1.

1ROBOT

A robot is a virtual or mechanical artificial agent. In practice, it is usually an electro-

mechanical machine which is guided by computer or electronic programming, and is
thus able to do tasks on its own. Another common characteristic is that by its
appearance or movements, a robot often conveys a sense that it has intent or agency of
its own

1.2 THREE LAWS OF ROBOTICS

There are three basic laws given by Isaac Asimov and John W. Campbell wgich should
be considered :

 A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being
to come to harm.
 A robot must obey any orders given to it by human beings, except where such
orders would conflict with the First Law.
 A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not
conflict with the First or Second Law. ”

1.3 ORIGIN

Since the beginnings of civilisation man has had a fascination for a human-like creation
that would assist him. Societies in the early part of the first millennium engaged in
slavery and used those slaves to perform the tasks which were either dirty or menial
labours. Having slaves freed the enslavers to carry on their society and concentrate on
what they perceived as more important tasks such as business and politics. Man had
discovered mechanics and the means of creating complex mechanisms which would
perform repetitive functions such as waterwheels and pumps. Technological advances
were slow but there were more complex machines, generally limited to a very small
number, which performed more grandiose functions such as those invented by Hero of
Alexandria.
In the first half of the second millennium man began to develop more complex machines
as well as rediscovering the Greek engineering methods. Men such as Leonardo Da
Vinci in 1495 through to Jacques de Vaucanson in 1739 have made plans for, and built,
automata and robots leading to books of designs such as the Japanese Karakuri zui
(Illustrated Machinery) in 1796. As mechanical techniques developed through the
Industrial age we find more practical applications such as Nikola Tesla in 1898 who
designed a radio-controlled torpedo and the Westinghouse Electric Corporation creation
Televox in 1926. From here we find a more android development as designers tried to
mimic more human-like features including designs such as those of biologist Makoto
Nishimura in 1929 and his creation Gakutensoku, which cried and changed its facial
expressions, and the more crude Elektro from Westinghouse in 1938.

Electronics now became the driving force of development instead of mechanics with the
advent of the first electronic autonomous robots created by William Grey Walter in
Bristol, England in 1948. The first digital and programmable robot was invented by
George Devol in 1954 and was ultimately called the Unimate. Devol sold the first
Unimate to General Motors in 1960 where it was used to lift pieces of hot metal from die
casting machines in a plant in Trenton, New Jersey.

Electronics now became the driving force of development instead of mechanics with the
advent of the first electronic autonomous robots created by William Grey Walter in
Bristol, England in 1948. The first digital and programmable robot was invented by
George Devol in 1954 and was ultimately called the Unimate. Devol sold the first
Unimate to General Motors in 1960 where it was used to lift pieces of hot metal from die
casting machines in a plant in Trenton, New Jersey.
2.1 INTRODUCTION TO HUMANOID ROBOTS

Robots come in those two basic forms: Those which are used to make or move things,
such as Industrial robots or mobile or servicing robots and those which are used for
research into human-like robots such as ASIMO and TOPIO as well as those into more
defined and specific roles such as Nano robots and Swarm robots.

A humanoid robot is a robot with its overall appearance, based on that of the human
body, allowing interaction with made-for-human tools or environments. In general
humanoid robots have a torso with a head, two arms and two legs, although some
forms of humanoid robots may model only part of the body, for example, from the waist
up. Some humanoid robots may also have a 'face', with 'eyes' and 'mouth'. Androids are
humanoid robots built to aesthetically resemble a human

2.2 DIFFERENTIATING CHARACTERISTICS OF HUMANOID ROBOTS

A humanoid robot is an autonomous robot because it can adapt to changes in its

environment or itself and continue to reach its goal. This is the main difference between
humanoid and other kinds of robots. In this context, some of the capacities of a
humanoid robot may include, among others:

 self-maintenance (like recharging itself)

 autonomous learning (learn or gain new capabilities without outside assistance,
adjust strategies based on the surroundings and adapt to new situations)
 avoiding harmful situations to people, property, and itself
 safe interacting with human beings and the environment

2.3 PURPOSE OF MAKING HUMANOID ROBOTS

Humanoid robots are used as a research tool in several scientific areas.

Researchers need to understand the human body structure and behavior
(biomechanics) to build and study humanoid robots. On the other side, the attempt to
simulate the human body leads to a better understanding of it.

Human cognition is a field of study which is focused on how humans learn from sensory
information in order to acquire perceptual and motor skills. This knowledge is used to
develop computational models of human behavior and it has been improving over time.

It has been suggested that very advanced robotics will facilitate the enhancement of
ordinary humans. See transhumanism.

Although the initial aim of humanoid research was to build better orthosis and prosthesis
for human beings, knowledge has been transferred between both disciplines. A few
examples are: powered leg prosthesis for neuromuscularly impaired, ankle-foot
orthosis, biological realistic leg prosthesis and forearm prosthesis.

Besides the research, humanoid robots are being developed to perform human tasks
like personal assistance, where they should be able to assist the sick and elderly, and
dirty or dangerous jobs. Regular jobs like being a receptionist or a worker of an
automotive manufacturing line are also suitable for humanoids. In essence, since they
can use tools and operate equipment and vehicles designed for the human form,
humanoids could theoretically perform any task a human being can, so long as they
have the proper software. However, the complexity of doing so is deceptively great.

They are becoming increasingly popular for providing entertainment too. For example,
Ursula, a female robot, sings, dances, and speaks to her audiences at Universal
Studios. Several Disney attractions employ the use of animatrons, robots that look,
move, and speak much like human beings, in some of their theme park shows. These
animatrons look so realistic that it can be hard to decipher from a distance whether or
not they are actually human. Although they have a realistic look, they have no cognition
or physical autonomy.

Humanoid robots, especially with artificial intelligence algorithms, could be useful for
future dangerous and/or distant space exploration missions, without having the need to
turn back around again and return to Earth once the mission is completed.

3.1 SENSORS

A sensor is a device that measures some attribute of the world. Being one of the three
primitives of robotics (besides planning and control), sensing plays an important role in
robotic paradigms.

Sensors can be classified according to the physical process with which they work or
according to the type of measurement information that they give as output. In this case,
the second approach was used.

3.1.1 Proprioceptive Sensors - Monitoring Internal Status

The robot measures a signal originating from within using proprioseptive sensors.
These sensors are responsible for monitoring self maintenance and controlling internal
status.

Proprioceptive sensors sense the position, the orientation and the speed of the
humanoid's body and joints.

In human beings inner ears are used to maintain balance and orientation. Humanoid
robots use accelerometers to measure the acceleration, from which velocity can be
calculated by integration; tilt sensors to measure inclination; force sensors placed in
robot's hands and feet to measure contact force with environment; position sensors, that
indicate the actual position of the robot (from which the velocity can be calculated by
derivation) or even speed sensors.

Common uses of proprioceptive measurements are for battery monitoring, current

sensing, and heat monitoring.

3.1.2 Exteroceptive Sensors - Measuring Proximity

Exteroceptive sensors determine the measurements of objects relative to a robot's

frame of reference. These sensors are categorized as a proximity sensors.

Proximity sensors enable a robot to tell when it is near an object. These sensors keep
the robot from colliding with other objects. They can also be used to measure distance
from the robot to another object.

There are three main types of exteroceptive sensors

1. Contact Sensors: Contact sensors are typically simple mechanical switches that
send a signal when physical contact is made. Contact sensors are used to
detect the positive contact between two mating parts and/or to measure the
interaction forces and torques which appear while the robot manipulator conducts
part mating operations. Another type of contact sensors are tactile sensors.
These measure a multitude of parameters of the touched object surface.

 (Tactile) Bump & Feeler - This passive contact sensor is primarily used for
collision detection. When triggered, a mechanical button shorts the circuit,
pulling the signal line high or low. It works well if the robot can stop
instantaneously. Choosing sonar or IR sensors allows a slowing down
buffer zone. In a practical application a bump and feeler sensor can be
used to stop a slow moving robot when it bumps a wall.
2. Range Sensors: Range sensors measure the distance to objects in their
operation area. A range sensor can also be a distance detection devices that
provides a simple binary signal when a particular threshold is detected. Range
sensors are used for robot navigation, obstacle avoidance, or to recover the third
dimension for monocular vision. Range sensors are based on one of the two
principles: time-of-flight and triangulation .
 Mercury Tilt - This range sensor is used to detect the tilt with respect to
gravity. It can tell if the robot is traveling up a steep incline and might tip. It
can also be used to detect when a robot reaches a preset angle.
As a practical application, it can be used to count the number of hills a
mobile robot has traveled
 IR - Infrared emitter detectors are easily implemented and can be used for
collision detection, motion detection, transmitters, encoders, and color
detection. IR requires testing and calibration for good results.
As a practical application, an IR sensor can be used to guide a robot along
a line and avoid obstacles.
 Sonar - Also called an acoustic proximity sensor, a sonar sensor gathers
feedback about surroundings by emitting a sound and calculating the
amount of time needed for the sound to travel back.
In practical applications it is useful in collision detection.
 Capacitive - This proximity sensor uses a radio frequency (RF) oscillator,
a frequency detector, and a metal plate connected to the oscillator circuit
to avoid collisions with other objects. The oscillator frequency changes
when a change in the capacitance is detected. Objects that conduct
electricity are better sensed than object that do not.
As a practical application, this sensor can keep a mobile robot from
running into humans and animals.
 Encoder - Encoders can take on many forms, including slot, rotary, and
linear. These sensors use relative positioning, also called dead-reckoning,
and incremental counting to measure properties such as displacement,
velocity, acceleration, and angle. Encoders use an optical sensor to move
 mechanical components. A reflector provides electric pulses allowing this
sensor to measure rotation when attached to a rotating object, such as a
wheel or motor.
As a practical application, encoders can determine how far a robot has
traveled and how many degrees an axis has spun.

3. Vision Sensors: Robot vision is a complex sensing process. It involves extracting,

characterizing and interpreting information from images in order to identify or
describe objects in environment.
The field of robot vision guidance is developing rapidly. The benefits of
sophisticated vision technology include savings, improved quality, reliability,
safety and productivity. Robot vision is used for part identification and navigation.
Vision applications generally deal with finding a part and orienting it for robotic
handling or inspection before an application is performed. Sometimes vision
guided robots can replace multiple mechanical tools with a single robot station.
 Creating Sight
A combination of vision algorithms, calibration, temperature software, and
cameras provide the vision ability. Calibration of robot vision system is
very application dependent. They can range from a simple guidance
application to a more complex application that uses data from multiple
sensors.

Algorithms are consistently improving, allowing for sophisticated detection.

Many robots are now available with collision detection, allowing them to
work alongside other robots without the fear of a major collision. They
simply stop moving momentarily if they detect another object in their
motion path.
  Seeing Savings
Robotic vision makes processes simpler, more straightforward, thus
cutting costs:
Fixtures: Robot vision eliminates any need for hard tooling or fixturing.
Now, products can be identified and applications performed without any
need for securing.
Labor: There are labor and machinery savings that come with robotic
vision. There is no need for sorts, feeders or upstream actuators anymore.
Nor is there any need for labor to load or orient parts.

Finding the Right Vision

When deciding on the right robot vision guidance, work with an integrator you
can trust and consider the following:
Communication: Robot vision must work and connect with the robot system and
application. A disconnect could harm the robot or the product and cause loss of
production and quality.
Environment: The workplace must be controlled so that robot vision remains
sharp. Every contributing element in the environment, including lighting, product
color changes, airborne chemicals, must be considered and

Actuators

Actuators are the motors responsible for motion in the robot.

Humanoid robots are constructed in such a way that they mimic the human body, so
they use actuators that perform like muscles and joints, though with a different structure.
To achieve the same effect as human motion, humanoid robots use mainly rotary
actuators. They can be either electric, pneumatic, hydraulic, piezoelectric or ultrasonic.

Hydraulic and electric actuators have a very rigid behavior and can only be made to act
in a compliant manner through the use of relatively complex feedback control
strategies . While electric coreless motor actuators are better suited for high speed and
low load applications, hydraulic ones operate well at low speed and high load
applications.

Piezoelectric actuators generate a small movement with a high force capability when
voltage is applied. They can be used for ultra-precise positioning and for generating and
handling high forces or pressures in static or dynamic situations.

Ultrasonic actuators are designed to produce movements in a micrometer order at

ultrasonic frequencies (over 20 kHz). They are useful for controlling vibration,
positioning applications and quick switching.

Pneumatic actuators operate on the basis of gas compressibility. As they are inflated,
they expand along the axis, and as they deflate, they contract. If one end is fixed, the
other will move in a linear trajectory. These actuators are intended for low speed and
low/medium load applications. Between pneumatic actuators there are: cylinders,
bellows, pneumatic engines, pneumatic stepper motors and pneumatic artificial
muscles.