SPE 106476

Advances in Inhibitive Water-Based Drilling Fluids—Can They Replace

Oil-Based Muds?
Arvind Patel, Emanuel Stamatakis, Steve Young, and Jim Friedheim, M-I Swaco

Copyright 2007, Society of Petroleum Engineers

Introduction
This paper was prepared for presentation at the 2007 SPE International Symposium on Oilfield
Chemistry held in Houston, Texas, U.S.A., 28 February–2 March 2007.
To address the drilling problems associated with shale
instability various non-aqueous drilling fluids (NADF) such as
This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE Program Committee following review of
information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper, as mineral oils, saturated and unsaturated poly alpha olefins and
presented, have not been reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to
correction by the author(s). The material, as presented, does not necessarily reflect any
esters have been developed and utilized in the field.1-4 Along
position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its officers, or members. Papers presented at with the shale stability benefits of these NADF, various other
SPE meetings are subject to publication review by Editorial Committees of the Society of
Petroleum Engineers. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper benefits like lubricity, temperature stability, and anti-accretion
for commercial purposes without the written consent of the Society of Petroleum Engineers is
prohibited. Permission to reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than
are attributed to NADF. These distinguished benefits of
300 words; illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous NADF usually are cited as the technical goal of an ultimate
acknowledgment of where and by whom the paper was presented. Write Librarian, SPE, P.O.
Box 833836, Richardson, Texas 75083-3836 U.S.A., fax 01-972-952-9435. HPWBM.
Along with those advantages, NADF have disadvantages,
Abstract such as high cost, environmental limitations, disposal
This paper discusses the systematic design and development problems, health and safety issues and detrimental effects on
of high performance water-based muds and provides insight the drilling and completion of the pay zone. Consequently, a
into the unique chemistry and inhibition characteristics of water-based drilling fluid which performs like an oil-based
various amine inhibitors. Equally important, performance mud has been an ambitious goal of the drilling industry. Two
correlations of inhibitive systems in laboratory testing as characteristics of the HPWBM have been identified that
compared to state-of–the-art inhibitive systems are included. contribute significantly to performance of the drilling fluid –
Invert emulsion drilling fluids have long been effective in shale stabilization and lubricity properties. These OBM
drilling reactive shale. Developing high performance (highly characteristics serve as design targets to many researchers of
inhibitive) water-based drilling fluid that would perform like aqueous-based systems striving to achieve the performance of
invert emulsion drilling fluid has long been cited as the OBM system when using a WBM.5-8
ultimate technical goal of the drilling industry. Progressive When water-sensitive shale is exposed to conventional
development of inhibitive water-based drilling fluids based on water-based drilling fluids, shale has an immediate tendency
amine chemistry has made some impact on reaching this goal. to take up water from the drilling fluid. Depending upon the
Amine-based inhibitive drilling fluids have steadily gained chemical characteristics of the shale, this can result in a rapid
popularity with service and oil companies. swelling or dispersion of the shale. Consequently typical
However, these fluids have not always been completely problems such as bit-balling, disintegration of cuttings,
successful in inhibiting the hydration of highly water-sensitive borehole wash-out, high torque and drag, and stuck pipe are
clays. The short-comings are particularly evident when often encountered as a result of water adsorption by water
drilling highly complicated and reactive shale formations. sensitive shale.9-10
Keeping this in mind, an innovative highly inhibitive water- For more than the past five decades, various chemicals
based drilling fluid has been systematically designed with the have been used for inhibition of water-sensitive shales.
performance characteristics of oil-based muds. Among the earliest and most widely used method relies on the
The newly developed high performance water-based mud use of high concentration of salts such as potassium chloride,
(HPWBM) comprises a unique polymeric amine shale sodium chloride and divalent brines. These salts through a
intercalator for shale inhibition, an amphoteric polymeric variety of mechanisms might be claimed to somehow retard
shale encapsulator, a high performance lubricant/anti- swelling. The early development of the shale inhibition fluids
accretion agent and a specialized fluid-loss additive. The included sodium chloride/starch muds,11 silicate muds,12 lime-
newly developed HPWBM performed like an oil-based mud in muds and calcium sulfate-based gyp muds.
laboratory testing as well as in offset wells using invert However, these salts in large quantities adversely affect the
emulsion drilling fluids (OBM) due to highly complicated and chemical and biological ecosystems. These salts also pose
reactive shale formations. limitations such as drilling fluid additive compatibility and
flexibility in mud formulations. In the late 1960’s and early
1970’s, polymer/KCl muds became popular.13 A variety of
2 SPE 106476

polymers in combination with KCl were evaluated to achieve inhibitor. Also, ammonia and ammonia neutralized salts are
a higher level of shale inhibition as compared to potassium relatively inexpensive. Due to its economic advantages it was
chloride alone. High-molecular-weight partially hydrolyzed also used in combination with other acids and anionic
polyacrylamide/KCl was found to be effective at low materials such as phosphoric acid and polyanionic cellulose,17
concentrations of polymer. However, surface swelling due to These salts were preferred due to their application in chloride-
insufficient shale inhibition and high viscosity of polymers free environments.
offered little to partial success in providing the satisfactory Disadvantages: The application of ammonia-based salts as
results. The PHPA polymer also can be harmful to human shale inhibitors was short lived and found only very limited
health due to evolution of ammonia from hydrolysis of application due to maximum temperature stability of 150°F.18
acrylamide as well as the residual acrylamide monomers. At higher pH, which were normally used in water-based mud,
PHPA/KCl muds contain anywhere from 2% to 8% KCl by the ammonia salts will dissociate into ammonia and the odor
weight. The disposal of these high salinity fluids can be a of the ammonia becomes obnoxious as well as a hazard to
problem affecting marine ecology and land farming. In any personal working around the drilling site.
case, the potassium chloride salt became the work horse in
shale inhibition and has been used in combination with various Quaternary Alkyl Ammonium Salts
other salts and fluids. To mitigate and deal with the obnoxious odor of ammonia,
The disadvantage of these polymer/KCl-based drilling higher molecular weight ammonium salts made their way into
fluids in drilling operations is their dependency on electrolytes shale inhibition applications. Various derivatives of ammonia
for optimum shale inhibition. Such materials can have a major were developed by substituting alkyl groups for hydrogen.
impact on some receiving environments, which can limit their
use, restrict their discharge or sometimes require costly R
treatment prior to discharge.
The glycol and polyglycol in combination with KCl and a +
KCl/polymer system14 were applied in the field in 1990’s with N
limited success. Again the level of inhibition even with this R
combination was not enough and only limited application was R R
found. Fig. 2 – Tetra alkyl ammonium salt.
As mentioned earlier, interest in silicate-based drilling
fluids, which had waned from the 1940s until the mid 1990s15, The smallest and lowest molecular weight derivative of
was renewed with use of the silicate in combination with ammonia which found application in shale inhibition is tetra
potassium and led to use in a number of drilling fluid methyl ammonium chloride also known as TMAC (Fig. 2).19
applications in various regions of the world. This fully Somewhat higher molecular weight quaternary amine salts
formulated silicate-based drilling fluid contained high which are in the surfactant category made their way into shale
concentrations of potassium/silicate. The level of inhibition inhibition in the late 1980’s.20 These compounds were
using these high concentrations was found to be very good, quaternized tertiary amines such as dimethyl dialkyl
however there are several limitations such as high torque and ammonium chloride and various derivatives.
drag due to precipitation of silica, high pH becomes a health Advantages: Compared to simple ammonium salts, these
hazard and limitation in mud formulation has limited its amines had less of an amine odor and were somewhat user
application. friendly. Also these inhibitors required a lot less concentration
Potassium normally in chloride salt form was added to than the counterpart potassium chloride or other inorganic
drilling fluids and was found to be an effective shale inhibition salts to achieve similar results. The low concentration
for swelling clays. This has become the starting point for the treatment also reduces the amount of chloride introduced and
evolution of some exotic salts as well as ammonium and enables a degree of shale stability on land jobs with chloride
amine-based chemistry for shale inhibition in high or conductivity restrictions.
performance water based muds. Disadvantages: The effectiveness of quaternary amines is
pH dependant. They function better at lower pH. TMAC and
Evolution of Nitrogen-Based Shale Inhibitors other high-molecular-weight quaternary amines are found to
be toxic especially to the marine environment. In addition,
Ammonium Cation Shale Inhibitors high-solid fluids are severally flocculated by quaternary
amines products and compatibility with anionic drilling fluid
The simplest form of the ammonium-based cation is ammonia additives has been a major draw back in drilling fluid
neutralized with acid (Fig. 1). formulations.
NH3 + HA ------------Æ N+H4.A– Introduction of Polyamine Acid
To overcome some of the problems associated with pH
Fig. 1 – Ammonium chloride cation.
limitations and toxicity issues associated with aforementioned
cationic shale inhibitors, modified poly-amino acid hydration
Advantages: As the ammonium cation has a very similar
hydrated volume as potassium cations16 it can enter into the suppressant was brought to market in 1993.21 The product was
clay platelets like potassium ion and function as a shale
SPE 106476 3

prepared by reacting chloroacetic acid with polyalkylene Disadvantages: The only draw back to this chemistry is
amine (Fig. 3). the low level of inhibition and solid tolerance.
COOH
Enhancing Shale Inhibtion Properties of Quaternery
NH2
Amines
NH
In mid 1990’s23 a new class of amines was introduced to
enhance the shale inhibition properties of quaternary amines.
Cl + Unlike the quaternary and tertiary amines, these were primary
COOH HOOC
HN mono and di-amines. The hexamethylendiamine (HMDA) (fig
N
5) became popular in the Canadian market due to its
availability and shale inhibition properties. The primary
application of this shale inhibitor was in facturing and
NH2 stimulation fluid.
NH

H2N
NH2
COOH
Fig. 3 – Polyamino acid.
Fig. 5 – HMDA

Functionally, polyaminoacid can be described as a

Advantage: HMDA is readily available and performs well
hydration suppressant limiting the ability of smectite clay to
as a shale inhibitor. It also is less toxic than some of the
hydrate and swell when exposed to water. The amphoteric
cationic shale inhibitors used in the past.
polyaminoacid has a low molecular weight and a low charge
Disadvantage: Optimization of shale inhibition is limited
density and posses an amphoteric character.
to the insolubility of the higher chain length diamines in water.
Advantages: This shale inhibitor is completely water
The lower molecular weight diamines have toxicity and odor
soluble, and thermally stable. As it has no hydrolysable
issues, while higher chain length mono-amines are not
functionality, it is environmentally acceptable for use in
effective shale inhibitors.
offshore applications. Unlike cationic products, the polyamino
acid is compatible with drilling fluid additives including salts.
Polyethoxylated Diamines as Shale Inhibitors
Also, it has very little to no limitation on fluid formulations or
During this time several polyethoxylated diamines24 were tried
limitations on use of drilling fluid additives.
as shale inhibitors (Fig 6).
Disadvantages: While the polyamino acid is effective as a OH
hydration suppressant, it does not dehydrate the hydrated
HO
clays. In addition, it does not perform well in highly active
solids-contaminated systems. Overall, the product worked
well but shale inhibition was not to the optimum levels. N
N
Introduction of Polyhydroxylated Alkyl Ammonium Salt
In mid 1990s,22 a new class of amines was introducd to deal
with toxicity, performance and compatibility issue for their
potential application as shale inhibitors. These compounds OH
OH
were hydroxyl alkyl and polymeric hydroxylated alkyl
ammonium chlorides. Fig. 6 – Ethoxylated diamine.
HO HO
Advantages: Polyethoxyalted amines have low toxicity and
low ammonia odor.
Disadvantages: Shale inhibition below average.
+ +
N N
OH
A New Class of Primary Diamines
HO O
To mitigate the limitations of HMDA chain length and
CH3 CH3
molecular design, a new class of primary diamines was
introduced in the market during the early 2000’s.25 These
Fig. 4 – Polyhydroxylated alkyl ammonium salt
amines are polyether diamines (Fig. 7). These amines are
prepared by reductive amination of polyglycols.
Advantages: These compounds are compatible with
anionic drilling fluid additives and are found to be HO O NH2
environmentally acceptable for application in the Gulf of OH
O H2N
Mexico (GOM). Choline chloride has advantages over other
H3C CH3 CH3
hydroxyl alkyl quaternary amines due to ready availability, H3C

low cost, biodegradability and low toxicity. Fig. 7 – Polyetherdiamines.

4 SPE 106476

Advantage: Polyether diamines eliminated the limitations R R'

of chain length due to the higher polarity introduced by ether NH
NH
linkages in the molecule. These ether linkages allowed the
variation in chain length and structure to optimize the shale
inhibition performance.
The polyether diamines have very low ammonical odor Fig. 9 – Lipophilic amine.
specifically when used in water-based muds. They exhibit low Development of HPWBM
marine toxicity for offshore applications. These polyether The advent in research and development of novel amine
diamines are compatible with other common water-based chemistry represented the significant improvement in shale
drilling fluid additives. Since it has no hydrolysable inhibition and development of HPWBM. Key new
functionality, it is stable to high temperature in aqueous components of this HPWBM are the unique primary di- and
system. poly-amines. As aforementioned, carefully tailored poly
The unique optimized molecular structure of diamine etherdiamines fit perfectly between clay platelets and binding
perfectly fits between clay platelets tending to collapse the the plates together. This prevents water absorption from the
clay’s hydrated structure and greatly reduce the clay’s surrounding aqueous liquid and prevents the shale from
tendency to imbibe water from an aqueous environment (Fig. swelling. Moreover, the unique molecular structure and blend
8). of polyamines adsorbs on the shale surface, thus entering
Unlike other quaternary amines and shale inhibitors, inside the clay platelets and providing excellent shale
polyetherdiamines require very little salinity for optimum inhibition. Along with these novel shale inhibitors, four other
performance and performance well in absence of potassium specifically designed components are incorporated in newly
cation. developed HPWBM formulations. The brief description of
these four components follows:
Dispersant Suppressant. This is a low-molecular-weight
partially quaternized water-soluble copolymer. The optimized
cationic charges and molecular weight of the copolymer allow
it to be adsorbed on negatively charged clay surface keeping
the clay plates togather without imparting excessive viscosity
to HPWBM. Unlike other dispersion suppressants this
copolymer provides superior shale inhibition without
restricting the mud formulations.
Antiaccretion Agent. This is a unique blend of surfactants
and lubricants which is incorporated in the HPWBM to reduce
the accretion of hydrated shale cuttings on the drill bit and
prevent the agglomeration of drilled cuttings. The components
of this antiacreation agent are compatible with other drilling
fluid additives of HPWBM.
Fluid Loss Control Agent. This is a low-viscosity
modified cellulose polymer. The low viscosity of the polymer
allow its functional characteristic and utility in high solids
(active and inert) containg drilling fluids, such as highly solids
contaminated or high density water-based muds. The polymer
Fig. 8 – Molecular model of hydration suppressant binding provides fluid loss control without affecting the other
mechanism to shale layers. functional properties of drilling fluid.
Rheology Modifier. This is a blend of natural polymers to
impart high low-shear viscosity for efficient carrying capacity
Recent Development in Lipophilic Polymeric Amine in HPWBM. The synergistic performance of this polymer
Inhibitors blend with shale inhibitor extends the utility of rheology
Recently, highly lipophilic amines were introduced26 as very modifier in excess of 300°F.
potent ant shale inhibitors in HPWBM. These amines are
excellent shale inhibitors in water-based muds at or below 9.5 HPWBM Design Criteria
pH. At these pH’s amines are protonated or at least partially As mentioned, the main objective of HPWBM is to obtain
protonated and become water dispersible and are very drilling performance comparable to OBM. To achieve this, a
effective shale inhibitors. These economically tailored, less high level of shale inhibition, excellent lubricity and good
expensive polyamines (Fig. 9) meet the performance criteria. fluid loss control are needed. The development of HPWBM
However, sometimes at certain pHs these lipophilic amines in fluid formulations began with the choice of shale inhibitor
their protonated form behave like a surfactant and impart some followed by the addition of other drilling fluid additives to
foaming, which can be dealt with by use of deformer. achieve the drilling performance of OBM. Each component of
the HPWBM was tested individually for its utility in the
drilling fluid. To measure the ability of HPWBM to inhibit
the shale, the bentonite inhibition and bulk hardness tests were
SPE 106476 5

conducted. The bentonite inhibition tests were conducted on Base KCL Choline Chloride Polyether diamine Polyamine
unviscosified water-based fluid and bulk hardness tests were
conducted on fully formulated fluids. The lubricity and 350
antiaccretion tests were conducted using fixed weight and 300

10 min gel
250
fixed size steel rods. Hot roll dispersion tests were conducted
200
on fully formulated HPWBM using fixed size shale cuttings 150
and hot rolling at 150°F. The following is the detailed 100
description of each shale inhibition test procedure. 50
0
Shale Inhibition 50 70 90 110 130 150 170 190 200 210 220 230 240
The shales used were outcrop shales ranged from highly Bentonite (lb/bl)
swelling type like Wyoming Bentonite to highly depressive Fig. 11 – 10-minute gel comparison of Bentonite Inhibition Test.
like Arney Clay from Norway. Two other shales included in
this study, Foss Eikeland and Oxford clays, were mixed clay.
Along with these shales, various other field shales were
utilized for evaluation. The inhibition test methods are
described below.
Bentonite Inhibition Test. The bentonite inhibition test
method is used routinely as a screening method to determine
the ability of a product to prevent bentonite from swelling and
maintain a low rheological profile. This test method is
designed to simulate the incorporation of highly active drilled
solids into a drilling fluid similar to what occurs while drilling
water-sensitive shale in the real-time field application. The test
method determines the maximum amount of API bentonite
Fig. 12 – Bulk Hardness Tester
that can be inhibited by a single treatment of shale inhibitor.
Normally, 8.0 lb/bbl of shale inhibitor is used for this test.
Bulk Hardness Test. This test is used to determine the
Figure 3 series compares the performance of several amine-
hardness of the shale sample after exposure to a test fluid. The
based shale inhibitors and potassium chloride. In this test 350
hardness of the shale sample indicates the inhibitive properties
mL of water containing 8.0 lb/bbl of shale inhibitor was
of the drilling fluid being evaluated, i.e., the shale inhibitor
treated daily with 10 lb/bbl of API Bentonite after heat aging
greatly reduces the clay’s tendency to imbibe water from the
at 150°F for 16 hours. After heat aging each day, the
aqueous environment of the drilling fluid. This can translate
rheological properties were measured (Figs. 10 and 11).
into good shale inhibition and stronger wellbore strength
160
during the drilling operation resulting in trouble-free drilling
of water-sensitive shale formation.
140 The bulk hardness tester is shown in Fig. 12. In this test a
Base
KCl fixed size and amount (30.0 g) of shale cuttings are hot rolled
120 Com m ercial Shale Inhibitor
Shale Inhibitor in the test fluid at 150°F for 16 hours. After hot rolling, the
Yield Point (lb/100 sq ft)

100 shale cuttings are sieved (1mm), washed with brine and placed
into a bulk hardness tester. The shale cuttings are extruded
80
through perforated plates using a torque wrench. The torque
60
required to extrude is measured after each turn in
compression. Depending upon the efficiency of the shale
40 inhibitor and hardness of the shale, the torque may reach
maximum torque (250 psi) and form a disc or continue to
20
extrude and form ribbons. Highly efficient shale inhibitors will
0
yield harder shale cuttings and higher torque readings. The
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
test results and comparison of various state–of-art HPWBM
Bentonite (lb\bbl)
and the HPWBM using some innovative amine chemistry
Fig. 10 – Yield point comparision of Bentonite Inhibition Test.
areshown in Fig. 13 and Fig. 14.
6 SPE 106476

due to accretion known as “bit balling” where partially

hydrated shale cuttings are compressed onto the drilling
assembly, resulting in poor rate of penetration (ROP) and
other drilling performance limitations. Accretion and
accretion-related problems are very complex and troublesome.
Factors impacting accretion include the type of shale
formation being drilled, drilling fluid, lubricity and other
drilling parameters such as rate of drilling.
The simple laboratory test for accretion consists of placing
a fixed size and weight steel bar in a cell containing the test
fluid and a certain weight of shale cuttings. The cell is then
placed in a rolling oven and rolled for an appropriate period.
After the time laps, the cells are removed from the oven. The
steel bars are removed from the cell and photographed. The
Fig. 13 – Comparison of shale inhibitors with Bulk Hardness Test.
amount and the percent of accretion is determined by
removing, drying and weighing the accreted shale cuttings on
a steel bar.
Again, various high performance WBM formulations were
evaluated and compared against each other for their
Fig. 14 – Extrusion of shale from Bulk Hardness Tester. From left performance as anti accreting properties. The results of these
to right, the fluids in which the shale was immersed were Silicate, tests are given in Figs. 16 and 17.
Polyether diamine, Polyamine and PHPA/Glycol.

Hot Roll/Dispersion Test. This test provides the long term

exposure of the shale to the fluid under the normal condition
of drilling when cuttings are brought out and removed from
the borehole.
In this test a weighed quantity of sized shale cuttings are
added to a base fluid or fully formulated drilling fluid using a
conventional fluid cell. Afterwards, the fluid with the cuttings
is rolled in a conventional roller oven at 150°F for 16 hours. Fig. 16 – Results of the AccretionTest using Oxford shale. From
After hot rolling, the cuttings are screened through a 1 mm left to right, the test fluids were PHPA NaCl, Polyether diamine,
size sieve and washed with water. After drying the cuttings, KCl polyglycol, Polyamine, Silicate, and PHPA Glycol.
the amount and percent recovery is determined.
Low dispersion and high recovery is an indication of
functional characteristic of better dispersant suppressant and
better shale inhibition in dispersive shale formation. The test
results obtained from new HPWBM formulations and their
comparison with other state of art mud formulations are given
in Fig. 15.

Fig. 17 – Accretion Test using Arnie shale.

Results and Disscussion

Bulk Hardness
Figure 13 illustrates the bulk hardness of shales evaluated in
different mud formulations. From the evaluations it can be
seen that the mud formulations containing etheramine and
polyamine shale inhibitors performed the best when compared
Fig. 15 – Hot roll dispersion test results. with other state-of-the-art inhibitive mud formulations. The
performance compared well against OBM formulation.
Accretion Test. In the past, one of the primary reasons for Figure 14 illustrates the visual data on bulk hardness after
the failure of HPWBM to perform up to OBM standards was extruding the shale through a Bulk Hardness Tester. The
SPE 106476 7

formation of disc is the indication of inhibited hard shale. In 4. Friedheim, J.E. and Conn, H.L.: “Second Generation Synthetic
these tests new HPWBM containing etheramine and Fluids in the North Sea: Are They Better?” Paper SPE 35061,
polyamine outperformed the other inhibitive mud systems. IADC/SPE Drilling Conference, New Orleans, March 11-15,
1996.
5. Patel, A., Stamatakis E., Friedheim J., and Davis E.: “Highly
Hot Roll Dispersion Inhibitive Water-Based Fluid System Provides Superior
Figure 15 graphs the percent recovery of various shales from Chemical Stabilization of Reactive Shale Formations,” AADE
several mud formulations using the Hot Roll Dispersion tests. 01-NC-HO-55, AADE National Drilling Technology
Again, the percent recovery of shales was highest in the Conference, Houston, March 27-29, 2001.
etheramine and polyamine shale inhibitor mud formulations 6. Cameron, C., Florence, A., and Temple, C.: “Water Based
than that of other inhibitive drilling fluid systems. Drilling Fluid Helps Achieve Oil-Mud Performance,” AADE-
04-DF-HO-01, AADE National Drilling Technology
Bentonite Inhibition Conference, Houston, April 6-7, 2004.
Figures 10 and 11 compare the performance of several amine- 7. Enright, D.P., Dye, W.M. and Smith, F.M.: “An
Environmentally Safe Water-Based Alternative to Oil Muds,”
based shale inhibitors and potassium chloride. In bentonite SPE Drilling Engineering (March 1992) 15.
inhibition tests, polyetheramine and polyamine shale inhibitors 8. Belhoffer, T.W., Dorrough, D.S., Deem, C.K., Schmidt, D.D.,
inhibited the highest amount of bentonite in these tests. Again, and Bray, R.P.: “Cationic Polymer Drilling Fluid Can
these inhibitors outperformed other shale inhibitors in these Sometimes Replace Oil-Based Mud.” Oil & Gas Journal
tests. (March 16, 1992) 47.
9. Steiger, R.P. and Leung, P.K.: “Quantitative Determination of
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Parameters in Modelling the Chemical Aspects of Borehole
occurred in the mud formulations containing etheramine and Stability in Shales and in Designing Improved Water-Based
polyamine shale inhibitors and anticreate agent of new Shale Drilling Fluids.” SPE 28309, SPE Annual Technical
HPWBM. In these tests new HPWBM outperformed other Conference, New Orleans, Sept 25-28, 1994.
inhibitive muds. 11. Gray, G.R., and Gill, J.A.: “Stabilizing Boreholes in Australian
Offshore Drilling.” Petroleum Engineer (June, 1974) 49.
Are We There? Does WBM Perform Like OBM? 12. van Oort, E., Ripley, D., Ward I., Chapman, J.W., Williamson,
Significant progress has been made through the advent of R., and Aston, M.: “Silicate-Based Drilling Fluids: Cost-
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improvement over earlier attempts to develop a WBM which SPE 35059, SPE/IADC Drilling Conference, New Orleans,
March 12-15, 1996.
would perform like an OBM. The laboratory results reveals 13. Clark, R.K., Scheuerman, R.F., Rath, H. and Van Larr, H.G.:
that the newly developed high performance water-based “Polyacrylamide/Potassium-Chloride Mud for Drilling Water-
drilling fluid system significantly reduces clay dispersion, Sensitive Shales.” SPE 5514, Journal of Petroleum Technology
hydration, and accretion outperforming previously developed (June 1976) 719.
inhibitive WBM systems and reaching into the performance 14. Twynam, A.J., Caldwell, P.A., and Meads, K.: “Glycol-
territory of OBM. The comparative bulk hardness study in Fig. Enhanced Water-Based Muds: Case History to Demonstrate
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has temperature stability to 275°F. The system has been Mountain Environmentally Sensitive Areas,” SPE 17511, Rocky
applied with a high rate of success in a variety of field Mountain Regional Meeting, Casper, Wyoming, May 11-13
applications. The system can easily be prepared and exhibits 1988.
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