
but longer e x p o s u r e s are r e q u i r e d for f u r t h e r m o i s t u r e
removal. O v e r d r y i n g could have n e g a t i v e effects, such as
inadequate moisture availability for p o z z o l a n i c cement
hydration. Consolidation tests also show significant
swelling for moisture contents below 70%.
U n c o n f i n e d compression tests on the spent clay indicate

s t r e n g t h s i n c r e a s i n g from 65 kN/m 2 (I0 psi) to about i00
k N / m 2 (15 psi) as it dries from 70% to about 60% moisture
content. Samples c o m p a c t e d at m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t s over the
60% to 70% range c o n s i s t e n t l y d i s p l a y e d p e r m e a b i l i t i e s of
the 10 -8 cm/sec magnitude.
The less p l a s t i c native clay exists in friable, loamy

aggregations. Its readily dried, p u l v e r i z e d and compacted
to a c o n t i n u o u s and r e m o l d e d structure. P e r m e a b i l i t y and
compressibility studies of this m a t e r i a l were thus done
under two conditions, p r e s u m a b l y r e p r e s e n t i n g the extremes
of the structure in which the sludge could be encapsulated:
-Static c o m p a c t i o n to about 80% S t a n d a r d P r o c t o r unit

weight at o p t i m u m m o i s t u r e content (OMC), m o d e l i n g an
a g g r e g a t e d result of low mixing and compaction effort
-Kneaded compaction at 4% a b o v e the OMC to m o d e l a

heavily remolded (mixing and compaction) effort, to about
93% of Standard Proctor unit weight
0,02
0.00
,J l IIilll
"r" 0.02
lllll
-r ~0.04 ~\L
c" ~.0.06
l.... I...................... '
m Static Compaction
,.- -0.08
(/) 9 Kneaded Compaction
IIiII
.o.,o _;_........ [
.0.12
i ;FiiH ........ fill
1 10 100 1000
2
Stress, kN/m
Figure 3. One-Dimensional Compression of Native Clay
Figure 3 shows results of o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l compression

tests on the n a t i v e clay. The staticly compacted or
a g g r e g a t e d sample was stiff at low pressures, but softened
at the overburden stress range anticipated in the
stabilized monolith, up to about 100-160 kN/m 2 for deposits
10-15m thick. The aggregated samples also displayed
permeabilities around 5 x 10 -5 cm/sec. Remolding and
densification by kneading action improved stiffness and
d e c r e a s e d p e r m e a b i l i t y to about 2.5 x 1 0 - 8 c m / s e c . With
these results, it was d e t e r m i n e d that it was not advisable
to preserve the clay structure in the final sludge mixture.
Unconfined compression tests also show significant

s t r e n g t h gain with age. For the samples c o m p a c t e d with a
H a r v a r d M i n i a t u r e a p p a r a t u s a r o u n d the OMC, a s - c o m p a c t e d
strengths were around 80 kN/m 2, increasing 50% to 75% with
30 days of "curing".
Additives
Lime is n e c e s s a r y for neutralization, reduction in clay

plasticity, and participation in the cementing reaction.
Hydrated dolomitic lime was u s e d to m i n i m i z e heat and
volatilization.
Type F fly ash (not self-cementing) is a v a i l a b l e from

nearby power plants. It serves as a m o i s t u r e absorbent to
improve sludge and clay blending, and then p a r t i c i p a t e s in
the pozzolanic cementing. Fly ash also appears to serve as
a c o n t i n u i n g source of a l k a l i n i t y d u r i n g p e r m e a t i o n with
acidic solvents,thus improving the longevity of the
s t a b i l i z a t i o n process. The fly ash u s e d has a specific
gravity of 2.49, a median grain size (d50) of 0.03mm, and
8% to 12% unburnt carbon content (Loss on Ignition test).
P o z z o l a n hydration is r e l a t i v e l y slow, and it would be

f u r t h e r r e t a r d e d by the p r e s e n c e of o r g a n i c matter. To
establish the best-case scenario, lime-fly ash mixtures in
the ratios 1:3 to 1:4, and at a range of water contents
from 10% to 50% (based on total dry weight) were compacted
in 2.5 cm d i a m e t e r t e f l o n molds. Specimens were then
e x t r u d e d and cured in sealed bags. U n c o n f i n e d compressive
strengths of 500 kN/m 2 to 700 kN/m 2 at moisture contents of
25% to 35% were obtained in 30 days. Water contents beyond
this range gave poor results. A rich lime-fly ash additive
blend in the ratio of 1:3 was c h o s e n for the sludge
s t a b i l i z a t i o n to allow uptake of c a l c i u m by both the clay
and the pozzolanic reaction.
A d d i t i o n of small a m o u n t s of p o r t l a n d c e m e n t to the
pozzolan blend substantially increased the strength.
Portland cement will be u s e d to i m p r o v e or a c c e l e r a t e
strength gain only if needed.
MIXTURES USED
In t h e e m p i r i c a l studies, mixtures were described by

r e l a t i v e w e i g h t p r o p o r t i o n s in the order:
acidic sludge/clay/fly ash/hydrated lime
The clay p r o p o r t i o n is on a d r y w e i g h t basis. O t h e r key

v a r i a b l e s are the c o n s i s t e n c y of the raw sludge, the water
c o n t e n t of the c l a y used, a n d the m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t of the
c o m p l e t e m i x t u r e m e a s u r e d w i t h I05~ o v e n drying. As n o t e d
above, the latter measure includes volatile organic
m a t e r i a l as w e l l as water. It w o u l d be e x p e c t e d that the
moisture content would decrease with time, indicating
p o z z o l a n h y d r a t i o n and t i m e - d e p e n d e n t v o l a t i l e adsorption.
The s l u d g e f r a c t i o n is the r e f e r e n c e "i.0 parts", w i t h

the other components expressed as r a t i o s to t h e s l u d g e
c o n t e n t . The m i x t u r e t h a t a p p e a r e d to be o p t i m u m w i t h the
spent c l a y is described:
1.0 sludge/l.0 spent clay/0.75 fly a s h / 0 . 2 5 lime
W i t h the less p l a s t i c n a t i v e clay, a s m a l l e r a m o u n t of

that m a t e r i a l was r e q u i r e d to give the d e s i r e d consistency,
i m m e d i a t e s t r e n g t h a n d i m m o b i l i z a t i o n results:
1.0 sludge/0.75 native clay/0.75 fly a s h / 0 . 2 5 lime
Spent c l a y m o i s t u r e a f f e c t s b o t h c o n s t r u c t i o n e a s e and
mixture performance. O n e t e s t series, c a l l e d the "moist
c l a y " mix, was m a d e w i t h the s o u r c e c l a y at 60% w a t e r
content, p r o d u c i n g a net m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t for the m i x t u r e
of 36.2%. A s e c o n d s e r i e s e m p l o y e d c l a y at 50% m o i s t u r e ,
resulting in a f r e s h m i x t u r e m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t of 34.2%.
W h i l e t h i s is not r a d i c a l l y drier, t h e t e x t u r e was quite
d i f f e r e n t . This set can be r e f e r r e d to as the " f r i a b l e " or
drier c l a y mix. Both the source clay and the mixture
m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t are above the O M C for the c l a y (Table i) .
The n a t i v e c l a y w a t e r c o n t e n t is r e a d i l y c o n t r o l l e d ,
a l l o w i n g a single c l a y m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t to be u s e d (17.5%),
just a b o v e the o p t i m u m moisture content. The resulting
m i x t u r e was 11.0% m o i s t u r e content.
E a c h m i x t u r e was c o m p a c t e d in a P r o c t o r m o l d at b o t h
full and 50% S t a n d a r d P r o c t o r e f f o r t as shown on Table 2.
The s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y (Gs) of an o r g a n i c m i x t u r e d e p e n d s
upon the definition of the solids. To compute the
volumetric efficiency of e n c a p s u l a t i n g the sludge, a
specific gravity can be c a l c u l a t e d with the unreacted
pozzolan and clay proportions. T h i s y i e l d s G s = 2.24 for
the spent c l a y mix, and G s = 2.54 for the n a t i v e c l a y mix.
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TABLE 2
Compacted Mix V o l u m e t r i c s
Proper%y SPen% Clay Mix N~tive Clay Mix
Clay moisture (i05oc) 50% 17.5%
Mix moisture (I05oc) 34.2 ii.i
Full effort unit weight 13.5 kN/M 2 15.4 kN/M 2
50% effort unit weight 13.3 kN/M 2 14.8 kN/M 2
Mixture specific gravity 1.951/2.242 2.081/2.542
50% effort porosity 48% 35%
50% effort saturation 72% 43%
Notes: i. Measured G s on complete mixture residue at i05~

2. Calculated G s based on original solids
In computations of seepage and compression, it was noted

that the n o n v o l a t i l e sludge f r a c t i o n c o u l d be t r e a t e d as
part of the solids. The saturation, m o i s t u r e content and
p o r o s i t y values shown on Table 2 are b a s e d upon specific
gravities m e a s u r e d with I05OC oven d r y i n g residue, 12% to
20% below G s values computed from the added solids.
EMPIRICAL STANDARDS
The p r o p o r t i o n i n g s cited above were clearly selected on

the basis of the best that could be done with the given
components while meeting the requirement for high porosity.
Much of the rest of this paper describes the test results,
but it is first necessary to establish acceptable values of
permeability, strength, etc. One a p p r o a c h is to treat the
original m e c h a n i c a l and h y d r a u l i c p r o p e r t i e s of the clays
as t h e s t a n d a r d s . The b a s i c premise is that the clay
skeleton is w e a k e n e d and e x p a n d e d to a c c o m o d a t e the sludge
volume. The p o z z o l a n i c cementing s h o u l d thus at least
restore the original clay matrix properties. The basis for
this a p p r o a c h is twofold: steep clay slopes are stable at
the site, and, d e s p i t e the p r e s e n c e of the u n s t a b i l i z e d
sludge lagoons for up to one-half century, the permeability
of the soils is sufficiently low that only minimal
groundwater impact has been detected.
A s e c o n d a p p r o a c h is to work from the intent of the

project as a whole, reducing the risk of c o n t a m i n a n t
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reserved); Thu Sep 5 of
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EDT 2019 p o t e n t i a l release m e c h a n i s m and
the in-situ environment would indicate the required

characteristics of the s t a b i l i z e d mixture. Wastes pose a
t h r e a t to the e n v i r o n m e n t if a c o n t a m i n a n t is in a m o b i l e
form, a transport pathway is a v a i l a b l e and a gradient
e x i s t s to induce a n d s u s t a i n m o v e m e n t . D e s i g n thus centers
on r e s t r i c t i n g one or m o r e of t h e s e f a c t o r s to r e s t r i c t
r e l e a s e of c o n t a m i n a t e d p a r t i c u l a t e s , gases or liquids.
The first two potentially mobile contaminant forms,

particulates a n d gas, are r e a d i l y a d d r e s s e d at this site.
Solidification will limit particulate erosion during
construction, the cap w i l l seal t h e w a s t e a f t e r closure,
a n d the m o n o l i t h i c s u b g r a d e i t s e l f h e l p s to m a i n t a i n the
cap i n t e g r i t y . W i t h a h i g h l y o r g a n i c waste, v a p o r s from
d i r e c t v o l a t i l i z a t i o n or b i o d e g r a d a t i o n w o u l d a p p e a r to be
a serious concern. However, the sludge has b e e n e x p o s e d for
years, such that volatiles initially present n e a r the
surface are now gone, as confirmed by low vapor
concentrations during the field study. The saturated
hydrocarbons resist a n a e r o b i c d e g r a d a t i o n , a n d the rate of
a e r o b i c d e c o m p o s i t i o n in the m o n o l i t h will be r e s t r i c t e d by
oxygen diffusion rates. Consequently, post-closure gas
g e n e r a t i o n rates will p r o b a b l y be v e r y low.
Leachate is the m a j o r l o n g - t e r m c o n c e r n at t h i s site.

Mechanisms that might generate leachate from landfill
d e p o s i t s include: a) free l i q u i d d r a i n a g e b ) c o n s o l i d a t i o n
expulsion of p o r e water, c) surface or g r o u n d water
infiltration and seepage, a n d d) m o l e c u l a r diffusion. A
v e r y b a s i c g o a l of s l u d g e s o l i d i f i c a t i o n is to r e m o v e or
a b s o r b free liquid, a n d this was s u c c e s s f u l l y done with the
soil-like consistencies of the m i x t u r e s described above.
Measurements of the l u m p e d o r g a n i c d i f f u s i o n coefficient
for the s t a b i l i z e d m i x t u r e y i e l d e d v a l u e s in the range of
i0 -I0 m 2 / s e c (17). C o n s e q u e n t l y , n e i t h e r m e c h a n i s m s "a" nor
"d", above, are seen as serious concerns.
The s t a b i l i z e d but u n h a r d e n e d m i x t u r e s w i l l be p l a c e d
a n d c o m p a c t e d to about the d e g r e e of s a t u r a t i o n n o t e d in
T a b l e 2. C o n s o l i d a t i o n of h a r d e n i n g layers under subsequent
overburden l i f t s w i l l t e n d to e x p e l p o r e g a s e s in the
c l a y e y m i x t u r e rather than the s e m i - l i q u i d e n t r a p p e d sludge
a n d r e t a i n e d w a t e r (18). Thus, as p o r o s i t y is reduced, the
d e g r e e of s a t u r a t i o n will increase. C o n s e q u e n t l y , expulsion
of l e a c h a t e w i l l not o c c u r at a substantial rate until
accumulated compression c a u s e s a l a y e r to a p p r o a c h 100%
saturation. W h i l e c o n s o l i d a t i o n e x p u l s i o n is a c o n s t r u c t i o n
and short-term post-closure problem, it is l i k e l y to
p r o d u c e a h i g h l y c o n c e n t r a t e d leachate.
Preventing leachate generation by t h i s mechanism

r e q u i r e s l i m i t i n g c o m p r e s s i o n of the lowest layers. If the
as-placed porosities and saturations are as i n d i c a t e d on
T a b l e 2, t h e n the s t r a i n r e q u i r e d to e x p e l l all gases and
i n i t i a t e l i q u i d e x p u l s i o n is about 12%. D e p e n d i n g upon the
overburden
s t r e s s on the l o w e s t layer, t h i s s t r a i n limit
sets the minimum acceptable stiffness, or inversely,

maximum compressibility.
The long term concern is leachate generation by

infiltration. In c o n v e n t i o n a l landfills, the waste deposit
i t s e l f g e n e r a l l y o f f e r s no r e s i s t a n c e to i n f i l t r a t i o n or
seepage. During filling, all i n c i d e n t rainfall produces
leachate as the f i n a l cap has not yet b e e n i n s t a l l e d .
D e s i g n of the l e a c h a t e c o l l e c t i o n c o n c e n t r a t e s on l i m i t i n g
the d e p t h of p o n d i n g on the l i n e r , t o s u p p r e s the g r a d i e n t
a c r o s s a b a r r i e r t h a t is r e l a t i v e l y t h i n c o m p a r e d to the
potential d e p t h of l i q u i d surcharge on it (19). A f t e r
closure, limiting leachate production rates depends upon
the cap to s h e d r a i n f a l l a n d r e s t r i c t i n f i l t r a t i o n , a n d on
the liner s y s t e m (if any) to resist g r o u n d w a t e r intrusion.
In contrast, b o t h l i q u i d e n t r y into a n d p a s s a g e t h r o u g h
s t a b i l i z e d w a s t e d e p o s i t s is r e s t r i c t e d by the p e r m e a b i l i t y
or h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y . D u r i n g filling, m o s t r a i n f a l l
can run off w i t h m i n i m a l c o n t a c t w i t h the w a s t e mass. For
the post-closure term, a worst-case condition c a n be
e n v i s i o n e d . In this scenario, a f i l m of w a t e r lies atop the
deposit between a flat, l e a k i n g cap a n d t h e t o p of the
m o n o l i t h . In this case, a s s u m e d to be steady, the h y d r a u l i c
gradient is u n i t y due to g r a v i t y , and the velocity as
described by D a r c y ' s l a w is n u m e r i c a l l y equal to the
permeability (V = K) . R a i n f a l l rates in e x c e s s of this
a m o u n t runs off even if the cap is cracked.
W i t h the e q u i v a l e n c e of the v e r t i c a l s e e p a g e rate and

the p e r m e a b i l i t y , an a c c e p t a b l e v a l u e of the l a t t e r can be
set d i r e c t l y f r o m the m a x i m u m a l l o w a b l e l e a c h a t e p r o d u c t i o n
rate, o f t e n set by r e g u l a t i o n . One a s p e c t of the c l a y - b a s e d
s t a b i l i z a t i o n is that e v e n if the c e m e n t d e t e r i o r a t e s , the
m a x i m u m s e e p a g e r a t e is s t i l l r e s t r i c t e d b y the l o o s e n e d
clay matrix permeability, a " s e l f - l i n i n g " feature.
A n o t h e r c o n c e r n is l e a c h a t e g e n e r a t i o n f r o m i n n u n d a t i o n
of l o w e r l a y e r s b y a r i s i n g w a t e r t a b l e in t h e d i s t a n t
future when l e a c h a t e c o l l e c t i o n m a y be d i s c o n t i n u e d . If the
monolith permeability is s u b s t a n t i a l l y b e l o w t h a t of the
local soil, the l a n d f i l l is a b a r r i e r to r e g i o n a l g r o u n d
water flow (9). U n d i s t u r b e d samples of t h e n a t i v e soil
display a horizontal hydraulic conductivity of 3 x 10 -5
cm/sec. A s t a n d a r d t h a t m i g h t be a p p l i e d is a r e q u i r e m e n t
that the h a r d e n e d sludge m i x t u r e be b e l o w 3 x 10 -I cm/sec,
two orders of m a g n i t u d e b e l o w the s u r r o u n d i n g soil.
IMMOBILIZATION RESULTS
Permeability/Hydraulic Conductivi%y
Stabilized mixture permeability is u s e d as a measure of

its cby
Downloaded/printed a p a b i l i t y to p h y s i c a l l y isolate contaminants as well
as an i n d i c a t o r of r e s t r i c t e d i n t e r n a l f l u i d m o v e m e n t in
g e n e r a l . A b o u t 200 g of e a c h f r e s h m i x t u r e was c o m p a c t e d
w i t h e i t h e r 50% or 100% of S t a n d a r d P r o c t o r e f f o r t in 6.35
cm d i a m e t e r f i x e d wall p l e x i g l a s s p e r m e a m e t e r s . Curing and
saturation for 14 d a y s was a l l o w e d u n d e r a r e s e r v o i r of
d i s t i l l e d w a t e r (pH = 6) 3 c m deep, f o l l o w e d by f a l l i n g - h e a d
p e r m e a b i l i t y tests. The range of h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t changes
during permeation was r e s t r i c t e d to m a i n t a i n an a v e r a g e
g r a d i e n t of a b o u t 80 cm/cm. Some t e s t s w e r e run at lower
g r a d i e n t s to i n v e s t i g a t e the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n g r a d i e n t
and p e r m e a b i l i t y , but the results were i n c o n c l u s i v e .
T h e r e w e r e no m e a s u r a b l e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e spent
c l a y m i x t u r e samples c o m p a c t e d at e a c h level of effort, but
the moisture c o n t e n t of the m i x t u r e was i n f l u e n t i a l . The
m o i s t clay m i x t u r e s a m p l e s d i s p l a y e d p e r m e a b i l i t i e s in the
10 -8 c m / s e c range, w h i l e the f r i a b l e or d r i e r c l a y samples
showed permeabilities about one o r d e r of m a g n i t u d e higher.
E i t h e r r e s u l t w o u l d be r e g a r d e d as v e r y low p e r m e a b i l i t y
a n d met the r e q u i r e m e n t of b e i n g two o r d e r s of m a g n i t u d e
b e l o w the s u r r o u n d i n g soil.
Compaction effort did have a major influence on the

permeability of the m i x t u r e s including t h e n a t i v e silty
clay as the matrix. Heavy compaction is apparently
n e c e s s a r y to d i s r u p t a n d r e m o l d the c l a y a g g r e g a t e s , as was
described earlier for t h e c l a y b y i t s e l f . Light (50%
Proctor) compaction produced values of a b o u t 2 x 10 -5
cm/sec. H e a v y (100% Proctor) c o m p a c t i o n of the same m i x t u r e
p r o d u c e d s i m i l a r unit w e i g h t s (Table 2), b u t the r e s u l t i n g
permeabilities were in the range of 3.5 x 10 -7 cm/sec.
MicroencaDsulation with PermeatiQn
In considering the overall goal of contaminant

immobilization, the q u a l i t y of the l e a c h a t e is as important
as the v o l u m e t r i c p r o d u c t i o n rate. W i t h the w i d e a r r a y of
hydrocarbon fractions, the t o t a l o r g a n i c c o n t e n t (TOC) of
the p e r m e a m e t e r e f f l u e n t was u s e d as the i n d e x of sludge
microencapsulation. A l k a l i n i t y a n d pH w e r e a l s o m o n i t o r e d .
Two p e r m e a n t s were used: distilled, d e - a i r e d w a t e r and the
same l i q u i d w i t h 0 . 0 5 N s u l f u r i c a c i d (pH=2) . However, the
s t a b i l i z e d m i x t u r e a l k a l i n i t y was so h i g h that t h e r e was no
noticeable difference in p e r m e a b i l i t y or e f f l u e n t q u a l i t y
results with either permeant, e v e n a f t e r p a s s a g e of eight
p o r e v o l u m e s of s o l u t i o n . W i t h l o w e r p l a s t i c i t y a n d clay
fraction, the native clay mixture had a richer lime
content. T h i s is r e f l e c t e d in the e f f l u e n t pH. For the
spent c l a y m i x t u r e s , the e f f l u e n t p H v a r i e d f r o m 6 to 8,
w h i l e the n a t i v e clay samples p r o d u c e d e f f l u e n t p H ' s in the
range of i0 to Ii.
F i g u r e 4 shows the r e s u l t s of e x t e n d e d p e r m e a t i o n with

distilled w a t e r of the d r i e r spent c l a y m i x t u r e a n d the
Copyright
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m i x tThu
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t h c o m p a c t i o n e f f o r t s . A f t e r the
"first flush", or d i s p l a c e m e n t of the p o r e liquid, the two

c l a y m i x t u r e s w e r e f o u n d to be of s i m i l a r e f f e c t i v e n e s s in
retaining hydrocarbons. The p o o r e r i n i t i a l q u a l i t y of the
spent c l a y m i x t u r e i n d i c a t e s t h a t lower p e r m e a b i l i t y does
not c o m p e n s a t e for t h e m o r e o p e n s t r u c t u r e , i.e. h i g h e r
p o r o s i t y . The T O C of the first few s a m p l e s m a y a l s o reflect
mobilization of t h e o i l initially in t h e spent clay.
S e p a r a t e - p h a s e l i q u i d was not d i s p l a c e d in e i t h e r case.
4000
3000 I" Native ClayMix #1
~ Native ClayMix #2
E
I
II Drier Spent Clay Mix
u" 2000
0
t.--
1000
. . . . I I ,",, ,I . . . . [ - i l i ~ ~} i , , I
2 4 6 8 10 12
Pore Volumes Passed
Figure 4. R e s u l t s of S t a b i l i z e d Mixture Permeation
It is u s e f u l to study l e a c h i n g r e s u l t s in terms of mass

b a l a n c e s . A f t e r I0 p o r e v o l u m e s of t h r o u g h p u t , less than 3%
of t h e h y d r o c a r b o n c o n t e n t of a n y s p e c i m e n was m o b i l i z e d
a n d displaced. It is e s t i m a t e d that the l i q u i d in the pores
w o u l d h a v e a T O C of a b o u t 2 0 , 0 0 0 m g / l if t h e r e w e r e no
immobilization.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF S T A B I L I Z E D MIXTURES
Unconfined Compressive Strenath
S a m p l e s were c o m p a c t e d at 100% P r o c t o r e f f o r t in t e f l o n
molds, extruded, and c u r e d in s e a l e d c o n t a i n e r s . C o m p a c t i o n
at lower e f f o r t s did not y i e l d c o n s i s t e n t results. Some of
the n a t i v e clay m i x s a m p l e s were also c o n f i n e d in the molds
for 60 days of c u r i n g b e f o r e e x t r a c t i o n and testing.
S tby
Downloaded/printed ress-strain c u r v e s for the d r i e r spent c l a y m i x t u r e
are shown in Figure 5, and the strength gains with time for
the two moisture contents are illustrated in Figure 6. The
curves shown in Figure 5 are typical for remolded clays, as
expected, as the moisture content is above the OMC for the
clay. C o n s i s t e n t increase in strength and stiffness with
time is a t t r i b u t e d to the p o z z o l a n i c cementing. This did
not cause i n c r e a s e d b r i t t l e n e s s , as f a i l u r e t y p i c a l l y
o c c u r e d at at about 10% strain. The goal of m e e t i n g the
s o u r c e clay s t r e n g t h (65-100 k N / m 2) was met, but the
h y d r o c a r b o n s do s e r i o u s l y affect the cementing. A major
strength increase would otherwise be e x p e c t e d according to
soil stabilization practice with pozzolans (20).
160
140
e4 120
E
~ 100
~ 60
''OOAYO0 E
40
9 7DAYCURE
20 [] 30 DAY CURE
0
'o.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 ~.20
Strain, AL / L
Figure 5. Stress-Strain Behavior of Spent Clay Mixes
_E 140 1
120
100 ~ ~i~t, m Moist Clay Mix

~- fJ 9 Friable Clay Mix
80 .,
=
,Ooo 20
l I
m 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
TIME, DAYS
Figure
Downloaded/printed by 6. Strength Gain Rates of Spent Clay Mixes
Despite a concern for moisture a v a i l a b i l i t y for pozzolan

hydration, the moist clay mix showed lower strength gain.
A p p a r e n t l y , the extra m o i s t u r e h a d a n e g a t i v e effect in
reducing clay skeletal strength, masking any improvement in
pozzolanic hydration. If the use of w e t t e r clay were
unavoidable, it would probably be n e c e s s a r y to add portland
cement to bring strength up to standard.
S t r e s s - s t r a i n results for the native clay mixture are

shown in Figure 7. This mixture was drier and had a lower
clay skeleton proportion than the spent clay mixtures (0.75
part vs. 1.0 part). The native clay mixture was stiffer in
u n c o n f i n e d compression, with peak strengths obtained at 3%
to 4% strain. Effects of lateral confinement during curing
were also studied, with a 25% increase in s t r e n g t h and
d o u b l e d stiffness after 60 days curing. C o m p a c t i o n will
produce residual lateral stresses, so it is expected that
field samples will be as strong as laboratory specimens.
m 7 Day
9 15 Day
E I e 60 Day
' I " Confined-60 Day
100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5o ~ ~ ( : ~-.:)2 ~ ...............
u.00 0.01
Strain, AL / L
1T /II
0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Figure 7. Stress-Strain Behavior of Native Clay Mixes
R e p l a c i n g 25% of the lime in the native clay mixture

increased strength to about 175 kN/m 2 with 60 days curing,
but further cement a d d i t i o n at the e x p e n s e of the lime
r e d u c e d h y d r o c a r b o n fixation. A c h i e v i n g the stabilization
goal of 340 kN/m 2 (50 psi) strength cited earlier appears
to be i m p o s s i b l e with this set of c o n s t i t u e n t s at the
required volumetric efficiency for sludge encapsulation.
0ne-Dimen$ional Compression
The b e h a v i o r of the s t a b i l i z e d sludge in l a t e r a l l y

c o n f i n e d c o m p r e s s i o n affects cap alignment, p e r m e a b i l i t y
and l e a c h a t e g e n e r a t i o n . Test samples were o b t a i n e d by
p r e s sby
Downloaded/printed i n g cutter rings into the mixtures c o m p a c t e d into the
HYDROCARBON REFININGWASTE 201
m o l d s at 50% a n d 100% P r o c t o r effort. Rings were t h e n cured

in s e a l e d c o n t a i n e r s for one week, a n d t h e n l o a d e d as per
customary procedures (doubled l o a d at e a c h i n c r e m e n t ) ,
e x c e p t as n o t e d b e l o w . E a c h l o a d was r e t a i n e d for t h r e e
days to c o m p l e t e p r i m a r y (hydrodynamic) consolidation. All
d a t a r e p o r t e d h e r e i n are for the 100% c o m p a c t i o n specimens.
R e s u l t s for 50% effort s a m p l e s w e r e m a r g i n a l l y d i f f e r e n t .
Figure 8 shows one-dimensional compression v e r s u s log

s t r e s s r e s u l t s for t h e spent c l a y m i x t u r e s , including a
r e p l i c a t e sample. W h i l e it is c u s t o m a r y a n d c o n s e r v a t i v e to
run t e s t s on s a t u r a t e d soil, the l i k e l y f i e l d c o n d i t i o n is
t h a t m o s t of the d e p o s i t w i l l r e m a i n u n s a t u r a t e d . It was
a l s o d e s i r e d to i n v e s t i g a t e s w e l l i n g b e h a v i o r as t h i s was
o b s e r v e d w i t h the spent c l a y itself. A s - c o m p a c t e d samples
w e r e l o a d e d to an o v e r b u r d e n p r e s s u r e of 9.5 k N / m 2 before
the c o n s o l i d o m e t e r s w e r e f l o o d e d w i t h water. S e l e c t i o n of
an o v e r b u r d e n equivalent to a d e p t h of a b o u t 0.7 m e t e r s
before flooding was arbitrary. Neither swelling nor
c o l l a p s e was o b s e r v e d , indicating that the clay skeleton
was s t a b i l i z e d w i t h r e s p e c t to w e a t h e r s e n s i t i v i t y .
-O.OS
0.00
-I"
<1 0.05
r- o.lo
o.15
0.20
0.25
0.1 1.0 T0.0 300.0 1000.0
2
Stress kN/m
Figure 8. One-Dimensional Compression of Spent Clay

Mixtures
The m o i s t c l a y is m u c h m o r e c o m p r e s s i b l e , as w o u l d be
e x p e c t e d f r o m the u n c o n f i n e d c o m p r e s s i o n test r e s u l t s cited
earlier. At an o v e r b u r d e n stress of o v e r I00 k N / m 2 (about 8
m depth), the p r e d i c t e d s t r a i n w o u l d e x c e e d 12% a n d t e n d to
cause leachate movement. The i n i t i a l saturation of this
m i x t u r e is a b o u t 75% at a p o r o s i t y of 0.49. A 12% strain
would reduce the porosity to a b o u t 0.4, bringing the
s a t u r a t i o n to the 9 5 % - 1 0 0 % range if t h e r e is some r a i n f a l l
infiltration during construction. In c o n t r a s t , w h i l e the
drier c l a y is o n l y s l i g h t l y less p o r o u s and saturated
(Table 2), it w o u l d o n l y u n d e r g o about 6% s t r a i n a n d thus,
p r o b a bbyl y still remain u n s a t u r a t e d .
Downloaded/printed
F i g u r e 9 shows o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l compression r e s u l t s for

n a t i v e c l a y m i x t u r e s , w i t h s a m p l e s e x t r a c t e d f r o m the 100%
P r o c t o r e f f o r t m o l d s in the same m a n e r as d e s c r i b e d above.
In c o n t r a s t to the d r a m a t i c e f f e c t of c o m p a c t i o n e f f o r t on
p e r m e a b i l i t y , the c o m p r e s s i o n r e s u l t s were s i m i l a r for b o t h
c o m p a c t i o n s . The v a r i a t i o n shown on F i g u r e 9 is the loading
increment, w i t h one c u r v e r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e c u s t o m a r y load
d o u b l i n g at e a c h stage, a n d the o t h e r s h o w i n g the effect of
a c o n s t a n t or s i n g l e load i n c r e m e n t at h i g h stress levels.
This w o u l d m o r e a c c u r a t e l y r e p r e s e n t the f i e l d condition.
The difference between the two loadings is

insignificant, especially if c e m e n t h y d r a t i o n d u r i n g the
t e s t is a s s u m e d to c o n t i n u e . The same t i m e i n t e r v a l was
used (3 d a y s / p o i n t ) in e a c h test, a n d thus, at a g i v e n
s t r e s s level, say 50 k N / m 2, the c o n s t a n t - i n c r e m e n t sample
was m o r e fully cured, and p r e s u m a b l y , stiffer.
o.oo ill _I If
'I-
-0.05 . ]
r"
0.10 r~ Double Increment
i II
9 Single Increment
\ ILl
0.20 I I II
I 10 100 1000
2
Stress kN/m
Figure 9. One-Dimensional Compression of Native Clay

Mixtures
While the native clay mixture is m u c h stiffer in

unconfined compression, it is s i m i l a r in s t i f f n e s s to the
moist spent c l a y for laterally confined conditions. A
s t r a i n of about 12% is a l s o p r e d i c t e d at a p r e s s u r e of i00
k N / m 2. This w o u l d not, in itself, cause a l e a c h a t e p r o b l e m
as the m i x t u r e is m u c h drier.
SUMMARY
This p r o j e c t i n v o l v e d s t a b i l i z a t i o n and r e d e p o s i t i o n of
a n o n - h a z a r d o u s h y d r o c a r b o n sludge. V o l u m e t r i c c o n s t r a i n t s
indicated that a very porous product was needed to
encapsulate the sludge. Stabilization with a pozzolanic
cemented admixture alone d i d not p r o d u c e satisfactory
results. An a l t e r n a t i v e procedure
of e n c a p s u l a t i o n in a
clay matrix was investigated, using a spent attapulgite and

a native silty clay. P e r f o r m a n c e in m e c h a n i c a l stability,
and contaminant immobilization by isolation and fixation.
was considered. Empirical testing established optimum
component proportionings, further s t u d i e d to d e t e r m i n e
properties connected with prediction of m o n o l i t h behavior.
Several sets of criteria were considered, including: a)

customary standards applied to concrete-like stabilization,
b) m a t c h i n g g e o t e c h n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of the source clays
a n d c) p e r f o r m a n c e criteria indicated by a n a l y s i s of
monolith behavior to limit pollutant release.
It was d e t e r m i n e d that the strength criteria of set "a"

c o u l d not be met, but the c o n s e q u e n c e s are d e b a t a b l e .
A n o t h e r s t a n d a r d criteria, p a s s a g e of the EP T o x i c i t y or
TCLP tests, was already met by the source sludge. Without
further leachate q u a l i t y criteria, the fixation goal was
simply to make leachate quality as good as possible.
The p r e m i s e of set "b" was c o m p e n s a t i n g for sludge

inclusion in the c l a y w i t h p o z z o l a n i c cementing. The
o r i g i n a l clay strength, compressibility and p e r m e a b i l i t y
were m a t c h e d or e x c e e d e d by the s t a b i l i z e d mixtures. With
regards to c r i t e r i a set "c", it was d e t e r m i n e d that the
e r o s i o n and vapor loss m e c h a n i s m s of c o n t a m i n a n t release
were m i n o r problems, but l e a c h a t e g e n e r a t i o n by either
infiltration or consolidation was important. Heavily
c o m p a c t e d native clay and the d r i e r spent clay mixtures
showed good compressibility and p e r m e a b i l i t y values.
CONCLUSIONS
A landfill is a form of artificial geology, and

predicting the response to the internal and e x t e r n a l
environment is the l o g i c a l b a s i s for i n v e s t i g a t i o n and
design. S t a b i l i z e d waste monoliths can p r o v i d e performance
s u p e r i o r to c o n v e n t i o n a l c e l l u l a r solid waste landfills
that rely on an e x t e r n a l c o n t a i n m e n t for isolation. The
problem herein was formulation of p o r o u s mixtures to
construct a d i m e n s i o n a l l y stable m o n o l i t h that would limit
release of encapsulated contaminants.
It was n e c e s s a r y to use local clays to form a porous

skeleton, and to condition them structurally and chemically
w i t h a l i m e - f l y ash p o z z o l a n i c admixture. The a p p r o a c h
t a k e n was to adapt t r a d i t i o n a l geotechnical m e t h o d s of
analysis, testing, etc. to the problem, essentially
treating the waste deposit as an embankment In the
empirical study, it was determined that the primary
variable in the spent clay mixture was the m o i s t u r e
content, while p e r f o r m a n c e of the native clay mixtures
depended upon compactive effort and remolding of the
natural aggregations. It was also d e t e r m i n e d that the
additives
Downloaded/printed by would be best used in a 1:3 lime-fly ash ratio.
The result was that two sludge mixtures with reasonable

m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t y v a l u e s were obtained, suitable for a
m o n o l i t h s up to 12m thick in this h y d r o g e o l o g i c setting,
i.e.: the cap w o u l d have a stiff and s t a b l e subgrade,
deformations w o u l d not p r o d u c e leachate, and there was
little t h r e a t of i n f i l t r a t i o n and seepage. Approximate
volumetric d i v i s i o n of the s t a b i l i z e d m i x t u r e involved
dividing the sludge into mobile and solid fractions.
The p o z z o l a n i c c e m e n t e d clays e n c a p s u l a t e and also

fixate the waste by c o m p l e x and i n t e r r e l a t e d m e c h a n i s m s
that are not fully understood. It appears that fixation is
more of a lime conditioning of clay that encourages organic
p a r t i t i o n i n g in the pores rather than surface adsorption.
However, e m p i r i c a l leachate q u a l i t y result i n d i c a t e d that
it was not as n e c e s s a r y to clarify fixation m e c h a n i s m s as
to be able to predict mechanical and seepage behavior.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work was sponsored by Sun R e f i n i n g & Marketing Co.,

Dr.Arthur J.Raymond, Project Director
REFERENCES
l.Smith, C.L. and D.J. Frost, "Secure L a n d f i l l i n g with

P o z z o l a n i c Cementing", Proc. ist Ann Conf. on H a z a r d o u s
Waste Mgmt., Phila, Pa., pp 153-160, 1983.
2. Morgan, D.S., Novoa, J.I. and A.H. Halff, "Oil Sludge

S o l i d i f i c a t i o n using Cement Kiln Dust", J. Env. Eng. Div.,
ASCE ii0 (EE5), pp 935-949, 1984.
3.U.S.EPA "Handbook for S t a b i l i z a t i o n / S o l i d i f i c a t i o n of

Hazardous Wastes" EPA/540/2-86/001, 1981
4.Yen, B.C., and Scanlon, S., "Sanitary Landfill Settlement

Rates", J. Geotech. Eng. Div., ASCE i01 (GT5), 1975.
5. Murphy, W.L. and P.A. Gilbert " E s t i m a t i o n of M a x i m u m

Cover S u b s i d e n c e E x p e c t e d in H a z a r d o u s Waste Landfills".
Proc., 10th Ann. Research Symp., U. S. EPA, 0April 1984
6.Martin, J.P., Felser, A.J. and E.L. Van Keuren,

"Hydrocarbon Waste Stabilization for Landfills", Proc.
ASCE S p e c i a l t y Conf. for Waste Disposal, Ann Arbor MI, pp
June 1987.
7.Malone, P.G., and R.J. Larson, "Scientific Basis for

H a z a r d o u s Waste Immobilization", H a z a r d o u s and Industrial
Solid Waste Testing: Second Symp., ASTM STP 805,
R . A . C o n w a y and W~ eds., 1983.
8.Martin, J.P., Robinson, W.T., and E.L. Van Keuren, "Large

Volume S t a b i l i z a t i o n of H y d r o c a r b o n s with Spent Clay and
Pozzolans", Proc. U.S.Dept. of E n e r g y Oak R i d g e Model
Conf., Oak Ridge TN, Oct 1987
9. Martin, J.P., Biehl, F.L.,and W.T. Robinson, "Stabilized

Petroleum Refining Waste Interaction w i t h S i l t y Clay
Subgrade" Proc. Conf. on P e t r o l e u m Spill Impact on Soil,
Univ. of Mass., Amherst, Mass., Sept 1988.
I0. Robinson, W.T. " C h a r a c t e r i z i n g the L e a c h i n g Potential

of H y d r o c a r b o n Wastes from a S t a b i l i z e d Mixture" M.S. In
Environ. Engineering Thesis, Drexel Univ, Phila PA, 1987
ll.Van Keuren, E.L., Martino, J., Martin. J. and

A.Defalco,"Pilot Field Study of Refinery Waste
S t a b i l i z a t i o n " Proc. 19th M i d - A t l a n t i c I n d u s t r i a l Waste
Conf., Bucknell Univ., Lewisburg, PA, June 1981.
12. Van Keuren, E.L., "Advanced L a b o r a t o r y and Field Study

of Hydrocarbon Waste Stabilization with Pozzolans", M.S. In
Civil Engineering Thesis, Drexel Univ, Phila PA, 1987
13. Webster, W. C., "Role of F i x a t i o n P r a c t i c e s in the

Disposal of Wastes" ASTM Standardization News, March 1984.
14. Rinaldo-Lee, M.B., Kunes, T.P., and D.G. Nicholas, "A

Comparison of Groundwater Quality at S e l e c t e d Landfills to
L e a c h i n g Test Results", H a z a r d o u s & Solid Waste Testing,
First Conf., ASTM STP 760, 1983
15. Bishop, P. L. "Prediction of Heavy Metal Leaching Rates

from S t a b i l i z e d / S o l i d i f i e d H a z a r d o u s W a s t e s " T o x i c and
H a z a r d o u s Wastes, Proc. 18th M i d - A t l a n t i c Indust. Waste
Conf., Virginia Polytechnic Inst., pp 236-252, 1986.
16. M a s k a r i n e c , M.P., and D.K. B r o w n , " B a t c h and Column

Extraction Procedures for Organics in Solid Wastes" Hazard.
& Solid Waste Testing, ASTM Second Conf., STP 805, 1985
17. Daniel, D.E. and C.Shackelford, " E n g i n e e r e d Barriers

D e s i g n e d to Release Contaminants at Disposal Sites Only by
M o l e c u l a r Diffusion". Proc., U. S. Dept. of E n e r g y Oak
Ridge Model Conference, Oak Ridge TN., Oct. 1987
18. Martin. J.P."Embankment C o n s o l i d a t i o n from Unsaturated

to Saturated Conditions" PhD in Civil Engineering
Dissertation. Colorado State Univ., Ft Collins, CO, 1983
19. D e m e t r a c o p o u l o s , A.C., Korfiatis, G.P., Bourodimos,

E.I., and E.G. Nawy " M o d e l i n g for D e s i g n of L a n d f i l l
Bottom Liners" J.Env. Eng., ASCE Vol Ii0, (EE6), 1984
20. Winterkorn, H.T., "Soil Stabilization", Foundation Eng.

Handbook, H.F. Winterkorn and H.Y. Fang, Eds., Van Nostrand
Reinhold 1975.
Stability and Settlement Analyses
James Ko Mitchell, Raymond B. Seed, and H. Bolton Seed
STABILITY CONSIDERATIONS IN THE DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF LINED WASTE

REPOSITORIES
REFERENCE: Mitchell, J. K., Seed, R. B., and Seed, H. B.,

"Stability Considerations in the Design and Construction of
Lined Waste Depositories," Geotechnics of Waste Fills--Theory
and Practice," ASTM STP 1070, Arvid Landva,
G. David Knowles, Eds., American Society for Testing and
Materials, Philadelphia, 1990.
ABSTRACT: Safe disposal and storage of solid hazardous waste

now requires the construction and filling of repositories
underlain by multi-layer liner systems. These lining systems
typically contain a large number of material interfaces, many
of which have low shear strengths. This introduces potential
failure surfaces along the side slopes and base of the fill
mass which may control the overall stability of the overlying
waste fill during fill placement operations. This paper
discusses lessons learned from the investigation of the
Kettleman Hills repository stability failure of March 19,
1988, regarding evaluation of the shear resistances along the
different liner interfaces, the factors that control overall
stability of the waste fill mass, and application of these
lessons to analysis and design of safe repository filling
operations.
KEYWORDS: stability, waste repository, laboratory testing,

analysis, interface shear strength
THE KETTLEMAN HILLS WASTE LANDFILL SLOPE FAILURE
Landfill Unit B-19, covering an area of about 120,000 m 2, forms

part of a Class I hazardous waste treatment and storage facility at
Kettleman Hills, California. Unit B-19 is a large, oval-shaped "bowl"
with a nearly horizontal base, and side slopes of both i on 2 and i on
3. The lining of the northern end of the bowl, designated Phase I-A
and covering about 50,000 m , was completed first. A plan view of the
lined Phase I-A repository basin is shown in Fig. l(a).
Placement of solid waste and soil cover into the Phase I-A portion
of Unit B-19 began in early 1987, and proceeded at an essentially
The three authors are Professor, Associate Professor and former

Cahill Professor of Civil Engineering, respectively, all at the
University
Copyright by ASTM Int'l (allof
rightsCalifornia, Berkeley,
reserved); Thu Sep 5 12:03:30 EDT 2019 CA 94720.
209

210 GEOTECHNICS
OFWASTEFILLS
PhaseI-
~ ._p
hose 1-A
Top of Slope of ~ e d
~)
Gosin
(a) Plan View
(b) Cross-Section C - 1 / C - 2
20" Rolotiofl
SCALE T
0 50m
~= ~ -----Woste Fill--
/ ~ ~/1//// -- //////~//////
7 /// 2%Grode 2%Grode \Liner System
FIG. i -- Schematic illustration of lined repository basin and waste

fill mass: Kettleman Hills Unit B-19; March 19, 1988.
constant rate until March 19, 1988. A cross section showing the
elevation and profile of the fill at that time is shown in Fig. l(b).
On March 19, 1988, a slope stability failure occurred which

resulted in lateral displacements of the waste fill of up to Ii m., as
shown by the displacement vectors in Fig. 2, and surface settlements of
up to 4.3 m. Surface cracking was clearly visible, as also were tears
and displacements on the exposed portions of the liner system. The
failure developed over a period of a few hours, from early morning to
early afternoon. No subsequent movements have been measured.
Based on field observations, photographic and survey records, and

stability
Downloaded/printed by analyses, it was evident that the failure developed by
(UDESC)sliding along
Universidade do interfaces
Estado de Santa within
Catarina ((UDESC) Universidadethe multi-layer
do Estado liner
de Santa Catarina) pursuant system,
to License within
Agreement. No further reproductions authorize
LINED WASTE REPOSITORIES 211
0 5Om
II Boundory
FIG. 2 -- Plan view showing displacement vectors representing measured

lateral movements due to the slide of March 19, 1988
the compacted clay layers which form parts of the composite liner
system, or along combinations of liner interfaces and through the clay.
A more comprehensive and detailed description of the failure,

complete results of a testing program to evaluate system shear strength
properties, and stability analyses to determine the cause of the
failure are given by Seed et al. [i].
THE LINER SYSTEM AND FAILURE CONDITIONS
The composite flexible membrane liner (FML)-compacted clay double

liner system used at Kettleman Hills is consistent with the type man-
dated by the 1984 Amendments to the Resource Conservation and Recovery
Act. The base liner system, shown schematically in Fig. 3, provides
two pervious layers for leachate collection and removal, two 60 mil
thick Gundle high density polyethylene (HDFE) layers for leachate
retention, two compacted clay layers for leachate retention, and
geotextile layers (Trevira Spundbond No. 1145) for filtration. A layer
of HDPE geonet (Polynet 300) for drainage purposes was included above
the primary HDPE liner. The liner configuration used on the side
slopes of the fill basin was similar to that used on the base.
A properly constructed composite double liner system of the type

used at Kettleman Hills provides protection against transport of
leachate out of the containment system. At the same time, however, the
systemby contains a number of low strength interfaces which may act as
Downloaded/printed
(UDESC)potential surfaces
Universidade do Estado of((UDESC)
de Santa Catarina sliding whenever
Universidade elevation
do Estado de Santa differentials
Catarina) pursuant to License Agreement. No exist in authorize
further reproductions
FIG. 3 -- Schematic illustration of the multi-layer liner system at the

base of the Unit B-19, Phase I-A landfill
the waste fill such as was the case at the time of the landfill
failure, Fig. l(b).
From the results of a special testing program, which is described

in the next section, the most critical interface strength values were
determined to be those indicated in Table i.
When the strength values indicated in Table i were used in two-

dimensional stability analyses based on plane sections through the
landfill, composite factors of safety somewhat greater than one were
obtained. When three-dimensional analyses of the fill and liner system
were made, however, factors of safety closer to unity were obtained for
the geometry at the time of failure. The results of the stability
analyses are listed in Table 2. The methodology is summarized in a
later section of this paper and described in detail by Seed et al.
(1988).
TABLE I -- Friction Angles or Shear Strengths on Critical Interfaces

in the Kettleman Hills Landfill Liner System
Residual Friction
Angle (~r) or Residual Friction
Interface Residual Undrained Angle (4r)
Shear Strength (rr) Along Dry Slopes
Along Saturated Base
HDPE Liner/Geotextile 8o + 1o 9 ~ _+ 1 ~
HDPE Liner/Geonet 8 . 5 ~ -+ i ~ 8 . 5 ~ _+ 1 o
HDPE Liner/Saturated
Downloaded/printed by Clay 45 -+ 12 kPa N/A
TABLE 2 -- Summary of the Results of Stability Analyses

of the Unit B-19, Phase I-A Landfill at Failure
Base Wetting Factor of Safety

Conditions
2-D Analyses 3-D Analyses Overall Best

Estimate*
Wetting only in
the Vicinity of 1.2 to 1.25 (est.) 1.08 0.95-1.25
the Leachate
Collection Sump
Full Saturation
of Clay Along i.i to 1.15 (est.) 1.01 0.85-1.15
Repository Base
*Authors' estimates taking into account uncertainties in liner system

friction angles of • uncertainty in the 3-D analysis methods of
• and uncertainty in the HDPE/compacted clay interface shear
resistance of •
LINER INTERFACE STRENGTH EVALUATION
At the time of the Kettleman Hills Landfill failure few published

values of the interface shear resistance between the geosynthetic
components of liner systems or between geosynthetics and soils were
available. Martin et al. [2] reported values for sand-geomembrane
combinations, geomembrane-geotextile combinations, and sand-geotextile
combinations. Only the HDPE geomembrane to geotextile combinations
were representative of the potentially critical interfaces present in
the Kettleman Hills liner system, and Martin et al. [2] reported a
range of friction angles of 6 to ii degrees for these.
Accordingly, it was necessary to peform a testing program to obtain

the needed information. Both direct shear tests and pullout box tests
were used. The direct shear tests offered the advantages of simplicity
and the ability to test a number of interface combinations in a short
time. They had the disadvantages, however, of limited possible shear
displacement (0.75 cm. maximum) and rather small sample size
(7.1 cm. by 7.1 cm.). The pullout box tests permitted shear
displacements of more than 8 cm., with a larger initial interface
contact area of 214 square centimeters.
Direct Shear Tests
A modified Karol-Warner direct shear testing apparatus was used to

test interface combinations of HDPE liner/geotextile, HDPE liner/
geonet, geotextile/geonet, HDPE liner/HDPE liner, HDPE liner/compacted
clay, and geotextile/compacted clay. Interface specimens that did not
involve compacted clay consisted of 7.1 cm. by 7.1 cm. square samples
mounted with epoxy cement on 4 inch diameter platens as shown
schematically
Downloaded/printed by in Fig. 4(a). Corrections were made for decreasing
contact
(UDESC) Universidade area
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~-~"'~-Rigid Testing B o s e _ _
~ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ ~ \ \ \ \ \ \ ~ \ ~ - \ ~ Bo .
(c) Schematiclliustration ofPullout BoxTesting Apparatus

FIG. 4 -- Direct shear and pullout test configurations
displacement. Most interface combinations were tested both dry and

submerged and over a range of normal stresses from 150 to 500 kPa.
Shear displacement rates were 0.01 to 0.I cm./min.
The sample configuration for interface combinations that included

compacted clay is shown in Fig. 4(b). A 7.1 cm. by 7.1 cm. geo-
synthetic specimen was mounted on a 4 in. diameter round platen. The
clay liner material was compacted above this within a 5 cm. by 5 cm.
steel box to a thickness of 0.7 to 1.0 cm. using a Harvard Miniature
Compaction Test pneumatic tamping piston. The clay liner material at
the Kettleman Hills site was a mixture of on-site claystone, siltstone,
and sandstone plus 5 perce~t bentonite. It was compacted to initial
dry densities of 1450 kg/m (• 3~) and initial water contents of 27 to
31 percent. These values represented an average relative compaction of
94 percent
Downloaded/printed by and a water content of 5 percentage points above optimum
based
(UDESC) ondo the
Universidade Estado deStandard Proctor
Santa Catarina ((UDESC) Compaction
Universidade Test
do Estado de Santa Catarina)(ASTM
pursuant toD-698).
The results of the direct shear testing program are summarized in

Table 3. The test results show that the residual interface shear
resistance is mobilized at very small shear displacements. The results
show also that wetting results in about a i degree reduction in the
residual interface friction between polished geomembrane and geo-
textile. On the other hand, submergence resulted in a slight increase
in the mean values of residual friction angle between the HDPE geo-
membrane and geonet and for HDPE geomembrane sliding on HDPE geo-
membrane. This behavior, as well as the somewhat surprising finding
that the variability in residual friction angles for the HDPE liner to
HDPE liner interface is greater than for any of the other combinations
tested, suggests that small variations in geosynthetic material struc-
ture, surface texture, surface cleanliness, and sample orientation may
all influence the interface shear resistance.
Residual friction angles for all interface combinations were

generally from 0.5 degrees to 2 degrees less than the peak friction
angles. Peak friction resistance was developed at shear displacements
of 0.03 cm. to 0.65 cm., with a value of less than 0.12 cm. in most
cases, and in most tests residual conditions were achieved at shear
displacements of less than 0.25 cm.
HDPE liner/geonet interface strengths were found to be direc-

tionally dependent, so tests were done with different orientations of
the geonet relative to the direction of shear. Visual differences were
observed between the two sides of the geonet and of the HDPE geo-
membrane samples. The effects of these differences on the interface
shear resistance were investigated and found to be small.
When HDPE liner/geotextile interfaces were tested, a tendency for

the geotextile to "polish" the HDPE liner was observed. For this
reason, samples were sheared repeatedly in order to evaluate interface
friction under conditions ranging from "unpolished" (virgin samples) to
"fully polished," a condition at which repeated interface shear caused
no further reduction in shear strength.
The results in Table 3 show also that when shear between geonet and
geomembrane is along the geonet rib direction, the residual friction
angle is about 2 degrees less than for shear transverse to the ribs.
The "transverse" shear values were developed for angles between the
shear direction and the rib orientation of greater than about 15
degrees. Shear displacements in the Kettleman Hills failure were all
in the "transverse" direction.
Pullout Box Tests
The pullout box tests were done using the apparatus shown schemat-
ically in Fig. 4(c). Interface Material A was fixed to the bottom part
of the box. Two strips of interface Material B were cut to a width of
3.8 cm. and a length of 28 cm. and epoxied back-to-back with the sur-
faces to be tested facing outwards. This strip was placed on top of
Material A. A second sheet of Material A was placed over the strip of
Material B and fixed as shown in the figure. Spacers of Material B
were used alongside the test strip to maintain the upper sheet of
Material
Downloaded/printed by A at constant elevation when pneumatic pressure was applied
using
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The strip of Material B was pulled out at a constant rate of about

0.40 cm. per minute. The applied pullout force was m e a s u r e d u s i n g an
load cell, and the pullout d i s p l a c e m e n t was m e a s u r e d using a LVDT. The
data were recorded and processed using an IBM-PC/AT m i c r o c o m p u t e r with
A/D and D/A capacity.
Two "bridging" corrections were n e c e s s a r y to obtain the proper

values of interface normal stress. One was to account for the slight
gap along the sides b e t w e e n the edges of the Material B strip and the
adjacent spacers. The other was to account for the tail gap (Fig. 4c)
that formed as the test strip was p u l l e d out. In each case the pneu-
matic vertical pressure applied to one-half of the b r i d g i n g span was
a s s i g n e d to the interface contact pressures.
The use of d o u b l e - s i d e d pullout strips r e s u l t e d in an initial

interface contact area of 215 square cm., w h i c h was more than four
times the surface contact area in the direct shear tests. Also, the
p u l l o u t tests could be continued to shear d i s p l a c e m e n t s of more than
7.5 cm., as opposed to less than 0.75 cm. in the direct shear tests.
Pullout box tests were p e r f o r m e d for HDPE liner/geotextile inter-

faces, HDPE liner/geonet interfaces, and HDPE Iiner/HDPE liner inter-
faces. Combinations including compacted clay could not be tested in
the pullout box.
The pullout box test results are summarized in Table 4. Results of

the direct shear tests are also shown for comparison. It may be seen
that there is a very good agreement b e t w e e n the residual interface
shear strengths determined using the two types of tests. This adds
confidence to the use of the simple direct shear b o x tests for
d e t e r m i n a t i o n of interface strengths.
Finally, the results of the shear b o x and p u l l o u t box tests show

that the lowest strength interface combinations for the materials in
the K e t t l e m a n Hills liner system were HDPE liner/geotextile, HDPE
liner/geonet, and HDPE l i n e r / p r e - s o a k e d compacted clay interfaces.
TABLE 4 -- Comparison b e t w e e n pullout box and direct shear tests
Number Residual Friction Angle,~ r

Interface Conditions of
Pullout Pullout Direct Shear
Tests Tests Tests
HDPE Liner/ Dry, u n p o l i s h e d i 9.5 ~ 9.5 ~ to 12.5 ~

Geotextile Dry, polished i 8.0 ~ 8.5 ~ to 10.5 ~
Wet, u n p o l i s h e d 6 7.0 ~ to I0.5 ~ 8.0 ~ to I0.0 ~
Wet, p o l i s h e d 2 6.5 ~ to 9.0 ~ 7.0 ~ to 9.5 ~
HDPE Liner/ Submerged,

Geonet Transverse 2 8.0 ~ to 9.0 ~ 7.0 ~ to i0.0 ~
Submerged,
Aligned 6 6.0 ~ to 8.0 ~ 5.0 ~ to 8.0 ~
HDPE Liner/
Submerged 6 7.0 ~ to 13.5 ~ 6.0 ~ to 13.0 ~
HDPE Liner
STABILITY ANALYSIS CONSIDERATIONS
It was noted earlier in this paper that conventional two-

dimensional stability analyses made using the measured interface
strengths could not fully account for the Kettleman Hills landfill
failure. From cross sections such as B-I - B-2 shown in Fig. 5, plane
section (2-D) factors of safety can be computed, giving the results
shown in Fig. 6 (Seed et al., 1988).
Based on the interface shear strength testing program, the liner

system interface strengths were taken as:
(i) 4r = 8"5~ for dry interface conditions representative of the

sloping sides of the landfill basin, Fig. I.
(2) 4r = 8~ for submerged or moist conditions assumed represen-

tative of the nearly level base whenever frictional resistance
is less than the undrained elay/HDPE liner interface strength.
(3) fr = 45 kPa for submerged or wetted liner interface condi-

tions whenever the height of fill times its unit weight
(1750 kg/m ) times tan 8~ exceeds 45 kPa. This corresponds
to fill heights of more than about 18 m.
Residual interface shear resistances were used because the peak

resistances were exceeded at very small displacements, Table 3. Dis-
placements of these magnitudes are likely to have occurred during liner
construction or fill placement.
By weighting each plane section factor of safety in Fig. 6 in pro-

portion to the mass of fill tributary to the plane section, overall
factors of safety can be estimated to be about 1.15 to 1.25 for the
probable minimum base wetting case and about i.i to 1.15 for the full
base wetting case. The former assumes wetting only in the vicinity of
the leachate sump, shown in Fig. l(a). The latter assumes that all of
the nearly level base in Fig. l(a) is wetted. These factors of safety,
while low, do not indicate sufficient instability to result in the
o b s e r v e d s l o p e displacements of up to 35 ft.
The fact that the side slopes of i on 2 or 26.6 degrees on the

southwest and northwest sides of the basin and i on 3 or 18.4 degrees
on the northeast side are considerably greater than the interface
friction angle of 8.5 degrees is significant. It means that fill on
I
o
x Y
f.J Pl2
2 O p ~
2% G,o~e
X
Z~ Grode
Y
FIG.
Copyright by ASTM Int'l 5 reserved);
(all rights -- Kettleman Hills
Thu Sep 5 12:03:30 EDT 2019Unit B-19, cross section B-I/B-2
SCALE
~ =~ 50m
~oo ~oo
0_~u u_fl0w
~. ,<
\
\
\\\\
FIG. 6 -- Plane section factors of safety: Kettleman Hills Unit B-19,

Phase I-A landfill
the sides must rely on the resistance provided by the fill on the base
for support. Any component of this downslope force that acts in the
direction of potential sliding of the mass on the base will contribute
to instability. Accordingly, consideration must be given to three
dimensional effects.
No generally applicable methods for the three-dimensional stability

analysis of systems such as the Kettleman Hills repository have been
developed and verified. Assumptions must be made concerning failure
blocks, interblock stresses and kinematics, just as is the case for
two-dimensional analyses. Two approaches were used (Seed et al.,[l]).
In the first, a five block system as shown in Fig. 7 was analyzed.

Block boundaries were assumed vertical, side forces acting between
blocks were assumed to act horizontally, and the vertical equilibrium
of each block was considered along with overall translational equilib-
rium of all five blocks for some given direction of sliding. The over-
all potential for sliding in any given direction could then be deter-
mined. This force-equilibrium analysis indicated the most critical
potential sliding direction to agree closely with the actual observed
direction of sliding. The resulting calculated factors of safety were
1.14 and 1.06 for the minimum base wetting and the full base wetting
cases, respectively. Although this approach satisfies classical force
equilibrium requirements, it is not clear that this "rigid block"
analysis satisfies all of the requirements of kinematics and compati-
bility necessary to reproduce the actual failure motions. Some out of
plane movements and progressive failure are likely to have occurred in
(UDESC)the actual
Universidade field
do Estado de Santa case.
Catarina ((UDESC) Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina) pursuant to License Agreement. No further reproductions authorize
oii
FIG. 7 -- Five block analysis and critical sliding direction
Approximate analyses were made to take these possibilities into

account. Active driving forces and passive resisting forces were con-
sidered as shown schematically in Fig. 8. The convergence of the
active forces on the central resisting block illustrate why the three-
dimensional condition is potentially more critical than the two-
dimensional case.
An approximate three-dimensional analysis for this situation was

made by subdividing the mass by vertical planes into blocks for con-
sideration of representative cross sections which were then weighted in
proportion to their masses (Seed, et al., 1988). The overall factors
of safety calculated by this method were about 20 percent lower than
for the two-dimensional case and about 15 percent lower than for the
three-dimensional force equilibrium case, but this unconventional
analysis did not fully satisfy all conditions of translational
equilibrium. After consideration of all factors, it was decided that
the 5-block "rigid block" analysis of Fig. 7 missed some out of plane
motions and progressive failure mechanisms likely to have occurred in
the field (and evident in subsequent scale model studies of the
Kettleman Hills slide), and the factors of safety calculated by this
method were reduced by 5~ to give "best estimates" of the overall F.S.
by three-dimensional analyses.
After consideration of the uncertainties in the analysis methods,

and in the properties of the system, overall best estimates of the
factors of safety and their ranges were made as indicated in Table 2.
These results show that use of the measured interface strength proper-
ties and three-dimensional stability analyses yield factors of safety
at the time of failure close to unity, in satisfactory agreement with
the observed
Downloaded/printed by field behavior.
SCALE
~ m
I Active Driving
:~ MOSS Forces
\ ~ PossiveResisting
Moss Forces
~_~ ::~ ,, ~
, ~
\\\\\\
FIG. 8 -- Schematic illustration of three-dimensional failure mechanism
DISCUSSION
The Kettleman Hills Landfill failure and subsequent evaluation of

its causes has focused attention on several issues relating to the safe
design and operation of lined waste repositories. In the development
of liner systems to date, primary emphasis has been concentrated on the
collection of leachate and prevention of passage of any leachate
through the liner system into the ground and groundwater below. It is
now clear that the safe filling of landfills also requires careful con-
sideration of the stability of slopes within the fill that are bounded
by the liner system.
At the time of the Kettleman Hills failure little published infor-

mation was available on interface shear strength values. Additional
data developed by the authors for other interface combinations and
conditions are listed in Table 5. Also, as shown on this table, new
geomembranes with "textured" faces are now available. It may be seen
that a wide range of interface shear strengths have been obtained, and
that some of these for "non-textured" geomembrane to geotextile and
geomembrane to compacted clay combinations are very low.
The data in Tables 3, 4, and 5 show clearly that geosynthetic

material type, soil type, and test conditions must all be taken into
account in selection of appropriate values for analysis and design.
Interface wetting effects, consolidation conditions, grid orienta-
tions,and the surface texture and cleanliness of geomembranes may all
be important. Although the tests on materials from the Kettleman Hills
liner system indicated that the values of interface friction were not
significantly
Downloaded/printed by influenced by the magnitude of normal stress, this does
not
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Catarina) pursuant to License Agreement. No further reproductions authorize
TABLE 5 -- Additional Liner Interface Shear Strength Data
Interface Material Combination Range of Interface Shear

and Testing Conditions Normal Stresses Strength Parameters
Non-Textured H D P ~ C o m p a c t e d
Soil_Bentonite ~
(a) Sheared "As-Compacted" 250 to 500 kPa ~r ~ 5* to 24 ~ (2)
(b) Pre-Soaked Under
300 psf Surcharge, 250 to 500 kPa ~r ~ 5~ to 13 ~
U-U Sheared
Non-Textured H D P ~ C o m p a c t e d
Soil-Bentonite ~
(a) Sheared "As-Compacted" 250 to 500 kPa ~r ~ 8~ to 21 ~ (2)
(b) Pre-Soaked Under
300 psf Surcharge, 250 to 500 kPa ~r ~ 7~ to 15 ~
U-U Sheared
Non-Textured HDP~/Compacted
Soil_Bentonite ( )
Pre-Soaked Under 300 psf 150 to 200 kPa ~r ~ 24 to 28 kPa
Surcharge, U-U Sheared
Textured H D ~ / C o m p a c t e d Soil-
Bentonite i )
(Pre-Soaked Under 300 psf 150 to 450 kPa c r ~ 1,000 psf,
Surcharge, U-U Sheared) ~r ~ 10-5~
Textured HDPE/HDPE Geonet 150 to 450 kPa ~r ~ 14~ to 21 ~

Geotextile(5)/HDPE Geonet 150 to 450 kPa ~r ~ 15~ to 21 ~
Geotextile/Compacted Clay c r ~ 15 kPa,
(Pre-Soaked Under 300 psf) 150 to 450 kPa ~r ~ 28~
Geotextilei~)/C~mpacted
Soil_Bentonite ~ ) 150 to 450 kPa c r ~ 20 kPa,
(Pre-Soaked Under 300 psf) ~r ~ 25~
i. Sandy clay till +5~ bentonite: LL = 37, PI = 19.

2. Large variation as a function of compaction conditions.
3. Crushed claystone +5~ bentonite: LL = 82, PI = 48.
4. Silty clay + 5~ bentonite: Atterberg limits not available.
5. Nylon spun geotextile filter fabric.
Interfaces between geomembranes and compacted clay may be very

critical, and their shearing resistance may also be extremely sensitive
to the compaction conditions. This is illustrated by the data in
Fig. 9, where strength values for compaction to "as compacted" moisture
contents and densities wet of the line of optimums are significantly
less than those for compaction dry of the line of optimums. The wide
range of interface strengths and the many factors that influence the
specific values in any case mean that project specific values should be
determined by rigorous testing under anticipated "worst-case" field
conditions
Copyright for
by ASTM Int'l (all rights use Thuin
reserved); Sep evaluation
5 12:03:30 EDT 2019 of landfill stability.
LINED W A S T E REPOSITORIES 223
I I I 1 I I I I 1
2000
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Mod. AASHTO j \ ~
~STM DI557) \ 4 ~---S--9~%
E - "~'~'~ . ~ ~-s--,oo% -
c~
"~,2.6~.72. \
>_" ~-o--\-;!~ ~e~,~\'~(~Z0NE I~",~

I-- \
co - -
Z
i,i
r~
>-
n-
O
...'%.\-
236 ~ 9 / 9 \ I
o \ 9
On = 250 kPa I
1500 - O-n 500 kPa
I I I I I I ' 1
9 II 13 15 IT 19
WATER C O N T E N T AT C O M P A C T I O N (%)
FIG. 9 -- Smooth HDPE/compacted soil-bentonite interface residual

friction angles (samples sheared "as-compacted")
It can be argued that stability problems could easily be avoided by

filling repositories uniformly from the bottom, thus avoiding large
elevation differentials. This is impractical in most cases, however,
for economic and operational reasons. The use of flatter side slopes
in a repository would also reduce the risk of slope failures for any
given fill height. This, however, reduces the available storage volume
for a given landfill area.
These considerations mean that careful stability analyses should be

made to enable the development of safe filling operational plans. The
investigation of the Kettleman Hills repository slide suggests that
three-dimensional effects should be considered in analyzing the
stability of lined waste repositories. Further research is needed,
however, to develop and verify suitable generalized methods for making
these three-dimensional analyses.
Finally, insufficient attention has thus far been given to the

seismic stability of waste landfills. It is not clear what levels of
seismicity must be considered "during construction," and what levels
of performance must be provided for long-term seismic stability under
maximum credible earthquake loading. Seismic response characteristics
of typically heterogeneous waste fill masses are, thus far, largely
unknown.
Copyright Similarly,
by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); Thu there isEDT
Sep 5 12:03:30 little
2019 information currently available
Downloaded/printed
regarding by dynamic strength and stress-deformation behavior of liner
interfaces.
CONCLUSIONS
The results of the investigation of the 1988 slope stability fail-

ure at the Kettleman Hills Class I hazardous waste repository teach
valuable lessons about the safe design and construction of lined waste
landfills. These include:
(i) Multi-layer liner systems which have been devised for the safe
containment and removal of landfill leachate may contain liner
interfaces with low shear strength, including friction angles
as low as 8 degrees or less.
(2) Simple direct shear tests can be used to determine reliable

values for interface strength properties.
(3) Because of the variability in interface strengths that is

associated with different geosynthetic liner system components
and compacted clays used in composite double liner systems,
values of interface strength should be determined specifically
for each project using samples of the actual materials and
representative placement, loading, and wetting conditions.
(4) In situations involving low shear strengths such as may occur

in liner systems, three-dimensional effects may be important
in evaluating stability.
(5) The repository filling operations should be planned in such a

way that an adequate factor of safety can be maintained at
all times and for all fill heights. This can be done by
means of systematic analyses of stability for different fill
geometries.
(6) While the concept embodied in (5) is simple in principle, it

is presently difficult in detail owing to (I) the lack of a
suitable generalized method for doing three-dimensional
stability analyses, and (2) uncertainties about the effects of
seismic loadings on the response and stability of lined land-
fills. Both of these issues need further study.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank Clarence K. Chan, Richard C. Sisson, Makram

Jaber, Mu Hsiung Chang, and Peter G. Nicholson of the University of
California, Berkeley Geotechnical Group who assisted in the testing.
REFERENCES
[i] Seed, R. B., Mitchell, J. K. and Seed, H. B., "Slope Stability

Failure Investigation: Landfill Unit B-19, Phase I-A, Kettleman
Hills, California," Geotechnical Engineering Report No. UCB/GT/88-
01, University of California, Berkeley, CA, July, 1988, 96 pp.
[2] Martin, J. P., Koerner, R. M. and Whitty, J. E., "Experimental

Friction
Copyright by ASTM Evaluation
Int'l (all rights reserved); of Slippage
Thu Sep 5 12:03:30 EDT 2019 Between Geomembranes, Geotextiles
and
Downloaded/printed by Soils," Proceedings International Conference on Geomembranes,
Denver, Colorado, Jun 20-23, 1984, pp. 191-196.
Tuncer B. Edil 1, Valeri J. Ranguette2 and William W. Wuellner3
SETTLEMENT OF MUNICIPAL REFUSE
REFERENCE: Edil, T. B., Ranguette, V. J., and

Wuellner, W. W., "Settlement of M u n i c i p a l Refuse,"
G e o t e c h n i c s of Waste Fills - Thoery and Practice, A S T M
STP 1070, Arvid Landva and G. David Knowles, Eds.,
A m e r i c a n Society for Testing and Materials,
Philadelphia, 1990.
ABSTRACT: Refuse settlement in sanitary landfills is a complex
process, which is dominated by secondary compression. Two
mathematical models are used to model refuse settlement at four
different sites. A data bank of empirical parameters was obtained and
the trends observed.
KEYWORDS: refuse, settlement, settlement model, empirical settlement
parameters, compression, rate of compression, landfill
INTRODUCTION
Refuse settlement in sanitary landfills, though frequently a
troublesome and unpredictable problem offers at the same time a
significant opportunity to the landfill operator for increasing the
potential disposal capacity. Although f i l l e d to design grades, after
closure landfill surfaces rapidly settle below the approved final
grades. While this phenomenon is understood, a suitable model to
predict this behavior has not been available or generally accepted.
Consequently, valuable a i r space (volume), previously approved by
regulatory agencies, may not be f u l l y used. More accurate prediction
of this settlement may permit a range of opportunities including
better estimates of the remaining l i f e of existing landfills, and
improved predictability of surficial refuse movement and i t s impact on
cover integrity, future vertical expansions, and ultimate use of the
landfill surface.
The mechanics of compression of refuse are many and complex.
Settlement-time curves from sanitary landfills d i f f e r from those for
typical clay settlement curves; however, they are similar to those
from organic soils and peats. This paper outlines an analysis
approach using two different mathematical functions for the refuse
settlement-time relationship. These relationships, which have
previously been used to predict peat and soil settlement incorporate
the significant factors controlling refuse settlement.
iprofessor of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison,
Madison, Wisconsin
Geotechnical Engineer, Warzyn Engineering Inc., Madison, Wisconsin
Group Manager, Construction 3ervlces, EWI Engineering Associates, Madison,
Wisconsln
225 de Santa Catarina) pursuant to License Agreement. No further reproductions authorize
(UDESC) Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina ((UDESC) Universidade do Estado
Copyright* 1990 by ASTM International www.astm.org

The mathematical models were applied to the settlement data

obtained from four different l a n d f i l l s and the parameters
characterizing the compression of refuse were calculated. The
dependency of the refuse settlement parameters on the stress level
and the strain rate was evaluated for a range of conditions such as
age of refuse, active f i l l i n g or post-closure and leachate
extraction. The limited data preclude broad generalization of the
models for a variety of conditions; however, t h e i r v e r s a t i l i t y and
u t i l i t y as a tool for estimating the settlement of refuse,
especially during active f i l l i n g or post-closure, are demonstrated.
MECHANICS OF REFUSESETTLEMENT
The mechanics of refuse settlement are many and complex, even

more so than for a soil due to the extreme heterogeneity of, and
large voids present in, the refuse f i l l . The main mechanisms
involved in refuse settlement are the following:
1. Mechanical (distortion, bending, crushing and

reorientation; similar to consolidation of organic
soils);
2. Ravelling (movement of fines into large voids);
3. Physical-chemical change (corrosion, oxidation and

combustion); and
4. Bio-chemical decomposition (fermentation and decay,

both aerobic and anaerobic processes).
The factors affecting the magnitude of settlement are many and are
influenced by each other. These factors include: I) i n i t i a l
refuse density or void ratio; 2) content of the decomposable
materials in the refuse; 3) f i l l height; 4) stress history;
5) leachate level and fluctuations thereof; and 6) environmental
factors (such as moisture content, temperature and gases present or
generated within the l a n d f i l l ) .
I t should be noted that refuse settles substantially both under

i t s own s e l f weight as well as under the weight of a new load (for
example, the placement of new refuse over existing refuse). A
factor complicating the computation of stress changes due to these
weights is the introduction of cover soil to refuse f i t 1 . The
addition of cover soil makes the measurement and interpretation of
unit weight values more d i f f i c u l t . As a result, two types of
refuse unit weight can be defined: 1) Actual refuse unit weight
(weight of refuse per unit volume of refuse); and 2) Effective
refuse unit weight (weight of refuse plus cover per unit volume of
l a n d f i l l ) , [1].
SETTLEMENT OF MUNICIPAL WASTE 227
In themselves, actual refuse unlt weights are highly e r r a t i c .

Within a l a n d f i l l , refuse unit weights t y p i c a l l y vary from 5 to 11
kN/cu m. Moisture contents t y p i c a l l y range from 10 to 50 percent,
on a percent of dry weight basis [ I - 3 ] .
Settlement of refuse f i l l is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y irregular.

I n i t i a l l y , there is a large settlement within one or two months of
completing construction, followed by a substantial amount of
secondary compression over an extended period of time. The
magnitude of settlement decreases over time and with increasing
depth below the surface of the f i l l . Under i t s own weight, refuse
settlement t y p i c a l l y ranges from 5 to 30 percent of the original
thickness, with most of the settlement occurring in the f i r s t year
or two.
PREVIOUS REFUSESETTLEMENTSTUDIES
Various methods of analysis and prediction of post-construction

refuse f i l l settlement are reported by several investigators [2-5].
Settlement due to compression of refuse f i l l under external surface
load can be plotted in terms of strain (ratio of settlement to
i n i t i a l f i l l height) versus the logarithm of effective stress
(pressure). Settlement magnitude can be predicted based on the
settlement coefficient, the slope of the straight line connecting
two selected stresses [2, 4]. The problems with t h i s method
include: 1) for older f i l l s , the i n i t i a l f i l l height is usually
unknown; 2) effective stress is a function of refuse density, which
usually cannot be determined accurately; and 3) the strain-log
stress relationship is not a s t r a i g h t - l i n e relationship; therefore,
the settlement coefficient, which is proportional to settlement
magnitude, varies as the stresses (pressures) within the f i l l
change.
Another approach, is to calculate settlement rate as settlement

magnitude per unit time interval. Yen and Scanlon [5] collected
settlement platform data from several l a n d f i l l sites and calculated
settlement rate as the ratio of change in platform elevation to
elapsed time between surveys. Since the settlement platform data
for these sites covered periods of up to nine years following the
end of construction, they were able to plot settlement rate versus
log time and determine the b e s t - f i t linear relationship by the
least-squares method.
Yen and Scanlon compared t h e i r data with Sowers' f i e l d

observations and noted that the rate of settlement decreases with
time logarithmically [5]. Sowers noted the time-dependent
secondary compression of refuse and reported values of the
coefficient of secondary compression, a (based on Buisman's
d e f i n i t i o n for soils) for some sanitary l a n d f i l l s . Sowers noted
that the a values for refuse were comparable to those of peat and
organic soils and dependent on how favorable the conditions were
Copyrightfby r decomposition
oASTM [2,
Int'l (all rights reserved); Thu Sep 53].
12:03:30 EDT 2019
PROPOSED REFUSE SETTLEMENT MODELS USED
The conventional approach to soll compression requires a

separation of primary and secondary compression and treatment of
each with different mathematical expressions. In the long term,
secondary compression of refuse is larger than other compression,
and i t is often d i f f i c u l t to make a distinction between primary and
secondary compression. Therefore, a simple model combining all
stages of compression Is needed. Two such models are investigated
in this study.
Gibson and Lo Model

The rheologlcal model proposed by Gibson and Lo [6] for the
long-term (secondary) compression of soils was found to be rather
useful in predicting the settlement of peats [7]. Peat, like
refuse, involves mechanisms of compression different than those In
inorganic clays. Both peat and refuse have relatively large void
spaces that compress quickly during i n i t i a l and primary settlement,
but by far the largest compression is due to the slow and
continuous process of secondary settlement, where the particle
structures begins to break down. Encouraged by the simplicity and
usefulness of the theological model proposed by Gibson and Lo we
decided to apply the same model to field refuse settlement records.
This rheological model is shown in Fig. la, and I t represents

the average compression c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s in the one-dimensional
compression of the refuse f i l l shown in Fig. lb. The applied
increment of stress can be e i t h e r the s e l f - w e i g h t of the refuse or
i t may be imposed on the refuse surface.
IAO"
bl
. . . . . . . . ~; S : Settlement
k/b Refuse
Hf [a,b,)~/b]
:'.'.~.--
(a) (b)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . H
Figure i Rheological Model

SE1-FLEMENT OF MUNICIPAL WASTE 229
When a stress increment, Aa, acts on the model, the Hookean

spring, with a spring constant of a, compresses instantaneously.
This is analogous to primary compression. The compression of the
Kelvin element, with a spring (spring constant of b) parallel to a
dashpot (viscosity of ~/b) is retarded by the Newtonian (linear)
dashpot. Thls is similar to the continuous process of secondary
compression under sustained effective stress. The sustained load
is transferred progressively to the Hookean spring from the
Newtonian dashpot. After a long time, ( i . e . , in the secondary
compression range), the f u l l effective stress will be taken by the
two springs, thus the dashpot will sustain no load. The
tlme-dependent settlement can be expressed as:
S(t) = H ~(t) = H Ao {a + b(1 - exp[ - (~/b) t ] } (I)
where
S= settlement
H= i n i t i a l height of refuse
= strain (settlement divided by the layer thickness,i.e., S/H)
Aa = compressive stress
a = primary compressibility parameter
b = secondary compressibility parameter
~/b = rate of secondary compression
t = time since load application
Power Creep Law
One of the simplest forms of a relation for time-dependent

deformation under constant stress and one that has been extensively
used in representing the transient creep behavior of many
engineering materials is the power creep law. According to this
law, the time-dependent settlement can be expressed as:
S (t) = H ~(t) = H Aa m(t/tr) n (2)

where
m = reference compressibility
n = rate of compression
t r = reference time introduced into the equation to make time
dimensionless (t r = 1 day in this study)
Other terms are as defined before.
Determination of Model Parameters
An interactive spread sheet program was developed at the

University of Wisconsin-Madison on a personal computer in f i t t i n g
Eqs 1 and 2 to the settlement-time records from various f i l l s . The
program uses the method of the logarithm of strain rate (A(/At)
versus time in determining the parameters, a, b, and X E7, 8] and
the method of the logarithm of strain (c) versus logarithm of time
in determining parameters m and n from the settlement-time record.
Accordingly, the settlement-time record is incrementalized and the

operator chooses the range over which these functions give a linear
p l o t . From t h i s portion of the plots, model parameters are
calculated. The program provides a plot of the actual strain
versus time, along with the calculated strain (from the calculated
model parameters) versus tlme so that the quality of c u r v e - f l t t l n g
can be v l s u a l l y evaluated.
SITES MODELED
Data from four different existing refuse f i l l s were analyzed.

All four of these sites are municipal l a n d f i l l s . I t was assumed
that the refuse in each of these four sites is about the same
composition. The sites are in northern climates, thus there Is
s u f f i c i e n t r a i n f a l l to promote the degradation of the refuse which
affects settlement. Table I summarizes the known values of refuse
thickness, settlement, data collection duration, and refuse
placement conditions.
Site A
Thls refuse s i t e is in southeastern Wisconsin. Placement of

the refuse f i l l at t h i s site began In the early 1970's. The
settlement data was collected using settlement platforms surveyed
periodically from 1984 to 1986. The age of the refuse f i l l below
each platform varied but was estimated to be between O to 4 years
at the time the data were obtained. The data collection at this
site continued for approximately 1.8 years. For t h i s study two
categories of loading conditions were considered. The f i r s t
category is called "minimal f i l l i n g " . This category represents a
condition of settlement under essentially self weight during data
collection. The second category is called "active f i l l i n g " , since
additional refuse and daily cover were added during data
collection. Thus, the second category represents a condition of
settlement under both self weight and the placement of additional
f l l l above the platforms [9]. The leachate level was about 7.6 m
above the base of the l a n d f i l l during data collection. Near
Platforms 7 and 9, there was occasional leachate extraction.
Site B
This refuse s i t e is in southern Michigan. The refuse f i l l has

been placed in the l a n d f i l l since 1969. In 1985 an expansion area
was constructed on top of the existing f i l l . The settlement data
collection began in 1985, during placement of the additional f i l l
in the expansion area. Again, two d i f f e r i n g conditions existed
during t h i s 1.2 year study. The f i r s t was the old refuse that was
already in place below the settlement platform. After the
placement of new refuse, settlement was monitored at varying
horizontal distances of between 50 to 250 feet from the expansion
TABLE 1 - - REFUSESETTLEMENT DATA
Refuse Time
Platform Thickness Settlement Duration Placement
Number (m) (m) (yr) Condition
SITE A
1 13.73 0.52 1.6 Fresh Refuse: No f111Ing

2 8.01 0.59 1.6 Fresh Refuse: No f l l l l n g
3 9.25 1.11 1.6 Fresh Refuse: No f111ing
4 9.84 1.19 1.8 Fresh Refuse: No f i l l i n g
15 26.74 0.37 1.5 Fresh Refuse: Mlnlmal fl111ng < lm
16 25.15 0.43 1.3 Fresh Refuse: Minimal f i l l i n g < Im
8 36.75 3.20 1.5 Fresh Refuse: Active fi111ng ~ 6m
10 37.38 2.99 1.7 Fresh Refuse: Active fl111ng < 6m
11 19.66 2.10 1.4 Fresh Refuse: Active f i l l i n g < 6m
12 27.94 1.94 0.7 Fresh Refuse: Active f l l l l n g ~ 6m
13 23.46 0.72 1.1 Fresh Refuse: Active f i l l i n g ~ 6m
SITE B
S-4 15.24 0.09 1.2 Old Refuse: No f i l l i n g

S-5 15.24 0.21 1.2 Old Refuse: No f t l l l n g
S-6 15.24 o.g4 1.2 Fresh Refuse: Active f i l l i n g
SITE C
84-2 10.06 0.65 4.0 01d Refuse: Relocated/Compacted

84-3 10.06 0.58 4.0 Old Refuse: Relocated/Compacted
SITE D
SP1 3.05 0.38 0.9 01d Refuse: Surcharge

SP2 3.05 0.64 o.g Old Refuse: Surcharge
SP3 3.05 0.44 0.9 Old Refuse: Surcharge
area. The second condition was the active f i l l i n g of fresh refuse

directly above the settlement platform [10].
Site C
This refuse site is in western Connecticut. A 40 to 50 year

old "town dump" was excavated and relocated at a new site. This
site was monitored for 5 years. The only settlement that occurred
was due to the self weight of the compacted refuse [11].
Site D
Site D consisted of (a) experimental cells that were

constructed to monitor settlement and (b) an area of old refuse
below the settlement platform when an embankment load was added.
The duration for this study was I year [12].
MODELING
The settlement platforms were placed as shown in Fig. 2. The

refuse thickness (Ho) is the i n i t i a l thickness of the refuse below
the settlement plate. Additional refuse was placed above the
settlement platform (h). The times of placement of the additional
refuse above the platforms were unavailable for the four sites, i t
was assumed that the additional refuse above the platform was
placed at time zero, when the data collection was started. The
average applied stress (Ao) in the layer of refuse below the
platform was calculated as follows:
A~ = 7h + I/2(7Ho) - 1/2(7+7w-7sat)(Hw2/Ho) (3)
where:
A~ = average applied stress
7 = moist unit weight of refuse
7sat = saturated unit weight of refuse
7w = unit weight of leachate (water)
Ho = i n i t i a l height of refuse below platform
h = height of refuse above platform
Hw = height of leachate above base liner
A moist unit weight of 10.7 kN/m3 and a saturated unit weight of

14.6 kN/m3 were used in computing the average applied stress at
each of the sites.
The programs that were used to model the Gibson and Lo model
and the power creep law plotted predicted strain versus log time,
along with the actual strain versus log time for the data that was
input. Emphasis was placed on the later portion of the curve in
the case of the Gibson and Lo model, where secondary compression
occurs,
Copyright by ASTM and
Int'l (all rights there
reserved); Thu Sep is a constant
5 12:03:30 EDT 2019 effective stress. In the case of
the
Downloaded/printed by power creep law, the whole range of the data was considered in
SETTLEMENT OF MUNICIPALWASTE 233
Figure 2 Typical Settlement Platform
curve-fitting.The curve f i t t i n g predictions were generally

accurate, with a few exceptions of the early data not f i t t i n g the
computed curve, especially for the Gibson and Lo model. Fig. 3
shows typical curves f i t t e d to the data using the two methods.
A few of the settlement records could not be analyzed with

these models. I t is believed that these records violated the
assumption of constant stress change. Overall, the power creep law
gave a better representation of the data in 65% of the cases than
the Gibson and Lo model. For the remaining 35% of the cases, i t
was comparable to the Gibson and Lo model, except only one case.
0 . . . . . . .9. , . .Site
. . . . .A. ~ 0 . . . . . . . .~ , . . Site
. . . . .A
.
~9 (a) ~ i (__b}
l-- E~, & 1 6 Eq. 2 ~_
8
I 9
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 8
". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "
10 100 1000 10 lO0 1000
Time (day) Time (day)
Figure 3 S t r a i n - t i m e curves by a) the r h e o l o g i c a l

Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); Thu model and
Sep 5 12:03:30 b) the power creep law f i t t e d to
EDT 2019
the measured data
REFUSE COMPRESSIONMODELPARAMETERS
Gibson and Lo Model Parameters
The three empirical parameters of the Gibson and Lo model

derived for the four sites are summarized in Table 2 and plotted in
Figs. 4, 5 and 6. The curves In these figures are trends not
actual relations. Fig. 4 plots a, the primary compressibility as a
function of stress. The amount of primary compression decreases
with an increase In stress. For the "active" f i l l i n g in Site A, a
higher value was obtained indicating more primary settlement was
occurring during placement of the fresh refuse. In Fig. 5 the
secondary compressibility, b, is shown to decrease with increasing
stress. Generally, the "active" f i l l i n g sites show lower amounts
of secondary settlement than for the "minimal" f i l l i n g sites. This
is due to the fact that the "active" f i l l i n g cases were s t i l l
experiencing substantial primary settlement. Undisturbed old
refuse from sites B and C has a lower secondary compressibility
compared to fresh refuse or old refuse recently surcharged (Sites A
and D and Platform $6 from Site B). The rate of secondary
compression, ~/b, as a function of average strain rate is
i l l u s t r a t e d in Fig. 6. Average strain rate is defined as total
strain divided by elapsed time during data collection. As
expected, as the average strain rate increases, so does the rate of
secondar~ compression. This behavior was also observed for peat
soils [TJ and indicates that the dashpot is essentially nonlinear
in the model. The impllfication of t h i s is that the parameters
obtained from a f i l l must be extrapolated with care to another f i l l
with different refuse thickness and applied stress even i f the
composition and location are similar. There was not any observable
effect of leachate extraction on the parameters, perhaps because of
i t s limited scope.
Applied Stress, Ao (kPa)
Fioure 4 Primary compressibility verus applied stress
Figure 5 Secondary compressibility versus applied stress
Figure 6 Rate of secondary compression versus average

Downloaded/printed by strain rate
TABLE 2 - - EMPIRICALMODEL PARAMETERS
Applled Average Gibson & Lo Power Creep

Platform Stress Strain a b X/I~ m n
Number (kPa) (%/yr) ( 1 / k P a ) (1/kPa) (I/day) (I/kPa) ( t r = I day)
SITE A
I 77.21 2.37 4.42e-5 1.62e-3 5.60e-4 5.48e-6 0.702
2 54.09 4.59 1.40e-4 5.87e-3 4.00e-3 5.75e-6 0.862
3 53.58 7.51 3.52e-4 2.18e-3 3.10e-3 1.38e-4 0.438
4 45.00 6.81 1.78e-4 4.58e-3 1.20e-3 1.18e-5 0.850
15 146.27 0.83 5.32e-7 1.77e-3 9.20e-5 7.52e-8 1.131
16 134.12 1.42 6.11e-6 1.13e-3 2.30e-4 9.00e-8 1.170
7 195.65 3.14 4.10e-6 5.49e-4 1.10e-4 1.61e-6 0.804
9 200.16 2.01 5.11e-7 1.24e-3 2.50e-4 3,15e-7 0.980
8 276.40 5.50 7.76e-5 6.01e-4 9.40e-4 3.10e-6 0.744

]0 227.76 4,84 8.35e-5 3.54e-4 2.40e-3 3.40e-6 0.746
11 168.01 13.58 2.12e-4 1.00e-4 1.60e-3 1.67e-5 0.619
12 195.32 4.74 1.99e-4 5.05e-4 7.70e-4 5.48e-5 0.297
13 219.07 5.89 2.30e-4 3.75e-4 1.10e-3 5.89e-5 0.302
14 130.12 8.98 5.34e-5 8.40e-4 2.70e-3 1.30e-5 0.670
17 300.29 9.82 2.86e-5 4.74e-4 4.30e-3 1.16e-6 1.005
SITE B
S-4 59.88 0.50 3 . 6 0 e - 6 4.10e-4 6 . 0 0 e - 4 7.85e-7 0.779
S-5 59.88 1.17 2 . 8 0 e - 5 5.60e-4 9 . 7 0 e - 4 2.25e-6 0.759
S-6 146.10 5.17 1.10e-5 5.70e-4 3.30e-3 8.83e-6 0.648
SITE C
84-2 79.42 0.90 1.00e-4 4,70e-4 9.70e-4 6.48e-5 0.264
84-3 79.42 0.48 1.30e-5 3.50e-4 8.40e-4 1.10e-5 0.409
84-4 71.66 0.83 1.20e-4 4.30e-4 1.20e-3 5.14e-5 0.304
84-5 102.79 0.68 5.20e-5 2.50e-4 1.40e-3 2.75e-5 0.314
84-6 79.42 0.72 2.00e-5 5.40e-4 8.40e-4 1.40e-5 0.465
84-7 71.66 0.79 4.90e-5 3.80e-4 1.40e-3 1.67e-5 0.443
SITE D
SP1 50.97 8.33 7 . 5 0 e - 5 1.90e-3 4.00e-3 4.69e-5 0.593
SP2 50.97 14.00 8 . 0 0 e - 5 4.90e-3 1.90e-3 4.85e-5 0.666
SP3 50.97 8.44 3.80e-4 2.20e-3 2.00e-3 8.57e-5 0.486
Power Creep Law Parameters
The two empirical parameters of the power creep law derived for
the four sites are given in Table 2. These parameters dld not
indicate any discernible trends with the respect to applied stress
or average strain in each site within the range of variation of
these factors. Reference compressibility, m has an average value of
about 2.5 x 10-5 1/kPa and i t is about 1.7 times higher for old
refuse (3.4 x 10-5 I/kPa) than fresh refuse (2.0 x 10-~ I/kPa). I t
shows no discernible patterns with respect to placement conditions
of the refuse. However, I t Is quite variable, especially In Sites A
and B. Rate of compression, n has an average of 0.65 and indicates
some patterns with respect to age and placement conditions of the
refuse. For instance, old relocated refuse from Site C that was
compacted during placement had the lowest average n = 0.37 and, in
general, fresh refuse had an average n value of nearly 1.5 times as
that of old refuse. The v a r i a b i l i t y of n is not as great as that of
m; however, i t is more variable in Site A than the other three
sites.
COMPARISON OF THE MODELS
For Site A, the f i r s t year of data obtained was used to predict

the amount of settlement that could be expected at the end of the
data collection period which was about two years. The results
obtained using both models are compared with the actual measurements
in Table 3. The Gibson and Lo model predicted the amount of
settlement at the end of two years wlthin 2 to 18% of the actual
settlement that occurred for minimal f i l l i n g and 4 to 21% for active
f i l l i n g . The power creep law predictions for the same conditions
were 0 to 6% and 0 to 14%, respectively.
TABLE 3 - - COMPARISONOF PREDICTED SETTLEMENT
Platform Settlement (m) Percent Diviation (%)

Number Actual Gibson& [o PowerCreep Gibson & Lo PowerCreep
Minimal F i l l i n g
1 0.52 0.43 0.53 -17 2
2 0.59 0.59 0.59 0 0
3 1.11 1.09 1.06 -2 -4
4 1.19 1.23 1.24 4 5
7 1.88 1.54 2.00 -18 6
Active F i l l i n g
8 3.34 3.19 3.38 -4 1
10 2.99 2.93 3.18 -2 6
12 1.94 1.91 1.94 -1 0
13 2.03 2.00 1.97 -2 -3
14 2.95 2.32 2.53 -21 -14
CONCLUSIONS
From the limited data, the following conclusions can be made:
I. Refuse settlement can be modeled satlsfactorily with

either a rheological model as presented in the Gibson
and Lo theory or the power creep law.
. Power creep law provides a better representation of
the settlement data than the rheological model.
However, the rheologica] model has parameters that can
be assigned physical meaning and reflect the effects
of certain refuse placement conditions.
3. While active f i l l i n g is ongoing, primary compression

is significant compared to secondary compression; and
4. Once f i l l i n g has stopped, secondary compression is

more evident.
Further landfill sites need to be instrumented for data collection

and analyzed to develop a data bank of ranges for the empirical
parameters for different stages of the landfill l i f e .
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Waste Management of Wisconsin, Inc.

and Debra L. Nelson of Warzyn Engineering Inc., for supplying some
of the i n i t i a l data used in preparation of this paper.
REFERENCES
[ I ] Ham, R. K., Reinhardt, J. J. and Sevick, G. W., "Density of

Milled and Unprocessed Refuse," in Journal of the Environmental
Enqineerinq Division, A.S.C.E., Vol. 104, No. EEl, 1978.
[2] Sowers, G. F., "Settlement of Waste Disposal F i l l s , "
Proceedings, 8th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Enqineerinq, Moscow, 1973.
A.S.C.E. Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division, Vol. 94,
No. SA1, 1968.
[4] Rao, S. K., Moulton, L. K. and Seals, R. K. "Settlement of
Refuse Landfills," Geotechnica] Practice for Disposal of Solid
Waste Materials, A.S.C.E. Geotechnica] Engineering Division,
1977.
[5] Yen, B. C. and Scanlon, B., "Sanitary Landfill Settlement
Rates," A.S.C.E. Journal of the Geotechnical Enqineering
Division, Vol. 101, No. GT5, 1975.
SETTLEMENT OF MUNICIPALWASTE 239
[6] Gibson, R.E. and Lo, K. Y., "A Theory of Soils exhibiting
Secondary Compression," Acta Polytechnica Scandinavica, C; 10
296, 1961, p. 1-15.
[7] Edil, T. B., and Mochtar, N. E., "Prediction of Peat
Settlement," A.S.C.E. Preceedings of Symposium:
Sedlmentation/Consolldation Models, San Francisco, 1981.
[8] Edil, T. B., and Dhowian, A. W., "Analysis of Long-Term
Compression of Peats", A.S.C.E. Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 10,
1979.
[9] Edil, T. B., Ranguette, V. J. and Otzelberger D. G, "Comparison
of Refuse Settlement Prediction Models," Proceedinqs of the
Twelfth Annual Madison Waste Conference, Madison, Wisconsin,
1989.
[10] Dodt, M. E., Sweatman, M. B. and Bergstom, W. R. "Field
Measurement of Landfill Surface Settlements," Geotechnical
Practice for Waste Disposal '87, A.S.C.E Geotechnical Special
Publication No. 13, 1987.
[11] Keene, P. F., "Sanitary Landfill Treatment, Interstate
Highway 84", Geotechnical Practice for Disposal of Solid Waste
Materials, A.S.C.E., Geotechnical Engineering Division, 1977.
[12] Rao, S. K., Moulton, L. K. and Seals, R. K., "Settlement of
Refuse Landfills", Geotechnical Practice for Disposal of Solid
Waste Materials, A.S.C.E, Geotechnical Engineering Division,
1977.
Sukhmander Singh and Bruce J. Murphy
EVALUATION OF THE STABILITY OF SANITARY LANDFILLS
REFERENCE: Singh, S., and Murphy, Bruce, Evaluation

of the Stability of Sanitary Landfills," Geotechnics of
Waste Fills - Theory and Practice, ASTM STP 1070, Arvid
Landva, G. David Knowles, editors, American Society for
Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, 1990.
ABSTRACT: In most of the major U.S. cities, both the capacity and
availability of solid waste landfill sites are declining. One option for
increasing landfill capacity has been to build landfills to greater heights and
new sites are being planned to store refuse to unprecedented heights. This
situation has raised concerns by many state and federal regulators regarding
the stability of high refuse fill under static and dynamic loading conditions.
This paper includes:
9 a critical evaluation of the published and unpublished studies on the shear strength
properties of refuse and settlement characteristics of refuse fills.
9 a discussion of the inadequacy of the Mohr-Coulomb theory to account for the large,
yet non catastrophic deformations that refuse undergoes.
9 a presentation of a new approach to stability analysis based on the bearing capacity
and settlement criteria of landfills
9 an examination of the dynamic strength properties of refuse fills, including recently
reported field shear wave data and a deformation analysis approach for evaluating
stability when earthquake motions pass through a high landfill.
KEYWORDS: sanitary landfill, engineering properties, stability, bearing

capacity, settlement, earthquake response.
Dr. Sukhmander Singh is an Associate Professor of Civil Engineering at Santa

Clara University, Santa Clara, California 95053
Mr. Bruce Murphy is Director, Waste Management Services at Purcell, Rhoades
and Associates, 2504 Technology Drive, Hayward, California 94545

STABILITY OF SANITARY LANDFILLS 241
INTRODUCTION
The long arduous journey, back and forth from New York to Florida, of a barge loaded with
New York refuse has brought to public attention the critically inadequate space for
accommodating the ever increasing mounds of refuse. Nobody wants a landfill in their backyard,
yet in almost all major cities of the United States, solid waste landfill capacity and available new
landfill sites are declining. The demand for increased capacity has been achieved in some cases
by building landfills to greater heights. New sites in planning are being designed to store refuse to
unprecedented heights.
These situations have raised concerns among regulators regarding the stability of high
refuse fill under static and earthquake loading conditions. In the State of California, regulatory
agencies such as the Regional Water Quality Control Board (RWQCB) require the evaluation of
structural stability in addition to traditional site evaluations like leachate control and removal.
Consequently, slope stability studies have recently been presented in reports prepared by various
consultants. Although these reports were considered adequate by the various State of California
regulatory agencies, basic questions regarding the strength and cohesion values of the refuse
material and the applicability of certain slope stability techniques for the evaluation of landfill sites
still remain.
The realization, shared by almost all consultants and industry representatives in this field, is
that there is a lack of published data on both static and dynamic strength properties of sanitary
landfills. This lack of data is understandable because landfills have a complex and
heterogeneous structure and it is not easy to adapt it into conventional laboratory testing methods.
Accordingly, the following questions must be resolved to further the progress in the analysis,
design and construction of safe, large-capacity sanitary landfills:
(1) what are the reliable strength properties of the refuse?
(2) which slope stability method is applicable for analyzing slopes made of refuse?
(3) is it a reasonable or useful assumption that refuse slopes behave like a soil slopes?
This paper describes and presents the results of the research efforts undertaken to find answers
to the above questions.
EXISTING DOCUMENTS ON STRENGTH PROPERTIES OF REFUSE
Efforts have been made to collect and examine existing data on the strength properties of
sanitary landfills. Among those documents reporting strength data obtained through laboratory
tests are: Stoll (1), Fang (2), Landva et.al. (3), Landva & Clark (4), Los Angeles County Sanitation
Downloaded/printed
District (5),by Cooper & Clark (6), Saarela (7), Cooper engineers (8), Earth Technology, Inc. (9), and
Klienfelder (10). Another set of documents uses field performance data and includes: Volpe (11),
Woodward-Clyde (12), Purcell, Rhoades & Associates (13, 14, 15, 16), EMCON (17, 18, 19),
Dames and Moore (20). The performance record of a field load test carried out by Converse et.al.
(21) and performance records of existing tills under earthquake shaking were used by these
authors to estimate strength characteristics. Other techniques include estimating strength values
by analogy to observed slope stability. Recently, attempts have been made to obtain strength
values by using in-situ techniques such as SPT and Vane Shear (Earth Tech, 9).
In summary, it appears that estimates on refuse strength have been established using three
approaches:
(1) laboratory testing;
(2) back-calculations of field test and operational records; and
(3) in-situ testing.
However, in each case, because of the difficulties and the complexities in estimating
material properties of refuse, only limited data has been obtained. Nevertheless, it is important to
examine the limited data in an attempt to more reliably predict and thus plan for landfill stability.
S T R E N G T H ESTIMATES B A S E D ON L A B O R A TORY TEST DATA
The data obtained from laboratory testing of refuse samples has been plotted in Figure 1.
The Los Angeles Sanitary District (1984) tested simulated refuse samples in which various
substitutes were made. Substitutions included sand for stones, ceramic for bones, crushed glass
for glass containers, lint for cloth, rubber threads for rubber, etc. These materials were constituted
80
@ Saarela (1987)
|
60 Fang et.al. (1977)
Los Angeles Co. Sanitation Dist. (1984)

40 Cooper Engineers (1 986)
Landva & Clark (1987) \ Stoll
2O
Landva et.al. (1984)0 A \(19~1)
~
Earth Tech. Corp. ( 1 9 8 8 ~ | ~, \
Jouko Saarela (1987) ,,~, ~ |
4
i 81 12
I
16
I
20
I
24
I
28
I
32 36 40
FRICTIONANGLEIN DEGREES
Fig. 1 - Strength Parameters from Laboratory Shear Tests
into a sample of 6.15 cm (2.42 inches) in diameter and 2.54 cm (1 inch) thick for use in a direct
shear machine. Fang (2) tested compacted bales of refuse at Fritz Engineering Laboratory of
Lehigh University. Cooper Engineers (6) tested Shelby tube samples of refuse in a triaxial testing
machine. Saarela (7) has reported test data from Finland. Landva et.al. (3) tested large sized (28
cm by 43 cm) samples of refuse in direct shear. One year later, retesting again in direct shear,
Landva and Clark (4) reported a decrease in strength. More recently, Earth Technology
Corporation (9) used a California drive sampler to obtain samples of refuse and reported a
multistage triaxial test on one of these samples.
Clearly, there is a large scatter in the laboratory test results (see Figure 1). Several factors
could have contributed to the wide variations, such as
9 the highly heterogeneous composition of the refuse,

9 the method by which a sample was obtained,
9 too small a sample size to be representative of the in-place refuse with its different
unit weights and dissimilar composition.
It is interesting to note that most of the laboratory investigators have treated the refuse as
cohesionless material and have reported the results accordingly. However, the users of the
back-calculating approach described in the next section have indicated the refuse to possess both
cohesion and frictional properties. Landva and Clark(4) indicated the need for more data to
establish the loss of strength with time due to decomposition of refuse.
STRENGTH ESTIMATES BASED ON BACK-CALCULA TIONS OF FIELD

TESTS AND OPERA TIONAL RECORDS
The back-calculation approach is chiefly based on the field load test made in the Los
Angeles area by Converse, et al (21). The Los Angeles area landfill is in Monterey Park, and was
field tested by loading and monitoring the deformation of the fill. Many of the slope stability
studies have used strength parameters obtained from this test study, such as Kirby Canyon
Landfill (Volpe, 11), Zanker Road Landfill (Cooper, 6; Woodward-Clyde, 12), Sunnyvale Landfill
(Cooper, 6), Newby Island Landfill (Purcell, Rhoades & Associates, 13), Corinda Los Trancos
Landfill (Purcell, Rhoades & Associates, 14), Acme Landfill (Harding-Lawson & Associates, 22)
and Sunnyvale Landfill (Dames & Moore, 20). These studies estimated the back-calculated
values in various combinations of cohesion and angle of friction, and are plotted in Figure 2.
Montarrey Park OII Fill Kirby Canyon Fill

Converse et.al. (1975) Volpe (1985)
A=
.Nawov
. . . mmano
. . rill~ \.
Corinda Los TrancosFill
PRA ('1987) ~ . \
PRA (1987)
",, Back Calculate 1971 Earthquake
Sunnyvale Fill "~ \ / PRA (1987)
40 - ~Coopar& Clark (1982) ~,~\
'~,Zanker Road Fill
9 A'~ " . . . .Acma
. . . . . . Fill
Cooper (1987) /, ~ ./,...~ ~. . . . t
/ ~ A" _Sunnyvale Fill
EMCON (1986, 87)/ ~ ,..,./'Dames & Moore (1988)
20 EMCON (1989) / - ~""'~---~. Zanker Road Fill
EMCON (1986,, 87)/ -- ~-. ~ N . CC. (1987)
I I L I I I I I
4 8 12 16 20 24 28
FRICTION ANGLE IN DEGREES
Fig. 2 - Strength Parameters Estimated by Back Calculation from
a Field Load Test and from Performance Records
The main justification in using these values by various authors in their studies was that
these values represent the lower boundary of the available strength and therefore are
conservative. As also pointed out by Dames & Moore (20), because these combinations of
strength parameters are estimated based on the results of a field test by Converse, et aJ (21), they'
may not represent independent estimates of the shear strength properties of the refuse.
Back-calculated strength data has also been obtained on the basis of the satisfactory
performance of the numerous landfill slopes in southern California during the San Femando
earthquake of 1971 and more recently, during the Whittier earthquake of 1987. Purcell, Rhoades
& Associates, (15) and Earth Tech, (9) observed the stability of the relatively steep slopes,
including nearly vertical cuts. Again, the basis for justifying the use of this approach was that the
back.calculated values represent minimum available strength of refuse and are therefore
conservative.
STRENGTH ESTIMATES BASED ON IN-SITU TESTING OF REFUSE
Recently, attempts were made to evaluate the shear strength of the refuse by in-situ testing.
Cooper-Clark and Associates (6) and EMCON (18) obtained standard penetration test (SPT) data
on refuse by
Downloaded/printed material during field exploration of the Sunnyvale Landfill. An average blow count value
of 15 was used by Dames & Moore (20) after rejecting values larger than 50 that may
represent the encounter of obstructions. Earth Tech Corporation (9) reported the results of a vane
shear test and a standard penetration test. These results are shown in Figure 3.
120-
_ Standard Penetration Test

loo j ~ Earth Tech (1988)
Pointe Hill Landfill
" so~ ~ Vane Shear Test

Earth Tech (1988)
so- Pointe Hill Landfill
40-
20-
I 81 I I I I I I I I
4 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
Fig. 3 - Strength Parameters from In-Situ Testing
Finally, the results of all the foregoing tests are plotted in Figure 4.
Because of the scatter and scarcity of the data, it is difficult to draw any definitive conclusions on
the shear strength characteristics of sanitary fill material.
120-
See Figs. 2 & 3 for legend.

100-
,,:..--_
w
2o - "::::: ;i::.;:;i::?:?'.-:::... 9 @
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 4O
Fig.
Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights 4 - Thu
reserved); S uSep
mm a r y Plot
5 12:03:30 for All Tests with R e c o m m e n d e d
EDT 2019
Downloaded/printed by Parameters Shaded
A CRITICAL EVALUATION OF STRENGTH DATA
The in-situ testing, involving shearing of the refuse by a vane shear, has been reported by
Earth Tech (9) with the following statement, "A review of the boring log indicates that solid
inclusions (asphalt and solid wood) were present in many of the vane shear tests. The size of the
vane shear device is relatively small 6.35 cm (2-1/2-inch diameter) as compared to the inclusions
and, therefore, the vane shear data may not be representative of the refuse strength." This is
understandable considering the physical makeup of the refuse fill material which includes plastics,
tires, carpets, etc. and hence, the 6.35 cm size vane can be completely inadequate if it shears
across a carpet or wood. Dames & Moore (20) argued that since no published correlation
between refuse strength and blow count is found in the literature, assigning a strength value to
the average blow count would be subjective in nature.
Cooper Engineers (6) performed triaxial tests on Shelby tube samples of refuse. The
samples were compressed to a strain of over 30 percent, with load capacity still increasing and no
failure in sight. Similarly, in a field load test at the Operating Industries, Inc. landfill in Monterey
Park, California, Converse, et al (21) surcharged the refuse slope and the slope underwent a
large deformation but no failure plane was evident. Converse then assumed a failure plane
typical of a soil slope with a conservative factor of safety, and back-calculated a range of values
for cohesion and friction angle. No information on the deformation for tests reported by Fang (2)
or from Finland reported by Saarela (7) are available. Multistage triaxial test results on one
California drive sample reported by Earth Tech (9) does indicate a leveling of the load capacity
with an increase in strain. However, the development of a shear failure plane or large lateral
strain development has not been reported. The simulated direct shear sample tested by the Los
Angeles County Sanitation District (5) appears to be the only test where a typical shearing would
have taken place.
In view of the foregoing, two significant questions arise about the application of soil
mechanic principles to refuse material strength and stability evaluation. The Mohr-Coulomb
theory may not adequately account for why refuse material undergoes large deformation without
failure. Secondly, the incompatibility of strains that produce shear failure in soils and those that
would produce shear failure in refuse, suggests that stability analysis of a refuse fill may be
related more to its settlement and foundation bearing capacity than to its slope failure.
Satisfactory performance of relatively steep slopes (1-3/4:1, H:V) of high refuse fills in southern
California during earthquakes and observations of no slope instability of nearly vertical cuts made
in sanitary fills (Volpe, 11), seem to suggest that a slope failure may not be the most critical aspect
of a sanitary landfill.
It is important to note the following obsen~ations made by Converse, et al (21) at the time of
the well known field test made at Monterey Park, California. Converse, et al (21) states that,
"Movements observed in the test fill were primarily caused by vertical settlement due to
compression of the refuse material, with secondary movement out of the slope resulting from
lateral spreading of the foundation of the test fill." This could be related to a bearing capacity
problem. Converse, et al, further states that, "It is our opinion that the sanitary landfill test slope
remained stable during and after the placement of the soil test fill."
In view of the foregoing discussion, it appears that the characteristics:
9 settlement of the fill and the

9 bearing capacity of the foundation
might be the more significant parameters than the slope stability in evaluating the
structural integrity of sanitary landfills.
SETTLEMENT CHARACTERISTICS
Settlements and settlement monitoring of sanitary landfills have been discussed by Eliassen
(23), Sowers (24, 25), and Rao, et al (26). These investigators primarily examined the
load-bearing characteristics of the refuse fill for building foundation support. Sowers (25) cited five
mechanisms causing settlements of a sanitary landfill. These factors include mechanical
reorientation of materials, infiUing of void areas by finer materials, "physico" chemical, and "bio"
chemical changes.
Recently, Huitric (27) has presented a comprehensive treatment of the subject of the
sanitary landfill settlement rates. Huitric defines three possible modes of settlement:
9 consolidation
9 shrinkage
9 compaction.
The term consolidation refers to settlement resulting from the dewatering of the saturated
materials. Shrinkage is the process by which organic solids and moisture are microbially
converted to carbon dioxide and methane, resulting in a corresponding decrease in the volume of
the fill. Compaction is defined as the re-orientation of solids into a more dense configuration due
to the gradual loss of rigidity in solids from the creep of solids under high stress or from
decomposition.
Huitric believes that such highly stressed solids may initially "bridge" across voids, but
eventuallybycollapse and this may be judged to be potentially the most significant feature of
Downloaded/printed
It is important to note the following observations made by Converse, et al (21) at the time of
the well known field test made at Monterey Park, California. Converse, et al (21) states that,
compression of the refuse material, with secondary movement out of the slope resuIting from
lateral spreading of the foundation of the test fill." This could be related to a bearing capacity
problem. Converse, et al, further states that, "It is our opinion that the sanitary landfill test slope
remained stable during and after the placement of the soil test fill."
In view of the foregoing discussion, it appears that the charactedstics:
9 settlement of the fill and the

9 bearing capacity of the foundation
might be the more significant parameters than the slope stability in evaluating the
structural integrity of sanitary landfills.
SETTLEMENT CHARACTERISTICS
Settlements and settlement monitoring of sanitary landfills have been discussed by Eliassen
(23), Sowers (24, 25), and Rao, et al (26), These investigators primarily examined the
load-bearing characteristics of the refuse fill for building foundation support. Sowers (25) cited five
mechanisms causing settlements of a sanitary landfill. These factors include mechanical
reorientation of materials, infilling of void areas by finer matedals, "physico" chemical, and "bio"
chemical changes.
Recently, Huitric (27) has presented a comprehensive treatment of the subject of the
sanitary landfill settlement rates. Huitric defines three possible modes of settlement:
9 consolidation
9 shrinkage
9 compaction.
The term consolidation refers to settlement resulting from the dewatering of the saturated
materials. Shrinkage is the process by which organic solids and moisture are microbially
converted to carbon dioxide and methane, resulting in a corresponding decrease in the volume of
the fill. Compaction is defined as the re-orientation of solids into a more dense configuration due
to the gradual loss of rigidity in solids from the creep of solids under high stress or from
decomposition.
Huitric believes that such highly stressed solids may initially "bridge" across voids, but
eventually collapse and this may be judged to be potentially the most significant feature of
settlement of sanitary fills. Huitric (27) cites on the basis of settlement measurements at Canyon
3 Fill, that the "percent settlement vades from 15 to 20 percent in the central portions of the fill and
decreases rapidly at points along the canyon sides. On the whole, the variations in the settlement
contours expressed in meters are more uniform". This suggests that "the fill settles as an integral
unit and is not overly sensitive to local variations in depth." This phenomena seems quite
possible, because fills of a young age settle as a unit and are relatively insensitive to local
variations in unit weight and composition. With age, as the decomposition proceeds and
becomes a prevailing factor in settlement, then a wide range in the rate and the magnitude of
settlements can be expected.
BEA RING CA PA CITY CHA RA CTERISTICS
In view of the foregoing discussions, it is suggested that correlations of lateral movements of

foundation soils of the fill should be made with the vertical movements due to the
settlement/compression of the fill. Such correlations can provide clues to the bearing capacity
problem. For instance, the foundation of the Operating Industries, Inc. (OII) landfill in Monterey
Park (Converse, et al, 21) is reported to have undergone a movement of about 43 cm (17 inches)
on its upper portion. Data from slope inclinometers indicated that movement accelerated with the
fill placement. When the fill placement ceased, the rate of movement markedly decreased.
In order to further gain insight into the bearing capacity problem associated with the
foundation soils, data from the load test at the OII landfill was used to estimate the bearing
-capacity of foundation soils. The data was obtained from the report documenting the field
program and prepared by Converse, et al (21).
The ~eld program consisted of a full-scale field load test performed on one portion of an
existing exterior slope approximately 100 feet high with a 1.6:1 slope. Compacted earth fill was
placed over the existing refuse to a maximum height of 38 feet in a period of 24 days. The
overburden pressure was calculated using as an average height of 28 to 30 feet for the
compacted soil and unit weight for the refuse and the compacted soil as 0.8 gm/cm 3 (50 pcf) and
2.05 gm/cm 3 (128 pcf), respectively. The overburden pressure was calculated to be 685 kN/m 2
(14,300 psf.)
For a clay or silt as foundation soils with an average shear strength of 95.8 kN/m 2 (2000 psf)
under an undrained condition, the estimated ultimate bearing capacity (5.14 Su) equals
about488.4 kN/m 2 (10,200 psf). An undrained shear strength of 95.8 kN/m 2 (2000 psf) for soils
of marginal lands is not uncommon. However, it is significant to note that even for a strength of
143.6 kN/m 2 (3000 psf) for the foundation soils at Oil fill, the load intensity due to the additional
soil Universidade
(UDESC) fill brought the factor
do Estado of safety
de Santa Catarina against
((UDESC) bearing
Universidade capacity
do Estado de Santa failure close totoLicense
Catarina) pursuant unity. Unfortunately,
the information on the shear strength characteristics of the foundation soils at the Oil fill are not
available. However, the following statement from the Converse, et al (21) report is worth noting.
compression of the refuse material, with secondary movement out of the slope resulting from
lateral spreading of the foundation of the test fill."
In the case of the New Jersey global landfill failure, the lateral movements of the foundation
resulted from increased refuse filling on soft silt. However, similar deep-seated movements in
foundation soils of the OII test fill did not cause noticeable cracks along the toe or on the top.
Converse, et al believes that the foundation soils could be on the verge of failure before any
cracks become noticeable in a landfill. The New Jersey failure opened a chasm 18 m (60 feet)
wide, 122 m (400 feet) deep and 183 m (600) feet long over a period of a few days. A nearby toe
dike was raised up several feet in places and an adjacent tidal marsh experienced cracking and
lifting. Clearly, the bearing capacity of foundation soils at landfills - especially the high fills on
marginal lands - should be seriously investigated.
RECOMMENDED APPROACH FOR STABILITY ANAL YSIS
The following section presents the authors' approach to the analysis of landfill stability. This
approach considers both stability and bearing capacity factors in analyzing the structural integrity
of a landfill.
For a typical refuse fill of moderate height (about 61 m) with a 3:1 (horizontal to vertical)
slope and sitting on a relatively strong foundation soils (Su > 192 kN/m2), a classical soil slope
stability analysis can be performed by using shear strength parameters for refuse from Figure 4.
The shaded zone in figure 4 is the recommended range of strength parameters for use in stability
studies. Results of such analysis should be interpreted judgmentally in favor of least
conservatism because large, moderately steep sanitary landfills have had no slope failures even
when they were shaken by relatively strong ground motions during earthquakes.
For a relatively high refuse fill (height greater than 68 m or 200 feet) with moderately steep
slopes (1.5-2H to lV) and placed on soft, marginal or relatively weak foundation soils (Su < 96
kN/m2), the potential mode of failure as shown in Figure 5 should be considered. To analyze such
a case, two approaches can be used; one based on slope stability analysis and the other based
on bearing capacity analysis. As may be seen in Figure 5, the stability analysis would involve
calculating the overturning movement and estimating the resisting movement. There is one
important difference recommended in estimating the resisting movement. Authors believe that the
contribution to the resisting force by the landfill should be neglected as a conservative approach.
This belief
Downloaded/printed by assumes that any disruptive force large enough to tear the landfill would have already
compromised the foundation. The foundation soils would have already undergone considerable
movement and shear resistance of the foundation soils would have been completely mobilized
before the refuse could tear along the potential failure surface shown in Figure 5.
This approach would yield highly conservative results for predicting slope stability involving
a slip surface through the fill. However, these results may not be conservative for predicting
deformation of foundation soils, which may threaten the integrity of leachate collection or other
drainage systems including the liner under the fill.
The method for evaluating bearing capacity is simple, and involves estimating the ultimate
bearing capacity of the foundation soils and comparing it with the overburden pressure of the
refuse fill. The bearing capacity for saturated clay or silty foundation soils can be readily
calculated from the simple relationship: Quit = 5.14 Su, where Su is the shear strength under
undrained loading. For soils other than soft clay or silt, the bearing capacity is likely to be quite
high and can be estimated using bearing capacity equations. When such an approach is used to
analyze the failure of New Jersey landfill which was placed on weak foundation soils, it may not
be surprising to find that it failed. A reasonable estimate of the weight of the fill is important if the
bearing capacity of a relatively weak foundation soils is in question. Unitweight of a sanitary
landfill is also an important parameter in addition to its shear strength for evaluating the stability
conditions of the fill. Within a given refuse fill, the unit weight of the refuse can widely vary
because of the difference in composition, state of decomposition, amount of compactive effort and
settlemer~t.
Copyright It isrights
by ASTM Int'l (all generally believed
reserved); Thu thatEDT
Sep 5 12:03:30 the2019
unit weight of the fill somewhat increases with depth
(Converse, et al, 21 ; Volpe, 11: Purcell, Rhoades & Associates,
(UDESC) Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina ((UDESC) Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina)15; Dames
pursuant & Moore,
to License Agreement.20). The
average unit weight, according to the above authors, varies from 0.8 grrVcm3 (50 pcf) to 0.96
gm/cm 3 (60 pcf.) On the other hand, studies by Earth Tech Corporation (9) have used a nearly
constant unit weight with depth.
DYNAMIC STABILITY ANAL YSIS
Analysis of soil slope stability under earthquake loading has been carried out using
pseudo-static and deformational analysis. The deformational analysis approach is based on the
works of Newmark (28), Seed (29) and Makdisi & Seed (30). This approach has also been used
for analyzing the dynamic stability of sanitary landfills. According to these analyses, both the
simplified and the rigorous method of estimating time history of accelerations and shear stress
requires representative data on the dynamic strength properties of the material at different points
within the fill. Obtaining dynamic strength properties of soil through equivalent linear or non-linear
models has not been easy ( Finn (31)), and there is hardly any test data on the dynamic strength
properties of refuse material.
Until recently, the shear modulus and damping characteristics of refuse were assumed to be
similar to peat because of the low unit weights, high void ratios and high compressibilities of both peat
and refuse materials. Seed and Idriss (32) developed shear modulus and damping curves for peat on
the basis of static and dynamic laboratory tests. This data was used by several authors (Volpe, 11,
EMCON, 17; Purcell, Rhoades & Associates, 14, 15; Earth Tech, Inc., 9) in the response analyses
made for sanitary landfills in California. Volpe (11) estimated shear wave velocity for refuse based on
the static load settlement results from the full scale load test performed by Converse, et al (21) at the
Operating Industries Landfill in Monterey Park, Califomia. The computed average of shear wave
velocity was 26 rn/sec (85 ft/sec). The range of shear wave velocity for peat reported by Seed & Idriss
(32) was 21.6 to 43.3 m/sec (71 to 142 f'dsec).
More recently, test data based on field shear wave velocity tests have been reported by The
Earth Technology, Inc. (9). An average shear wave velocity of about 274 rn/sec (900 ft/sec) has been
estimated by Earth Technology, Inc. on the basis of geophysical cross-hole and downhole shear wave
velocity tests. Results of seismic survey by downhole shear wave velocity tests carried out for
EMCON (19) by Redpath Geophysics and by Portola Geophysics at West Richmond Fill and at
Redwood Fill indicate respectively, gave average shear wave velocities of 213 m/sec (700 ftJsec) and
91 m/sec (300 flJsec). A value as low as 31.4 rn/sec (103 ft/sec) has also been reported at the
Redwood Refuse Fill. These values are much higher than those estimated on the basis of tests on
peat or field load tests. Apparently, as more test data on refuse will accumulate, representative values
for shear modulus and its damping for the refuse material at various stages of decomposition should
emerge. by
Downloaded/printed In the meanwhile, the use of
Note: Data Points are estimated average

values from shear wave data for Su=143 KN/m 2~
static stress-strain data or the downhole shear wave velocity data to estimate dynamic shear
modulus of refuse may be used with caution because of the highly compressive nature of the
refuse and its non-soil like strength deformation characteristics.
Because of the foregoing reasons, authors carried out parametric studies on the dynamic
response of landfills using a range of values for shear modulus and damping characteristics of the
refuse material. Based on the assumption that the strength properties of the refuse are more
cohesive than frictional, the range of values chosen were similar to that of peat and clay. Figure 6
shows the modulus and damping curves used in the SHAKE analyses made to evaluate the
response of a 122 m (400-foot) high sanitary landfill.
Significant attenuation of baserock motions is evident in each case (see Figure 7).
Apparently, the influence of varying the shear modulus and the damping values is not significant
for the range of values considered. Because of the absence of recorded data on earthquake
motion attenuation on refuse fills and the excellent performance of sanitary landfills to relatively
strong earthquake motions, it can be argued on the basis of the physical makeup of the refuse
that the refuse inherently has strong energy absorption mechanisms.
The results of SHAKE analyses are most significant in showing that the maximum bedrock
accelerations were considerably reduced as they propagated up through the height of the landfill.
This is quite different from what one would expect from the response of an earth dam subjected to
similar motions. The results showed that the maximum bedrock acceleration was reduced from
0.5g at the bedrock level to average values of 0.06g or less at crest level. This is due to the low
modulus, high damping and light weight of the fill.
These factors were probably also responsible for the natural period estimated by SHAKE
analysis to be relatively high (12 to 16 seconds). Accordingly,amplification of energy may only be
expected for frequencies less than one Hz. The effect of damping on motions as they propagate
upward was noted in the filtering out of the high frequencies. However,more data on the dynamic
response of refuse fills is needed to confirm these results.
CONCLUSIONS
As a result of the studies presented in this paper, the following conclusions can be drawn:
1.Shear strengthcharacteristics of the refuse material are not yet adequately defined.
There is a large scatter on the shear strength data obtained by laboratory testing, in-situ
testing or estimates based on field performance records. The Mohr-Coulomb theory may
not adequately account for the large deformations a refuse material undergoes without
failui'e.
2.The application of the soil mechanics principles to refuse material strength and stability
evaluation should be viewed with caution because of the incompatibility of strains that
produce a shear failure in soils and those that would produce shear failure in refuse.
3.Satisfactory performance of relatively steep slopes of high refuse fills during earthquakes,
and observations of no slope instability of nearly vertical cuts made in sanitary landfills and
the large deformations a refuse material undergoes without failure, seem to suggest that a
slope failure may not be the most critical aspect of a sanitary landfill.
4.In view of the observed lateral spreading of foundation soils, it appears that the settlement
of the fill and the bearing capacity of the foundation soils might be the more significant
parameters than slope stability in evaluating the structural integrity of sanitary landfills. The
simplified approach proposed by the authors may be used to evaluate bearing capacity as
well as stability characteristics.
5.Settlement characteristics are sensitive to the age of the refuse fill and become complex
and more non-uniform with age.
6.Because of the complex and heterogeneous structure of a refuse material and the lack of
test data, very little is known about its dynamic strength characteristics. Results from recent
but limited shear wave velocity tests indicate shear moduli values to be somewhere
between that of day and peat.
7.Results of SHAKE analysis indicate significant attenuation of bedrock motion as they

propagate up through the refuse ~ll. The use of the pseudostatic and deformation analysis
approach for dynamic stability analysis should consider the strong energy absorption
mechanism
Downloaded/printed by of the refuse material.
REFERENCES
1. Stoll, U.W., "Mechanical Properties of Milled Domestic Trash,"

American Society of Civil Engineers, presented at the National Water
Resources Engineering Meeting, Pheonix, AZ, January 1971.
2. Fang, et al, "Strength Testing of Bales of Sanitary Landfill, Fritz
Engineering Laboratory, Lehigh University, Department of Civil
Engineering, 1977.
3. Landva, A.O., Clark, J.l., Weisner, W.R., and Burwash, W.J.,
"Geotechnical Engineering and Refuse Landfills," Sixth National
Conference on Waste Management in Canada, Vancouver, British
Columbia, 1984.
4. Landva, A.O., and Clark, J.l., Geotechnical Testing of Wastefill,
Report submitted to the London Institute of Civil Engineers, 1987.
5. Los Angeles County Sanitation District, "Puente Hills Landfill Draft
EIR", Appendix IV-A, 1984.
6. Cooper & Clark Consulting Eng!neers, "Stability Evaluation of
Sunnyvale sanitary Landfill, Report to the City of Sunnyvale, CA,
April, 1982
7. Saarela Jouko, "Some facts about the Sanitary Landfill Investigations
in Helsinki City", an attachment to a communication to Prof. S. Singh
from Jouko Saarela of National Board of Waters and Environment,
Helsinki, Finland, 1987.
8. Cooper Engineers, "Unconsolidated-Undrained Triaxial Shear Test
Results", Job No. 2659-A3, Zanker Road Resource Recovery, May
1986.
9. Earth Technology Corporation, "Instability of Landfill Slope, F'uente
Hills Landfill, Los Angeles County, California", submitted to Los
Angeles County Sanitation District, 1988.
10. Kleinfelder, "Slope Stability Evaluation, Eastern Alameda County
Landfill, Livermore, CA" Report to DePaolia Equipment Company
Inc., Livermore, CA 94550, July,1988
11. Volpe, R.L & Associates, "Slope Stability Investigation, Intermediate
and Final Slopes Static and Dynamic Loading Conditions, Kirby
Canyon Sanitary Landfill, San Jose, California, prepared for
EMCON,1985
12. Woodward-Clyde Consultants, "Geotechnical Engineering Study,

anker Road Landfill, Proposed Expansion, San Jose, California",
Report to Zanker Road Resources Recovery, Inc., San Jose,
California, April 1987.
13. Purcell, Rhoades & Associates, "Stability Evaluation, Newby Island
Sanitary Landfill", Report to Browning-Ferris Industries, March 1983.
14. Purcell, Rhoades & Associates, "Stability Analysis, Static and
Dynamic Loading Conditions, Corinda Los Trancos Sanitary Landfill,
Ox Mountain, Half Moon Bay, California", Report to California
Regional Water Quality Control Board, August 1987.
15. Purcell, Rhoades & Associates, "Slope Stability Analyses, Apanolio
Canyon Expansion Site, Ox Mountain, San Mateo County,
California", Report to Browning-Ferris Industries, 1987.
16. Purcell, Rhoades, and Associates, "Stability Analysis - Static and
Dynamic Loading Conditions, Sunshine Canyon Extension Site,
Sylmer, California," Report to Browning-Ferris Industries of California,
April, 1988
17. EMCON, "Slope Stability Analysis - City of Lompoc Landfill- Santa
Barbara Co. CA", Report to City of Lompoc, California, 1986.
18. EMCON, "Stability Studies - Weldon Canyon Landfill", Ventura
County, California, Report to Waste Management Inc. of California,
1987.
19. EMCON, "Analysis of Deformations under Static & Seismic Loading -
West Contra Costa Sanitary Landfill, Richmond, CA" Report to
Richmond Sanitary Service, Richmond CA, January, 1989
20. Dames & Moore, "Landfill Slope Stability Analysis, Sunnyvale
Sanitary Landfill, Sunnyvale, California," Report to City of Sunnyvale,
California, 94086, February, 1988.
21. Converse, Davis, Dixon Associates, "Slope Stability Investigation,
Proposed Final Slope Adjacent to the Pomona Freeway", Operating
Industries Disposal Site, 1975.
22. Harding-Lawson Associates, "Seismic Stability Evaluation, ACME
Landfill, Martinez, California", Report to ACME Fill Corporations, July
1987.
23. Eliassen, R., "Load Bearing Characteristics of Landfills", Engineering
News Rec0r0, Volume P. 361, pp. 103-105, 1042.
24. Sowers, G.F., "Foundation Problems in Sanitary Landfills", Journal of

Sanitary Engineering Division, Proceedings of the ASCE, Vol. 94, No.
SA1, pp. 103-116, 1968.
25. Sowers, G.F., "Settlement of Waste Disposal Fills", Proceedings of
the Eighth International Conference on Soil Mechanics and
foundation Engineering, Moscow, Vol. 2, pp. 207-210, 1973.
26. Rao, S.K., K.L. Moulton and R.K. Seals, "Settlement of Refuse
Landfills", Proceedinas of the Conferen(::e on Geotechnical Practice
for Disposal of Solid Waste Materials. Ann Arbor. Michiaan, pp.
574-598, 1977.
27. Huitric, R., "Sanitary Landfill Settlement Rates", Los Angeles County
Sanitation District, paper presented at Technische Universitat, Berlin,
1981.
28. Newmark, N.M., Effects of Earthquakes on Dams and
Embankments", Rankine Lecture. Ge0techniaue No. 15, 1965.
29. Seed, H.B., "Considerations in the Earthquake-Resistant Design of
Earth and Rockfill Dams, Th• Rankin Lecture. Geotechniaue Vol 29
no.3 pp215-263, 1979.
30. Makdisi, F.I. and Seed, H.B., "Simplified Procedure for Estimating
Dam and Embankment Earthquake-Induced Deformations", Journal
of the Ge0te(;:hnical Enaineerina Division of ASCE, July 1978.
v
31. Finn, W.D. Liam, "Dynamic Analysis in Geotechnical Engineering,

State-of-the-Art Report, Proceeding of the SDecialtv Conference on
Earthauake Enaineerina and Soil Dynamics - I1".sDonsored bv
Geotechni(;al Engineering Divi~;i0n of ASCE. Park City, Utah, pp.
523-592, June 27-30, 1988.
32. Seed H.B. and Idriss, I.M., "Analyses of Ground Motions at Union
Bay, Seattle During Earthquakes and Distance Nuclear Blasts",
Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, VoI. 60, No. 1, pp.
125-136, 1970.
Ronald A. Siegel, Richard J. Robertson, and Donald G. Anderson
SLOPE STABILITY INVESTIGATIONS AT A LANDFILL IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
REFERENCE: Siegel, R.A., Robertson, R. J., Anderson, D. G.,

" S l o p e Stability Investigations a t a L a n d f i l l in Southern
California," G e o t e c h n i c s of Waste F i l l s - T h e o r y and P r a c t i c e ,
ASTM STP 1070, Arvid Landva, G. David Knowles, editors,
American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, 1990.
ABSTRACT: The results of geotechnical investigations and

slope stability studies of an existing municipal/commercial
landfill in southern California are presented and discussed.
Investigations included cone penetration testing, installa-
tion and monitoring of inclinometers, piezometers, surface
monuments, and laboratory classification and direct shear
testing of refuse. The landfill was also monitored for dy-
namic response to earthquake-induced ground motions.
KEYWORDS: municipal refuse, engineering properties, munici-

pal landfill, slope stability, shear strength, seismic
response
Geotechnical investigations and slope stability studies [1,2] have

been carried out for the South Parcel of the Operating Industries, Inc.
(011) Landfill in Monterey Park, California (Figure I). The program
objectives were to determine the magnitude and direction of current
slope movements and to assess the potential for slope failure under
both gravity (static) and seismic loading.
Slopes of the O11 landfill are municipal and industrial/commercial

refuse covered with soil of varying thickness (Figure 2). The slopes
range up to 70 m (230 ft) high and have narrow benches at several
levels. The average steepness over the total slope height ranges from
approximately 2:1 to 3:1 (horizontal:vertical). Intermediate slopes
are up to 30 m (I00 ft) high and up to 1.4:1 in steepness.
Mr. Siegel is a senior geotechnical engineer at the Rocky Mountain

regional office of CH2M HILL, P.O. Box 22508, Denver, CO 80222-0508;
Mr. Robertson is a project engineer assigned to CH2M HILL's Southern
California regional office, 2510 Red Hill Ave., Suite A, Santa Ana, CA
92705; Dr. Anderson is a senior geotechnical engineer at CH2M HILL's
Seattle
Copyright regional
by ASTM Int'l office,
(all rights reserved); P.O. EDT
Thu Sep 5 12:03:30 Box
201991500, Bellevue, WA 98009-2050.

Whittier Narrows
Earthquake Epicenter
0 300 600
Scale in Metres
Garvey Reservoir
9 Seismic Station
City of Monterey Park /
~ Operating "~
South Industries,Inc.
Parcel w 4 ~ Landfill
City of Montebello
FIG. 1-- Site Location Map
220 A 1-7 1-1 A'

,.I North P-8 I f Cover Soil I 1-2 South
(n 200
:S
,-9 I ~ " ~ " ~ = ~ ['~-"~-'-~" ~ ii3 Property
"-" 180
E Property ~J"- __~ Perched Saturated ~ ~ Line
~ 160. Line . , ~ ' ~ -1 .L Zone,Typical .L I I " ~ ~--~
, 0n
~ 140.
120.
i f
~
l "
J ~ ~ ~
Refuse
I
J"
j
,~'~
Bedrock
ill
100
Pomona Horizontal Scale = Vertical Scale
Freeway
Note: See Figure 3
For Location of this Section
FIG. 2-- Generalized Landfill Cross Section A-A'

SLOPE STABILITYINVESTIGATIONS 261
The landfill was active from 1948 until 1984. Some of the steeper
slopes have been standing nearly full height for 20 years. During the
facility's life, no slopes have failed; however, there are many signs
of slope movement, such as surface cracking, bulging, and slumping.
The stability of these slopes is of concern because of the potential
impacts to the Pomona Freeway and nearby residential areas.
This paper discusses field and laboratory investigations and the

data collected. Also discussed are the results of preliminary slope
stability analyses and seismic response data collected during several
earthquakes.
CONE PENETRATION TESTS
Cone penetration tests (CPT) were performed to help delineate

stratigraphy and saturated zones within the landfill [3]. An 18-Mg
(20-ton) truck transported and housed the CPT equipment and provided
the reaction to push the cone into the landfill. The CPTs were con-
ducted in general accordance with ASTM D3441-86 [4].
CPTs were conducted at nine locations (Figure 3) with depths

ranging from 4.8 to 37.5 m (16 to 123 ft). Planned depths were 45.7 m
(150 ft). Each test ended whenever the angular deflection of the probe
or the penetration resistance was excessive. Two or three attempts
were made at most locations to penetrate to greater depths. In 18
attempts, only half penetrated more than 6.7 m (22 ft). Two cone
instruments broke off in the landfill.
A piezocone penetrometer was used for the first two tests in an

attempt to identify saturated zones within the landfill. Because the
probe's porous stone element was crushed when pushed against hard
objects in the refuse and because of low piezometric response, the pore
pressure transducer system was abandoned for subsequent tests. The low
piezometric response was a result of loss of saturation in the measur-
ing system as the piezocone penetrated unsaturated material.
The CPT results indicated that the cone frequently encountered

stiff objects, which produced sharp peaks in the tip resistance mea-
surements. This resulted in highly variable readings (Figure 4).
However, a trend of increasing lower bound tip resistance with depth,
about 0.8 kg/cmZ/m (0.25 tsf/ft), was apparent in most of the tests.
Because of the relatively erratic readings from the CPT probes, daily
or interim cover soil could not be distinguished from the refuse.
Soil types were interpreted from soil behavior classification

charts [5] to be primarily sandy or clayey silt. This classification
generally agreed with the types of cover soil encountered in borings.
Although cover soils at the surface could be identified from the test
records, their thickness was sometimes hard to determine.
W
o 2
".." II
< ~E
III
.2
9~ = N "C ~ e-
c ~ .o : 4) 0
9 c 0. cO) 0
--I
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t-
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r,,
,'r
amam
2.J
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SLOPESTABILITYINVESTIGATIONS 263
c
N
o
m
Friction Resistance Cone Resistance Friction Ratio
(kg/cm2) (kg/cm2) $ (%)
6 4 2 0 100 200 300 400--r 0 2 4 6 8
0-
m~!|
m~_
~r
1,
m 16
"-----Lower'Botmd
~ 18 Tip, ResistanceCurve
~ m
2O '~ -
24
26 ~ ~
28 _~ <- ..--
30 ~'~- -
32 - ~ -~" ,Source:The EarU

~.~_.> ~ ~ Te~hn61ogy '
34 ~ " Corporation [3]
36 "
38
F I G . 4 - - E x a m p l e of C P T R e s u l t s
DRILLING AND SAMPLING
To install inclinometers and piezometers, sixteen borings were

drilled using 16-cm (6-1/4-in.)-inside-diameter (ID) hollow-stem augers
rotated by CHE-75 drill rigs, which are rated to deliver nearly 11,500
N-m (8450 ft-lb) of torque. Inclinometer and piezometer locations are
(UDESC)shown indo Estado
Universidade Figure de Santa3.CatarinaAll iiUniversidade
((UDESC) inclinometer borings
do Estado de Santa were
Catarina) pursuant advanced
to License Agreement. Noto their
further reproductions authorize
planned 37-m (120-ft) depths, except for one that met refusal at 29.7 m
(97.5 ft) and another that was terminated at 29.4 m (96.5 ft) where
bedrock was encountered. Only one boring was too crooked for
inclinometer installation; it was partially backfilled and completed as
a piezometer.
Refuse samples were obtained using standard penetration test (ASTM

D 1586-84), 7.62-cm (3-in.) outside-diameter (OD) ring-lined barrel
(ASTM D 3550-84), and 13-cm (5-1/S-in.) ID acrylic tube-lined split-
core barrel sampling techniques. Recovery was generally good. Several
attempts to sample refuse using 7.62-cm (3-in.) Shelby tubes (ASTH D
1587-83) were unsuccessful because the tube crimped when it was pushed
into refuse.
Saturated zones were detected during drilling by observing moisture

in recovered soil samples and cuttings. Six of the boreholes remained
dry during drilling and inclinometer installation. Shallower companion
borings were drilled and completed as piezometers near inclinometer
borings that encountered free fluid. Unsaturated material was found to
underlie the saturated material. Saturated zones were less than 9 m
(30 ft) thick. Saturated zones may have been substantially thinner
than sample moisture indicated, as free liquid could have flowed from
saturated zones down the annular space and wetted unsatura-ted material
at the bottom of the borehole.
GEOTECHNICAL INSTRUMENTATION
Geotechnical instrumentation included II inclinometers, 5 piezometers,

and 36 surface monuments. Figure 3 shows the locations of all geotech-
nical instrumentation.
Surface Movements
The location and elevation of each surface monument, inclinometer,

and piezometer were monitored for 1 year using both ground and aerial
methods. Aerial survey data consistently varied more than ground
survey data, but the overall movement trends were essentially the same
for both methods.
The lateral component of surface movement based on ground survey

data ranged from about 1 to 23 cm (0.4 to 9 in.) over the 1-year
monitoring period (Figure 5). Even though trends of generally
consistent out-of-slope movement are apparent, the lateral movements do
not necessarily indicate slope creep or incipient slope failure. This
is because the lateral movement may be related to settlement rather
than slope instability. Some locations show transverse and upslope
movements. These may be influenced by localized deposits of more
rapidly decomposing refuse in-slope or transverse from these monitored
locations.
The instrumented location that moved laterally the most (SM-8) is

Copyright byon
ASTM
a Int'l (all rights reserved); flat
relatively Thu Sep 5slope
12:03:30 EDT 2019
(approximately 3:1). This slope also
SLOPE STABILITY INVESTIGATIONS 265
@ 0
-1
-o ~ F_
A ~
A
v
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consists of the youngest refuse. The north-central slopes, which are

the oldest, steepest, and tallest, generally moved the least.
The vertical component of surface movements, based on ground survey

data, ranged from approximately 9 to 64 cm (3.5 to 25 in.) per year
(Figure 5). Generally, settlements of locations on top and on the
south slopes of the landfill were the greatest. These settlement rates
are significantly lower than rates of 90 to 120 cm (3 to 4 ft) per year
determined for reference points on aerial photographs of the Oil
landfill from 1974 until 1983 [6].
Inclinometers
Six inclinometers were installed with Sondex (corrugated polyethyl-

ene tubing) sleeves; four were installed with telescoping sections; and
one standard inclinometer was installed. The Sondex sleeves or tele-
scoping sections were installed to mitigate downdrag forces and avoid
buckling that might otherwise develop from landfill settlement; the
standard inclinometer had no provisions for accommodating settlement.
Lateral Displacements: Over t h e 1-year monitoring period, the

maximum lateral displacement that occurred relative to the bottom of
each casing (only one extended into bedrock) was about 9 cm (3.5 in.).
Displacements are generally out of slope, and displacement-depth
profiles suggest slope creep (Figure 6). Several profiles also suggest
slippage at particular depths. Movement of the standard inclinometer
has been similar to that of the other inclinometers.
Lateral Displacement, cm
0 2 4 6 8 10
0
-1 3 6 ~10)
5
t ' "" //~ ~---- -12 months after
10 , ( 2 initial readings
E 15
t
~ 2o
o
25
11JJ i
30 I
Sondex
40 Inclinometer 1-2
1 I I
FIG. 6-- Example of Inclinometer
Displacement Profile
Over 4 months, the upper 21.3 m (70 ft) of one inclinometer moved a
coupledo Estado de Santa Catarina
of inches ((UDESC) Universidade
in-slope, rather do Estado de Santaout-of-slope.
than Catarina) pursuant to License Agreement.
The grout No further reproductions authorize
surrounding this inclinometer had subsided approximately a metre, which

may have caused the casing to shift within the horehole. However, the
in-slope movements may also have been caused by a localized landfill
shift, which resulted from differential refuse decomposition.
All inclinometers, except one, were still functional 15 months

after installation. The exception, a telescoping inclinometer, col-
lapsed for an unknown reason, 2 m (6 ft) below the landfill surface 6
to 9 months after installation. The plastic casing of telescoping
inelinometers softened and swelled, and their cross sections changed
from circular to nearly square. This was apparently caused by solvents
within the landfill. A few months after installation, the reaction
appeared to stop, and the plastic hardened. The deformed cross section
did not interfere with inclinometer monitoring, nor has it resulted in
questionable readings. The casings of the standard and Sondex in-
clinometers did not appear to have been subjected to chemical attack.
This probably resulted from the protection that the sealed joints and
Sondex sleeves provided these casings.
Subsurface Settlements: The sleeved (Sondex) and telescoping

inclinometers were monitored for vertical as well as lateral subsurface
movement. Figure 7 shows the subsurface settlement for one
inclinometer. Settlements are generally larger at the surface than at
depth. Approximately 36 cm (14 in.) of settlement occurred at the
landfill surface; 15 cm (6 in.), at the inclinometer's base. About 24
m (80 ft) of refuse is estimated to underlie the base of this
inclinometer.
Subsurface settlement for sleeved inclinometers was monitored by

determining changes in the elevation of metal rings attached to the
sleeves at 3-m (10-ft) intervals. A Sondex probe lowered down the
casing senses the location of the metal rings by electrical induction.
The probe's electronic circuitry can be damaged by temperatures that
exceed 50~ (120~ To avoid damage from landfill temperatures that
rise to 65~ (148~ each casing was flushed with water to reduce the
temperature before the ring depth was measured.
The depths of telescoping joints were measured with a latch hook

attached to the end of a steel measuring tape. The tape was moved up
and down until the hook latched onto the bottom edge of the upper slip
joint of each telescoping section. Locating the telescoping sections
was difficult using the latch-hook. This difficulty was probably
aggravated by deformation, swelling, and softening of the casing.
Piezometers
Five piezometers were constructed using 5-cm (2-in.) OD, flush-

jointed, Schedule 80 PVC pipe with 3- or 6-m (I0- or 20-ft)-long
screened sections at the bottom having 0.5---, (0.02-in.) wide slots.
Top caps are vented. All piezometers are packed with sand extending
approximately a metre above the uppermost perforations of each screen.
Bentonite pellet seals were placed above the sand. The remaining
annular space was filled with a cement-bentonite grout.
Liquid
Downloaded/printed by levels that were measured using an electrical well sounder
(UDESC)remained essentially
Universidade do Estado constant
de Santa Catarina ((UDESC) throughout
Universidade do Estado de Santathe year-long
Catarina) pursuant to Licensemonitoring
Monitoring Dates (Month-Year)

I~ CO
CO CO CO CO CO
& ~, ? ? &
180.05, -----~. . . ~ ~ Ground 'Sondex

Surface Inclinometer I-2
178.15 ,_._~ ~ ~
174.74 ~ _ , ~ . . , .._._ , ~ . . . . ~ ~ "-'--- 179.68 (37)
171.42 ,-..., ....., _..._ 177.73 (42)
168.13 ,----- ~ . . . ~.~..~~ ~ ~ . 174.35 (39)
c-
164.86 ~_.~.... ~ 171.08 (34) A
h- E
&)
167.79 (34)
3 161.76 Ec
C 164.53 (33)
(n 158.74
G)
O 161.42 (34)
C 155.97
O 158.50 (24) UJ
>
(b
153.25. 155.78 (19)
U. -i
U.I
E
(O 150.33-----~ 153.07 (18)
o
C 150.21 (12)
147.65---- -------
145.14 ~ 147.49 (16)

145.02 (12)
144.11
143.96 -.._ 143.96 (15)
143.80 (16)
NOTES:
1. Bottom two sensor rings are fixed to casing.
FIG. 7-- Example of Subsurface Settlement

Versus Time
period, with the exception of two piezometers. The level in one

piezometer dropped substantially throughout the monitoring period.
Determining liquid levels in this piezometer was particularly difficult
because foam, sludge, and other foreign matter in the casing may have
influenced measurements. The liquid level in the second piezometer
dropped 3 m (I0 ft) during the first month of monitoring and then
remained essentially constant. A drop in liquid level may be
attributed to the puncturing of an underlying layer of relatively
impervious soil or refuse.
LABORATORY TESTING
The 13-cm (5-1/8-in.) acrylic-tube samples of refuse from depths
ranging
(UDESC) Universidade do Estado from
de Santa4.6
Catarinato 25 mUniversidade
((UDESC) (15 to 82 deft)
do Estado were pursuant
Santa Catarina) selected for testing.
Testing [7] included determining direct shear strength, moisture

content and unit weight, and percentages by weight of the different
types of materials comprising each sample. Samples were x-rayed to
identify characteristics such as voids, metal objects, density dif-
ferences, and sample disturbances. Although the original plan was to
select samples for direct shear testing based on the review of the x-
rays, the samples were so heterogeneous that x-rays were not par-
ticularly helpful for sample selection.
Direct Shear Strength
The direct shear strength was determined in general accordance with

ASTM D 3080-72. The tests were conducted under consolidated drained
conditions on 7.6- to lO.2-cm (3- to 4-in.) high, 13-cm (5-1/8-in.)
diameter specimens of refuse.
For all test specimens, the peak or maximum shear strength cor-
responded to shear displacements substantially exceeding I0 percent of
the sample diameter; that is, 16 to 39 percent. Figure 8 shows shear
stress, at I0 percent shear displacement, versus normal stress for each
specimen of the five samples tested. Individual test specimens of each
sample were dissimilar in both composition and behavior. Shear stress
versus shear displacement curves were grossly different. Given the
refuse variability, deriving Mohr-Coulomb angles of internal friction
and cohesion intercepts for individual samples was deemed
inappropriate.
Two interpretations of lower bound Mohr-Coulomb envelopes are shown

in Figure 8. One interpretation considers all test specimens, and the
other neglects specimens that contained relatively large soil
percentages. Both interpretations simplistically assume no cohesion;
interpretations with cohesion and smaller friction angles can be made
as well.
The friction angle of 53 degrees is significantly higher than

previously published for refuse. Landva, et.al. [8], performed several
large-scale, 28- by 43-cm (ii- by 17-in.), direct shear tests on refuse
samples. Friction angles were found to vary from 24 to 42 degrees;
cohesion varied from 16 to 23 kPa (335 to 480 psf). Stoll [9]
performed triaxial shear strength tests on anisotropically consolidated
specimens of 2-year-old milled domestic refuse. The effective friction
angle was 44 degrees, and there was no cohesion.
Landva and Clark [i0] found that refuse had lower strength when
retested in direct shear after a year of decomposition. The friction
angle that had originally ranged from 38 to 42 degrees had decreased to
33 degrees, and the cohesion intercept that had ranged from 16 to 19
kPa (330 to 400 psf) was 16 kPa (330 psf). Landva and Clark cautioned
that more data would be required to confirm that strength loss occurs
with refuse decomposition.
1000
32
80O _1 789 53 ~
20
95
~'600
85
m
55
400 5O 9
37 9 50
90
SYMBOL BORING DEPTH (m)
200 9 I-3 24.4

9 I-3 10.9
9 I-6 14.3
9 I-9 15.8
9 1-10 9.4
qr~"Percentage of Soil
Based on Wet Weight, Typical
I I I I I
0 200 400 600 800
Normal Stress (kPa)

FIG. 8-- Direct Shear Test Results
Unit Weight and Moisture Content
Moisture contents were determined in accordance with ASTM D 2216-

80. The samples were dried at 60~ (140~ to avoid burning the
organic content of the samples. Volumes for unit weight determinations
were calculated based on specimen dimension measurements.
Moisture content of the refuse samples was found to range from I0

to 45 percent. In one sample, the moisture content varied from 13.5 to
44.5 percent within a distance of about 8 cm (3 in.). Dry unit weights
ranged
Downloaded/printed by from 0.96 to 1.73 gm/cm 3 (60 to 108 pcf). Samples containing
(UDESC) Universidade do Estado de high
relatively Santa Catarina
soil ((UDESC) Universidade do Estado
percentages had de Santa Catarina) pursuant
higher unit toweights.
Classification
Percentages of different types of material in each sample were

estimated by manually separating each sample into the following com-
ponents and then weighing the components:
o Metal (0-11%) o Glass (0-5%)

o Wood (0-20%) o Rock and brick (0-15%)
o Soil (20-95%) o Rubber and plastic (0-35%)
o Paper (0-46%) o Miscellaneous (0-13%)
The individual components were weighed moist. The miscellaneous

category included canvas, rags, cloth, and decomposed matter. Portions
classified as soil also included decomposed material that could not be
readily separated from soil. The samples contained a large percentage
of soil (20 to 95 percent by moist weight). On a volume basis, the
percentages of soil were substantially less. Large amounts of paper,
wood, and rock were found in the samples with smaller amounts of metal,
rubber, and glass.
SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSES
A slope stability study was performed to evaluate the effect of

refuse shear strength on slope stability under both static and seismic
(pseudostatic) conditions [2]. Analysis was limited to circular-arc
shear surfaces that pass through the soil cover and into the underlying
refuse and was based on the simplified Janbu method of slices [ii].
The effect of refuse saturation was also evaluated.
Slope Geometry
The analysis was limited to Section B-B' (Figure 9) that is located

in the north-central portion of the landfill (Figure 3). The overall
slope height is approximately 76 m (250 ft), and the average slope
steepness is 2:1. Intermediate slopes are as high as 23 m (75 ft) with
a maximum steepness of 1.6:1.
Refuse and Bedrock Properties
Material properties for the refuse and underlying bedrock are

s~arized in Figure 9. Moist refuse unit weights are based on
existing site data [12] and are supported by typical in-place values
reported in the literature [10,13]. Bedrock properties are average
values based on existing data obtained from various reports addressing
bedrock properties at or near the site [14-19].
Results of Static Analyses
Figure 9 shows the critical shear surface (the lowest factor of

safety),
Downloaded/printed by assuming an unsaturated slope and static loading, for several
(UDESC)combinations
Universidade do Estado deof Santacohesion
Catarina ((UDESC)and friction
Universidade do Estado deangle.
Santa Catarina) As cohesion
pursuant increases,
O)
. ,, . ,, .-,,o . ,,
!
~0
"~.9
" "[,~
'~ " " _~ \\/Ill ~ \\l III
c ol
o E ~
n,,i n,,i ~,, ,,~ .._
9 0
~,,c >t~ >m r u
' •II
n,. >~ "Q. 0
il II ,~=~
OdO'b
u."O
"'-~ ~ I ~,~
~L ~"
I II II ID 9
C
0
U'~
4.~ I-
"~- 0
O~
| g . -~ 1 7 6
r I O t. u.~
e" O W,--
H il li
n~
the critical shear surface becomes deeper. For relatively high values
of cohesion, the critical shear surface passes through bedrock.
However, a slope failure involving bedrock is unlikely as the factors
of safety corresponding to these deep shear surfaces are quite high.
Figure i0 shows the relationship between the factor of safety (PS)

and cohesion for various friction angles for the slope under unsatu-
rated conditions and static loading. This figure also shows several
points representing refuse shear strength data reported in the litera-
ture (Points A, B, C, D, and E). Two interpretations of the results of
direct shear tests performed on samples of 011 landfill (Figure 8) are
also shown (Points P and G). The data suggest a factor of safety
greater than 1.2.
Data ~ (Ca)
Point (Degrees) Reference
A 44 ~ 0 S T O L L [9]
5.0 _ B 42 ~ 19 L A N D V A [10]
C 38 ~ 16 L A N D V A [10]
D 33 ~ 16 L A N D V A [10]
E 24 ~ 23 L A N D V A [10]
F 39 ~ 0 Figure [8]
G 53 ~ 0 Figure [8]
4.0_
= 55 ~
~ 3.0 _ ~" = 45 ~
/
,.-2.0 ,G
.~
i~:~ii!:i:~i:~i~i~i~;~:i~i!i!~::`::~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~.~:~:::~::~:::::::::::::::::::::::~:~#~:~:~:~:~:~:!~!~!:i~:i~:;:;::~
1.0_
N o r m a l l y A c c e p t e d R a n g e of F a c t o r s
of S a f e t y for Earth E m b a n k m e n t Slopes,
FS = 1.3 to 1.5
0.
I I i I I J
20 40 60 80 100 120 140
C o h e s i o n (kPa)
FIG. 10-- Factor of Safety for Unsaturated

Condition and Static Loading
Although saturated zones of liquids were identified within the

landfill, unsaturated conditions were considered because, in general,
the landfill is believed to be unsaturated. Saturated zones at the
investigated locations are relatively few and thin and are of limited
lateral extent compared to the overall mass of the landfill.
A perched, 9-m (30-ft)-thick saturated zone located 12.2 m (40 ft)

below the top of the landfill was also considered. The saturated unit
weight of refuse was assumed to be 1.44 gm/cm 3 (90 pcf). Results
indicate a relatively small reduction in the factor of safety for
static loading compared to that for the unsaturated condition. The
reduction is less than 5 percent and is greatest for refuse without
cohesion.
A saturated zone at the bottom of the landfill was also considered.

This condition is suspected but has not yet been confirmed. The
elevation of the top of this zone was assumed to be 7.6 m (25 ft) above
the bottom of the landfill. Although results indicate somewhat larger
reductions in the factor of safety for static loading compared to that
for the perched saturated zone, the reduction is less than I0 percent
for combinations of friction angle and cohesion resulting in factors of
safety less than 2.
SEISMIC RESPONSE
The O11 landfill is in an area of high seismicity. Figure ii shows

the epicenters of earthquakes with magnitudes greater than 4 that have
occurred in the general Los Angeles area between 1932 and February
1989.
The San Andreas fault lies approximately 50 km (31 miles) northeast

of the O11 site and is believed capable of producing up to a magnitude
(M) 8.5 earthquake. The Whittier fault zone is located nearest to the
site, about 5 km (3 miles) southeast. It is believed to be capable of
producing up to an M 7.0 earthquake. At the O11 site, peak accelera-
tions associated with these earthquakes are estimated to be from 0.25
to 0.50 g (g is the acceleration of gravity) for the San Andreas and
Whittier faults, respectively [20].
During a seismic event, ground motions will propagate from the base
of the landfill to its top. Accelerations could be amplified or
attenuated depending on the duration and frequency content of the
earthquake motion and the response to the ground motions of the
materials comprising the landfill.
Ground motions in the landfill will result in additional vertical

and horizontal forces in the slope due to the inertial response of the
landfill material. If the inertial forces from the earthquake in
combination with gravity-induced shearing stresses exceed the strength
of the landfill material, the slope will deform. The deformation could
vary from negligible to movements of tens of metres, depending on the
earthquake characteristics and the dynamic strength of the landfill
material.
FIG. 11-- Seismicity in Los Angeles Region

1932 to February 1989
Seismic Response Monitoring

Two
Downloaded/printed by seismic stations were installed at Oil in September 1988 to
(UDESC)monitor
Universidade dothe
Estado deresponse of the
Santa Catarina ((UDESC) landfill
Universidade during
do Estado de earthquakes
Santa Catarina) [21]. No further
pursuant to License Agreement. One reproductions
of authorize
SS-2
C C'
200
l i.
180 SS-1, Seismic Recording
, Typical _
160
Refuse
.~
M
140 /
_o
" 120 J Bedrock
100
of Landfill
80
Horizontal Scale = Vertical Scale
FIG. 12-- Seismic Recording Stations

in C r o s s S e c t i o n C - C '
the stations is located on bedrock east of the landfill; the other is

located on the top of the landfill approximately 34 m (Ii0 ft) from its
east edge (Figure 3). Figure 12 shows the stations in section.
Each seismic recording station consists of a solid-state accel-

erograph. The aceelerograph unit contains three force-balance accel-
erometers to monitor three orthogonal directions of v i b r a t i o n (longi-
tudinal, transverse, and vertical). Each unit triggers independently
when acceleration from any accelerometer exceeds a preset level.
Seismic Records for 011
Several earthquakes have occurred in the Los Angeles area since the
the seismic monitoring stations were installed. Seismic records of the
first three earthquakes that triggered one or both accelerographs at
the Oil landfill were analyzed and are discussed:
Huntington Beach earthquake on November 19, 1988. This was an

M 4.5 event w i t h an epicenter located 60 kln (37 miles) south
of the landfill.
Pasadena earthquake on December 3, 1988. This was an M 5.0

event w i t h an epicenter located 15 km (9.3 miles) north of the
landfill.
Malibu earthquake on January 18, 1989. This was an M 5.0

event with an epicenter located 50 km (31 miles) west of the
landfill.
The aecelerograph at the base of the landfill triggered for all three
earthquakes.
(UDESC) Universidade However,
do Estado de Santa Catarina ((UDESC) acceleration levels
Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina) at the
pursuant topAgreement.
to License of the landfill
were too low during the Huntington Beach event to trigger the accel-
erograph. The trigger level was lowered following the Huntington Beach
event to improve the chances of recording data at the top of the
landfill. Since then, accelerations for both the Pasadena and Malibu
earthquakes were recorded.
Huntington Beach Earthquake: The Huntington Beach earthquake

resulted in a peak acceleration of 0.01 g at the base of the landfill.
Results of Fourier Analyses indicate that most of the energy of this
earthquake was between 3 to 4 Hz. As noted above, the accelerograph at
the top of the landfill failed to trigger. The trigger level of the
unit at the top of the landfill was 0.008 g. This indicates that by
the time the acceleration propagated to the top of the landfill, the
acceleration had attenuated to less than 0.008 g. This attenuation is
consistent with results of an ambient vibration survey [22] that also
suggests attenuation of energy with frequencies in excess of 3 Hz.
Pasadena Earthquake: The Pasadena earthquake caused a longitudinal

peak acceleration of 0.22 g at the base of the landfill. At the top of
the landfill, the longitudinal peak acceleration had decreased to 0.I0
g. Similar results were recorded in the transverse and vertical
directions, although the peak amplitudes were less at the base (0.14 g
for transverse and 0.i0 g for vertical) and at the top of the landfill
(0.11 g for transverse and 0.07 g for vertical).
The peak acceleration attenuated because of the large amount of

energy at frequencies in excess of 2 Hz. Amplification occurred only
at frequencies of less than 2 Hz. However, the amount of energy at
less than 2 Hz was small compared to the overall frequency content,
which resulted in a net attenuation of the input motion. Strong peaks
in the transfer function plots occurred at frequencies of about 0.8 to
1Hz. This suggests that the fundamental modes of vibration in the
longitudinal, transverse, and vertical directions of the landfill are
in this range.
Malibu Earthquake: Accelerations associated with the Malibu event

were very small, typically ranging from 0.01 to 0.011 g at the base and
the top of the landfill, respectively. A change in frequency content
occurred between the base and the top. Most energy at the base was in
the frequency range of 2 to 4 Hz; at the top, the frequency range
decreased to 0.6 to 2.7 Hz. Although the energy attenuation above 3 Hz
and amplification below 3 Hz resulted in little change in peak
acceleration, the predominant frequency changed.
Response Durin~ Recent Earthquakes
Important information about the performance of the OII landfill can

also be obtained by observing whether or not the landfill underwent
permanent deformation during previous earthquakes. By correlating
observed response to the level of acceleration within the slope,
information about refuse properties during a seismic event can be
deduced.
As part of an earlier seismic stability study of the Oil landfill,

Woodward-Clyde Consultants [20] reviewed the performance of the 011
(UDESC)landfill after
Universidade do Estado de Santathe 19
Catarina 7 1 M Universidade
((UDESC) 6.4 San Fernando
do Estado earthquake.
de Santa Catarina) The OII
pursuant to License Agreement. No further reproductions authorize
landfill was 39 km (24 miles) from the epicenter of this earthquake.

At that time the footprint of the landfill was smaller in plan, and the
slopes were about 9 m (30 ft) shorter than their present height. The
firm-ground acceleration at the base of the landfill was estimated to
be about 0.09 g. Under this loading, it was reported that three paral-
lel cracks, up to 0.6 m (2 ft) wide developed on the east side of the
landfill during the earthquake. The Woodward-Clyde report expressed
surprise over the damage, given the low acceleration level, and stated
further that the cracks may have existed before the earthquake.
Several earthquakes have occurred in the Los Angeles area since the
landfill stopped accepting waste in 1984. The most important event was
the whittier Narrows earthquake, which occurred on October i, 1987.
The magnitude for this event was 5.9, and its epicenter [23] was about
3.7 km (2.3 miles) northeast of the center of the landfill (Figure I).
This earthquake was followed by significant aftershocks on October 4,
1987, (M 5.5) and on February ii, 1988, (M 4.7).
Unfortunately, there were no onsite seismic monitoring stations at

the time of the Whittier Narrows earthquake and its aftershocks. The
acceleration level on firm ground associated with the main shock of the
Whittier Narrows earthquake is estimated to be as high as 0.47 g [24],
based on acceleration measurements recorded at Garvey Reservoir located
3.1 km (1.9 miles) from the epicenter (Figure i). Because geological
and topographic conditions at the OII Landfill and the Garvey Reservoir
sites, as well as the distances from the epicenter for the two
locations, are similar, the base of the landfill probably experienced
shaking similar to that recorded at Garvey Reservoir.
A field reconnaissance of the South Parcel in the afternoon after

the main Whittier Narrows event identified several areas of ground
cracking [I]. The most significant surface cracking was observed on
the north-central and northeastern portions of the landfill along the
lower bench~ along the southeastern corner of the top bench of the
landfill, and along the southeastern area along the middle bench.
Cracks were typically 2.5 to 8 cm (i to 3 in.) wide and up to 90 m (300
ft) long and ran transverse to the slopes. No additional distress was
observed after either of the two aftershocks.
Only one area of open-ground cracking was apparently caused by the

Pasadena earthquake in December of 1988. Cracks were on the north-
eastern lower bench, in the same vicinity as previous cracking from the
Whittier Narrows earthquake. The cracks were typically 1 to 2 cm (1/2
to 1 in.) wide, 5 to i0 cm (2 to 4 in.) deep, and 45 m (150 ft) long.
The western edge or beginning of the cracking displayed a 15- to 30-cm
(6- to 12-in.)-wide, 30- to 60-cm (I- to 2-ft)-deep, 3-m (10-ft)-long
crack. No cracking was observed after the other recent earthquakes.
Preliminary Interpretations
The results of the landfill monitoring program can be used with the
results of pseudostatic slope stability analyses to make some prelimi-
nary observations about the static strength properties of landfill
materials. Yield acceleration (horizontal acceleration at which the
factor of safety equals unity) was determined for different combina-
tions doof
(UDESC) Universidade Estadorefuse cohesion
de Santa Catarina and friction
((UDESC) Universidade angle.
do Estado de Santa Catarina) pursuant to License Agreement. No further reproductions authorize
SLOPESTABILITYINVESTIGATIONS 279
Figure 13 shows yield acceleration as a function of the friction angle

and the cohesion intercept used in the pseudostatic slope stability
analyses. This figure also shows peak ground accelerations measured at
the base and the top of the landfill for the Pasadena earthquake, as
well as the base acceleration for the Whittier Narrows earthquake at
the Garvey Reservoir.
0.7
Friction Angle, ~"
_K
~ 1 / Wh't"er"'rr~
Oct. 1, 1987 .-- ~ = 3 8 o
M = 5.9
0.5 /._../_~ k, = 0.47 g (peak)
(Ganley Rese~oir)
C
.2 0.4 ~ =2 0 ~
/ / ..i Pasadena earthquake,
O
U
O
C = "
< O.3
"O
O
/ -- __~__~ f k.:O.22g(peak)
0.2 /(Bedrock)
/ / k h = 0.10g (peak)
/ / (Top of Landfill)
0.1
-r-~ "N~tes.
- -
E/ / 1. k h represents horizontal ground acceleration.
2. For points A-F, see legend in Figure 10.
l I I | I I ! |
40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Cohesion (kPa)
FIG. 13-- Yield A c c e l e r a t i o n for U n s a t u r a t e d

C o n d i t i o n and Seismic (Pseudostatic) Loading
For both earthquakes, either minor or no slope movement was ob-

served during postearthquake damage surveys. This suggests that
factors of safety during these events were likely at or above 1.0. By
assuming that the factor of safety was 1.0, it can be concluded that
the landfill strength properties had to be equal to or greater than the
intercepts with the horizontal acceleration values for each record.
For example, during the Pasadena event, accelerations in the

landfill were between 0.I0 and 0.22 g. If the average acceleration is
conservatively
Downloaded/printed by assumed to be 0.I0 g, then the strength of the landfill
material could have been one of the following or a number of similar

combinations:
Friction Angle Cohesion Intercept

(de~rees) (kPa/psf)
38 0
30 10/200
20 40/800
These combinations of refuse strengths for the analyzed slope that

sustained a yield acceleration of 0.1 g suggest a factor of safety
greater than 1.2 for unsaturated static slopes (Figure i0).
These interpretations are believed to be conservative from the

standpoint that Pasadena accelerations plotted in Figure 13 are the
peak values recorded at the top and bottom of the landfill. These
values are instantaneous occurrences. A single peak equal to the
yield will normally cause very little, if any, deformation. For
noticeable deformations to occur, the peak usually has to be at least
twice the yield acceleration [25]. This suggests that, in the absence
of any noticeable deformation on most slopes, higher strength
properties than given above must have existed within the landfill.
CONCLUSIONS
In general, other than identifying cover soil types, CPTs were not
particularly helpful for investigating the OII landfill. However, CPTs
might still be useful to identify relatively weak zones within the
landfill, or to qualitatively evaluate whether refuse shear strength
changes over time.
Direct shear tests results should be used with caution. In gener-

al, the direct shear testing device used in the 011 testing program was
not well suited for the large shear displacements that were required to
fully mobilize the shear strength of refuse. Also, large pieces of
relatively strong refuse may have become wedged between the shear boxes
and produced artificially high shearing resistance. Finally, sample
sizes tested were significantly smaller than many particles of in situ
refuse.
With respect to the stability of 011 landfill slopes, the following

conclusions can be made:
Stability analyses for unsaturated slopes suggest that for

likely combinations of friction angle and cohesion, the factor
of safety of the slope section analyzed is greater than 1.2.
However, in view of the uncertainties associated with deter-
mining refuse strength and the potential for refuse strength
to change with time, additional studies are required to
support this conclusion.
For earth embankment design, the minimum acceptable factor of

safety typically ranges from 1.3 to 1.5 for static conditions,
(UDESC) Universidade do Estadowhich suggests
de Santa Catarina that O11
((UDESC) Universidade slopes
do Estado may pursuant
de Santa Catarina) be marginally
to License Agreement.acceptable.
However, a factor of safety that is reasonable for earth

slopes eventually may not prove reasonable for slopes composed
of refuse. Observed slope movements, if due to creep, also
suggest marginally stable conditions.
Results of pseudostatic slope stability analyses determined

that yield accelerations (acceleration at which the factor of
safety is 1.0) will range widely depending on strength proper-
ties of refuse. During the 1987 Whittier Narrows earthquake
and the 1988 Pasadena earthquake, slopes withstood accelera-
tions in excess of 0.i g with little or no slope movement.
This suggests that the yield acceleration was at least 0.I g
and combinations of shear strength parameters correspond to a
static factor of safety greater than 1.2.
The following conclusions can be drawn from interpreting the

earthquake records:
Peak accelerations attenuated or remained the same for the two

earthquakes that triggered both the top and base seismic
recording units. During the Pasadena earthquake, the base
acceleration in the longitudinal direction decreased from 0.22
g at the base to 0.i0 g at the top of the landfill. Lower
peak accelerations were recorded in the transverse and verti-
cal directions. The amount of attenuation in these directions
was also less. Negligible change was recorded from the base
to the top during the Malibu earthquake.
The input motions at the base of the landfill for the three
records included a significant amount of energy above 2 to 3
Hz. Results of transfer function studies of these records
suggest that energy above 3 Hz will attenuate as it propagates
to the top of the landfill.
Strong amplification of energy occurred at frequencies less

than 2 to 3 Hz as the motion at the base of the landfill
propagated to the top. The three recorded motions had low
amounts of energy in this frequency range, which resulted in a
net attenuation of the ground motion.
Little to no damage was observed after the three recorded

earthquakes. Only minor damage was observed after the Whit-
tier Narrows earthquake that occurred before the seismic
stations were installed. These results suggest that the
landfill can withstand moderate earthquakes with only need of
minor repair following the earthquake.
For final evaluation of the static and dynamic stability of the OII
landfill slopes, the shear strength of refuse must be known with more
certainty. To improve present knowledge of the shear strength of
refuse, large-scale laboratory and/or in situ shear tests on refuse are
recommended. Additional seismic response data should also be col-
lected.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work discussed in this paper was performed by CH2M HILL for the
United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as part of the
Phase 2 Remedial Investigation/ Feasibility Study of the OII landfill
site. Although the work was funded by the EPA, this paper has not been
subject to the Agency's review and, therefore, does not necessarily
reflect the Agency's views, and no official endorsement should be
inferred.
The Earth Technology Corporation (TETC) of Huntington Beach and Long

Beach, California, under subcontract to CH2M HILL, provided cone
penetration testing, laboratory testing, and seismic response
monitoring services. TETC also performed the analysis of ambient
vibration survey and earthquake records.
REFERENCES
[i] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Agency Review Draft Techni-

cal Memorandum, Data for the Geotechnical Site Assessment, RI2/FS
South Parcel, Operating Industries, Inc., Monterey Park, Califor-
nia, prepared by CH2M HILL, Santa Ana, California, February 6,
1989.
[2] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Agency Review Draft Techni-
cal Memorandum, Slope Stability and Seismic Response Studies,
RI2/FS South Parcel, Operating Industries, Inc., Monterey Park,
California, prepared by CH2M HILL, Santa Ana, California, March
17, 1989.
[~] The Earth Technology Corporation, Cone Penetration Tests, Operat-
ing Industries, Inc., South Parcel Landfill, Monterey Park,
California (report prepared for Layne Environmental Services of
Fontana, California), Long Beach, California, December 1987.
[4] American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM), Annual Book of
ASTM Standards, Volume 4.08 Soil and Rock; Building Stones;
Geotextiles, Section 4, Construction, Philadelphia, 1987.
[5] Douglas, B. J. and Olsen, R. S., ~Soil Classification Using
Electric Cone Penetrometer," Symposium on Cone Penetration Testing
and Experience, Geotechnical Engineering Division, American
Society of Civil Engineers, St. Louis, Missouri, October 1981, pp.
209-227.
[6] Converse Consultants, Seismic and Slope Stability, Operating
Industries Landfill, Monterey Park, California (report prepared
for Operating Industries Inc.), Pasadena, California, December 12,
1985.
[7] The Earth Technology Corporation, Report, Laboratory Testing of
Soils and Refuse, Operating Industries Landfill (prepared for CH2M
HILL, Santa Ana, California), Long Beach, California, December 19,
1988.
[8] Landva, A. 0., Clark, J. I., Weisner, W. R., and Burwash, W. J.,
"Geotechnical Engineering and Refuse Landfills," Sixth National
Copyright by ASTMConference onThuWaste
Int'l (all rights reserved); Management
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by 1984.
[9] Stoll, U. W., "Mechanical Properties of Milled Domestic Trash,"

American Society of Civil Engineers," presented at the National
Water Resources Engineering Meeting, Phoenix, Arizona, January
1971.
[I0] Landva, A. O. and Clark, J. I., Geotechnical Testing of Wastefill,
Report submitted to the London Institution of Civil Engineers,
1987.
[ii] Janbu, N., "Slope Stability Computations," Embankment-Dam En-
gineering, Casagrande Volume, Hirschfeld, R. C. and Poulos, S. J.,
Editors, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1972.
[12] Converse Davis Dixon Associates, Slope Stability Investigation,
Proposed Final Slope Adjacent to the Pomona Freeway, Operating In-
dustries Disposal Site, Monterey Park, California (report prepared
for operating Industries, Inc.), Pasadena, California, October 15,
1975.
Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Journal of
the Sanitary Engineering Division, Vol. 94, No. SAI, New York,
February, 1973.
[14] Converse Davis Dixon Associates, Supplemental Geotechnical Stud-
ies, Operating Industries Disposal Site, Monterey Park, California
(report prepared for Lockman and Associates, Monterey Park,
California), Pasadena, California, July 15, 1976.
[15] Gorian and Associates, Soils Engineering Investigation of Monterey
Park Facility Nu FUEL Co. (report prepared for the HGR Nu FUEL
Company, Newport Beach, California), Westlake Village, California,
February I0, 1975.
[16] Leighton-Yen & Associates, Geotechnical Investigation of Stability
of Cut-Slope on Southwestern Perimeter of Cut and Cover Dump Site,
Monterey Park, California (report prepared for Operating Indus-
tries, Monterey Park, California), La Habra, California, August
31, 1973.
[17] Woodward-Clyde Consultants, Geotechnical Investigation, Montebello
Reservoir, Montebello, California (report prepared for the City of
Montebello, California), Orange, California, January 22, 1979.
[18] Pacific Soils Engineering, Preliminary Soils Engineering and
Geologic Investigation, Proposed Gas Recovery Facility, City of
Monterey Park, California (report prepared for Lockman and As-
sociates, Monterey Park, California), Harbor City, California,
October 5, 1978.
[19] Medall, Aragon, Worswick & Associates, Geotechnical Investigation
Report, Proposed Commercial Development, Northeasterly of Green-
wood Avenue - Pomona Freeway Grade Separation, Monterey Park,
California (prepared for the Bennett Development Company, Newport
Beach, California), Los Angeles, California, September 26, 1983.
[20] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Seismic Stability Evalua-
tion, Operating Industries, Inc. Landfill, Monterey Park, Califor~
nia, Report prepared by Woodward-Clyde Consultants, Santa Ana,
California, May 27, 1987.
[21] The Earth Technology Corporation, Draft Landfill Response to
Seismic Events, Seismic Evaluation Study, Operating Industries,
Inc. (report prepared for CH2M HILL, Santa Ana, California), Long
Beach, California, March, 1989.
[22] The Earth Technology Corporation, Ambient Vibration Survey Seismic
Evaluation
Copyright by ASTM Study,
Int'l (all rights reserved); Operating
Thu Sep Industries, Inc. (report prepared for
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CH2M
Downloaded/printed by HILL, Santa Ana, California) Long Beach, California, February
13, 1989.
[23] Jones, L. and Hauksson, E., "The Whittier Narrows, California

Earthquake of October i, 1987 - Seismology," Earthquake Spectra,
Vol. 4, No. I, Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, E1
Cerrito, California, 1988.
[24] Brady, A. G., Etheredge, E. C., and Porcella, R. L., "The Whittier
Narrows, California Earthquake of October I, 1987, Preliminary
Assessment of Strong Ground Motion Records," Earthquake Spectra,
Vol. 4, No. i, Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, E1
Cerrito, California, 1988.
[25] Makdisi, F. I. and Seed, B. H., A Simplified Procedure for Es-
timating Earthquake-Induced Deformations in Dams and Embankments,
Report No. UCB/EERC-77/19, Earthquake Engineering Research Center,
University of California, Berkeley, California, August 1977.
Gregory E. Tieman, Gregory W. Druback, Kenneth A. Davis, and Charles
H. Weidner
STABILITY CONSIDE~TION OF VERTICAL LANDFILL EXPANSIONS
REFERENCE: Tieman, G.E., Druback, G.W., Davis, K.A., and

Weidner, C.H., "Stability of Vertical Piggyback Landfill Expan-
sions", Geotechnics of Waste Fills - Theory and Practice, ASTM
STP 1070, Arvid Landva, G. David Knowles, eds., American
Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, 1990.
ABSTRACT: I t should be expected that vertical expansions of

ash residue and municipal solid waste landfills in the future
will be required to demonstrate an acceptable level of
structural s t a b i l i t y in addition to meeting other federal and
state regulations. In particular, the liner systems of the
vertical piggyback expansions should not suffer damage due to
settlement of the underlying existing waste material or due to
side slope i n s t a b i l i t y .
In May 1987, prior to the development of any New York state

or federal regulations addressing the issue of structural
s t a b i l i t y relative to vertical piggyback expansions, separate
ash residue and municipal solid waste vertical expansions were
designed by Malcolm Pirnie, Inc. for the Town of I s l i p , New
York. A fundamental design consideration was the evaluation
of long-term piggyback structural s t a b i l i t y . Construction of
both piggyback expansions began in September 1987, with
substantial completion in August 1988.
The design of both piggybacks evaluated structural s t a b i l i t y

in the following modes: (I) failure between the various
natural and geosynthetic materials comprising the piggyback
liner system, (2) deep seated circular failure down through
the underlying existing waste material and subgrade and (3)
subgrade reinforcement with polyethylene geogrids. Malcolm
Pirnie's analyses indicated that several geotechnical
parameters were of c r i t i c a l concern for the s t a b i l i t y of the
Town of I s l i p ' s vertical piggyback expansions: (i) bottom
liner and existing side slope grades, (Z) interface f r i c t i o n
angles, (3) type and orientation of the geosynthetics relative
Gregory Tieman is a Project Engineer, Gregory Druback, P.E. is a

Senior Associate, and Kenneth Davis, P.E. is a Senior Project Engineer
with Malcolm Pirnie, Inc., 2 Corporate Park Drive, White Plains, NY
10602; Charles Weidner, P.E. is Executive Vice President of the Islip
Resource
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rights reserved); Thu 40EDT
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2019 Avenue, I s l i p , NY 11751.
285

to grade, (4) depth of leachate in the drainage layer above the

piggyback liner system, and (5) u t i l i z a t i o n of geogrids for
subgrade reinforcement.
The s t a b i l i t y analyses which assessed design conditions (1)

through (4) utilized the computer program STABL, written at
Purdue University for the general solution of slope s t a b i l i t y
problems. Calculation of factor of safety values against
incipient i n s t a b i l i t y of the slope was performed for the
sliding block and deep-seated circular failure analysis, using
the Modified Bishop's and Simplified Janbu methods, respec-
t i v e l y . The results of the structural analyses indicated that
a combination of geogrid reinforcement and appropriate design
would yield vertical piggyback expansions which would have
acceptable structural s t a b i l i t i e s over their operational and
post-closure lifetimes.
KEYWORDS: piggyback, structural s t a b i l i t y , uniaxial geogrid,

textured HDPEliner, factor of safety
INTRODUCTION
The Town of I s l i p , New York, encompasses 285 square kilometers

(110 square miles) along the southern shore of Suffolk County, Long
Island. The Town operates recycling and yard waste and leaf
composting programs and has placed into operation a 363 tonnes per
day (400 ton per day) resource recovery f a c i l i t y . Although these
f a c i l i t i e s are in place, the Town has continued to rely upon the
Blydenburgh Landfill, for municipal solid waste (MSW)disposal. The
success of this integrated system has allowed the Town to process
and dispose of i t s estimated 290 kilotonnes per year (320,000 tons
per year) of MSWin the Town without having to contract for off-Long
Island hauling and disposal.
In the mid 1980's, the v i a b i l i t y of this integrated program

was in jeopardy. Passageof the Long Island Landfill Law in 1983,
which effectively banned landfilling of raw garbage on most of Long
Island after December 18, 1990, precluded the economic development
of new landfill capacity in the Town. Furthermore, Blydenburgh
Landfill was projected to reach capacity in early 1987 and close.
To conserve the l a n d f i l l ' s dwindling capacity for residential use,
the Town prohibited commercial haulers from the landfill in the fall
of 1986. In response, on March 22, 1987, the Mobro barge departed
Long Island City, New York loaded with commercial MSW which could
no longer be landfilled at the Blydenburgh site.
Partly in response to significant negative publicity

surrounding the Mobro barge and the continuing need to provide for
waste disposal, the New York State Department of Environmental
Conservation (NYSDEC) and the Town's Resource Recovery Agency
entered into an Order on Consent on May 12, 1987. This allowed for
continued operations and an 81,000 square meter (20.0 acre)
vertical
Copyright by ASTM Int'l (allMSWreserved);
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Thu Sep 5 12:03:30 EDT 2019 on top of a closed and capped
portion of the existing 181,000 square meter (44.8 acre) landfill
mound. In addition, the Order on Consent permitted construction of
STABILITY CONSIDERATION OF LANDFILL EXPANSIONS 287
a separate 12,000 square meter (3.0 acre) ash residue vertical

piggyback expansion adjacent to theMSW piggyback expansion. During
design and construction of the vertical piggybacks, residential MSW
disposal continued on the remaining 61,000 square meter (15.1 acre)
portion of the landfill mound and commercial MSW disposal
recommenced.
Both expansions have been designed for and constructed on top

of existing landfilled MSW. Reflecting the similarity in their
design, and construction, this paper will concentrate on the MSW
vertical piggyback expansion. Design and construction of the
vertical MSWpiggyback expansion represented a unique geotechnical
challenge, due to its area, need to protect existing landfill
environmental systems, thickness of existing refuse, and the need
to construct the expansion on top of side slopes as steep as 2.5:1
(horizontal to vertical).
Substantial completion of construction in August 1988 gave the

Town an estimated 841,000 cubic meters (1,100,000 cubic yards) of
additional MSWcapacity and an estimated 57,415 cubic meters (75,100
cubic yards) of ash residue capacity. Based on waste inflow rates,
this additional MSW and ash residue capacity should be more than
sufficient to allow landfilling to continue until both l a n d f i l l s '
required closures on December 18, 1990.
EXISTING SITE CONDITIONS
The Blydenburgh Landfill is located in an area characterized

by h i l l y and irregular topography typical of a glacial terminal
moraine. The land surface elevation at the southerly end of the
site is approximately 58 meters msl (140 feet) and dips toward the
north, where the elevation is approximately 24 meters msl (82 feet).
The surface soils within the landfill area prior to excavation and
landfilling a c t i v i t i e s were primarily the Plymouth loamy sand and
the Riverhead sandy loam. In this area the subsoils appear to be
composed predominantly of coarse sand to fine gravel, with lenses
of finer material. These sandy soils have been used extensively as
cover soil over the refuse and for sand drainage layers in the
on-site landfills.
Landfilling commenced on the site in the 1950's. As of May

1987, approximately 120,000 square meters (29.7 acres) of the
landfill had been closed to a peak elevation of 76 meters msl (250
feet). This portion had been capped with a 20 mil polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) flexible membrane liner, 0.61 meters (2.0 feet) of
sand, and 0.15 meters (6 inches) of topsoil. Much of the topsoil
had eroded off the slope and as part of piggyback construction, the
remaining portion was removed. The landfill had a thickness of as
much as 58 meters (190 feet) of MSWby the time this portion of the
landfill was capped. S i d e slopes of the capped portion of the
landfill ranged from 2.5:1 to 9:1. Active landfill operations were
occurring on a 61,000 square meter (15.1 acre) section of the
existing
Copyright mound
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Sep 5 12:03:30 in 1987 at the 72 meter msl (250
EDT 2019
foot) elevation.
Downloaded/printed by The 61,000 square meter (15.1 acre) section was
underlain by a bottom 30 mil PVC liner, but the remaining 120,000
288 GEOTECHN[CSOF WASTE FILLS
square meter (29.7 acre) closed and capped portion of the landfill
was unlined.
The landfill has historically operated a perimeter landfill gas

collection system to i n h i b i t the lateral migration of gas o f f - s i t e .
This system consists of a series of vertical collection wells
u t i l i z i n g negative pressure, header piping, and two flares. Prior
to construction of the vertical MSW piggyback, vertical gas wells
had been installed under another contract through the 20 mil PVC cap
into the underlying waste. As part of the vertical MSW piggyback
design, the integrity of these wells had to be maintained. In the
fall of 1989, the Town began generating e l e c t r i c i t y from the gas
collected by these wells beneath the 20 mil PVC cap; while perimeter
gases continued to be flared. Storm water runoff is collected in
a series of perimeter drainage swales and directed to the north end
of the site with discharge into an existing ground water recharge
basin. Storm water recharge is a general construction and
development requirement of Suffolk County for the a r t i f i c i a l
recharge of the underlying Magothy Aquifer.
PIGGYBACK DESIGN
The MSW piggyback was designed for and constructed on top of

a 81,000 square meter (20.0 acre) unlined portion of the Blydenburgh
Landfill. I t was projected that the final height of the entire
181,000 square meter (44.8 acre) landfill would increase by an
additional 15.1 meters (50 feet) to elevation 91 meters msl (300
feet). The general design concept for both of the vertical
expansions was developed by the White Plains, New York office of
Malcolm Pirnie, with review and input by the NYSDECand the Town of
I s l i p ' s engineering staff. The primary components of the MSW
piggyback design are:
- Polyethylene (PE) geogrids to provide subgrade support;
Geomembrane liner system u t i l i z i n g the existing 20 mil PVC

cap with an upgraded leachate collection system and an
overlying 80 mil high density polyethylene (HDPE) liner
with a leachate collection system;
APE drainage net overlying the HDPE liner to provide

lateral leachate drainage; and
Gravity flow leachate collection system u t i l i z i n g

perforated PE piping inside the perimeter of the piggyback
to collect leachate. Solid piping penetrates perimeter
berms, intersecting a header PE pipe in junction manholes,
and then to a pump station. MSW leachate is then pumped
into one of three 833 cubic meter (220,000 gallon) storage
tanks.
The overall geomembrane liner system for the MSW piggyback

expansion consists of two separate flexible membrane liner systems.
But i t should be noted that in 1987, the NYSDECwas only requiring
a single liner system for the piggyback. The existing 20 mil PVC
FILTER FABRIC ~ ~ - W idSW~"~
80 MIL HDPE LINER .3m DRAINAGESAND

GEOGRID ~,~,L33~..=.~--I. . . . . ,-l" . . . . ~-- -- - -~--~
0.3m SELECT FILL
EXISTING 20 MIL [
PVC CAP ~ ~ . . . . .
- ~ O.3rn SELECT FILL /
EXISTING COVER ~IAND / /

\ BURIEO S O L , O /
EL. 91m ~
VERTICAL PIGGYBACKF..XPANSION ~ /
BURIED SOLID WASTE ~ ~ /
FIGURE 1. Liner System Design.
cap was upgraded as part of the construction of the MSWpiggyback's

HDPE liner system to operate in a sense as a lower liner system.
A minimum thickness of 0.15 meters (6 inches) of sand was maintained
on top of the 20 mil PVC cap during construction. A perimeter HDPE
leachate collection piping system was constructed to collect any
leachate which could collect in this sand layer above the 20 mil
PVC. The intent of this upgrade was not to collect leachate which
might migrate down from the overlying piggyback liner, but instead
to collect mounded leachate which historically had seeped from
beneath and through the 20 mil PVC cap out onto the side slope
surfaces.
Once the 20 mil PVC cap upgrade had been completed, the MSW
piggyback's single geomembrane liner system was constructed. The
intent of this liner system was to hydraulically isolate the
vertical piggyback from the underlying capped landfill and ground
and surface water. To accomplish this goal, a 80 mil HDPEsynthetic
liner with leachate collection and transmission was designed and
constructed. This liner system consisted of the following material,
from top to bottom, as shown in Figure 1:
Design thickness of 0.30 meters (12 inches) of compacted,

select on-site sand for liner protection; 0.38 to 0.45
meters (15 to 18 inches) actually placed bythe Contractor.
During operations there have been no reported incidents of
mechanical damage to the liner system from equipment
Downloaded/printed by operations or refuse placement;
0.30 kilograms/square meter (8 ounce/square yard) nonwoven,

needle-punched polypropylene (PP) f i l t e r fabric;
PE drainage net to provide primary leachate drainage off

the liner. Calculations indicate that the PEdrainagenet,
when placed on a 3:1 slope, has a transmissivity equivalent
to 12.9 meters (42.3 feet) of 5.0 X E-5 meters per second
on-site drainage sand.
Smooth and textured 80 mil HDPEflexible membrane liner;
0.30 meters (12 inches) of compacted, select f i l l ;
Two PE, uniaxial geogrid reinforcement layers; and
0.30 meters (12 inches) of compacted, select f i l l .
SUBGRADE STABILITY AND GEOGRIDS
A major consideration in the design of a piggyback type

landfill expansion is the survival of the l a n d f i l l ' s environmental
protection systems. Specifically, the piggyback's geomembrane liner
system must be able to accept potential settlement of the refuse in
the lower, existing capped l a n d f i l l . This includes maintaining the
integrity of the piggyback's leachate collection system (whether
drainage net or piping), f i l t e r fabric, and sand drainage layers.
Furthermore, the expansion should not interfere with other
peripheral systems such as gas collection, storm water management,
ground water monitoring, u t i l i t i e s , roads, etc. Peripheral systems
represent a unique economic opportunity. The piggyback should be
able to u t i l i z e these systems with a resultant capital cost savings.
Realizing this savings is dependent upon a stable design.
Therefore, an engineering analysis was performed prior to piggyback
construction at the Blydenburgh Landfill to design for the
structural integrity of the piggyback. Structural integrity was
assessed via settlement and side slope s t a b i l i t y analysis.
The analysis of potential settlement in the refuse underlying

the 20 mil PVC cap was broken down into three components. First,
the relationship between the additional MSW piggyback loading and
soils settlement was reviewed. The site soils consist of very dense
and compact sands with blow counts ranging from 16 to greater than
100 blows per 0.15 meters (6 inches) from 3 meters (10 feet) to
borings termination at 12 meters (40 feet) depth. Near surface
values ranged from 8 to 40 blows per 0.15 meters (6 inches).
Because of the nature of these sands, the likelihood of further soil
settlement of any consequence was considered unlikely and not
analyzed further. Second, the integrity of the perimeter leachate
collection piping systems was assessed. Where the piping systems
were placed on sand there would be no additional refuse loading to
induce settlement. Where the piping systems were underlain by
existing refuse, the degree of strain in the HDPEpiping which could
potentially be induced by uniform settlement would be well within
the allowable
Downloaded/printed by design values for PE pipe. Additionally, the positive
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integrity.
The third component of the settlement analysis assessed

consolidation of the existing MSW.Two types of settlement occur in
landfills. Primary consolidation occurs rapidly during the
placement of the MSW. Secondary consolidation occurs over longer
periods of time and is a function of environmental conditions and
composition of the refuse. This material presumably had completed
i t s primary consolidation and much of i t s secondary consolidation
prior to construction of the piggyback. This reflects the age of
the refuse, much of which had been landfilled in the 1950's and
1960's. Using a methodology developed specifically for estimating
settlement in MSW landfills due to new applied loads, calculations
were performed which indicated that the piggyback had the potential
to induce further settlement of this refuse. (References I 2).
The methodology utilized a relative height-log pressure relationship
(relative layer thickness versus applied stress) which was based on
laboratory and field experiments to estimate the magnitude of
settlement in discrete waste layers within the existing l a n d f i l l .
The discrete settlements were then summed to provide an estimate of
the total magnitude of the resultant settlement.
The potential for additional settlement was dependent on the

estimated thickness of old refuse which could be as much as 58
meters (190 feet). Although the magnitude of the calculated
potential settlement due to the additional MSW piggyback loading
could be as much as 3.9 meters (12.8 feet), this value would only
be applicable where the potential thickness of both the old refuse
and the new piggyback loading would both coincide and be greatest.
The values for settlement would then decrease uniformly from this
location at the center of the expansion to zero at the perimeter.
The resultant strain which could develop in the HDPE flexible
membrane liner from uniform settlement was then calculated to be
0.13 percent, compressive. This value is significantly less than
13 percent, elongation, which represents the yield point for the 80
mil HDPE liner utilized for the piggyback and would theoretically
result in strain r e l i e f or relaxation. Therefore, uniform
settlement of the refuse beneath the piggyback liner system is to
be expected, but based on settlement calculations would not
represent an identifiable threat to the structural integrity of the
HDPE liner system. I t should also be noted that the steep side
slopes upon which the piggyback liner system were constructed would
be great enough to allow for continued positive leachate drainage,
mitigating the effects of uniform settlement as well as the
potential for leachate ponding on the liner.
Conversely, differential settlement has the potential to

represent a greater threat to the structural integrity of the HDPE
liner system t h a n uniform settlement. The potential does
theoretically exist for a weakening of the subgrade beneath the
piggyback liner due to differential settlement in the underlying
refuse. In a worst case scenario, the 80 mil HDPE liner would no
longer have sufficient subgrade support and the magnitude of the
resultant
Copyright by ASTM Int'l (allstrain could
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i t s yield
Downloaded/printed by point. This could result in a thinning and stretching of
the HDPE material, conceivably allowing MSW piggyback leachate to
percolate down to the underlying, upgraded 20 mil PVC cap system i f

a rupture in the HDPE developed. At t h i s point the upgraded cap
system would act to collect this leachate and transmit i t to i t s
perimeter leachate collection system. I f this system were also
breached then leachate could potentially i n f i l t r a t e down into the
underlying, existing refuse which is unlined. Because of this
p o s s i b i l i t y for l i n e r f a i l u r e and potential leachate discharge to
the environment, there was a need to identify an approach which
could prevent such a scenario from occurring.
To assess the f a i l u r e scenario, several subgrade reinforcement

methods were reviewed. Numerousauthors who have published on t h i s
topic have pointed out that tensile reinforcement fabrics (referred
to as geogrids) have been one method successfully implemented to
increase the s t a b i l i t y of structures over weak foundation soils.
Geogrids have been u t i l i z e d since the 1950's for reinforcing
railroad and road subgrades in areas of karst subsidence or
wetlands, for example. Conceptually, polyethylene (PE) geogrids
act to bridge areas of subsurface softening. There was no evidence
in the l i t e r a t u r e indicating that geogrids had ever been
s p e c i f i c a l l y u t i l i z e d in this type of l a n d f i l l application, however.
(References 3 - 7)
At Blydenburgh Landfill, time restraints, the presence of the

gas collection system and the 20 mil PVC cap presented complications
which appeared to rule out traditional subgrade improvement methods
such as surcharging to accelerate consolidation and settlement, or
grouting to stabilize the existing refuse prior to piggyback
construction. The economics of surcharging or grouting also
appeared to be prohibitive, in part due to the time requirements and
the great thickness of the existing refuse. Conversely, geogrids
have been reported in the l i t e r a t u r e to be easily installed and to
have been u t i l i z e d in similar type projects requiring subgrade
reinforcement. The economics and required construction time
appeared to be favorable and use of geogrids did not present any
apparent complications with regard to the existing environmental
systems.
Conservative design assumptions were developed so that the

s u i t a b i l i t y of geogrids of varying tensile strengths could be
evaluated. Figure 2 is a schematic representation of the design
assumptions and the calculated magnitude of vertical settlement
which could result i f a void of 2.4 meters (8.0 feet) were to
develop in the refuse beneath the geogrids. Under t h i s occurrence
the l i n e r system would lose all means of subgrade support in that
area similar to a punching or shear subgrade deformation. Malcolm
Pirnie was aware of no evidence in the l i t e r a t u r e indicating that
voids as great as 2.4 meters (8.0 feet) in diameter had developed
in MSW l a n d f i l l caps. But, as an apparent worst-case scenario for
purposes of the model, such a void appeared to represent a rational
maximum diameter void which could theoretically develop beneath the
vertical piggyback l i n e r system, considering the nature and
composition of typical MSW. For example, a 2.4 meter (8.0 foot)
diameter
Copyright void
by ASTM Int'l (all would
rights reserved); Thualso be approximately
Sep 5 12:03:30 EDT 2019 equivalent to two adjacent
house-hold appliances instantaneously crushing. The following
design c r i t e r i a were modelled:
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~ M
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FIGURE 2. Geogrid Design Conditions.

10 percent or less reinforcement strain (elongation) over

the 120 year design l i f e for the geogrids;
Geogrid reinforced soils, analogous to a soil beam, to be

designed beneath the piggyback liner system acting as a
non-rigid bridge spanning the lower, existing l a n d f i l l ;
A circular 2.4 meter (8.0 foot) diameter void assumed to

be of i n f i n i t e depth to develop beneath the liner system.
Although a circular void or depression was assumed, the
actual depression might be nonsymmetric. Therefore, two
layers of geogrid placed perpendicular to provide
multidirectional support for nonsymmetric depressions;
A void was assumed for analytical purposes, but based on

the literature and personal field observations by the
authors, the subgrade would be more expected to develop a
localized decrease in strength, a softening, rather than
an actual void;
Inherent strength and resistance of the HDPE liner and
associated geosynthetics of the liner system were assumed
to be zero. Therefore the geogrids were assumed to provide
all of the structural reinforcement;
Uniform, maximum loading on the liner represented by 21.3

meters (70 feet) of MSW with a density of 993 kilograms
per cubic meter (62 pounds per cubic foot), a long-term
f r i c t i o n angle of 35 degrees, and a cohesion of 0 pounds
per square foot. In actuality, loading would decrease
towards the perimeter of the piggyback expansion where the
refuse thickness would decrease to zero and some bridging
of waste material could be expected to occur over a void.
The density of refuse was also estimated very
conservatively at 993 kilograms per cubic meter (62 pounds
per cubic foot). Based on empirical data and operations
at the vertical piggyback through December 1989, a value
of 769 kilograms per cubic meter (48 pounds per cubic foot)
may be more representative of the in-place densities being
achieved; and
Geogrid strength utilized was not the ultimate or yield

strength, but instead was the creep strength as based on
10,000 hour maximum creep tests performed by the
manufacturer; product durability data, and other environ-
mental considerations. The creep strength was based on a
120 year design l i f e because polyethylene, unlike steel,
will gradually deform under loads less than the yield
point.
In summary, two layers of uniaxial, polyethylene geogrid were
placed perpendicular to each other in the soils between the vertical
CopyrightM
bySW piggyback
ASTM liner
Int'l (all rights reserved); Thu Sep 5system
12:03:30 EDTand
2019 the underlying 20 mil PVC cap.
Calculations
Downloaded/printed by indicated that geogrids could span a 2.4 meter (8.0
foot) diameter void in the underlying MSW with a maximum downward
vertical deflection to the piggyback l i n e r system of 0.5 meters (1.8

feet). The resultant strain (elongation) to the l i n e r system would
be a maximum of 10 percent, or 30 to 50 percent less than the
reported elongation at yield for the HDPEl i n e r material used in the
vertical piggyback expansion.
Conceptually, i f a void greater than 2.4 meters (8.0 feet) were

to develop in the subgrade beneath the piggyback l i n e r there could
be resultant displacement of the soil above and below the geogrid
layers on the flanks of the void. This could result in an
elongation of the HDPE l i n e r beyond i t s 13 to 15 percent yield
point, resulting in property changes to the HDPE l i n e r . I t should
be noted though that the strain at rupture of a HDPE l i n e r is a
minimum of 500 percent (Reference 8). Therefore even under a larger
diameter void scenario i t is s t i l l anticipated that the l i n e r system
would continue to act as a barrier and i n h i b i t the vertical flow of
leachate. Even under this scenario, the steep side slopes would
also act to continue the positive flow of leachate off the l i n e r
system towards the perimeter leachate collection system.
SIDE SLOPE STABILITY
The potential for sliding shear f a i l u r e to develop in the soil

and geosynthetic material between the existing l a n d f i l l MSW and the
new piggyback MSWwas also assessed. The regions of primary concern
on the site were the areas where the existing side slopes of the
capped l a n d f i l l ranged from 2.5:1 (23.6 degrees) to approximately
7:1 (8.2 degrees). An extensive review of the l i t e r a t u r e and
discussions with various geotextile and geomembrane manufacturers
suggested that the most c r i t i c a l interface f r i c t i o n angles would be
those between the PE drainage net and smooth 80 mil HDPE l i n e r .
(References g - 18)
The computer modelling program STABL was u t i l i z e d to assess

potential side slope s t a b i l i t y scenarios. Because the reported
interface f r i c t i o n angles between smooth HDPE l i n e r material and PE
drainage net were even less than those reported for the textured
HDPE l i n e r material, the STABL analyses were based upon textured
HDPE material being u t i l i z e d on the lower, steeper side slopes.
STABL was developed at Purdue University for the Indiana State
Highway Commission in the mid-IgTO's and is a versatile s t a b i l i t y
program for this application. The soil strength parameters u t i l i z e d
in the analysis assume the long-term, drained condition and were
based on empirical values, published technical l i t e r a t u r e and
on-site soil borings. The values were as follows:
Soil types (cover and drainage Coarse grained sands

layers
Soil density 1,922 kilograms per cubic

meter (120 poundsper cubic
Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); Thu Sep 5 12:03:30 EDT 2019 foot)
EfFective soil cohesion Zero
Effective angle of internal 30 degrees

f r i c t i o n of soil
MSWdensity 769 kilograms per cubic

meter (48 pounds per cubic
foot)
Effective MSW cohesion Zero
Effective angle of internal 30 degrees

f r i c t i o n of MSW
Interface f r i c t i o n angle between 25 degrees (approximate)

sand and PP f i l t e r fabric

PP f i l t e r fabric and PE drainage
net
Interface f r i c t i o n angle between 9 degrees (wet) and I I

smooth HDPEand PE drainage net degrees (dry)
Interface f r i c t i o n angle between 17 degrees (wet) and 19

textured HDPE and PE drain net degrees (dry)
Interface f r i c t i o n angle between 20 degrees for smooth and

HDPE and sand greater than 20 degrees
for textured (approximate)

sand and 20 mil PVC
The i n i t i a l s t a b i l i t y condition simulated a sliding block type

of failure analysis. I n i t i a l l y , the entire piggyback liner system
with a portion of the overlying MSW material and the underlying
soil/geogrid, and 20 mil PVC cap were analyzed. The i n i t i a l runs
verified that the most c r i t i c a l interface would occur in the
piggyback liner system. The model was then optimized so that only
potential shear failure surfaces in this weak zone were analyzed.
Five landfill cross-sections, modeling the regions of steep side
slopes, were then analyzed using the STABL program.
Interface f r i c t i o n angles between the drainage net and the
smooth HDPEliner of 9.0 to 11.0 degrees were determined to lead to
unacceptably low factors of safety. In a l i m i t equilibrium
analysis, values of 1.0 indicate that a state of imminent failure
would potentially exist and that values of less than 1.0 would
indicate that the structure was unstable and would f a i l . Values of
1.5 and greater are generally accepted by regulatory agencies as
representing a long-term, stable condition. Because values of less
than 1.0 were calculated for the smooth HDPE scenario, the i n i t i a l
iterations focused on textured HDPE liner material placed on the
2.5:1 to 7:1 side slopes.
Ultimately, as each cross-section was analyzed i t became
apparent that textured HDPE liner material need only be placed on
the 2.5:1 to 6:1 side slopes. But factor of safety values of 1.5
and greater were only developed when the orientation of the primary
drainage net rib was precisely controlled. Figure 3 is based on
test data specific to the textured HDPE liner and PE drainage net
material used for the construction of the Blydenburgh vertical MSW
piggyback. The data summarized in Figure 3 is i l l u s t r a t i v e of the
s e n s i t i v i t y which the interface f r i c t i o n angle has relative to the
orientation of the primary drainage net rib. For example, point
number 2, located at approximately 15.0 degrees represents a
scenario where the drainage net would be rolled out lengthwise
parallel to the slope; the normal procedure due to ease of
installation. In this scenario, the primary rib of the drainage net
would be approximately 28 degrees to the slope. Point number 3,
located at approximately 23 degrees represents a scenario where the
drainage net would be rolled out lengthwise perpendicular to the
slope. Points I and 4, located at approximately 11 and 25 degrees
respectively, represent a scenario where the drainage net would be
placed lengthwise 45 degrees to the slope. As can be seen, varying
the orientation of the drainage net during construction would
apparently have the effect of varying the resultant interface
f r i c t i o n angle from roughly 11 to 25 degrees.
Based upon these investigations, test data provided by various

geosynthetic and geomembrane manufacturers, and the literature, the
following observations regarding the combined use of HDPE
geomembrane liner material and PE drainage nets for steep side slope
applications were noted:
Interface f r i c t i o n angles are reported to decrease by up

to 2 degrees under wet conditions;
Interface f r i c t i o n angles increase as overburden pressures

increase; and
Interface f r i c t i o n angles often vary between products due

to differences in the manufacturers' resins and/or
manufacturing processes. Therefore the specific
manufacturers providing material for a project should
demonstrate that their material will be compatible with the
other synthetic and natural materials and achieve the
desired minimum interface f r i c t i o n angles, as determined
by detailed analysis.
Based on the STABL analyses, literature review, and discus-

sions with the manufacturers, a conservative interface f r i c t i o n
angle of 17 degrees between the textured HDPEliner material and the
PE drainage net was estimated. This value was specific to the
materials utilized in this project. Therefore, in the f i r s t
reported significant use of textured HDPE liner material for a
landfill application, this liner material was placed on the 6:1 and
steeper side slopes. On these steeper slopes, the Contractor was
also directed to place the drainage net on the textured HDPE liner
so that the primary rib was perpendicular to the slope.
I t was f e l t that the 17 degree value represented a safe design
point, based on calculated factor of safety values of 1.5 or
30
20
w
z
<:
z
o
I.-
n~
tl.
I0"
/
50 60 90
MINIMUM ANGLE BETWEEN RIB AND SHEAR FORCE
| ORIENTATION OF RIB
IN GUNDNET
DIRECTION OF APPLIED
SHEAR FORCE
PARALLEL TO TRANSVERSE TO
MACHINE DIRECTION MACHINE DiRECTiON
L-~o
45 ~ TO MACHINE DIRECTION "A" 45 ~ TO MACHINE DIRECTION"B"
FROM GUNDLE LINING

SYSTEMS, INC.,198T
FIGURE 3. Drainage/Textured Liner F r i c t i o n Factor.

greater, while allowing for variations in orientation during

construction. For those slopes shallower than 6:1, smooth HDPE
liner material was found to provide factor of safety values of 1.5
and greater. Therefore, the smooth material was placed on these
slopes, realizing a cost savings over the textured HDPEmaterial.
Drainage net orientation relative to the smooth HDPEliner material
on the smoother slopes was not a c r i t i c a l construction issue.
Imprinting of the PE drainage net into the surface of the HDPE

liner, based upon literature review and discussions with the
manufacturers, was not considered to represent a threat to the
integrity of the 80 mil HDPEliner. This was partially considered
to be a function of the rigid structural properties of the HDPE as
compared to PVC material, as well as a reflection of the overall
thickness of the liner material. Although there was no data
specifically addressing increases in interface f r i c t i o n angle
between the two materials due to imprinting, i t is a possibility.
A second type of side slope analysis modelled by STABL was a

deep, circular arc, rotational failure. Under this analysis, the
five cross-sections were assessed to examine potential failure
surfaces through the vertical piggyback, through the underlying
l a n d f i l l , and into the subsurface soils. The intent of the analysis
was to determine whether the driving force generated by the
piggyback loading was stable for this type of failure. Apparently
reflecting the dense, compact nature of the sands the most c r i t i c a l
factor of safety value calculated was 2.1.
I t should be noted that New York regulations did not require

an analysis of landfill s t a b i l i t y relative to seismic hazards at
this time. Therefore a seismic hazards analysis was not performed
for the piggyback design. The STABL model does have the capability
to perform a pseudo static seismic analysis for both the sliding
wedge and circular failure scenarios.
LEACHATE COLLECTION
A goal of this project was to provide an upgraded cap for the

existing unlined l a n d f i l l , thereby decreasing the volume of rainfall
i n f i l t r a t i o n into the old refuse and decreasing the rate of leachate
generation. Such a positive effect could only be ultimately
verified by long-term ground water monitoring at a site where a
very detailed understanding of the hydrogeology is being developed.
As of December 1989, additional ground water monitoring wells were
s t i l l being installed at the site. In terms of the overall success
of the vertical piggyback, i t can only be inferred from such factors
as apparent side slope s t a b i l i t y , presence of voids in the surface,
leachate in the lower secondary collection system, and total volume
of leachate collected at the site.
As of December 1989, there had been no evidence of unusual

voids developing in the surface of the refuse placed in the
piggyback.
Copyright Furthermore,
by ASTM Int'l (all rights thereEDThad
reserved); Thu Sep 5 12:03:30 2019 been no observable shear failures
in the identified weak zone resulting in observable movement of the
piggyback down the slope. As of December 1989, the operator had
reported that approximately 113,559 l i t e r s per day (30,000 gallons

per day) of MSW and ash residue leachate were being collected by
both leachate systems, conveyed to the on-site leachate storage
tanks, and then transported o f f - s i t e to a secondary wastewater
treatment plant for disposal. Approximately 4,900 l i t e r s per day
per lined acre (1,300 gallons per day per lined acre) was being
collected. This is equivalent to the volume ofleachate which would
be expected to be collected from an uncapped landfill on Long Island
with an efficient bottom liner system. Because there was no
leachate collection system for the refuse underlying the piggyback,
this 113,559 l i t e r s per day (30,000 gallons per day) value cannot
as yet be compared to background data at the site. Both MSW
leachate collection systems discharge by solid pipe into the same
polyethylene header pipe; significant modifications at each
individual junction manhole would be required to determine what i f
any ]eachate may be being collected by the upgraded 20 mil PVC cap
perimeter collection system.
CONCLUSIONS
The vertical expansions at Blydenburgh Landfill, termed

"piggybacking," have provided the Town of I s l i p , New York, with a
cost-effective solution to their short-term solid waste disposal
needs. Construction, including design changes, for both the MSWand
ash residue piggybacks has represented a capital expense of less
than $8,000,000. This expense must be compared to the estimated
$174,000,000 which the Town would have had to expend to ship their
waste off-Island during the period from May 1987 through December
18, 1990. All indications after 16 months of operation have been
favorable and lead to the preliminary conclusion that the detailed
analyses, a new application for geosynthetics and geogrids, and the
f i r s t significant use of the recently developed textured HDPEliner
material have apparently contributed to the environmental success
of the vertical piggyback design. Finally, the use of geogrids for
subgrade reinforcement, synthetics for f l e x i b i l i t y , and the
combination of textured HDPE liner material with a prescribed PE
drainage net orientation in the piggyback's liner system have
represented a viable method for addressing s t a b i l i t y issues at this
site. Therefore, permissible landfill capacity and economic benefit
have been maximized.
This paper has illustrated some of the benefits of vertical

piggybacking: maximization of existing landfill capacity,
u t i l i z a t i o n of existing landfill environmental systems, and
potential increased revenue from a site previously considered
closed. But this paper has also illustrated that such an expansion
can be much more complicated to design and construct due to various
s t a b i l i t y issues. At I s l i p , these included foundation subgrade
reinforcement and side slope s t a b i l i t y . In other regions, designing
for seismic movement could be an issue. I f these issues are
accounted for early in the design process, then the potential for
a successful piggyback expansion is good. This paper has
Copyright illustrated someThu
by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); ofSepthe design
5 12:03:30 EDT 2019 issues and how they affected the
design of the Blydenburgh Landfill piggyback expansion. However,
each piggyback expansion will be unique with i t s own set of design
and construction considerations.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to acknowledge preparation of the figures by Tom
T i l l and Tina Camporeale and typing of the manuscript by Lee
Rudolph.
REFERENCES
(I) Rao, S.K., 1974. Prediction of Settlement in Landfills for
Foundation Design Purposes, Ph.D. Dissertation, West Virginia
University, Morgantown, WV, 281 p.
(2) Rao, S.K., L.K. Moulton and R.K. Seals, 1977. "Settlement of
Refuse Landfills." in Proceedings of the Conference of
Geotechnical Practice, Disposal of Solid Waste Materials, Ann
Arbor, MI, June 13-15, 1977, p. 574-598.
(3) Berg, R.R., 1987. "TENSARGeogrid Reinforcement of Membrane
Liner, Islip, New York Landfill. Subgrade Stability Design
with Calculations for Malcolm Pirnie," TENSAR, Corp., Morrow,
GA, p. 23.
(4) Bonaparte, R. and R.R. Berg, 1987. "The Use of Geosynthetics
to Support RoadwaysOver Sinkhole Prone Areas," in Proceedings
of the Second Multidisciplinary Conference on Sinkholes and the
Environmental Impacts of Karst," Orlando, FL, February 9-11,
1987, p. 437-445.
(5) Bonaparte, R. and R.R. Berg, 1987. "Long-term Allowable
Tension for Geosynthetic Reinforcement," in Proceedings of the
Geosynthetic '87 Conference, New Orleans, LA, p. 181-192.
(6) TENSAR, Corp., 1 9 8 7 . "Design Guideline for Subgrade
Improvement Under Dynamic Loading with Tensar Geogrids,"
TENSAR Technical Note, Morrow, GA, p. 29.
(7) Whelton, W.S. and N.E. Wrigley, 1987. "Long-term Durability
of Geosynthetics Soil Reinforcement." in Proceedings of
Geosynthetic '87 Conference, New Orleans, LA, p. 442-455.
(8) National Sanitation Foundation, 1985. Standard Number 54~
Flexible Membrane Liners, National Sanitation Foundation, Ann
Arbor, MI, 69 pp.
(9) Brendel, B.F., 1986. "Liner Systems for Waste Disposal Sites,
Geotechnical and Construction Considerations," presented at
Pennsylvania Electric Association Structures and Hydraulics
Committee Fall 1986 Meeting, Johnstown, PA, September, p.
24-28.
(10) CTC-Geotek, 1987. "Direct Shear Testing of Friction Liner
Material. Prepared for GUNDLELining Systems, Inc.," Denver,
CO, 67 pp.
(11) Duplancic, N., U. Dayal and J.C. Colella, 1987. "Hazardous
Waste Landfill Cap System Stability," In Proceedings of the
Geotechnical Practice for Waste Disposal '87, Geotechnical
Special Publication No. 13, American Society of Civil
Engineers, Ann Arbor, MI, June 15-17, 1987, p. 432-446.
(12)
Copyright Koerner,
by ASTM R . Thu
Int'l (all rights reserved); M .Sep
, 5 112:03:30
9 8 6EDT
. 2019 Designing with Geosynthetics,
Prentice-Hall,
Downloaded/printed by Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 424 p.
(13) Martin, J.P., R.M. Koerner and J.E. Whitty, 1984.
"Experimental Friction Evaluation of Slippage Between

Geomembranes, Geotextiles, and Soils," in Proceedings of
International Conference on Geomembranes, Denver, CO, p.
191-196.
(14) Richards, E.A. and J.D. Scott, 1 9 8 5 . "Soil Geotextile
Frictional Properties," in Proceedings of Second Canadian
Symposium on Geotextiles and Geomembranes, Canadian
Geotechnical Society, Edmonton, Alberta, September 23-24, 1985,
p. 13-24.
(15) Rowe, R.K., S.K. Ho and D.G. Fisher, 1985. "Determination of
Soil-Geotextile Interface Strength Properties," in Proceedings
of Second Canadian Symposium on Geotextiles and Geomembranes,
Canadian Geotechnical Society, Edmonton, Alberta, September
23-24, 1985, p. 25- 34.
(16) Williams, N.D. and M.F. Houlihan, 1986. "Evaluation of
Friction Coefficients between Geomembranes, Geotextiles and
Related Products," in Proceedings of Third International
Conference on Geotextiles, Vienna, Austria, p. 891-896.
(17) Williams, N.D. and M.F. Houlihan, 1987. "Evaluation of
Interface Friction Properties Between Geosynthetics and Soils,"
in Proceedings of Geosynthetic '87 Conference, New Orleans, LA,
p. 616-627.
(18) Soil and Material Engineers, Inc., 1987. "Geosynthetics
Testing Services, Direct Shear Friction Testing, Gundle
Friction Sheet," Prepared for Gundle Lining Systems, Inc.,
Cincinnati, OH, 5 pp.
Neno Duplancic
LANDFILL DEFORMATION MONITORING AND STABILITY ANALYSIS
REFERENCE: Duplancic, N., "Landfill Deformation

Monitoring and Stability Analysis," Geotechnics
of Waste Fills - Theory and Practice, A S T M STP 1070,
Arvid Landva, G. David Knowles, editors, American
Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia,
1990.
ABSTRACT: An analysis of long term d e f o r m a t i o n

m o n i t o r i n g data of a hazardous waste landfill is
presented. A large number of field and
laboratory tests provided an extensive data base
for evaluation of the strength of the landfill
materials. Slope stability analyses of the
landfill's most critical section for static and
seismic loading have shown that the landfill is
stable.
KEYWORDS: landfill stability, landfill

deformation, landfill monitoring, waste strength
parameters.
In recent years g e o t e c h n i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g has started

to play an important role in d e s i g n i n g and o p e r a t i n g waste
disposal facilities. One common problem that the
geotechnical engineer faces in this new industry is the
assessment of the stability of waste fills. The first
question he must evaluate is w h e t h e r standard geotechnical
p r a c t i c e and techniques can be directly a p p l i e d to estimate
the strength properties of the waste materials. The
p r o b l e m becomes even more c o m p l i c a t e d when waste fills are
u n d e r l i n e d by a liner system u s u a l l y c o n s i s t i n g of multiple
layers of natural and man-made materials designed to
protect ground water.
Dr. Duplancic is the director of site operations and

e n g i n e e r i n g at International T e c h n o l o g y Corporation, 4585
Pacheco Boulevard, Martinez, California 94553.

This paper presents geotechnical evaluation of

d e f o r m a t i o n m o n i t o r i n g data on a h a z a r d o u s waste landfill.
Included in d i s c u s s i o n are the methods used to evaluate the
strength p a r a m e t e r s of landfill m a t e r i a l s and the results
of the landfill stability analyses. The s t a b i l i t y of the
landfill has been a subject of many i n v e s t i g a t i o n s [i],
[2], [3], [4], [5], and [6]. This paper presents the
author's opinion on the issue and does not endorse or deny
the c o n c l u s i o n s drawn in any of the r e f e r e n c e d reports.
However, the comments and questions raised in these
reports have helped to identify and clarify m a n y important
g e o t e c h n i c a l issues a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the landfill.
Figure 1: Plan of the [andfitt
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
The landfill is located in the northeast portion of

IT's
Copyright C o(all
by ASTM Int'l r prights
o r reserved);
a t i o nThu Sep Panoche
5 12:03:30 EDT 2019 facility in Solano County,
California.
Downloaded/printed by It encompasses an area of about ten acres and
LANDFILL DEFORMATION MONITORING 305
is roughly trapezoidal in shape (Figure i). An earth fill

toe embankment buttresses a narrow point in the "y" shaped
canyon. From the toe embankment the landfill slopes upward
at an approximate angle of 2.5:1 (horizontal to vertical)
between benches with the overall slope of the landfill
being less than 3:1. The landfill is unlined, having been
designed in agreement with the regulations current at the
time development started in 1979.
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==
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Figure 2: Lartdfitt Cross-section
Hazardous waste placed in the landfill consisted

primarily of contaminated soils, clean soils, and sludges.
The origin of waste was from various industrial and
municipal sources. The materials placed in the landfill
have included soils from site remediations, inorganic
contaminated soils and sludges, organic sludges, soils
contaminated with gasoline, shredded currency, organic
sludges, catalysts, and solids from the precipitation and
treatment of hazardous waste. At the present state of
development, the maximum thickness of the fill is about 40
meters (130 feet) beneath crest elevation.
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
The landfill is underlain by weathered and fractured

shale of the Panoche Formation. The depth of intense
weathering in the shale bedrock ranges from 1.5 to 6.7
meters (5 to 22 feet). Two to three meters (six to ten
feet) of colluvium overlie the weathered bedrock. This
colluvium zone (native clay) is composed of moist, stiff to
hard clays and silty clays that contain varying amounts of
bedrock and organic fragments [2].
An extensive network of observation wells and

p i e z o m e t e r s has been i n s t a l l e d to study the g r o u n d water
regime at the landfill. R e c o r d e d w a t e r levels indicate
that the o c c u r r e n c e of g r o u n d w a t e r is limited to two
s e p a r a t e zones: (i) an upper zone c o n s i s t i n g of s a t u r a t e d
zones w i t h i n the landfill, and (2) a lower zone c o n t a i n e d
in the w e a t h e r e d and fractured b e d r o c k (Figure 2).
The sources of water s a t u r a t i n g the fill are the

w a s t e s p l a c e d in the landfill and i n f i l t r a t i o n of r a i n w a t e r
p r i o r to landfill capping. Water e n t e r i n g the w e a t h e r e d
bedrock beneath the landfill originates primarily from
i n f i l t r a t i o n of r a i n w a t e r at b e d r o c k e x p o s u r e s at higher
e l e v a t i o n s to the north. W a t e r flow in this zone is
g e n e r a l l y t o w a r d the south.
FIELD I N V E S T I G A T I O N AND L A B O R A T O R Y T E S T I N G
A field i n v e s t i g a t i o n at the landfill was c o n d u c t e d to

(i) o b t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n on the s u b s u r f a c e s t r a t i g r a p h y and
in-situ soil properties, (2) study the g r o u n d w a t e r regime,
and (3) monitor the landfill performance. The
investigation consisted of drilling and sampling 35
e x p l o r a t o r y borings; i n s t a l l i n g 20 p n e u m a t i c piezometers,
25 piezometers, four d e w a t e r i n g wells, three i n c l i n o m e t e r
casings, and nine surface survey markers; and performing
i0 Cone P e n e t r a t i o n Tests (CPT) and four d o w n h o l e seismic
v e l o c i t y surveys. The locations of the i n c l i n o m e t e r s and
s u r v e y m a r k e r s are shown in Figure i.
A l a b o r a t o r y t e s t i n g p r o g r a m was also c o n d u c t e d to
determine the geotechnical properties of the fill
materials, the native soils and the w e a t h e r e d bedrock
underlying the landfill. The laboratory analyses of
s e l e c t e d soil samples from the e x p l o r a t o r y b o r i n g s included
index and s t r e n g t h tests. The index tests c o n s i s t e d of
d e t e r m i n a t i o n of natural water content, A t t e r b e r g limits,
unit dry weight, specific g r a v i t y and grain size analyses.
The s t r e n g t h tests included a total of 33 I s o t r o p i c a l l y
Consolidated Undrained (ICU) Triaxial Compression Tests
with pore p r e s s u r e measurements. The results of these
tests, along with eight ICU tests p e r f o r m e d on soil samples
from other borings in the v i c i n i t y of the landfill, were
used to assess the s t r e n g t h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the landfill
m a t e r i a l s and the u n d e r l y i n g native clays and w e a t h e r e d
bedrock. Six sets of p o s t - c y c l i c u n d r a i n e d triaxial tests
were also p e r f o r m e d on r e p r e s e n t a t i v e soil samples to
e v a l u a t e the r e d u c t i o n in shear s t r e n g t h due to a p p l i c a t i o n
of cyclic loading. The results of these tests were used
for seismic s t a b i l i t y analysis.
A c r i t i c a l point in e v a l u a t i n g slope s t a b i l i t y is the

d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the s t r e n g t h p r o p e r t i e s of the landfill
m a t e r i a l s and subsoil. An i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t r i a x i a l tests
r e s u l t s was p e r f o r m e d u s i n g a c r i t i c a l state soil m e c h a n i c s
theory. In this theory, the failure states of soil can be
considered in terms of the o c t a h e d r a l effective stress
parameters q' and p', which are appropriate stress
i n v a r i a n t q u a n t i t i e s for the study of the t r i a x i a l test
results. Stress i n v a r i a n t s are the m a g n i t u d e s of stress
p a r a m e t e r s w h i c h are i n d e p e n d e n t of the o r i e n t a t i o n of the
reference axes. The stress p a r a m e t e r s q' and p' are
d e f i n e d in F i g u r e 3. Also shown in this figure are the
triaxial test results for the landfill materials and
weathered rock. The c a l c u l a t e d angles of f r i c t i o n of
landfill materials and weathered rock are 33 and 34
degrees, respectively.
PSF
2000 4000 6000 8000 10,000 12,000 14,000 16,000 18,000
900 , I , I i I J I , I , I , I i I , I
--18,000
CRITICALSTATE LINE
800
WEATHERED
AND NATIVEROCK
CLAY . ~ f / / ~ M / =/, p_~ -16~
i
700 CRITICAL STATE LINE
LANDRLL MATERIALS 4,000
600 --
-12,000
I
E
500 -
-10,000 ~_
"S
c~
b m //'Am @,=,in_l #~M
I
- 400 - -8000
J
#
Cr WEATHERED ROCK LANDFILL
300 - Dd/7. =-Aa& AND NATIVE CLAY MATERIALS
= q//'A A ~000
E
o M=1.34 M=I 37
200 - ~$000
0' =33" O' =34"
7 T =1.95g/cm 3 7 T =1.95g/cm 3
100 - -2000
7SAT =l.95g/cm 3 7SAT = 2 . 3 g / c m 3
0 t t t i t I i l
0
0 ,00 200 300 400 ~00 600 700 800 900
p,= l ( u 1, + 2 a3') (kNrn-2)
Figure 3: T r i a x i a [ Tests Results
G R O U N D W A T E R LEVELS A N D D E F O R M A T I O N M O N I T O R I N G
F a i l u r e s of landfills, except for those c a u s e d by

u n a n t i c i p a t e d events such as earthquakes, are a l m o s t always
p r e c e d e d by w a r n i n g signals such as i n c r e a s e d rate of
deformation, strain discontinuities, cracking, or pore
p r e s s u r e buildup. T h e s e same w a r n i n g signs may appear, yet
be in no way a s s o c i a t e d with a p o t e n t i a l failure. In order
to d e t e c t s i g n i f i c a n t changes in rate of deformation, and
to e v a l u a t e the p r o b a b l e causes and c o n s e q u e n c e s of such
changes, continued monitoring of ground water levels,
deflection, and s e t t l e m e n t is often recommended.
T w e n t y - f i v e p i e z o m e t e r s and 20 p n e u m a t i c p i e z o m e t e r s
m o n i t o r g r o u n d w a t e r levels in the w a s t e fill and w e a t h e r e d
bedrock. The w a t e r levels in these p i e z o m e t e r s have been
m e a s u r e d m o n t h l y since 1985. The p i e z o m e t e r s are screened
in different zones within the landfill, weathered
bedrock, and bedrock. The p n e u m a t i c p i e z o m e t e r s are open
to a s e l e c t e d zones w i t h i n the landfill m a t e r i a l and to the
c o n t a c t zone b e t w e e n the landfill and n a t i v e clay. The
e x t r e m e p i e z o m e t r i c and p h r e a t i c s u r f a c e s r e c o r d e d in the
weathered bedrock zone and in the landfill zone,
respectively, are shown in Figure 2.
Four d e w a t e r i n g wells have been m a i n t a i n i n g ground

w a t e r levels w i t h i n the landfill since 1987. On average,
these wells have p r o d u c e d less than 0.06 liters per second
(i g a l l o n per minute). The l o c a t i o n s of these wells are
shown in Figure i.
Three inclinometers installed at approximately the

top, middle, and b o t t o m elevations measure both the
lateral and vertical deformation and provide data on
p o t e n t i a l creep, r o t a t i o n a l m o v e m e n t and settlement. These
inclinometers, w h i c h are n u m b e r e d I-l, I-2, and I-3 in
F i g u r e i, have depths of 48 (157), 34 (112), and 28 (91)
meters (feet), respectively. Initial readings from the
i n c l i n o m e t e r s were t a k e n in late 1986.
For each inclinometer, measurements of lateral

d e f o r m a t i o n are taken at intervals of two feet along two
p e r p e n d i c u l a r axes. The o r i e n t a t i o n of one of the axes
d e s i g n a t e s the b e a r i n g of the inclinometer. However, for
a n a l y z i n g the d e f o r m a t i o n of the landfill, the m a g n i t u d e s
of the r e s u l t a n t d i s p l a c e m e n t s and t h e i r d i r e c t i o n s are the
m o s t r e l e v a n t parameters. Therefore, the d i s p l a c e m e n t s
m e a s u r e d along both axes have b e e n r e d u c e d to a r e s u l t a n t
d i s p l a c e m e n t w i t h a c o r r e s p o n d i n g b e a r i n g of true d i r e c t i o n
of movement. The Figure 4 shows the c u m u l a t i v e r e s u l t a n t
d e f l e c t i o n s for the three i n c l i n o m e t e r s from J a n u a r y 1987
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g e n e r a l l y increase w i t h ~ime, (2) the d e f l e c t i o n s g r a d u a l l y

i n c r e a s e from zero at the b o t t o m to a m a x i m u m v a l u e near
the top of the i n c l i n o m e t e r casing, (3) the d e f l e c t i o n s
w i t h i n w e a t h e r e d b e d r o c k and n a t i v e clay are m u c h s m a l l e r
t h a n the d e f l e c t i o n s in the fill, and (4) the rate of
d e f l e c t i o n s d e c r e a s e s w i t h time. T h e r e is no i n d i c a t i o n of
a shear plane developing either in the fill or the
c o l l u v i u m b e l o w the fill.
The m a x i m u m r e c o r d e d d e f l e c t i o n s of I-l, I-2, and I-3

are 6.3 (2.4), 3.3 (1.3), and 0.5 (0.2) centimeters
(inches), respectively. The b e a r i n g s of the resultant
d e f l e c t i o n s of all three i n c l i n o m e t e r s lie close to S60~
w h i c h is the d i r e c t i o n of the l a n d f i l l ' s d o w n h i l l slope.
The toe of the landfill is r e s t r a i n e d by b o t h the b e d r o c k
and an earth buttress and deflections increase with
distance back from the toe. Inclinometer I-i has the
largest deflection because it is l o c a t e d in the d e e p e s t
part of the landfill. The m a x i m u m m e a s u r e d d e f l e c t i o n of
6.3 centimeters (2.4 inches) is within the range
attributable to c o n s o l i d a t i o n r a t h e r than s l i d i n g of the
landfill. Fills on slopes commonly experience lateral
d e f o r m a t i o n due to lateral force c o m p o n e n t imposed by the
slope.
The m e a s u r e m e n t s of the s e t t l e m e n t of the landfill

s u r f a c e were o b t a i n e d by s u r v e y i n g the e l e v a t i o n change
and c o o r d i n a t e s of each of nine s u r v e y m a r k e r s shown in
Figure i. The survey m a r k e r s SM-8, SM-9, and SM-5 are
located over 18 (58), 14 (46), and 17 (55) m e t e r s (feet) of
fill, respectively. T h e s e m a r k e r s have s e t t l e d 2.1 (0.84),
0.6 (0.24), and 5.5 (2.16) centimeters (inches),
respectively, since N o v e m b e r 1986, y i e l d i n g a d e f o r m a t i o n
of 0.04 to 0.33 percent. S u r v e y m a r k e r SM-4 is located
above approximately 30 m e t e r s (i00 feet) of fill. Total
r e c o r d e d s e t t l e m e n t at this l o c a t i o n since N o v e m b e r 1986 is
about 5.8 c e n t i m e t e r s (2.28 inches) y i e l d i n g a d e f o r m a t i o n
of only 0.19 percent. The largest o b s e r v e d s e t t l e m e n t of
12.5 centimeters (4.92 inches) has occurred at survey
m a r k e r SM-I w h i c h is located above a p p r o x i m a t e l y 26 meters
(85 feet) of fill. The total d e f o r m a t i o n a s s o c i a t e d with
this s e t t l e m e n t is 0.4 p e r c e n t over 2.5 y e a r s period.
As expected, the settlements are larger at h i g h e r

e l e v a t i o n s and h i g h e r fill t h i c k n e s s e s and s m a l l e r near the
s t a r t e r dike. This is i n d i c a t i v e of s e t t l e m e n t due to
c o n s o l i d a t i o n w h i c h could have b e e n a c c e l e r a t e d due to the
dewatering operations at the landfill. These operations
s t a r t e d in late 1986 and are still in progress.
The d e f o r m a t i o n monitoring results cited above were

compared with monitoring results reported for several
earthfill dams [7]. Although dam deformations are not
directly applicable to the d e f o r m a t i o n s of the landfill
(which
Copyright isrightsareserved);
by ASTM Int'l (all c aThu
n ySep
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fill),
EDT 2019 the results can be used to
d e m o n s tbyr a t e that the landfill lateral d e f o r m a t i o n s may be
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those a s s o c i a t e d with v e r t i c a l d e f o r m a t i o n c a u s e d by time-

d e l a y e d consolidation. A c o m p a r i s o n of landfill and dam
deformations shows that (I) the observed settlement
patterns are similar, (2) the observed horizontal
d e f l e c t i o n p a t t e r n s are s o m e w h a t similar (except close to
the g r o u n d surface), and (3) the ratio of h o r i z o n t a l versus
vertical deflections is within acceptable limits of
deviation, particularly considering the differences in
g e o m e t r y and material in the two cases. Thus, though a
direct comparison of the observed deformations of the
landfill and dams is not possible, e n o u g h e v i d e n c e exists
to suggest that the o b s e r v e d landfill deformations are
similar to those expected to occur in an e m b a n k m e n t
u n d e r g o i n g d e f o r m a t i o n under its own weight.
In summary, the m o n i t o r i n g p r o g r a m has not revealed

any unusual behavior of the landfill. All observed
s e t t l e m e n t s are w i t h i n a c c e p t a b l e limits and, along with
inclinometer and piezometer data, indicate a stable
condition.
STABILITY ANALYSES
Static L o a d i n g C o n d i t i o n
The s t a b i l i t y of the landfill under static loading was

evaluated by effective stress analyses using two-
dimensional limiting e q u i l i b r i u m methods. The c o m p u t e r
p r o g r a m STABL2 was used in the a n a l y s e s [8]. circular
failure surfaces using the m o d i f i e d Bishop's m e t h o d of
analysis and non-circular failure surfaces using the
s i m p l i f i e d J a n b u m e t h o d of a n a l y s i s were e v a l u a t e d [2].
The slope stability model was d e v e l o p e d for the most
critical section along the c e n t e r l i n e of the p r e d e v e l o p m e n t
canyon (Figures 1 and 2). This s e c t i o n r e p r e s e n t s only a
small p o r t i o n of the overall landfill. However, any other
landfill section is less s u s c e p t i b l e to sliding. The model
assumes that native clay and w e a t h e r e d b e d r o c k layers of
c o n s t a n t t h i c k n e s s exist below the s t a r t e r dike and the
landfill. S t r e n g t h p r o p e r t i e s of the landfill materials,
structural fill of the starter dike, underlying native
soils, and the weathered bedrock were assessed from
triaxial test results p e r f o r m e d on these m a t e r i a l s and
described earlier. A friction angle of 32 degrees was
a s s i g n e d to native clay and w e a t h e r e d b e d r o c k layers to
a c c o u n t for v a r i a b i l i t y of s t r e n g t h p a r a m e t e r s in these
layers. A friction angle of 34 d e g r e e s was a s s i g n e d to
landfill materials based on the triaxial test results
(Figure 3). M a t e r i a l s d e n s i t i e s used in a n a l y s e s are shown
on by ASTM
Copyright Figure 3.reserved);Density
Int'l (all rights Thu Sep 5 12:03:30increase
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o v e r b u rbyd e n p r e s s u r e was not taken into account.
Two p o t e n t i o m e t r i c surfaces were used in the analysis:

~i) the p h r e a t i c surface w i t h i n landfill s a t u r a t e d zone,
and (2) the p o t e n t i o m e t r i c surface w i t h i n the w e a t h e r e d and
l o c a l l y f r a c t u r e d b e d r o c k b e n e a t h the n a t i v e clays. The
p i e z o m e t r i c surfaces used in the a n a l y s e s c o r r e s p o n d e d to
the h i g h e s t a n t i c i p a t e d w a t e r levels (Figure 2).
The s t a b i l i t y a n a l y s e s were p e r f o r m e d for two cases:

(i) the p o t e n t i a l failure surface is r e s t r i c t e d to the
landfill and native clay and does not e x t e n d t h r o u g h the
weathered bedrock, and (2) the failure surface passes
t h r o u g h the landfill, the native clay and the w e a t h e r e d
b e d r o c k and is only r e s t r i c t e d by the intact bedrock. The
lowest factors of safety c o m p u t e d for the first case were
1.5 for a sliding b l o c k failure s u r f a c e and 1.6 for a
circular failure surface. For the second case, a
t h e o r e t i c a l factor of safety of 1.6 was c o m p u t e d for both
the p o t e n t i a l sliding b l o c k and c i r c u l a r failure surfaces
[2].
Seismic Loading Condition
The p e r f o r m a n c e of the landfill under m a x i m u m credible

e a r t h q u a k e loading was e v a l u a t e d by e s t i m a t i n g e a r t h q u a k e -
induced permanent deformations in the landfill. The
deformation analysis approach for evaluating overall
p e r f o r m a n c e of an earth s t r u c t u r e under s e i s m i c l o a d i n g has
been r e c o m m e n d e d by the I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o m m i s s i o n on Large
Dams [9].
The closest known active fault is located

approximately 600 meters (2000 feet) from the landfill. A
m a g n i t u d e 6-3/4 e a r t h q u a k e at the c l o s e s t a p p r o a c h to the
fault w o u l d p r o d u c e an e s t i m a t e d m a x i m u m p e a k h o r i z o n t a l
b e d r o c k a c c e l e r a t i o n of 0.68g at the landfill [2].
P e r m a n e n t landfill d e f o r m a t i o n s were e v a l u a t e d using

the a p p r o a c h based on a rigid body r e s p o n s e p r o c e d u r e
d e v e l o p e d by F r a n k l i n and Chang [i0]. The r e f i n e m e n t of
this p r o c e d u r e by M a k d i s i and Seed [ii] and Sarma [12]
was a p p l i e d to account for the d y n a m i c r e s p o n s e of the
earth structure. Both the rigid body and d y n a m i c response
methods of analysis require determination of yield
acceleration. The yield a c c e l e r a t i o n of the landfill was
computed as 0.16g using total stress s t r e n g t h p a r a m e t e r s
o b t a i n e d from c o n s o l i d a t e d u n d r a i n e d tests and the most
c r i t i c a l failure surface for b l o c k sliding. The effect of
cyclic loading on the shear s t r e n g t h of m a t e r i a l s along the
p o t e n t i a l s l i d i n g plane was e v a l u a t e d t h r o u g h cyclic CU
t r i a x i a l tests. The results of these tests i n d i c a t e d that
there is no s i g n i f i c a n t r e d u c t i o n in shear s t r e n g t h of the
fill and n a t i v e soils due to the a n t i c i p a t e d levels of
cyclic
Copyright loading
by ASTM Int'l [2].
(all rights reserved); Thu Sep 5 12:03:30 EDT 2019
Based on the a n a l y s i s performed, d i s p l a c e m e n t s of the

landfill were c a l c u l a t e d to be in the range of i0 to 50
c e n t i m e t e r s (4 to 20 inches) for the p o s t u l a t e d e a r t h q u a k e
at the nearby fault [2]. The effects of these c o m p u t e d
displacements on the landfill performance w o u l d not be
detrimental. This is b e c a u s e the landfill is not e q u i p p e d
with a liner system or other displacement sensitive
structures.
S U M M A R Y AND C O N C L U S I O N S
An analysis of deformation monitoring data of a

h a z a r d o u s waste landfill has been presented. The data
indicate that the landfill is deforming similarly to
e a r t h f i l l dams. D e f l e c t i o n s are larger in the fill zone,
but almost n e g l i g i b l e in w e a t h e r e d b e d r o c k and native clay
zones.
Static slope stability and seismic deformation

a n a l y s e s have been p e r f o r m e d to assess the s t a b i l i t y of the
landfill. The results of field monitoring, exploratory
borings, and l a b o r a t o r y tests on the v a r i o u s m a t e r i a l s
within and b e l o w the landfill form the basis of the
analyses. Critical state soil m e c h a n i c s t h e o r y has been
used to e v a l u a t e effective strength parameters of the
landfill and subsoil materials.
The m i n i m u m c o m p u t e d factor of safety under static

loading c o n d i t i o n is 1.5. The m a x i m u m induced landfill
deformation resulting from estimated peak horizontal
b e d r o c k a c c e l e r a t i o n of 0.68g is about one foot. This
d i s p l a c e m e n t w o u l d not affect the i n t e g r i t y and p e r f o r m a n c e
of the landfill b e c a u s e there are no d i s p l a c e m e n t s e n s i t i v e
s t r u c t u r e s w i t h i n or beneath.
The analyses presented herein have shown that

s t a n d a r d field and l a b o r a t o r y g e o t e c h n i c a l t e c h n i q u e s can
be effectively used to monitor the performance of
landfills, while standard geotechnical computational
methods, when c a r e f u l l y applied, can be used for landfill
s t a b i l i t y a n a l y s e s and d e f o r m a t i o n assessment.
REFERENCES
[1] Kleinfelder, J. H., and Associates, "Raising of

Chemical Waste Fill," Benicia Facility, Benicia,
California, Geotechnical Investigation Report,
O c t o b e r 1981.
[2] IT Corporation, "Stability of Area 5 Landfill," IT

Corporation Panoche Facility, Solano County,
California, January 1987.
[3] Pyke, R., "Review of Slope Stability, Area 5

Landfill," Report to A. T. Kearny, Inc., September
28, 1986.
[4] Sitar, N., and R. Seed, "Analysis of International

Technology Corporation's Report on Stability of Area
5 Landfill at Benicia Facility," Report issued to
Shute, Mihaly and Weinberger, San Francisco, April
20, 1987.
[s] Yen, B. C., "Stability of Area 5 Landfill, Panoche

Facility, CA. -- A Geotechnical Engineering Review ,"
Report by Bing C. Yen, Inc. to IT Corporation, Long
Beach, California, May, 1988.
[6] West and Hansen Engineers, Inc., "Environmental

Impact Report for proposed Area 5 Landfill
Expansion," IT Corporation Panoche Facility, Solano
County, California, June 1988.
[~1 Wilson, D. S., "Deformation of Earth and Rockfill

Dams," in Embankment-Dam Engineering, Casagrande
Volume, J. Wiley & Sons, 1973, p. 382-416, edited by
R. C. Hirschfeld and S. Poulos.
[8] Purdue University, Joint Highway Research Project,

(JHRP-75-9), "Computer Analysis of General Slope
Stability Problems," 1975.
[9] International Commission on Large dams, "A Review of

Earthquake-Resistant Design of Dams," ICOLD, Bulletin
27, March 1975.
[i0] Franklin, A. G. and F. K. Chang, "Earthquake

Resistance of Earth and Rock-Fill Dams," Report 5 on
Permanent Displacements of Earth Embankments by
Newmark Sliding Block Analysis, Soils and Pavements
Laboratory, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment
Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi, November 1977.
[ii] Makdisi, F. I., and H. B. Seed, "Simplified

Procedures for Estimating Dam and Embankment
Earthquake-Induced Deformations," Journal of the
Geotechnical Engineering Division, Proc. of ASCE,
Vol. 104, No. GT7, July, p. 849-867.
[12] Sarma, S. K., "Response and Stability of Earth Dams

During Strong Earthquakes," Miscellaneous Paper
GL-79-13, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways
Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi, 1979.
Case Histories
Francesco Belfiore, Mario Manassero and Claudio Viola
GEOTECHNICALANALYSIS OF SOME INDUSTRIAL SLUDGES
REFERENCE: Belfiore, F., Manassero, M., and Viola, C.,

"Geotechnical Analysis of some industrial sludges",
Geotechnics of Waste Fills - Theory and Practice, ASTM STP
1070, Arvid Landva, G. David Knowles, Editors, American Socie-
ty for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, 1990.
ABSTRACT: The application of soil mechanics principles to the

study of waste engineering behaviour involves an awareness of
the similarities and differences between such material and
soil. A suitable waste classification system is needed in
order to standardize test procedures and assess the signifi-
cance of the results. Since density is the most important
waste property governing its overall behaviour, compaction
procedures are important for the successful operation of a
landfill from both a technical and an economical point of
view. A traditional soil mechanics approach to waste inve-
stigation is presented in this paper, which emphasizes the
necessity of adapting and integrating the usual geotechnical
tools, also with the aid of a comprehensive performance moni-
toring program.
KEYWORDS: geotechnical engineering, waste, classification,

laboratory tests, field tests, landfill, compaction, settle-
ments, case history.
Mr. Belfiore is the Technical Development Manager of Browning-Ferris

Industries Italia S.r.l., Via S. Orsola, 3, 20123 Milano, Italy, for-
merly at Studio Geotecnico Italiano. Mr. Viola is the Chief Geologist
of Studio Geotecnico Italiano S.r.l., Via Ripamonti, 89, 20124 Milano.
Dr. Manassero is the Managing Director of Ingegneria Geotecnica S.r.l.,
Corso Montevecchio 50, 10129 Torino, Italy.
817
Copyrigh~ 1990 by ASTM International www.astm.or

9
In approaching the study of the engineering behaviour of some

industrial sludges, traditional soil mechanics methods were applied
which pointed out some differences and similarities between the two
kinds of material.
The key objective of the study was to understand to what extent an

improvement of landfilling operations can be achieved by adjusting the
usual soil compaction procedures to take into account the specific
characteristics of sludges.
This paper, which presents the analysis of some field and labora-
tory tests on sludges, is thought to be a first step in that direction,
since actual data about the engineering properties of waste fill mate-
rials are still limited.
LANDFILLING OPTIMIZATION WITH RESPECT TO COMPACTION
It is becoming increasingly difficult to find suitable sites for

waste disposal because of either environmental concerns or insufficient
storage capacity. Therefore it is vital to exploit available storage
volumes as much as possible by searching for more appropriate landfil-
ling methods which can achieve higher waste densities.
In this respect, an actual case has been analyzed in order to give

an estimate of the benefits that research in this direction can bring
about. Considering a total landfill capacity V = 350,000 m 3 and a
9 ' t
percentage of cover and intermediate material equal to 159, the net
waste storage capacity is V = 300,000 m 3. The total construction cost
of the landfill is assumed ~o be $ 3 million. Under the further
assumptions that the daily input of refuse is 4, 7 or I0 MN
(meganewtons) and that the landfill is operated 300 days a year. Figure
I shows the beneficial effect of increasing waste density, both in
terms of landfill operational life and of unit cost of each MN
disposed.
Besides, it is also important to compact waste to decrease per-

meability and improve surface water runoff, thus avoiding full satu-
ration and stability problems due to pore pressure build up.
According to the usual soil engineering practice, the factors

controlling compaction effectiveness are [I, 2]:
- water content;
surface slope;
thickness of compacted layers;
- number of roller passes.
With respect to waste compaction additional controlling factors

may be the presence of liquids other than water (e.g. oils) and the
optimum surface slope for the stability of the waste front during
disposal operations. Moreover, the choice of compaction equipment and
procedure should take into account such factors as type and amount of
waste,
Copyright density
by ASTM Int'l requirements,
(all rights reserved); landfill
Thu Sep 5 12:03:30 EDT 2019 type and development, weather
conditions
Downloaded/printed by and economical aspects [3].
GEOTECHNICAL ANALYSIS OF SOME INDUSTRIAL SLUDGES 319
70 I l l ] I I I I
1000
'XxCOST
60 X
X DAILY
AMOUNTS
50
\
N\ 4MN
300
t,,,
C
0
E 40 =E
LU
u. k-
,,-I c~
-J O
600 O
30 I.--
z,,~
,-I
20
400
10
0 I 1 I t ~ I I I I 200
10 12 14 16 18
(kN/m~)
FIG. i: Effect of increasing waste density on landfill operational life

and unit cost of volume stored.
At present, the authors are gaining experience in the treatment

and disposal of sludges from industrial manufacturing, described in
detail in the following, and attention has been paid to the
optimization of compaction methods.
Several Standard Proctor tests have been performed to determine

the optimum compaction parameters. The corresponding results, though
quite scattered, show that compaction allows an increase in dry density
by as much as I00 percent, from about 5 kN/m 3 to a maximum of 9.6
kN/m 3 . The corresponding average total unit weight is about 14.6 kN/m 3 .
Using a Modified Proctor test, these figures are slightly higher (see
Table I). It can be noted that in the wide range of water content
values dry density does not change significantly, indicating that other
factors can control the material response to compaction.
E0
v
o l o 1 1 1 1 o
,M
v
0
0
0 0 0 0 ~ ~ 0
v
v
:::1 ~ ~ l
v
,M
r--I
m
I l l l l l l ~ I
6
~
m I
o 0
M i/~ i.r'l
0 I I I I I I I X I
m_ II
u
v
,--.I
0
E
U
0
U ~
~
N
0
U
0 v ~ U
v 0
.LJ
0
0 0
l.J
0
~a 0
,M
M u
|
i
~4
! !
,.-.1 ,--i
lb., .LI
[-.-t c~
"0
i..-i
Observations of bulk in-situ density of a landfill have also been

made, with the aid of high precision topographical surveys. In this
case, before landfilling, the industrial sludges had an initial unit
weight of 10.5 kN/m 3 , measured by weighing containers of known volume
filled with sludges. The volume of the empty cell was also precisely
measured. During disposal operations no special compaction was per-
formed, but a continuous action was developed by earthmoving equipment.
At a certain stage of landfilling, when 14,000 m were stored and the
incoming quantities had been measured, an average in-situ unit weight
3 3
of 15.8 kN/m was calculated, which increased to 16.8 kN/m after two
months of operation (about 20,000 m 3 stored). These figures are si-
gnificantly higher than those measured by Proctor tests, possibly due
to the more effective compaction produced by tyred equipment, the self-
weight consolidation of waste and the occasional supply of material
with a higher specific gravity.
It was believed that an even higher waste density could be ob-

tained, due to the high specific gravity of the metals present in the
sludges. A research program was then initiated, with the aim of deter-
mining the most suitable compaction method in order to achieve a better
use of the available volume. The program consists of a trial waste
embankment, compacted with different equipment and procedures, which
currently is still under planning.
SETTLEMENT OF WASTE FILLS
From a geotechnical point of view, settlement of waste is a major

issue which affects several design and management aspects, such as the
integrity and functionality of the cover cap and the possibility of
land re-use. In analyzing this problem, it is usually assumed that the
traditional soil mechanics theories also apply to waste material. In
fact the settlement mechanisms are quite different and are both of
physical and of bio-chemical nature.
Even though experimental records show some similarity between the

waste settlement-time relationship and the primary and secondary stages
of soil consolidation, the application of consolidation theory to waste
materials is inevitably approximate because some of the assumptions of
the classical theory are not satisfied. In particular, the presence of
gas causes incomplete saturation, both the solids and the fluids are
not incompressible, the validity of Darcy's law is not verified and
chemical processes may prevail on the consolidation itself [4].
From the data available in literature, it seems that the mechani-

cal compression of the waste occurs in the first few months after the
disposal of waste, while the rate of settlements due to chemical ac-
tivity is more dependant on the particular conditions at a site [5].
Differential settlements can arise from the heterogeneity of waste

composition and density, changes in disposal procedures and potentially
unstable areas within the landfill. As noted previously, differential
settlements impair the proper operation of a landfill after its comple-
tion,
Copyright by ASTMboth with
Int'l (all rights respect
reserved); to the
Thu Sep 5 12:03:30 integrity of the protective
EDT 2019 cover cap
and the possibility of site reclamation and re-use.
Effective landfilling procedures can reduce settlements signifi-

cantly but can also slow down biological stabilization processes due to
the lower available porosity, thus decreasing settlement rate. This
aspect should be thoroughly examined at the planning stage involving
the final intended use of the site [4].
CASE HISTORIES
The authors are presently involved in the design and management of

two landfills (class II-B and II-C respectively, according to the
Italian classification system; see Appendix A) for the disposal of
industrial waste.
The first site, which in the following will be referred to as Site

i, is located in central Italy, between Florence and Pisa, and
accommodates sludges from nearby leather manufacturing plants. Prior to
landfilling, sludges are partially dewatered by means of filtering-
pressing machines, which reduce the moisture content from about 95% to
40%-75%, depending on the intensity of the treatment procedure, with an
average of 63% at the time of disposal.
The content of organic matter ranges from 25 to 62%, with an

average of 40%, while the pH is always Z 8.
The prevailing metal in the sludges is lead, having a concentra-

tion which varies from about 200 to 600 ppm, with significant traces of
copper, cadmium and some hexavalent chrome.
The geotechnical investigation consisted of both laboratory and

in-situ tests, performed on sludges of the same type, dumped in a
nearby disposal facility for periods of time up to 3 years.
In the laboratory, at Studio Geotecnico Italiano, Milan, and

Technical University, Turin, total and dry unit weight were determined,
as well as water content and Atterberg limits of indisturbed samples of
waste, taken with an Osterberg sampler during the drilling of boreho-
les. The samples were quite non-homogeneous, showing clods and fibrous
materials. The most representative parts were selected for testing and
the specimens were obtained very slowly (up to 3 hours per specimen) in
short tubes, 76 mm high, in order to minimize their disturbance.
Unconsolidated-undrained triaxial and shear box tests were also per-
formed, and consolidation parameters were obtained from oedometer
tests. The results of these tests are summarized in Table 2, in which
it can be seen that the average value of unit weight is 12.5
kN/m3,while water content, liquid limit and plasticity index are ex-
ceedingly high. Some difficulties arose in determining the grain size
distribution by hydrometer and specific gravity of solid particles, due
to flocculation phenomena, therefore only sieve analysis was completed.
However, it was observed that 31 to 35% of the waste is composed of
particles greater than 0.06 mm, some of which are jointed finer par-
ticles.
Consolidation
Copyright by ASTM tests
Int'l (all rights reserved); Thu showEDTthat
Sep 5 12:03:30 2019 compression ratio is quite constant,
CR = A~by v/Alog a' = 0~
Downloaded/printed and that the preconsolidation pressure, o',
seems to be higher than the in-situ overburden pressure, probably d~e
GEOTECHNICAL ANALYSIS OF S O M E INDUSTRIAL SLUDGES 323
,,~,,
' ' 0 ' '

v
~ v
I I I C~J
r-~
O C. C~ C~
r--I ~ r-I
i I I
eL)
r-~ cO C~t
U
r~
g ~ ,
o,-.t
4-~
0 v
E ~ 0 ~
,---1
n
v
J.J
0 0 0 0 0 0
E I I I I t l
r~ "0
to the effect of compaction and to some kind of chemical bonding (Fig.

2). Shear strength parameters of c' z 0 and ~ = 37 ~ were measured, in
the stress range of 0 to 300 kPa, where c' is the effective cohesion
and 4' is the drained angle of friction, respectively. As an index of
the material response to quick loading, an average undrained shear
strenght C u of 33 kPa was measured.
In-situ data include piezocone penetration tests, CPTU, standard

penetration tests and falling head field permeability tests (Lefranc
type). The CPTU results are shown in Figure 3, in which q is the cone
ct
resistance corrected to take into account the pore pressure behind cone
tip. The penetration resistance is generally remarkably low and the
hydraulic response is quite variable. Dissipation tests, performed
during piezocone penetration, seem to confirm that the waste is
partially saturated.
Due to the similarity between the waste index properties and

consolidation behaviour and those typical of a clay, it was decided to
try to go further in applying soil mechanics methods to this material.
By using the method proposed by Lunne et al. [6], it was possible to
derive the C vs. depth profile from the piezocone penetration data.
Figure 4 sh~ws the interpreted results as well as the laboratory data.
The comparison of the two sets of data indicates a good agreement, even
though field values are generally lower than laboratory ones, probably
due to problems in pore pressure measurements in a partly saturated
material.
Hydraulic conductivity k is also shown to be quite variable,10b~th

in-situ and in the laboratory, ranging from i x i0 -8 to I x
cm/sec, and measurements made on landfills of different age seem to
show a tendency of k to decrease with increasing age (Fig. 5).
The second case study (Site 2) concerns an abandoned borrow pit

located in the alluvial plain surrounding Turin in northern Italy which
is being landfilled with a mixture of sludges coming from steel mills,
chrome-plating and painting plants. Recently, other kinds of solid
wastes are also being disposed in this landfill. Relevant design and
management details regarding the disposal facility are reported by
Bortolami et al. [7] and Bonvicini et al. [8].
Geotechnical data, collected by testing undisturbed samples of the

same waste already being disposed in other landfills, are shown in
Table 3. Some waste samples were also compacted in the laboratory,
according to the Standard and Modified Proctor procedures, and results
of the relevant tests were presented and discussed in the previous
section on waste compaction.
As far as the undisturbed samples are concerned, it can be seen

that the unit weight is generally slightly lower than in the case of
Site i, and the water content w is of the same order of magnitude for
samples from Site 2 - location AS and significantly higher for Site 2 -
location B). Atterberg limits are considerably lower in samples from
location A) than for Site i, while they were not measured for location
B). Two grain size distributions indicate that 8% and 37% of the par-
ticles, respectively, are greater than 0.06 mm. In the latter case, the
coarser by fraction consisted of cemented lumps of finer particles. Almost
Downloaded/printed
all
(UDESC) the samples
Universidade do Estado de Santawere
Catarinanot fully
((UDESC) saturated.
Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina) pursuant to License Agreement. No further reproductions authorize
G E O T E C H N I C A L A N A L Y S I S OF S O M E INDUSTRIAL SLUDGES 325
E=~(%)
0
I_
10
20
30
i
40
"l I 1 i l;;;; I ! I I I III

10 100 1000
Orv (kPa)
,"~H (ram)
2.8 _1 I I I11111 I I IIIIIII I I I II1111
3.0-
3.2
3.4
3.6 -
#
3.8-
4.0-
4.2, I I IIIIIII I I IIIIIII I

1 IIIIIII
10 100 1000
t (sec)
FIG. 2: T y p i c a l stress - s t r a i n a n d time - settlement

c u r vThu
Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); e sSepf5r12:03:30
o m oEDTe d o2019
m e t e r tests o n w a s t e samples.
FRICTION
CORRECTED CONE RESISTANCE RATIO PORE PRESSURE
qct (kPa) FR(%) u (kPa)
0 100 200 300 4000 10 20 0 20 40 60
0 l i L ; = I I ; L L =
"~'2
..r-
I-
0..
ILl
~3
! I f f ! f T 1 f
FIG. 3: Piezocone penetration test data.
UNDRAINED STRENGTH,cu(kPa )
10 20 30 40 50
1 1 I I
-- I go --
9 9
~...2
E
-r-
I-
a.
uJ
c~ 3
09
4-- 00
O0
5 I I I I
9 LABORATORY VALUES
(UDESC) Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina
FIG. 4: ((UDESC)
Undrained Universidade do Estado strength
shear de Santa Catarina) profile.
pursuant to License Agreement. No further reproductions authorize
9,.D ~.'~ o 0
v
' o o o
i i i
0 0 0
l.J ~.1 ~-I ,--I r - I
9- ~ ~ 0
u~
u-~ u ~ 0
v ~
~ ,--4 ~ i
-,.'t ,--I
~ v ,-4
E
v
0 0 '.._.D r-~
oD o 0 ,,.o
"0 c~ o ~ -.~"
v
r~
0
9 ~ 9
9,..o 0 ..~ r cO r
v
0
. 9
i ,-I ,.-I r - I
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0
9 0 .
~ v o o o
0 O
9
0 [ I I Jill [ I I I [1[1 I I I I ll[I I I
1 ~tr SITE 1 - Laboratory values
9 SITE 2 - Laboratory values
2 9 SITE 1 - Field values

A (85) Year of dis1 )osal
F:
v
~3
I,,- J0k (88)
uJ (85)
~4 r
(84)
6 ! t I IIl!l I t I ]litl I f I I ;[1[ [ I I

10 8 10 7 i ~ "6 1~ 5
HYDRAULIC C O N D U C I V I T Y , h ( c m / s )
FIG. 5: Summary of hydraulic conductivity results.
The average value of compression ratio, CR, is 0.38 for undi-

sturbed samples, and decreases significantly to 0.20 for compacted
samples.
The undrained strength of undisturbed samples varies from 46 to 82

kPa, while compacted samples show increased C values of 380 to 620 KPa
and drained shear box tests give c' = 0 + 40 ~Pa and 4' = 35~ + 38~
(Table i).
It is interesting to note that the measured drained shear strength

parameters are typical of soils with a coarser grain size distribution
than the waste under examination.
CONCLUSIONS
A comprehensive program of geotechnical field and laboratory tests

on industrial sludges has been carried out to assess the applicability
of soil mechanics principles and methods to the study of the enginee-
ring behaviour of waste. Particular attention has been devoted to
compactability characteristics in order to optimize landfilling proce-
dures.
The comparison between laboratory test results and field behaviour

of the sludges already landfilled suggests the following remarks:
the high drained strengths measured in the laboratory are confirmed

by the long term behaviour of the sludges, landfilled with front
slopes of up to 35 ~ to the horizontal without the occurence of any
instability, either general or local;
GEOTECHNICAL ANALYSIS OF SOME INDUSTRIALSLUDGES 329
- as far as deformability is concerned, laboratory tests show some

similarity between sludges and natural soft plastic silts and clays
but a direct comparison with field behaviour is not yet possible
since a comprehensive settlement monitoring program has not been
undertaken so far;
- both laboratory tests and field measurements agree in showing the

beneficial effect of waste compaction, which can give rise to
significant volume reduction and improvement of strength and
deformation properties.
Further studies and experiences are needed in order to collect

more relevant and reliable data on field behaviour of sludges and to
obtain additional information on issues such as waste origin and
characteristics, chemical properties, microstructural features (e.g. by
means of electron microscope photographs) and mechanical behaviour,
including static and dynamic loading response. A specific
classification system is also needed to act as a general framework for
standard testing and analysis.
REFERENCES
[I] Kelley, M., "Equipment Selection for Landfills", Waste Age, January
1986.
[2] Forssblad,L., "Vibratory Soil and Rock Compaction", Robert Olsson

Tryckeri AB, Stockolm, 1981.
[3] Sanna, M., and Floccia, M., "La discarica di rifiuti", Edizioni
delle Autonomie, Rome, 1986.
[4] Cancelli, A., and Cossu, R., "Problemi di stabilit& negli scarichi
controllati", Ingegneria Ambientale, Vol. 13, 1984, pp. 632-642.
[5] Sowers, G.F., "Settlement of Waste Disposal Fills", Proceedings of

the Eighth International Conference on Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering, Vol. 2, Part 2, Moscow, U.S.S.R., 1973, pp.
207-210.
[6] Lunne, T., Christoffersen, H.P., and Tjelta, T.I., "Engineering Use
of Piezocone Results in North Sea Clays", Proceedings of the
Eleventh International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering, Vol. 2, San Francisco, 1985, pp. 907-912.
[7] Bortolami, G.C., Buonomo, L., Di Molfetta, A., Manassero, M., and
Viola, C., "Design Aspects of a Toxic Waste Landfill in an
Industrial Area", Proceedings of the Twelfth International
Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Rio de
Janeiro, 1989.
[8] Bonvicini, A.C., Manassero, M., Street, A., and Viola, C., "Lining,
Leachate
Downloaded/printed by Collection and Monitoring of a Large Toxic Waste
Landfill",
(UDESC) Universidade do Estado de SantaProceedings of dothe
Catarina ((UDESC) Universidade Second
Estado de International
Santa Catarina) pursuant to License Agreement. NoLandfill
further reproductions authorize
Symposium, Alghero, Italy, 1989.
APPENDIX A
ITALIAN CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM FOR WASTES AND LANDFILLS
.?
MUNICIPALII
WASTE U
ICLASS I,-AI
, LANDFILL I
O.K. l I
CHEMICALI
ANALYSESI
IDECONTiMINATION~-'J Z'c~I
..,llc,,.c.
O,K.
"~ I COLLECTIO#~ Stabilized

i biological sludges
I
[ c,Assl I IINCINERATIONI ICOLLECTIONI
LANDFILL~
ANALYSES:
BACTERIOLOGY METAL 1 E
,flCROPOLLUTANTS EXTRACTIONTESTJ
Negative SOILS Extract"within I Extract outside
++
AGRONOMY code limits J code limits_,
(5
[ OlSrRleUrtON l
ASBEStuS CoNc L ~ j
<lO000mglkg I
CLASS II-B I
r I LANDFILL I
1
lo-~- ;_
CLASS II-C I iCLASS III I
I LANDFILL I ~LANDFILL~
C=CONCENTRATIONOF TYPICALSUBSTANCES
L.C.=LIMIT CONCENTRATION (ACCORDINGTO THE RELEVANTCODE)
R. D. Hinkle I
LANDFILL SITE RECLAIMED FOR C O M M E R C I A L USE

AS CONTAINER STORAGE FACILITY
REFERENCE: Hinkle, R. D. " Landfill Site

Reclaimed for Commercial Use as C o n t a i n e r
Storage Facility," Geotechnics of W a s t e
F i l l s - T h e o r y and Practice, A S T M STP 1070,
Arvid Landva, G. David Knowles, editors,
American Society for T e s t i n g and Materials,
Philadelphia, 1990.
ABSTRACT: An abandoned 38 acre sanitary

landfill approximately I00 feet (31 m) deep
was closed, covered, sealed, and c o n v e r t e d
to a marine container storage and repair
facility. An impermeable cover m a t e r i a l was
developed using crushed m i s c e l l a n e o u s base,
silt and asphalt emulsion. A large number
of field and laboratory p e r m e a b i l i t y tests
were performed to verify the material
properties. The landfill surface is used to
support heavy container movers and two
permanent structures. The p r o j e c t shows
that landfill property can be r e c l a i m e d and
put into profitable high demand use w h i l e
m e e t i n g all environmental regulations.
KEYWORDS: landfill, cover, permeability,

waste strength parameters, settlement,
structures on landfill
INTRODUCTION
The landfill site is located in the W i l m i n g t o n area

in the City of Los Angeles. The location, near the
g r o w i n g Los Angeles Harbor, Figure i, causes the land to
be valuable enough to economically r e c l a i m the a b a n d o n e d
landfill. The site was originally a low lying, p o o r l y
ipresident, Dale Hinkle P. E. Inc., 15510 B

R o c k f i e l d Boulevard, Irvine, CA 92718.

d r a i n e d area of the City of Los Angeles. D u r i n g the

1940's and 1950's the area served as a b o r r o w pit for soil
u s e d to c o n s t r u c t the Los A n g e l e s harbor. A f t e r the
m a x i m u m d e p t h of b o r r o w was reached, the site was t u r n e d
into a landfill and filled with rubble, u s e d tires and
r e s i d e n t i a l waste.
The total depth of landfill is a b o u t 95 feet (30

meters). The lower 45 feet (14 meters) is r u b b l e and tires
and the upper 50 feet (15 meters) is rubbish. The fill was
r a n d o m l y p l a c e d and covered each day w i t h a thin soil
cover.
A f t e r filling was complete, a 1.5 foot (0.5 meters)

soil cover was p l a c e d over the r u b b i s h and the site used
for s t o r a g e of coke piles until a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1985. A gas
e x t r a c t i o n system was installed p r i o r to 1985. The closure
was d e s i g n e d to meet all of the r e q u i r e m e n t s of the EPA and
State of California.
FIGURE 1 - SITE VICINITY
LANDFILL SITE RECLAIMED 333
Purpose
The State of C a l i f o r n i a is r e q u i r i n g the c l o s u r e of

all inactive landfills. The p u r p o s e of the landfill
p r o j e c t was to p e r m a n e n t l y close the site and m a k e it
a v a i l a b l e for a new use. This c o n s i s t e d of s e a l i n g the
site to c o n t a i n the gas as well as d i v e r t any r u n o f f w a t e r
and p r o v i d e drainage. B e c a u s e of the l o c a t i o n of the
landfill, the owner d e c i d e d to r e c l a i m the site for use as
an i n d u s t r i a l facility.
A c o n t a i n e r s e r v i c i n g c o m p a n y (lessee) has a g r e e d to
lease the site after closure for their m a r i n e c o n t a i n e r
s t o r a g e and m a i n t e n a n c e activities. The use of the
landfill as a c o n t a i n e r storage f a c i l i t y c r e a t e d some very
d i f f i c u l t c o n s t r a i n t s for the cover design. The c o n t a i n e r
m o v e r is a forklift type v e h i c l e w i t h a 68,000 p o u n d (302
kN) single axle load on the front drive wheels. The rear
s t e e r i n g axle load is 38,000 pounds (169 kN). T h e s e loads
are 3 to 4 times that of trucks d e s i g n e d for h i g h w a y use.
The loads are very similar to those r e q u i r e d for a i r c r a f t
tire loads for a L-1011 or DC-10.
Scope
It was n e c e s s a r y to d e v e l o p a s u r f a c e w h i c h was
f l e x i b l e e n o u g h to w i t h s t a n d the d e f o r m a t i o n of a s e t t l i n g
landfill, i m p e r m e a b l e to m e t h a n e gas and water, and stable
e n o u g h to w i t h s t a n d r e p e a t e d wheel loads up to 4 times
h e a v i e r than imposed on a freeway.
It was d e c i d e d to use an a s p h a l t i c s u r f a c e m a d e w i t h
a special cold-mix, low-permeability, a s p h a l t i c c o n c r e t e
covered with an asphaltic concrete wearing surface.
Special p e r m e a b i l i t y test a p p a r a t u s and p r o c e d u r e s were
d e v e l o p e d to verify p e r m e a b i l i t y of o n - s i t e m i x e d asphalt.
F i g u r e 2 shows some of the p e r m e a b i l i t y t e s t data for
v a r i o u s m a t e r i a l s tested, these data are i n c l u d e d to show
some of the m a t e r i a l s e v a l u a t e d d u r i n g f e a s i b i l i t y studies.
The project required special design to provide

f l e x i b l e landfill surface w h i c h w o u l d be c o m p a t i b l e with
i m p r o v e m e n t s such as:
a) Paving of surface
b) Drainage s t r u c t u r e s and o u t l e t s t r u c t u r e s
c) A 50 X 150 foot (45.8 X 115.2 m), five story
warehouse structure
d) U t i l i t i e s for e l e c t r i c i t y and w a t e r c o n d u i t s
c r o s s i n g the s u r f a c e
M e a s u r e d settlement of the s u r f a c e r a n g e s from 3 to 12

inches (8 to 31 cm) per year w h i c h m u s t be t o l e r a t e d by all
of these improvements.
10-9 /
/
10-8
/
-/
/
o
==
"~ 10-7
+/
< 10-6
~j t0-5
/ f EMOLS.O"20" ,ED CLAY

/ 9 SC=250 20% RED CLAY
~- 10-4 E] S C - 2 5 0 7% QUIK-GEL
SS-1H 7% QLIIK-GEL
SDRI-FIELD TESTS
10-3 i l
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
% ASPHALT (SC-250)
FIGURE 2 - PERMEABILITY TEST DATA - EARLY DEVELOPMENT
Lines are best fit interpretation of measured date.
Site Conditions
As previously discussed, the site was a b o r r o w pit and

was subsequently filled with residential and other rubbish.
The general site, prior to e x c a v a t i o n and landfilling,
c o n t a i n e d silty fine sand and alluvial deposits. The site
was mined for borrow soil until the g r o u n d - w a t e r level was
reached, then abandoned for several years. The landfilling
operation began in 1964 and continued until 1981.
A p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 million cubic yards (2.6 m i l l i o n M 3 ) of
waste was placed. Between 1981 and 1986 the surface was
used to store coke piles up to 40 feet (12 m) high which
p a r t i a l l y preloaded the area. Between the p e r i o d of 1965
and 1981 the water table in the area rose a p p r o x i m a t e l y 20
feet (6 m) as a result of a sea water b a r r i e r injection
system south of the site, so the lower p o r t i o n of the
Copyright bylandfill
ASTM Int'l (all rights is saturated.
reserved); Thu Sep 5 12:03:30 EDTThe
2019 present surface of the landfill
is a p p r o x i m a t e l y elevation plus 60 feet (18 m) msl and the
b o t t o m is a p p r o x i m a t e l y e l e v a t i o n m i n u s 40 feet (12 m) msl.
The site was c o m p l e t e l y r e g r a d e d to a c c o m p l i s h final

c l o s u r e and c o n s t r u c t i o n of this project. The final
p r o j e c t is shown on Figure 3. The f i l l e d s u r f a c e had 1 to
2 feet (0.3 to 0.6 m) of soil cover. A p p r o x i m a t e l y 230,000
c u b i c yards (198,000 m 3 ) of silty fine sand fill was
i m p o r t e d to the site to r e g r a d e the surface. The e n t i r e
s u r f a c e was r e c o m p a c t e d and fill added to p r o v i d e a m i n i m u m
2 feet (0.6 m) of soil cover over the rubbish. The actual
fill over r u b b i s h t h i c k n e s s r a n g e d from 3 to i0 feet (i to
4 m) over the site w i t h the a v e r a g e b e i n g a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4
feet (1.2 m). The soil fill was all c o m p a c t e d to 90
p e r c e n t of m a x i m u m d e n s i t y as o b t a i n e d by A S T M D1557 a
m e t h o d of compaction. The soil was c o m p a c t e d u s i n g a
s h e e p s f o o t c o m p a c t o r and a h e a v y r u b b e r t i r e d loader.
TYPICAL SECTION SHOWN OF FIGURE 4
(UDESC) Universidade do Estado de Santa FIGURE 3 - Universidade
Catarina ((UDESC) COMPLETED PROJECT
do Estado de Santa Catarina) pursuant to License Agreement. No further reproductions authorize
The filled and compacted surface was c o v e r e d with a

low p e r m e a b i l i t y asphalt cover 12 inches (0.3 m) thick with
2 to 3 inches (5 to 8 cm) of asphalt m a c a d a m w e a r i n g
surface. The surface is designed to slope at a m i n i m u m one
p e r c e n t to provide drainage. A typical s e c t i o n of the
landfill is shown on Figure 4. This section is typical of
the w a r e h o u s e and repair building areas and shows an 80 mil
(2 mm) HDPE membrane and concrete slab floors at finished
grade.
/ 8 0 MIL 2 M M MEMBRANE
ELEV./ ~ GAS EXTRACTION PIPES . - ' G R A V E L BLANKET 12"I30.5cm) A . C - ~ _
+60/_ / . E /" ", ,
(10 .z--J:.~----~o-....... ~o'-',-" , - o ..... . - o C. . . . 9 ...... 9-.-.- +, o- . . . . . u ~ o - +'. -..~,..~,,-~o ".++ . . . . . . . . . . . o . . . . . . . . . . ,~..-~-'--~
...... ] , RECENT COMPACTED FILL / J
+40..L[ t I
(12.2m) I RUBBISH - GLASS, PLASTIC, PAPER, WOOD, RUBBER, RAGS, | J
CPT3-.~ METAL CANS, TIRES, I~EATHER SHOES, | |
+2o-~ MOSTLY BLACK COLOR CPT2A--J|
l~..CPT3O OPT',, "~
-20' ~ ' ~ INERT MATERIALS - RUBBLE AND TIRES

(6.1m) ~ " l - - - -
Current Groundwater Level
BOTTOM OF EXCAVATION
-6o_'
(18.3m) DENSE SILTY SAND AND SANDY cLAY
FIGURE 4 - TYPICAL SITE CROSS SECTION
The exterior earth and rubbish slopes were left at

a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4:1 (horizontal to vertical) a p p r o x i m a t e l y 20
feet (6 m) high. The slopes were c o m p l e t e d by p l a c i n g
c o m p a c t e d sand fill to provide 2 feet (0.6 m) of soil
cover, 12 inches (0.3 m) of c o m p a c t e d clay (k) <i0 "Bcm/sec
then p l a c i n g fill to the desired finished grade. The clay
w h i c h was available approximately 5 miles away, was
a c t u a l l y a red-brown silty clay with a PI of a p p r o x i m a t e l y
20. The final slopes were at a g r a d i e n t of 2:1 and
landscaped to prevent erosion. A c o m p a c t e d clay cutoff
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 feet (0.9 m) deep by 1 1/2 feet (0.5 m)
wide was placed at the interface b e t w e e n the clay cover,
natural ground, and rubbish. A p p r o x i m a t e l y 30,000 cubic
yards (26,000 m ] of clay was imported to the site for the
Copyright byslope
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rights reserved); cutoffs.
Thu Sep 5 12:03:30 EDT 2019
Desiqn Conditions
The design c o n d i t i o n s for this p r o j e c t w e r e d e v e l o p e d

by a series of c o m p r o m i s e s b e t w e e n the d e v e l o p e r - o w n e r , the
p r o s p e c t i v e user, and the State of C a l i f o r n i a - L o s A n g e l e s
R e g i o n a l W a t e r Q u a l i t y Control Board. The d e s i g n guide-
lines and a p p l i c a b l e laws are s t i p u l a t e d in c a l i f o r n i a
A d m i n i s t r a t i v e Code, Title 23, C h a p t e r 3, S u b c h a p t e r 15.
The basic design r e q u i r e s a p e r m a n e n t cover m a t e r i a l

w h i c h is impermeable to the p e n e t r a t i o n of r u n o f f water
from the e x t e r i o r and m e t h a n e landfill gas from the
interior. The cover must be f l e x i b l e e n o u g h to a b s o r b the
d e f o r m a t i o n s caused by the s e t t l i n g l a n d f i l l and still
r e t a i n its impermeable nature.
The u s e r - i m p o s e d c o n s t r a i n t was that the s u r f a c e must

be s t r o n g enough to w i t h s t a n d w h e e l loads from a large
f o r k l i f t type loader. A second c o n d i t i o n was that the
slope was to be kept as flat as p o s s i b l e to avoid
o v e r t u r n i n g the loaded forklifts. The State c l o s u r e laws
r e q u i r e s a 3 p e r c e n t slope but the user n e e d e d a 1 p e r c e n t
slope. A special asphalt double seal s y s t e m was d e s i g n e d
so that a 1 p e r c e n t slope could be u s e d and still be
a c c e p t e d by the State.
The asphalt cover was d e s i g n e d to have a p e r m e a b i l i t y

c o e f f i c i e n t (k) less than 10 .6 cm/sec, yet h a v e a p a v e m e n t
r i g i d i t y s l i g h t l y less than road grade pavement. The
m a t e r i a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n is as follows:
A s p h a l t Content SC-800 6.0-6.5%

R e s i d u a l A s p h a l t in A g g r e g a t e 1.0-1.5%
Sieve Size Percent Passing

i/2 100
#4 75 - i00
#16 40 - 70
#5O 2O - 4O
#20O i0 - 2O
HVEEM Stability O v e r 30
The m a t e r i a l was p h y s i c a l l y c r e a t e d by c r u s h i n g w a s t e
c o n c r e t e and asphalt in a cone crusher, t h e n b l e n d i n g with
w a s t e c r e a t e d from c l e a n i n g r a i l r o a d b a l l a s t for added
fines. A p p r o x i m a t e l y i00,000 tons (91,000 kg) of a g g r e g a t e
was p r o d u c e d for the project. The oil was a d d e d in a
p u g m i l l type mixer, the m a t e r i a l p l a c e d and c o m p a c t e d in 6
inch (15 cm) layers and allowed to cure 30 to 60 days. The
m a t e r i a l was c o m p a c t e d to 95 p e r c e n t m o d i f i e d P r o c t o r
c o m p a c t i o n (ASTM D1557 method) [4] to p r o v i d e the r e q u i r e d
p e r m e a b i l i t y and density. Tests s h o w e d that at less than
5 p e r c e n t air voids, the p e r m e a b i l i t y was less than 10 .6
cm/sec.
Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rightsThe field
reserved); Thu p eEDT
Sep 5 12:03:30 r m2019
eability verification data is
p r e s e n t e d in Figure 5.
10-9
9
./.
10-8
0 0
FIELD TESTS
=. 9 LAB TESTS
10-7
~ 10~6
0
0
/
~ 10-5
/ F - . . . ~ U P P E R BOUND ESTIMATE
~ 10-4
10-3 I I I I ,I I - i I
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
% ASPHALT (SC 8001
FIGURE S -_ FINAL PERMEABILITY TEST DATA -
RELD M4)~ED AND PLACED ASPHALT
Buildinq Desiqn
Two structures were required for the project: a small

o n e - s t o r y office approximately 1,500 square feet (139 m 2 )
and a large warehouse a p p r o x i m a t e l y 40 feet (12 m) high and
7,500 square feet (698 m ). The w a r e h o u s e structure is a
steel framed structure with steel siding and is open on one
side with a 150 X 50 foot (46 X 15 m) clear opening for
container mover access. It was impossible to p e n e t r a t e the
r u b b i s h due to concrete rubble in the lower 50 feet (15 m)
so deep foundations were impossible.
It was decided to place the s t r u c t u r e s on r e i n f o r c e d

concrete mat foundations. The foundations c o n s i s t of 3
sections of mat approximately 50 X 50 feet (15 X 15 m) by
18 inches (0.5 m) thick. The mat sections are c o n n e c t e d by
p o s t - t e n s i o n cables to allow movement b e t w e e n segments.
The mats are also fitted with p e r m a n e n t pipe sleeves to re-
level the mat with cement grouting. The structure is
Copyright by d e s iInt'l
ASTM g n(allerights
d reserved);
with Thuleveling
Sep 5 12:03:30 EDTpads
2019 at the column c o n n e c t i o n s and
joints to allow movement. The structure is d e s i g n e d to
a l l o w up to 6 inches (15 cm) d i f f e r e n t i a l settlement.
The area beneath the s t r u c t u r e s has a gas c o l l e c t i o n

s y s t e m and an 80 mil (2 mm) HDPE m e t h a n e barrier. Beneath
the b a r r i e r is 12 inches (0.3 m) of 3/8 inch (i.0 cm) pea
g r a v e l and a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 feet (1.5 m) of c o m p a c t e d fill
over 95 feet (29 m) of rubbish. S e t t l e m e n t m o n i t o r i n g is
u n d e r w a y but incomplete.
Settlement Measurements
In 1981, a c o m p r e s s o r station r e s t i n g on r u b b i s h was

i n s t a l l e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y 300 feet (92 m) w e s t of the new
structure. The c o m p r e s s o r was f o u n d e d on a r e i n f o r c e d
c o n c r e t e mat foundation a p p r o x i m a t e l y 12 inches (0.3 m)
thick. The d i f f e r e n t i a l s e t t l e m e n t of the c o m p r e s s o r
s t a t i o n was m o n i t o r e d from 1983 t h r o u g h 1988, b e c a u s e
several stages of r e l e v e l i n g were required. The c o m p r e s s o r
area was a p p r o x i m a t e l y 50 X i00 feet (15 X 31 m) and
d i f f e r e n t i a l s e t t l e m e n t rates at the c o r n e r s of the 3 slabs
r a n g e d from a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 to 1.6 inches per year (2.5 to
4.0 cm/yr).
Total s e t t l e m e n t rates were not m e a s u r e d but later

measurements of the non-structural finished surface
r e v e a l e d total s e t t l e m e n t s of 3 to 12 inches (8 to 31 cm)
in 1989.
A s u r c h a r g e settlement test was p e r f o r m e d by W o o d w a r d -

Clyde C o n s u l t a n t s [i] on the a d j a c e n t 24 acre l a n d f i l l of
s i m i l a r c o m p o s i t i o n but with only 60 feet (18 m) of
rubbish. These tests showed that u s i n g a 20 foot (6 m)
fill surcharge, s e t t l e m e n t s of 12 to 39 inches (0.3 to 1.0
m) c o u l d be induced immediately w i t h no p r e d i c t a b l e amount
of s e t t l e m e n t or location. A p p r o x i m a t e l y 40 to 80 p e r c e n t
of the s e t t l e m e n t occurs in the first I0 days a f t e r loading
w i t h a rather linear s e t t l e m e n t rate c o n t i n u i n g in a non-
e n d i n g pattern.
S e t t l e m e n t rates appear to v a r y in a r a n d o m pattern.

Long t e r m b e h a v i o r shows some heave or r e b o u n d b e h a v i o r at
some locations. It appears that the d e e p fills tend to
s q u e e z e and spring upward in r a n d o m locations.
S e t t l e m e n t data in similar landfills was c o l l e c t e d by

the Los A n g e l e s County S a n i t a t i o n D i s t r i c t s at t h e i r S P A D R A
L a n d f i l l [2] showing total s e t t l e m e n t s of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 7
to 12 i n c h e s / y e a r (0.2 to 0.3 m) in a i00 foot (31 m)
r u b b i s h fill. U l t i m a t e s e t t l e m e n t can be up to 30 p e r c e n t
of the h e i g h t of rubbish.
Unique Testinq Procedure
Copyright by ASTMSeveral a pThu

Int'l (all rights reserved); p lSep
i c5 a12:03:30
tion s 2019of e x i s t i n g
EDT technology were
a d o p t e d for this project.
Cone Penetrometer
Because of the s u s c e p t i b i l i t y to settlement, it

was decided to test the c o n s i s t e n c y of the rubbish.
Drilling and sampling is r e l a t i v e l y d a n g e r o u s and
unreliable, so cone p e n e t r o m e t e r test (CPT) probes
were attempted at the corners of the structures.
Typical CPT data are shown on Figure 6.
Approximately 40 percent of the CPT attempts

p e n e t r a t e d the rubbish to the d e s i r e d depth w i t h o u t
e n c o u n t e r i n g an obstruction. All probes s t o p p e d at
the rubble interface.
The data showed the r u b b i s h to be r e l a t i v e l y

consistent with a tip resistance of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 50
t o n s / s q u a r e foot (5 MPa) and a skin friction of
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0.5 to 1 t o n s / s q u a r e foot (50-100 kPa).
The data were not used to predict u l t i m a t e s e t t l e m e n t
but verified that conditions were as r e c o r d e d and that
the rubbish has considerable shear strength.
Permeability Testing
In order to install the cover, it was n e c e s s a r y to

c o n d u c t numerous p e r m e a b i l i t y tests to v e r i f y the material
properties. The tests were a c o m b i n a t i o n of field and
r e m o l d e d laboratory p e r m e a b i l i t y tests.
It was necessary to have a p e r m e a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t

(k) less than 10 .6 cm/sec. During placement, r a n d o m samples
were obtained from the batch plant and r e t u r n e d to our
laboratory for testing. Since no A S T M s t a n d a r d for falling
head permeability tests exists, we adopted a soil
p e r m e a b i l i t y procedure for asphalt samples. Samples were
c o m p a c t e d into a 4 inch (I0 cm) diameter mold a p p r o x i m a t e l y
1 inch (2.5 cm) thick, allowed to cure 14 days then
confined and approximately 8 feet (2.4 m) head of water
applied. Results were measured daily and p l o t t e d until a
s t e a d y - s t a t e rate achieved. Usually, a p p r o x i m a t e l y 30 days
w e r e required to achieve consistent results. The test
apparatus and procedure are d e s c r i b e d in Bowles [3].
Field p e r m e a b i l i t y tests were r e q u i r e d so sealed

double ring infiltrometer apparatus as shown in Figure 7,
were fabricated and installed after surface curing. These
tests required approximately 30 days to complete.
During the project 16 laboratory p e r m e a b i l i t y tests

and 3 field p e r m e a b i l i t y tests were p e r f o r m e d on the
material. The average p e r m e a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t (k) of the
laboratory tests, saturated and near 95 p e r c e n t relative
compaction, was 9.1 X 10 .8 cm/sec and the field tests
Copyright byresults averaged
ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); Thu Sep 54.2
12:03:30 X 10 .7 cm/sec.
EDT 2019 It can be seen from
Figure 7 that the field test data is slightly h i g h e r than
(M) FILE
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18
i--"~== ......... 1 59.1
0 10 20 30 40 50
MPa (approx.)
FIGURE 6 - TYPICAL CONE PENETROMETER DATA IN RUBBISH

the laboratory data. This can be e x p l a i n e d by the fact

that the laboratory tests were p e r f o r m e d on h i g h e r d e n s i t y
samples (96 to 98 percent compaction) versus field tests at
95 p e r c e n t compaction. P e r m e a b i l i t y is d e p e n d e n t upon air
voids. Air voids can be reduced by more compaction, more
asphalt or more fines and each r e d u c t i o n in air voids
reduces permeability.
1000 ML PLASMA BAG (WATER F I L L ~ D c ~

/AIR RELIEF VALVE
WATER 12"(30.5crn) DIA.

FILLED SCHED. 80 PVC
. . . . L:_
CEMENT SEALED
(TYP.)
u ~
; <LU
-r~.
l 1=2"(30.5cm,
r
J23"(58.4cm)
i >
0
9 0
K = 10 -5 cm/sec
RUBBISH
LEGEND
Q=kiAt t =TIME BETWEEN FILLING AND

k=Q/At READING BAG (SEC.)
I=HEAD/COVER THICKNESS Q=VOLUME LOST BETWEEN
= 42"(106.7crn)/12"(30.5cm) READINGS IN GRAMS (CM~)
=3.5
k=PERM. COEFFICIENT (CM\Ss
A=AREA OF BOTTOM OF TUBE=700CM =
FIGURE 7 - FIELD PERMEABILITY TEST DEVICE
Conclusions and R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s
This p r o j e c t d e m o n s t r a t e s that landfill p r o p e r t y can

be r e c l a i m e d and put to p r o f i t a b l e use. The cover and
s t r u c t u r e s have now been in service for a p p r o x i m a t e l y one
and o n e - h a l f years. Several lessons h a v e been learned
d u r i n g this process.
The seal, as placed, has been h i g h l y effective. Prior

to cover completion, the m e t h a n e gas e x t r a c t e d from the
landfill was up to 50 p e r c e n t oxygen from the atmosphere.
A f t e r c l o s u r e the m e t h a n e was less than 1 p e r c e n t oxygen.
The system, as installed, is p r o b a b l y only e f f e c t i v e

in a very dry e n v i r o n m e n t such as the s o u t h w e s t e r n U n i t e d
States. The asphalt mix d u r i n g p l a c e m e n t is v e r y m o i s t u r e
s e n s i t i v e and cannot be p l a c e d or c u r e d d u r i n g r a i n y
weather.
The asphalt cover requires e x t r e m e q u a l i t y control

measures. Precise m e a s u r e m e n t s of a s p h a l t and m o i s t u r e
c o n t e n t must be made 4 to 6 times d a i l y to e n s u r e a
consistent, stable impermeable mix.
A batch type mixer is r e q u i r e d for a s p h a l t mixing. A

c o n t i n u o u s pugmill type mixer was used on the this p r o j e c t
w h i c h c r e a t e d several weak areas caused by too m u c h c u t b a c k
a s p h a l t in the mix. The range of 6.0 to 6.5 p e r c e n t could
not be e x c e e d e d w i t h o u t a s i g n i f i c a n t d e c r e a s e in surface
s t a b i l i t y and r e s i s t a n c e to t r a f f i c loads.
The landfill slope in excess of 1 p e r c e n t can be

t o l e r a t e d for safe o p e r a t i o n of loaders. The c r i t i c a l item
is sudden bumps. A slope of 2 p e r c e n t will g r e a t l y improve
s u r f a c e d r a i n a g e and reduce m a i n t e n a n c e costs to r e p a i r low
areas c a u s e d by d i f f e r e n t i a l settlement.
The m a i n t e n a n c e cost of the surface over a l a n d f i l l is

a p p r o x i m a t e l y twice the m a i n t e n a n c e cost of n o r m a l p a r k i n g
lots. The maintenance cost of this project is
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 to 3 c e n t s / s q u a r e foot/year.
The closure cost for the p r o j e c t was a p p r o x i m a t e l y i0

to 20 p e r c e n t higher than the c l o s u r e costs for normal
landfills w i t h o u t a p l a n n e d r e c y c l e d use. It is hoped
that the i n f o r m a t i o n d e v e l o p e d in this p r o j e c t will assist
in r e c y c l i n g other landfill properties.
REFERENCES
[z] Woodward-Clyde Consultants, "Surcharge Test

Program, 24 Acre Site, ASCON Landfill,
Wilmington, California, May 1987.
[2] Los Angeles County Sanitation Districts, ~Private

Files of Test Data, 1982.
[3] Bowles, J. E., Enqineerinq Properties of Soils and

Their Measurement, McGraw Hill, New York, 1978.
[4] ASTM, 1987 Annual Book of ASTM Standards Volume 4,

Soil and Rock; Building Stones; Geotextiles.
Richard E. Oakley, III
CASE HISTORY: USE OF THE CONE PENETROMETER TO CALCULATE THE SETTLEMENT

OF A CHEMICALLY STABILIZED LANDFILL
REFERENCE: Oakley, III, Richard E., "CASE HISTORY: Use of

the Cone Penetrometer to Calculate the Settlement of a
Chemically Stabilized Landfill," Geotechnics of Waste
Fills-Theory and Practice, ASTM STP 1070, Arvid Landva, G.
David Knowles, Eds., American Society for Testing and
Materials, Philadelphia, 1990
ABSTRACT: A waste fill containing chemically stabilized waste

materials has been subjected to the overburden loading of a
final cap for a period of over two (2) years. Prior to
placement of the multicomponent cap, Cone Penetration Test
(CPT) soundings were performed in the waste fill to determine
the in situ condition of the materials. Settlement
calculations developed from CPT and other data are compared to
actual settlement survey data and discussions of the accuracy
of the predictive method are presented.
KEYWORDS: chemical stabilization, Cone Penetrometer Test

(CPT), elastic settlement, consolidation deformation, time
rate of settlement
INTRODUCTION
A facility in the mid-western United States received municipal and

industrial wastes for treatment and disposal from pre-1972 until about
September 1983. Two (2) waste management units at this facility were
used for the disposal of chemically-stabilized industrial wastes. In
the latter stages of the operating life of this facility and through
the closure era, these two (2) particular units were co~nonly referred
to as the "Old Basin" and the "New Basin."
The Old Basin is a unit of rectangular shape, approximately 137 m

(450 ft.) by 76 m (250 ft.). The lined floor of this basin slopes to
the east to a maximum depth of about 7.5 m (25 ft.). The liner in this
basin consists of glacial till and clayey loess deposits of nominal i m
(3 ft.) thickness, placed and compacted to an average 95 percent of
Mr. Oakley is the Divisional Vice President in charge of Environmental

Remediation for Browning-Ferris Industries, P.O. Box 3151, Houston,
Texas 77253

maximum standard Proctor density (ASTM D698-78). The Old Basin re-
ceived freshly mixed stabilized wastes for full hydration and solid-
ification. This unit operated from about August 1979 to November 1980,
when the unit was closed and a sloped, compacted clay cap was placed
over the area.
The New Basin is a square-shaped unit approximately 125 m (400 ft.)

per side. The lined floor of this unit slopes to the east-northeast to
a maximum depth of about i0 m (30 ft.). The liner in this basin
consists of glacial till and clayey loess deposits of nominal 1 m (3
ft.) thickness, placed and compacted to an average 95 percent of
maximum standard Proctor density (ASTM D698-78). This basin also
received freshly-mixed stabilized wastes for full hydration and solid-
ification. This unit operated from about December 1980 until September
1983. An east-west aligned cross-section of both the Old and New
Basins is presented on Figure i.
CHEMICAL FIXATION PROCESS
Both the Old and New Basins were used for deposition of freshly-
mixed chemically stabilized wastes. Placement in these basins allowed
the freshly mixed product an opportunity to fully hydrate and solidify.
These basins (in conjunction with a final cap) ultimately became the
final depository for these materials.
Typical waste streams (raw state) received by these units for

chemical fixation were American Petroleum Institute (API) separator
sludges, washwater inks, wastewater treatment sludges, lead tank
bottoms, copper wire drawing solutions, biotreated petroleum sludges,
flexographic ink wastes, and common industrial floor sweepings. These
wastes were initially deposited in on-site receiving basins for trans-
fer to the patented solidification unit. In the solidification unit
the wastes were thoroughly blended with a dry reagent (Type I Portland
cement) and a liquid reagent (sodium silicate solution) in proprietary
portions. Type I Portland cement has been widely used for waste
solidification due to its availability and low cost [I]. Soluble
silicates, such as sodium silicate, are additives which will generally
prolong suspension and accelerate the "set" of Portland cement to
produce a solid by-product. Research with soluble silicates indicates
these materials are beneficial in reducing the interference from metal
ions in the waste solution [2, 3].
Once mixed with the solidification reagents, the waste was con-
verted to a thixotropic suspension. This suspension was then
discharged down a gravity sluiceway to one of the two (2) basins
described previously. Over a period of about two (2) to three (3)
days, the semi-solid suspension hydrated to a damp solid. Over a
period of about thirty (30) days, the material typically set-up to a
more rigid state. Some of the stabilized wastes were similar in
appearance to cemented sand while the majority took on the consistency
of a stiff to very stiff clay.
USE OF CONE PENETROMETER 347
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FIELD INVESTIGATION
The field investigation for this study was conducted on May 14 and
May 15, 1985, prior to c o m e n c e m e n t of final closure activities. A
total of eleven (ii) cone penetration tests (CPT's) were performed at
selected locations to evaluate the depth and mechanical characteristics
of the solidified waste materials. Some CPT locations were selected to
provide correlation with existing borings previously performed in a
1984 field investigation. All CPT's were performed with a truck-
mounted cone penetrometer in general accordance with ASTM D 3441-86.
Nine (9) tests were performed with a 15 cm- three-channel electric
pi~zocone, and two (2) tests (CPT's 1 and 5A) were performed with a i0
cm two-channel electric friction cone. The CPT locations and adjacent
boring are shown on Figure 2. A typical CPT sounding log is shown on
Figure 3.
CPT's !, 2, 3, 5, 5A, 6 and 7 were performed in or near the Old

Basin. CPT 5 was duplicated and labeled 5A because of an electronic
data recorder failure. Only two (2) CPT's (CPT 8 and CPT 9) were
accomplished in the New Basin because of poor accessibility around the
edges of this open basin. CPT's 4 and i0 were performed for reference
outside each of the basins.
Measurements of tip resistance ( q ) and sleeve friction ( f ) were

9 c
obtalned at all ii CPT locations. In addition, measurements of ~ynamic
pore pressure (u) were obtained at the 9 test locations where the
three-channel piezocone was used. During piezocone testing at
locations 4, 8, 9 and i0, the porous element in the piezocone became
blocked due to the "smearing" characteristics of the materials
encountered. With the filter blocked, pore pressure measurements were
unreliable and were therefore, not reported. In each of the CPT
locations wheroe pore pressure values were obtained, there were zones of
zero (0 kg/cm ~) pore pressure value (indicating a lack of saturation)
and other zones where positive pore pressure measurements were
registered (indicating total or near-total saturation). Since
saturation was discontinuous the CPT pore pressure data was only used
to qualitatively assess waste conditions and was not used in
quantification technics.
In addition to CPT work, three (3) undisturbed waste samples were

obtained during the 1985 field studies. These samples were taken at a
depth of about 30 em (i ft.) in the New Basin using a 7.6 cm (3 in.)
diameter Shelby tube. The locations of these samples are shown as S-I,
2, and 3 on Figure 2.
Previous field investigations conducted for final closure design

activities in early 1984, resulted in three (3) samples of interest.
These samples are S-48 in the New Basin and S-54 and 55 in the Old
Basin, all shown on Figure 2.
LABORATORY INVESTIGATION
A very limited laboratory testing program was performed on the

three (3) undisturbed samples recovered from the New Basin in 1985.
Total
(UDESC) unit
Universidade weight
do Estado (total
de Santa Catarina density)
((UDESC) of
Universidade do these
Estado wastepursuant
de Santa Catarina) materials ranged
to License Agreement. from
7.8 to 10.8 kN/m 3 (50 to 68.5 lb./ft.3). Previous field investigations
conducted in 1984 (samples S-48,_ S-54, and S-55) d~monstrated total
unit weights of 9.3 to 11.4 kN/m j (59 to 73 lb./ft. ), with moisture
contents ranging from 151 to 259 wt.%.
In the 1984 laboratory program, one-d~m~nsional consolidation tests

were also performed on the three (3) recovered waste samples. Sample
numbers S-54 and S-55 were recovered from the Old Basin at depths of
1.4 and 0.4 m (4.5 and 1.3 ft.), respectively. Sample S-48 was recov-
ered from a depth of i m (3.2 ft.) from the New Basin. Pertinent data
from the consolidation tests are presented in Table i.
TABLE 1 -- Consolidation Test Results
Parameter S-48 S-54 S-55
Initial Water Content, wt.% 259 151 170

Initial Total Density, gm/~m 3 1.08 1.18 0.97
Initial Dry Density, gm/cm 0.30 0.47 0.36
Degree of Sat. ( S ) , vol.% 97 99 79
Final Water Conte~rt, wt.% 135 147 165
Specific Gravity ( G ) 1.50 1.64 1.49
Compression Index (~c)a 1.7~ 0.0~ 2.1~
my, kPa -I 2.2xi0- 5.8xi0 -~ 4.9xi0
ac was determined from the steepest part of the consolidation plot

c
b = coefficient of vol.metric compression over the stress range of
m
v
0.5 to 1.0 kg/~2
FINAL CLOSURE
The Old Basin ceased operation in November 1980. Shortly there-

after, a sloped clay cap of m i n ~ i m 60 cm (24 in.) thickness was placed
and compacted. The New Basin ceased operation in September 1983. This
basin remained open, exposed to the elements and impounding rainwater
and runoff for a period of about three (3) years, from September 1983
to about August 1986. This impounded water was periodically trans-
ported off-site to a permitted facility for treatment. Even so, the
frequent presence of ponded water over the stabilized waste materials
tended to saturate and soften the materials over the prolonged period
of time.
A final closure plan for the facility was submitted to the gov-
erning regulatory agency in April 1984. By the time final regulatory
approval of the closure plan was obtained and a contract let, closure
activities did not commence until June 1985. The New Basin was one of
the final waste management units to be closed in October 1986.
The final closure of this facility was a multifaceted activity.

The principal activity was the placement of a continuous,
multicomponent final cap over about 28 hectares (70 acres) covering all
of the waste management units present at the facility. The final cap
consisted of a passive gas venting system composed of geosynthetics; 45
cm (18 in.) of low permeability compacted clay; 0.75 mm (30 mil)
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) geomembrane; high density polyethylene (HDPE)
drainage net; polyethylene geotextile; 60 cm (24 in.) of compacted
cover soil; and well established vegetative cover. Exclusive of any
fill emplaced to establish drainage grades, this final cap exerted an
overburden pressure of about 0.22 kg/cm ~ (455 psf.) on the underlying
materials. The maximum overburden pressure exerted on the solidified
waste_contents of either basin, including grading fill, was about 1.95
kg/cm z (3995 psf).
CALCULATED SETTLEMENT
In selection of an evaluation technique, both elastic theory and

consolidation approaches were considered. Visual inspection of recov-
ered waste samples and construction excavations into some areas of the
solidified waste, revealed a moist but solid-looking material,
appearing partially cemented. This classification suggests the
material might be analyzed using elastic theory, such as for granular
soils. Soil classification using the electric friction cone [4]
produced a largely predominant classification of "clay" or "clayey silt
and silty clay" indicating the materials could deform consistent with
consolidation theory.
A number of published techniques [5, 6, and 7] were considered in

choosing a method to calculate settlement. Elastic deformation
techniques as developed by Schmertmann [5 and 6] and Sangrelat [7] were
not used in this evaluation. The majority of elastic deformation
settlement usually occurs shortly after application of the overburden
load. Since the settlement markers were not set and surveyed until
about 140 days following completion of the final capping, this type of
settlement calculation would not be comparable to the measured values.
Deformation through pore fluid consolidation was chosen as the

method to calculate settlement, via the classic conso2idation equation
presented below.
n C PI + ~ P
nH = ~ i [El c
l+ei l~ el ] (I)
Where: n = number of consolidating layers

C = compression index
c
e. = initial void ratio
p1 = initial vertical effective stress
AP 1 = expected increase in stress
H = initial thickness of consolidating layer
~H 1 = total consolidation deformation
One of the principal advantages of cone penetrometer testing is the

recovery of near-continuous in situ data.
Therefore, values for C in
Equation
(UDESC) Universidadei werede Santa
do Estado determined
Catarina ((UDESC)from empirical
Universidade relationships
do Estado de Santa with
Catarina) pursuant to License qcNova%ues
Agreement. further reproductions authorize
f
\
f \
/
!
I
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\
\
\ I
/
J
f
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in
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f
r~wl ~'I ~ ~ I~
F R I C T I O N ,'3 FFVE T I P RES I STANC:E RATIO

( KG/SQ CM) ( KG/,SQ CM) (X)
0 1 2 3 0 20 40 60 80 0 2 4- 6 8 1 0
o .-.....~ ~ -'4
f
3 .6
f
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6
f
T
7 f
F
8 #i
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11
12
CPT- I
FIGURE 3
obtained from the CPT data [7]. This approach allowed the use of
individual values of C for discrete waste sublayers, as opposed to
generalized values for c C (determined from the laboratory testing
c .
program), applied to the entlre thickness of waste. Values for e. in
i
Equation I were determined from the laboratory consolidation tests.
MEASURED SETTLEMENT
Placement of the final engineered cap over the waste managpm~nt

units of the facility was begun in June 1985 and completed by October
1986. A system of settlement and reference markers were estahlished
across the 28 hectare (70 acre) waste management area. In the area of
the New and Old Basins, there are six (6) adjacent reference markers.
Settlement of the Old Basin area is monitored by seven (7) settlement
markers. The New Basin is monitored by ten (I0) settlement markers.
Settlement markers are typically marked corners of concrete foundation
mats for passive gas vents or fluid collection sumps. These points are
directly over the waste materials and can be used to measure cover
subsidence. Reference markers are tradition i0 cm by i0 cm (4 in. by 4
in.) concrete survey monuments imbedded in the upper 60 cm (24 in) of
the final cap. These markers are located outside the bounds of the
waste management units and are typically stable, except for settlement
of natural foundation soils under the loading of the new cap and any
grading fill.
All of these markers were initially surveyed on February 19,

1987, with follow up surveys on August 25, 1987, February 19, 1988, and
August 25, 1988. The survey schedule is now on an annual basis to post
closure year five, when the survey interval expands to once every two
(2) years. Actual settlement values determined from survey data are
presented in Tables 2 and 3.
TABLE 2 - Old Basin Settlement a
b
Settlement Cumulative Settlement t c m .
Marker No. 08/25/87 02/19/88 08/25/88
SM 36 0 0 2.0
SM 37 0 0.5 0.5
SM 38 0 1.0 1.5
SM 39 2.5 2.5 4.5
SM 40 0 1.5 2.0
SM 40A 1.5 1.5 2.5
SM 41 0 0 1.5
a
Baseline survey established February 19, 1987
b
All measurements rounded-off to the nearest 0.5 cm.
a
TABLE 3 - New Basin Settlement
b
Settlement Cumulative Settlement~ cm.
Marker No. 08/27/87 02/19/88 08/25/88
SM 45 0 1.0 1.0
SM 46 0.5 2.5 4.0
SM 47 2.0 5.5 7.0
SM 48 1.0 5.0 5.5
SM 49 2.0 3.5 4.0
SM 50 5.0 8.0 12.0
SM 51 0 2.0 2.0
SM 52 0.5 1.0 2.5
SM 53 2.0 3.5 5.5
SM 54 0 2.0 2.0
a
Baseline survey established February 19, 1987
b
All measurements rounded-off to the nearest 0.5 cm.
The average settlement of the final cap overlying the Old Basin is
about 2 cm. while the average cap settlement over the New Basin is
about 4.5 cm. This is probably attributable to the preconsolidation of
the waste materials in the Old Basin due to overburden loading exerted
by the interim cap, which has been in existence since November 1980.
In addition, the interim cap sealed the Old Basin's contents from
precipitation and inundation facilitating an environment for continued
solidification and hardening. The waste materials contained in the New
Basin were exposed to the elements and subjected to periodic inundation
for a period of about three (3) years. This situation probably
moistened the waste materials keeping them in a softened, pliable
condition, thus resulting in greater settlements compared to the Old
Basin.
COMPARISON OF CALCULATED AND ACTUAL VALUES
The original design calculations (circa 1985) for settlement in

these two (2) basins were intentionally broad and conservative, to
account for the numerous unknown or unqualifiable conditions. Total
settlement for the Old Basin was predicted to be between 15 em (0.5
ft.) and 91 cm (3 ft.), with 90 percent of the consolidation settlement
occurring at eight (8) years after final closure. Total settlement for
the New Basin was predicted to be between 15 cm (0.5 ft.) and 122 cm (4
ft.), with 90 percent of the consolidation settlement occurring at
three (3) years after final closure.
For this evaluation, comparisons of calculated and actual

settlement values were performed for three (3) points in the Old Basin
and four (4) points in the New Basin. Settlement markers SM-36, SM-39,
and SM-40A
Downloaded/printed by were chosen for the Old Basin because: (a) they are in
(UDESC)
close Universidade do Estado de Santa
proximity to Catarina ((UDESC) i,
CPT-5A, Universidade
and do2,Estado de Santa Catarina) pursuantand
respectively; to License
(b)Agreement.
theyNo further
are reproductions
in authorize
the interior of the basin where the waste thickness is the greatest
and, therefore, settlements are expected to be the largest. Settlement
markers SM-48, SM-50, SM-52, and SM-53 were chosen for the New Basin
because they are located in the interior of the containment unit where
waste thicknesses are the greatest. Due to site accessibility (e.g.
ponded water and untrafficahle conditions), there were no CPT tests
performed in the immediate vicinity of SM-48, SM-50, SM-52, or SM-53.
CPT-8 and 9 were used for settlement calculations for markers located
in the New Basin.
Those settlement markers located around the perimeters of the

basins were not used in the comparisons because the magnitude of their
actual settlements was generally small, probably due to the limited
thickness of waste materials present at the edges of the bowl-shaped
containment units. Additionally, there is little CPT data available in
the vicinity of these perpherial settlement markers.
Comparisons of actual and calculated settlement values are

presented in Table 4.
TABLE 4 - Actual and Calculated Settlement a
Actual Calculated Values

Location/ Settlement, % of Time d % of
Marker cm. Total t c m . Actual Rate~ cm. Actual
Old Basin
-SM 36 2.0 6.0 200% 1.0 -50%
-SM 39 4.5 14.0 211 7.0 +56
-SM 40A 2.5 13.0 420 2.0 -20
New Basin
-SM 48 5.5 7.5 36 2.0 -64
-SM 50 12.0 15.0 25 8.0 -33
-SM 52 2.5 9.0 260 2.0 -20
-SM 53 5.5 14.0 155 6.5 +18
All values rounded off to the nearest 0.5 cm. or the nearest whole
%.
Measured settlement as of the August 25, 1988 survey.
% of Actual is the percent difference between the actual and

calculated settlement values.
d
Coefficient of Consolidation (Cv) of 2 x 10 -3 cm2/sec, was used.
The time rate value for consolidation settlement presented in Table

4 was calculated using an a v ~ a g e value for the coefficient of
consolidation ( c ) of 2 x 10 -3 cm /sec., determined from the laboratory
consolidation
Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rightste~ts. The
reserved); Thu Sep time
5 12:03:30 rate settlement calculations presented
EDT 2019
above represent only that percentage of the total calculated
consolidation settlement that takes place between the baseline survey
obtained in February 1987 and the latest survey of August 25, 1988 (553
elapsed days).
FINDINGS AND OBSERVATIONS
The author offers the following findings and observations for the
readers consideration.
i. Average settlement of the cap over the Old Basin was about half
the average settlement of the cap over the New Basin, probably
attributable to the preconsolidated condition of the waste
materials present in the Old Basin.
2. Markers located around the periphery of either the Old or New

Basins generally experienced less settlement than the interior
settlement markers; with the exception of SM 47 for which there
is no apparent explanation.
3. Calculated values of total consolidation settlement developed

using CPT data appear reasonable compared to the original
design calculations and the actual settlement data obtained to
date.
4. Calculated values of time-dependent consolidation settlement

(i.e. the percent of the total consolidation settlement
occurring at a point in time) were generally within about • 50
percent of the actual field measured settlement.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author acknowledges with appreciation the assistance of Messrs.

Thierry R. Sanglerat and Wayne D. Smith for their professional
performance of field, laboratory, and engineering services on the
original project. The author further acknowledges with appreciation
the help of Ms. Kay Gilbreath and Messrs. John Magness, Randy Morgan,
Roman Stockton, and Robert Blake in the preparation of this paper.
RF2ERENCES
[I] Cullinane, J., Jones, L.W., and Malone, P.G., "Handbook for Stabi-
lization/Solidification of Hazardous Wastes," Report
EPA/540/2-86/001, Environmental Laboratory, U.S.A.E. Waterways
Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi, June 1986, pp. 2-12
2-15
[2] Columbo, P., and Neilson, R.M., Properties of Wastes and Waste
Containers, Progress Report No. 7, BNL-NUREG 50837, Brookhaven
National Laboratory, Upton, New York, 1978
[3] Falcone, J.S., Jr., Spencer, R.W., and Reifsnyder, R.H., Chemical
Interactions
Copyright by ASTM of ThuSoluble
Int'l (all rights reserved); Sep 5 12:03:30 Silicates
EDT 2019 in the Management of Hazardous
Wastes,
Downloaded/printed by Draft Report, The PQ Corp., Lafayette Hill, Pennsylvania,
1983 do Estado de Santa Catarina ((UDESC) Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina) pursuant to License Agreement. No further reproductions authorize
[4] Douglas, B.J. and Olsen, R.S., "Soil Classification using Electric
Cone Penetrometer," Cone Penetration Testin~ and Experience, ed.
Norris, G.M. and Holtz, R.D., Proceedings from American Society of
Civil Engineers (ASCE), National Convention, St. Louis, Missouri,
October 26-30, 1981
[5] Schmertmann, J.H., "Static Cone to Computic Static Settlement over

Sand," ASCE Journal of Soil Mechanics & Foundation Engineering,
Vol. 96, SM3, May 1970, pp. 1011-1043
[6] Schmertman, J.H., "Guidelines for Cone Penetration Test; Perfor-

mance and Design," Report No. FHWA-TS-78-209, U.S. Department of
Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D.C.,
July 1978
[7] Sanglerat, G. The Penetrometer and Soil Exploration~ Developmpnt in

Geotechnical EnKineerin~, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company,
Amsterdam, Holland, 1979
Donald P. Coduto and Raymond Huitric
MONITORING LANDFILL MOVEMENTS USING PRECISE INSTRUMENTS
REFERENCE: Coduto, D. P. a n d H u i t r i c , R. ,
"Monitoring Landfill Movements using Precise
I n s t r u m e n t s , " Geotechnics of Waste Fills - Theory
and P r a c t i c e , A S T M S T P 1070, A r v i d L a n d v a , G.
David Knowles, editors, A m e r i c a n S o c i e t y for
Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, 1990.
A B S T R A C T : I n v e s t i g a t i o n s of l a n d f i l l m o v e m e n t s
usually consist of m e a s u r e m e n t s of s e t t l e m e n t at
t h e g r o u n d surface. T h i s p r o j e c t c o n s i s t e d of
installing instruments inside vertical borings
d r i l l e d t h r o u g h a l a n d f i l l in o r d e r to m o n i t o r
both vertical and horizontal movements at v a r i o u s
depths. F o l l o w i n g t w o y e a r s of m o n i t o r i n g the
data suggests that vertical strain rates are
independent of depth while horizontal movements on
slopes are greatest near the surface a n d d i m i n i s h
w i t h depth. No p e r m a n e n t displacements occurred
during a magnitude 6.1 earthquake.
KEYWORDS: sanitary landfills, settlement,

deformation, instrumentation, earthquakes
INTRODUCTION
Sanitary landfills g r a d u a l l y s e t t l e for s e v e r a l years

after closure. T h e r a t e a n d m a g n i t u d e of this settlement
varies with many factors, including the time after placement
and the thickness and composition of the refuse.
E n g i n e e r s m u s t be a w a r e of f u t u r e s e t t l e m e n t s when
designing structures, surface facilities and landforms.
Permanent s t r u c t u r e s m a y n e e d to be e q u i p p e d w i t h c o s t l y
foundations; piping, drainage channels and other surface
D o n a l d C o d u t o is a p r o f e s s o r of c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g at
c a l i f o r n i a S t a t e P o l y t e c h n i c University, Pomona, CA 91768;
Raymond Huitric is the supervisor of research and monitoring
in t h e s o l i d w a s t e m a n a g e m e n t d e p a r t m e n t of t h e C o u n t y
sanitation Districts of Los Angeles County, P.O. Box 4998,
Whittier, CA 90607
C o p y r i g h t 9 1990 by A S T M I n t e r n a t i o n a l www.astm.org
MONITORING LANDFILL MEASUREMENTS 359
facilities will probably require articulated and telescoping

c o n n e c t i o n s ; a n d the l a n d f o r m n e e d s to be c o n s t r u c t e d in
anticipation of the changing topography, especially in light
of maintaining good surface drainage patterns.
Accurate settlement estimates are needed to b e s t d e s i g n

these systems, but our ability to predict landfill
settlements is lacking. This paper briefly r e v i e w s s o m e of
the past efforts by the Los Angeles County Sanitation
D i s t r i c t s to s t u d y s e t t l e m e n t behavior and our recent
efforts to m o n i t o r movements using precise instruments
embedded within the refuse. The ultimate objective of these
e f f o r t s is to d e v e l o p m o r e p r e c i s e m e t h o d s of predicting
settlements.
INITIAL EFFORTS: MONITORING SURFACE SETTLEMENTS
The earliest efforts c h a r a c t e r i z e d s e t t l e m e n t t h r o u g h

measurements of b e n c h m a r k s u s i n g c o n v e n t i o n a l s u r v e y i n g
techniques. One such project is the 25-year e f f o r t c a r r i e d
out at the Mission Canyon Landfill by the Los Angeles County
Sanitation Districts.
The Mission C a n y o n L a n d f i l l in Los A n g e l e s County,

California is c o m p o s e d of t h r e e a d j o i n i n g fills k n o w n as
Canyons i, 2 a n d 3. T h e s e a r e s i t u a t e d in t h e r u g g e d
t e r r a i n of t h e S a n t a M o n i c a M o u n t a i n s . E a c h of t h e s e
c a n y o n s w a s f i l l e d w i t h a b o u t 1.5 m i l l i o n m e t r i c tons of
commercial and residential refuse between 1960 and 1964. A
t o t a l of 29 s e t t l e m e n t m o n u m e n t s c o n s i s t i n g of brass tags
set in concrete were placed in 1964 and 1965. The results
of t h i s p r o j e c t are summarized below. Huitric [i] provides
a more detailed analysis.
The observed settlements from 1964 to 1981 ranged from 5

to 27 p e r c e n t of the i n i t i a l fill d e p t h a n d a v e r a g e d 15
percent. M o n u m e n t s w i t h t h e g r e a t e s t settlement showed a
r a t e of s e t t l e m e n t t h a t d e c r e a s e d w i t h t i m e . Figure 1
presents typical time-settlement d a t a f r o m t w o of the
monuments.
T h e o b s e r v e d s e t t l e m e n t rates generally decreased with

time, and continue to be quite large. It a p p e a r s t h a t the
ultimate settlement will be in the range of 30 to 35 percent
of the refuse thickness. More recent monitoring continues
to show results consistent with these findings.
The Mission Canyon w o r k a l s o a d d r e s s e d t h e m e c h a n i s m s

controlling the settlement. Three mechanisms were
considered: Consolidation, compaction, and shrinkage.
C o n s o l i d a t i o n is the s q u e e z i n g of air and w a t e r from

saturated material under an applied load and is t h e p r i m a r y
m e c h a n i s m c o n t r o l l i n g the s e t t l e m e n t of soils. However,
since l i t t l e of the M i s s i o n C a n y o n r e f u s e w a s s a t u r a t e d ,
t h i s m e c h a n i s m w a s n o t c o n s i d e r e d to b e a m a j o r f a c t o r .
This conclusion was confirmed by laboratory tests on
p a r t i a l l y s a t u r a t e d refuse.
C o m p a c t i o n is the d e c r e a s e in v o l u m e u n d e r an a p p l i e d
l o a d r e s u l t i n g f r o m m e c h a n i s m s o t h e r than the s q u e e z i n g of
w a t e r (such as strain in the solids). L a b o r a t o r y t e s t s on
r e f u s e s a m p l e s s u g g e s t t h a t c o m p a c t i o n may be r e s p o n s i b l e
for s e t t l e m e n t s of up to 25 p e r c e n t of the r e f u s e thickness.
S h r i n k a g e is s e t t l e m e n t due to the loss of solids due to

decomposition. Empirical shrinkage models which have been
u s e d to e s t i m a t e landfill gas g e n e r a t i o n can also be used to
e s t i m a t e settlements. Based on t h e c o m p o s i t i o n of w a s t e s
typically r e c e i v e d at Los A n g e l e s C o u n t y l a n d f i l l s , t h e
u l t i m a t e s e t t l e m e n t due to s h r i n k a g e is p r o b a b l y b e t w e e n 18
and 24 p e r c e n t of the refuse thickness.
Laboratory research suggests that the combined ultimate

settlement resulting from compaction and shrinkage will
p r o b a b l y be less than 50 p e r c e n t of t h e r e f u s e t h i c k n e s s ,
w h i c h g e n e r a l l y agrees w i t h the M i s s i o n C a n y o n Data.
26
24
f
f
22
~ 2o J
/
I- 16
/ /
/
io
/ /
/ S J
! ' J
/ f f
4
/
2
/
1960 Ic,
Year
o Monument 113 + Monument 314
Note: M o n u m e n t 113 was p l a c e d in 1 9 6 5 a n d m o n u m e n t 314 w a s

p l a c e d in 1966. Time-settlement d a t a b e f o r e t h e s e dates
are estimates.
FIG. 1 -- S u r f a c e S e t t l e m e n t s at M i s s i o n C a n y o n
F O L L O W - U P WORK: M O N I T O R I N G M O V E M E N T S AT V A R I O U S DEPTHS
M e a s u r i n g the s e t t l e m e n t of s u r f a c e m o n u m e n t s , s u c h as
those at Mission C a n y o n , is a u s e f u l w a y of a c c u r a t e l y
m o n i t o r i n g landfill m o v e m e n t s o v e r a l a r g e a r e a . Similar
s t u d i e s c a n a l s o be m a d e u s i n g t o p o g r a p h i c maps g e n e r a t e d
from aerial photographs. However, n e i t h e r of t h e s e m e t h o d s
g i v e s us a n y i n s i g h t i n t o t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of m o v e m e n t s
t h r o u g h o u t the depth of the landfill.
H o w do s t r a i n r a t e s v a r y as a f u n c t i o n of depth? The
d e e p e r p o r t i o n s of a l a n d f i l l are subjected to higher
s t r e s s e s and are also older than the s h a l l o w e r portions. If
we could m e a s u r e m o v e m e n t s at v a r i o u s d e p t h s , we m i g h t be
able to gain more insight into these relationships and
u n d e r s t a n d m o r e about the p r o c e s s e s w h i c h c o n t r o l l a n d f i l l
settlements. W h e n c o m b i n e d w i t h s u r f a c e s e t t l e m e n t data,
t h i s t y p e of i n f o r m a t i o n should also help us predict
s e t t l e m e n t s m o r e accurately.
Use of S o n d e x Device
W e h a v e e m b a r k e d on a p r o j e c t to i n v e s t i g a t e s e t t l e m e n t
as a f u n c t i o n of time at v a r i o u s d e p t h s in a l a n d f i l l . We
h a v e d o n e t h i s u s i n g t h e S o n d e x d e v i c e m a n u f a c t u r e d by the
Slope I n d i c a t o r C o m p a n y of S e a t t l e , WA. T h e p r i n c i p l e of
o p e r a t i o n of this device is shown in Figure 2.
27S' ABS INCLINOMETER

CASING
SONDEX PIPE END SPLIT

AND AFFIXED TO CASING
WITH POP RIVETS NYLON
STRAPS OR HOSE CLAMPS
TO BE SEALED WITH MASTIC
ANO TAPE
FIG. 2 -- P r i n c i p l e of O p e r a t i o n - S o n d e x
The S o n d e x was d e v e l o p e d in o r d e r to m o n i t o r s e t t l e m e n t s
in soft soils, but is i d e a l l y s u i t e d f o r o u r p u r p o s e s as
well. The permanently installed p a r t of t h i s s y s t e m
c o n s i s t s of a 76 m m (3 in) d i a m e t e r c o r r u g a t e d plastic
casing installed in a 350 m m (14 in) d i a m e t e r v e r t i c a l
boring. The a n n u l a r space a r o u n d t h e c a s i n g is b a c k f i l l e d
with pea gravel. As t h e l a n d f i l l settles, the c o r r u g a t e d
c a s i n g will c o m p r e s s and the pea g r a v e l w i l l m o v e r a d i a l l y
o u t w a r d into the refuse.
Small steel wire rings are e m b e d d e d i n t o t h e c a s i n g at

approximately 300 m m (12 in) i n t e r v a l s . The locations of
e a c h of t h e s e r i n g s c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d by lowering an
i n d u c t i v e p r o b e i n t o t h e c a s i n g a n d m o v i n g it up and down
until the induction signal peaks. W e c a n t h e n m e a s u r e the
d e p t h f r o m the top of the casing to each ring. Subtracting
this depth from the d e p t h to t h e l o w e r m o s t r i n g g i v e s t h e
elevation above the bottom of the casing. Periodic
m o n i t o r i n g gives us the e l e v a t i o n (settlement) of e a c h r i n g
as a function of time.
The m a n u f a c t u r e r claims a p r e c i s i o n of ~ 1.3 mm, but our

e x p e r i e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t it is c l o s e r to ~ 3 mm. However,
c o n s i d e r i n g the v e r y large m a g n i t u d e s of s e t t l e m e n t we are
measuring, this p r e c i s i o n is quite sufficient.
Use of I n c l i n o m e t e r
An inclinometer is a g e o t e c h n i c a l i n s t r u m e n t used to
m e a s u r e h o r i z o n t a l m o v e m e n t s in t h e g r o u n d , s u c h as in
landslides. T h e p e r m a n e n t l y i n s t a l l e d part of this system
c o n s i s t s of a 70 mm (2.75 in) d i a m e t e r p l a s t i c c a s i n g w i t h
longitudinal grooves on the inside. This device is
i n s t a l l e d in a v e r t i c a l b o r i n g and it moves h o r i z o n t a l l y as
the g r o u n d a r o u n d it moves.
The alignment of this casing can be measured by

inserting a p r o b e as s h o w n in F i g u r e 3. T h i s p r o b e is
m o u n t e d on wheels w h i c h travel in the casing grooves. These
w h e e l s a r e 610 m m (24 in) apart. S e n s o r s w i t h i n the probe
a r e a b l e to m e a s u r e t h e h o r i z o n t a l o f f s e t ( b o t h " n o r t h -
s o u t h " a n d " e a s t - w e s t " ) of the u p p e r w h e e l s as c o m p a r e d to
the lower wheels. These two offsets are displayed on a
digital i n d i c a t o r as shown in the figure.
A set of readings is o b t a i n e d b y l o w e r i n g t h e p r o b e to
the b o t t o m of the casing and r e c o r d i n g the two offsets. The
o p e r a t o r then raises the probe in 610 mm (2 ft) i n c r e m e n t s ,
r e c o r d i n g t h e o f f s e t s at e a c h l o c a t i o n . The accumulated
data can then be reduced to give the h o r i z o n t a l p o s i t i o n of
t h e c a s i n g as a f u n c t i o n of e l e v a t i o n . P e r i o d i c readings
will d i s c l o s e h o r i z o n t a l m o v e m e n t s as a f u n c t i o n of b o t h
e l e v a t i o n and time.
A l t h o u g h we a r e p r i m a r i l y i n t e r e s t e d in t h e v e r t i c a l
movements (settlement) in a landfill, we w o u l d also like
J CABLE TOTALDISPLACEMENT
~
~SENSOR
~ ~ L[3~PLM~E%N~
E
~ CASING
~~I~~GCRAo
:" CAS~vGE ~-]I
FIG. 3 -- P r i n c i p l e of O p e r a t i o n - Inclinometer
to u n d e r s t a n d more about h o r i z o n t a l movements. Since the

inclinometer a n d S o n d e x a r e m a d e to w o r k t o g e t h e r (one
casing fits i n s i d e t h e o t h e r ) , it is a s i m p l e m a t t e r to
install both instruments together.
DETAILS OF THE TWO PILOT I N S T A L L A T I O N S
We have t e s t e d this t e c h n o l o g y by c o n s t r u c t i n g two pilot

installations in a s l o p e at the S p a d r a L a n d f i l l in Pomona,
California. The p r i m a r y p u r p o s e of these two i n s t a l l a t i o n s
w a s to d e m o n s t r a t e the w o r k a b i l i t y of this technique. Many
m o r e i n s t a l l a t i o n s will be n e e d e d in o r d e r to d e v e l o p a more
c o m p l e t e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of landfill movements.
The refuse in this p o r t i o n of t h e l a n d f i l l w a s p l a c e d

b e t w e e n 1976 and 1978. It c o n s i s t s of g e n e r a l h o u s e h o l d and
c o m m e r c i a l wastes. A m e t h a n e gas r e c o v e r y s y s t e m w a s b e i n g
i n s t a l l e d at the same time as the two instruments.
A
(UDESC) Universidadecross section
do Estado de Santa of Universidade
Catarina ((UDESC) a typical i n sCatarina)
do Estado de Santa tall a t itooLicense
pursuant n Agreement.
is s hNoofurther
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Figure 4.
FIG. 4 -- Typical I n s t a l l a t i o n at Spadra Landfill
T h e s e two i n s t a l l a t i o n s are k n o w n as i n s t r u m e n t n u m b e r 1
and i n s t r u m e n t n u m b e r 3. A third installation ( n u m b e r 2)
had to be abandoned. T h e r e f u s e at i n s t r u m e n t no. 1 is
a b o u t 16 m t h i c k . A t i n s t r u m e n t no. 3 it is a b o u t 22 m
thick.
These installations were completed and we began

m o n i t o r i n g them in May 1987. The results of this m o n i t o r i n g
o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h May 1989 are d e s c r i b e d below.
VERTICAL MOVEMENTS (SETTLEMENT)
The results of our m e a s u r e m e n t s of v e r t i c a l movements

are shown on figures 5 t h r o u g h 8.
Figure 5 shows s e t t l e m e n t vs. t i m e at s i x p o i n t s a l o n g

the c a s i n g in i n s t r u m e n t no. i. Note that the s e t t l e m e n t at
the g r o u n d surface has b e e n a b o u t 370 m m o v e r a p e r i o d of
two years. L i k e w i s e , f i g u r e 6 s h o w s c o m p a r a b l e data for
eight p o i n t s along i n s t r u m e n t no. 3. The settlement here
was
Copyright g rInt'l
by ASTM e a(all
te r reserved);
rights beca uSep
Thu s e5 12:03:30
t h eEDTrefuse
2019 is c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y thicker.
These results agree very well with surface settlements
m e a s u r e d by others.
400
350 ,pr...-~
300 i
.M
250
>,
200 &J
e, 150 I 9
-50
0 I
Time Since 02-M~y-87 (Days)
Q 3 m above bottom + & m above bottom o 9 m above bottom

A 12 m a b o v e b o t t o m x 15 m a b o v e b o t t o m v 18 m a b o v e b o t t o m
FIG. 5 -- Settlement vs. Time - Instrument No. 1
45O
4OO i
f
350
f
300
k.i f
j j-
250
i
tM i
200
r J
150
I 100
_SOl
0
Time Since 02-May-87 [Days)
G 3 m above bottom + 6. m a b o v e b o t t o m o 9 m above bottom

12 m a b o v e b o t t o m • 15 m a b o v e b o t t o m v [8 m above bottom
FIG. 6 -- Settlement vs. Time - Instrument No. 3
F i g u r e s 7 a n d 8 s h o w t h e v e r t i c a l s t r a i n r a t e s as a
f u n c t i o n of e l e v a t i o n for i n s t r u m e n t s 1 and 3, respectively.
Due to the n o n - u n i f o r m i t i e s in the m a k e u p of t h e r e f u s e w e
w o u l d expect this plot to be fairly erratic, and it is.
The g r e a t e s t a n o m a l y occurs b e t w e e n e l e v a t i o n 1 2 . 5 a n d
1 5 . 0 in i n s t r u m e n t no. i. It is i n t e r e s t i n g to note that
the s t r a i n r a t e s in t h i s z o n e w e r e m u c h l o w e r d u r i n g t h e
s e c o n d y e a r , w h i c h s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e first y e a r ' s data in
this zone may not be r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e t r u e m o v e m e n t s
w i t h i n t h e l a n d f i l l and may instead r e f l e c t local s p r e a d i n g
of the pea gravel backfill.
A t a c o u p l e of l o c a t i o n s t h e p l o t s i n d i c a t e a s m a l l
n e g a t i v e s t r a i n rate. This would suggest t h a t at s o m e
l o c a t i o n s t h e l a n d f i l l is a c t u a l l y e x p a n d i n g r a t h e r than
c o n s o l i d a t i n g w h i c h is e x t r e m e l y unlikely. H o w e v e r , at no
l o c a t i o n a r e s i g n i f i c a n t n e g a t i v e v a l u e s i n d i c a t e d for more
than one year. P e r h a p s s m a l l p o r t i o n s of t h e c a s i n g are
m o v i n g in a s l i p - s t i c k f a s h i o n a n d t h e s e n e g a t i v e values
r e p r e s e n t local s h o r t - t e r m a d j u s t m e n t s in the c a s i n g
We can draw the following conclusions from these four

plots:
i. T h e a v e r a g e vertical strain rate is about 1

p e r c e n t / y e a r for ii y e a r - o l d refuse.
2. The v e r t i c a l strain rate w i t h i n the refuse appears

to be i n d e p e n d e n t of depth.
3. T h e r a t e of s e t t l e m e n t appears to be slowly
d e c r e a s i n g with time.
4. T h e b o t t o m of the casing is c o m p r e s s i n g ,
s u g g e s t i n g that we may not h a v e b o t t o m e d it in f i r m
natural ground.
HORIZONTAL MOVEMENTS
The h o r i z o n t a l m o v e m e n t s in the landfill d u r i n g the past

two years are shown in figures 9 t h r o u g h Ii.
Figures 9 a n d i0 s h o w t h e h o r i z o n t a l m o v e m e n t as a
function of e l e v a t i o n for i n s t r u m e n t s 1 and 3, respectively.
In b o t h of t h e s e p l o t s t h e t e r m s " p a r a l l e l to s l o p e " and
" p e r p e n d i c u l a r to slope" refer to m o v e m e n t s in a h o r i z o n t a l
p l a n e as t h e y w o u l d a p p e a r from above. Both of these plots
indicate a l m o s t no m o v e m e n t p a r a l l e l to t h e s l o p e a n d as
m u c h as ii0 mm of m o v e m e n t p e r p e n d i c u l a r to the slope. The
n e g a t i v e sign on the h o r i z o n t a l m o v e m e n t f i g u r e s i n d i c a t e
that the slope is m o v i n g outward.
At i n s t r u m e n t no. 1 t h i s o u t w a r d m o v e m e n t is c o n f i n e d
p r i m a r i l y to t h e u p p e r 12 m. However, in i n s t r u m e n t no. 3
it extends down to about 18 m.
Figure ii s h o w s t h e horizontal movement perpendicular to

the slope at instrument no. 1 a s a f u n c t i o n of time. This
8
-- 6
3
\
2
Elevation Above Bottom o f C~asing (In)
o May-87 to May-f8 + May-~8 to MaT-SB
FIG. 7 -- V e r t i c a l S t r a i n R a t e vs. Elevation

Instrument No. 1
N.
" 6
3
\
0 2
-!
Elevation Above Bottom o f Casin (m)
o May-87 to May-88 + May-88 to May-89
FIG. 8 -- V e r t i c a l S t r a i n R a t e vs. Elevation

I n s t r u m e n t No. 3
4~I
20
0:'' f
-zo
o
-40
~ J \
-GO
o~
-80
N
~ -loo
-120
E ] e v a t i o n A b o v e Bottom o[ Cezsing |m)
P e r p e n d i c . to ~lope + P a r a l l e l to Slope
FIG. 9 -- Horizontal Movement vs. Elevation

Instrument No. 1
40
20
>,
4
-ZO
o
-40
-60
\
-80
-100 f
s
-120
-140
10 2)
E l e v a t i o n A b o v e Bottom of (~ssjng (m)
0 Perpendir r Slope + P a r a l l e l to Slope
(UDESC) Universidade do EstadoF IdeG .Santa I0
Catarina-((UDESC)
- H o rUniversidade
i z o n t adol EstadoMde
o vSanta
e m Catarina)
e n t pursuant
vs. to License
E l e vAgreement.
a t i o nNo further reproductions authorize
Instrument No. 3
movement s e e m s to be o c c u r r i n g at a fairly constant, or

p e r h a p s slowly d e c r e a s i n g rate.
It is i n t e r e s t i n g to note that the c u r v e s on figure ii

are not p e r f e c t l y s m o o t h . W e a r e n o t c e r t a i n if t h i s is
because the movements are occurring in a " s t i c k - s l i p "
f a s h i o n , or if it j u s t r e p r e s e n t s random error in t h e
measurements. 9 These irregularities d o n o t a p p e a r to
correlate with the seasons of t h e y e a r (and therefore
rainfall), which suggests that they may be random
m e a s u r e m e n t errors.
We can draw the following conclusions from these three

plots:
i. T h e g r o u n d s u r f a c e is m o v i n g h o r i z o n t a l l y away
from the slope at a rate of a b o u t 52 m m / y r . This
m o t i o n g r a d u a l l y d i m i n i s h e s w i t h d e p t h and b e c o m e s
n e a r l y zero at depths of 12 to 18 m.
2. T h e r a t e of h o r i z o n t a l m o v e m e n t does not appear

to c o r r e l a t e w i t h rainfall.
3. N o c l e a r slip surface is p r e s e n t w h i c h s u g g e s t s
that the h o r i z o n t a l m o v e m e n t is a c r e e p p h e n o m e n a
r a t h e r than a c l a s s i c a l slide.
--,--+
-3O
-50
-60
E~ -70
"' \ "~
N
.~ -8o
-90
-100
0
Time Since 02-1%4ay-87 ( D a y s )
n 13.4 r n a b o v e bottom + 14.6 m a b o v e bottom o 15.8 r n a b o v e bottom

17.1 m a b o v e bottom x 18.3 m a b o v e bottom V |9.S m above bottom
FIG. ii -- H o r i z o n t a l M o v e m e n t P e r p e n d i c u l a r to Slope
I n s t r u m e n t No. 1
RESPONSE TO THE OCTOBER i, 1987 EARTHQUAKE
T h e O c t o b e r i, 1987 Whittier Earthquake occurred after

t h e s e i n s t r u m e n t s w e r e in place. We had obtained five
m o n t h s of seemingly reliable data before the earthquake, so
this event provided a rare opportunity to accurately measure
the effect of the tremor on the stability of the
landfill. The earthquake had a Richter magnitude of 6.1 and
was centered 22 km (14 mi) west of the site.
The p l o t s on f i g u r e s 5, 6 and ii c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e no
p e r c e p t i b l e p e r m a n e n t movements in the landfill during the
earthquake. Although this does not necessarily imply that a
l a r g e r e a r t h q u a k e w o u l d not cause movements in the refuse,
it is a helpful point of reference.
PLANS FOR THE FUTURE
These trial installations have demonstrated the

w o r k a b i l i t y of the S o n d e x and inclinometer instruments for
measuring m o v e m e n t s in l a n d f i l l s . The County Sanitation
D i s t r i c t s p l a n to i n s t a l l additional instruments at Spadra
and other landfills in order to monitor movements of various
ages and compositions.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
T h i s p r o j e c t was made possible through funding from the

Spadra Landfill LandLab project sponsored by Cal Poly
U n i v e r s i t y a n d f r o m the County Sanitation Districts of Los
Angeles County. Mr. W a l t e r c h r i s t e n s e n of C a l P o l y
c o l l e c t e d t h e field data and the success of this project is
due in no small part to his diligent work.
REFERENCES
[i] H u i t r i c , R., " S a n i t a r y L a n d f i l l S e t t l e m e n t Rates",

V e r l ~ n g e r u n g D e r N u t z u n g s d a u e r Von Deponien (Conference on
the P r o l o n g a t i o n of the C a p a c i t y of S a n i t a r y L a n d f i l l s ) ,
Technische Universit~t Berlin, 1981.
Author Index
A K
Acar, Y. B., 123 Kiefer, M. L., 163

Anderson, D. G., 259 Koutsoftas, D. C., 163
B L
Belfiore, F., 317 Landva, A. O., 41, 86
Biehl, F. J., 185 Lawrence, T. A., 31
Boutwell, G. P., 31 Lepert, P., 107
Briaud, J.-L., 107 Liu, M.-L., 107
Browning, J. S., III, 185 Lovell, C. W., 71
C
M
Clark, J. I., 86
Coduto, D. P., 358 Manassero, M., 317
Martin, J. P., 185
D Mitchell, J. K., 209
Morris, D. V., 9
Davies, M. C. R., 142 Murphy, B. J., 240
Davis, K. A., 285
Druback, G. W., 285
Dukes, M. T., 59 O
Duplancic, N., 303
Oakley, R. E., III, 345
Olsen, D. M., 59
E Orr, W. R., 22
Edil, T. B., 225
P
F Puppala, A. J., 123

Finch, M. O., 22
R
G
Ranguette, V. J., 225
Gifford, G. P., 41 Robertson, R. J., 259
H
S
Hinkle, R. D., 331
Hoffman, V. C., 41
Huang, W.-H., 71 Seals, R. K., 123
Huitric, R., 358 Seed, H. B., 209
371
Copyright* 1990 by ASTM lntcrnational www.astm.org

Seed, R. B., 209 V

Sharma, H. D , 59
Siegel, R. A., 259 Van Keuren, E. L., 185
Singh, S., 240 Viola, C., 317
Soliman, N. N., 168
W
T Weidner, C. H., 285

Woods, C. E., 9
Tieman, G. E., 285 Wuellner, W. W., 225
Subject Index
A E
Accelerations, earthquake, 22 Earthquake performance, 22,

Ash 240, 259, 303, 358
disposal, 71, 168, 185 Elastic moduli, 59
residue, 285 Electromagnetic data
waste, 86 interpretation, 31
Asphalt emulsion cover, 331 Embankment material, 71
B
Field measurements, 185, 317, 345
Barkfill, 86 compaction test, 123
Bearing capacity, 240 compressibility, 163
Bishop's method, modified, 285 deformation, 303, 358
Boiler slag, 71, 123 dynamic moduli, 59
Borings, vertical, 358 permeability, 331
Bottom ash, 71 Poisson's ratio, 59
slope stability, 259
C soil stiffness, 107
stratigraphic mapping, 31
Cement stabilization, 142 Fill characteristics, 86
Clay, 107, 185 Floor slab, adjustable, 41
Closure, landfill, 9, 41 Flue gas desulfurization sludge,
Coal recovery, 142 168
Cohesion intercept, 123 Fly ash, 168, 185
Colliery discard, 142 Foundations, deep, 41
Compaction, 41, 71, 107, 123, 317 Friction angle, 123, 285
Compression, 71, 163, 185, 225
Conductivity, 31 G
Cone penetration testing, 259,
345 Geogrids, 285
Consolidation, 163, 345
Construction, on closed
landfills, 41, 331 H
I) Hazardous waste repository, 209
Decomposition, effect on shear I
strength, 86
Deformation, 358 Immobilization, 185
analysis, 240, 303 Impact test, 107
consolidation, 345
Density, 317
relative, 123 J
Desulfurization sludge, 168
Down-Hole test, 59 Janbu method, simplified, 285
373
K Microencapsulation, 185
Mine spoils, 142, 163
Kettleman Hills, 209 Model, settlement, 225
Mohr-Coulomb theory, 240
L Moisture content, mine tailings,
142
Laboratory extraction, 71 Monitoring program, 317
Landfills Multivariate least-squares
closure, 9, 41 regression, 31
colliery waste, 142 Municipal waste, 9, 59, 225, 259
deformation, 303
design, 9 O
dynamic moduli of, 59
earthquake performance, 22 Operating Industries, Inc. (OII),
embankment material, 71 259
fill .geotechnics, 86
maintenance, 9 P
management, 9
model, settlement, 225 Penetrometer test, cone, 345
monitoring program, 317 Permeability, 71, 168, 331
paleokarstic feature Poisson's ratio, 59
locations, 31 Polyethylene, high density, liner,
Poisson's ratio of, 59 285
reclamation for commercial Pozzolans, 185
use, 41, 331 Preloading, 163
site, 41 Pressure meter test, 163
statigraphic mapping, 31
subsurface sand channel R
delineation, 31
Leachates, 71, 185, 285 Rate of compression, 225
Leaching tests, 71, 185 Reclamation, landfill, for
Least squares regression, 31 commercial use, 41, 331
Lift thickness, 123 Roller pass, 123
Lime Roller, vibratory, 123
fixed fly ash, 168
fly ash pozzolan, 185 S
Liners, 209, 285, 303
Loading Sand, 107
dynamic, 240 Secondary compression, 225
overburden, 345 Seismic response, 22, 240, 259,
seismic, 22, 240, 259, 303, 358 303, 358
static, 240, 259, 303 Seismic stability, 22
test, 107 Settlement, landfill, 41, 86, 163,
Loma Prieta earthquake, 22 240, 317, 331
elastic, 345
M model, 225
postclosure, 9
Management, landfill, slope, 358
postclosure, 9 time rate of, 345
Mapping, stratigraphic, 31 Shear moduli, 59
Marine container facility, 331 Shear strength, 71, 86, 240, 259
Mercalli intensity, modified, 22 Shear strength, interface, 209
INDEX 375
Slag, 71, 123 Strength parameters, 303, 331

Sledge hammer, stiffness test, 107 Strength properties, 168, 185
Slope dynamic, 240
failure, 209 Strength, shear, 71, 86, 240, 259
grades, 285 Structures on landfills, 41, 331
movement, 259, 358 Surface geophysics, 31
stability, 86
Sludge, 86, 185, 317
Desulfurization, 168 T
Soil dynamic, 107
Soil mechanics, 317 Tailings disposal, 142
Soil stiffness, 107
Specific gravity, 123 V
Stability, 86, 209, 240, 259, 358
analysis, 303 Vibratory roller, 123
structural, 285
Stabilization, 142, 185 W
chemical, 345
Stiffness, soil, 107 Washing colliery waste, 142
Strain rates, 358 Waste classification system, 317
Stratigraphic mapping, 31 Wood wastes, 86

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Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); Thu Sep 5 12:03:30 EDT 2019

Geotechnics of Waste Fills--

Arvid Landva and G. David Knowles, editors

1916 Race Street

Geotechnics of waste fills-theory and practice / Arvid Landva and G.

Copyright 9 by AMERICANSOCIETYFOR TESTINGAND MATERIALS 1990

Peer Review Policy

Printed in Ann Arbor, MI

LANDFILL INVESTIGATIONS, DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION

Settlement and Engineering Considerations in Landfill and Final Cover Design--

Solid Waste Landfill Performance During the L O M A Prieta Earthquake--

Predicting Stratigraphy at Landfill Sites Using Electromagnetics--T. A. LAWRENCE

Geotechnical Considerations When Planning Construction on a Landfill--

Field Measurements of Dynamic Moduli and Poisson's Ratios of Refuse and

BoRon Ash as Embankment Material--w-H. HUANGANDC. W. LOVELL 71

Geotechnics of Waste Fill--A. O. LANDVAANDJ. I. CLARK 86

STABILIZATION, COMPACTION, CONSOLIDATION

Engineering and Compaction Characteristics of Boiler Siag--v. n. ACAR,

The Geotechnical Properties of Cemented Colliery Waste for Use in Land F i l l - -

Improvement of Mine Spoils in Southern Illinois--D. C. KOUTSOFTASAND

Constitutive Behavior of Clay and Pozzolan-Stabilized Hydrocarbon Refining

STABILITY AND SETTLEMENT ANALYSES

Stability Considerations in the Design and Construction of Lined Waste

Settlement of Municipal Refuse--T. a. EDIL, V. J. RANGUETTE,AND W. W. WUELLNER 225

Evaluation of the Stability of Sanitary Landfills--s. SlNGn AND B. MURPHY 240

Slope Stability Investigations at a Landfill in Southern California--R. g. SIEGEL,

Stability Consideration of Vertical Landfill Expansions--o. E. T1EMAN,

Landfill Deformation Monitoring and Stability Analysis--N. DUPLANCIC 303

Geotechnical Analysis of Some Industrial Siudges--F. BELFIORE,M. MANASSERO,

Landfill Site Reclaimed for Commercial Use as Container Storage F a c i l i t y - -

Case History: Use of the Cone Penetrometer to Calculate the Settlement of a

Monitoring Landfill Movements Using Precise Instruments--D. P. CODUTOAND

The purpose of this symposium was to explore the geotechnical

The symposium was sponsored by ASTM Committee DI8, Subcommittee

The term "waste fill" covers a wide range of materials, from

Our involvement in the geotechnics of waste management has shown

The symposium was divided into four sections:

Section I - Landfill investigations, design, construction and closure

Section II - Stabilization, compaction and consolidation (six

Section III - Stability and settlement analysis (six papers)

Section IV - Case histories (four papers)

LANDFILL INVESTIGATIONS, DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION

Morris and Woods emphasize the significant changes caused by large

Copyrigh~ 1990 by ASTM International www.astm.org

Orr and Finch report on case studies of the effects of

Lawrence and Boutwell claim that electro-magnetic (EM) surveys

Gifford et al. report on a geotechnical investigation of an

Sharma et al. discuss various methods of dynamic laboratory and

Huang and Lovell present a very thorough geochemical and

Landva and Clark describe a comprehensive field and laboratory

STABILIZATION, COMPACTION AND CONSOLIDATION

Acar et al. present a comprehensive study of boiler slag. They

Davies discusses the reject resulting from the reworking of

Koutsoftas and Kiefer report on a dynamic compaction study of a

Soliman presents the results of extensive tests on lime fixed

Martin et al. report on a study to stabilize acidic hydrocarbon

STABILITY AND SETTLEMENT ANALYSES

Mitchell et al. draw attention to the potential failure surfaces

Edil et al. outline an analysis approach for the settlements of