SEMINAR

ON
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

SUBMITTED BY , SUBMITTED TO,

Mrs Gayathri R Mrs Remya R S

1st year MSc Nursing Associate Professor

Upasana College Of Nursing Upasana College Of Nursing

Kollam Kollam
INTRODUCTION

Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in which a predetermined

number of observations are taken from a larger population. The methodology
used to sample from a larger population depends on the type of analysis being
performed but may include simple random sampling or systematic sampling.

RESEARCH

According Webster (1985), to research is to search or investigate exhaustively. It

is a careful or diligent search, studious inquiry or examination especially
investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of
facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts or practical
application of such new or revised theories or laws, it can also be the collection
of information about a particular subject.
SAMPLE : DEFINITION

A sample is a finite part of a statistical population whose properties are studied

to gain information about the whole (Webster, 1985). When dealing with people,
it can be defined as a set of respondents (people) selected from a larger population
for the purpose of a survey. A population is a group of individual’s persons,
objects, or items from which samples are taken for measurement for example a
population of presidents or professors, books or students.

Sampling is defined as the process of selecting certain members or a subset of the

population to make statistical inferences from them and to estimate characteristics
of the whole population. Sampling is widely used by researchers in market
research so that they do not need to research the entire population to collect
actionable insights. It is also a time-convenient and a cost-effective method and
hence forms the basis of any research design.
For example, if a drug manufacturer would like to research the adverse side
effects of a drug on the population of the country, it is close to impossible to be
able to conduct a research study that involves everyone. In this case, the
researcher decides a sample of people from each demographic and then conducts
the research on them which gives them an indicative feedback on the behaviour
of the drug on the population.

In sampling, this includes defining the "population" from which our sample is
drawn. A population can be defined as including all people or items with the
characteristic one wishes to understand. Because there is very rarely enough time
or money to gather information from everyone or everything in a population, the
goal becomes finding a representative sample (or subset) of that population.

In the most straightforward case, such as the sampling of a batch of material from
production (acceptance sampling by lots), it would be most desirable to identify
and measure every single item in the population and to include any one of them
in our sample. However, in the more general case this is not usually possible or
practical. There is no way to identify all rats in the set of all rats. Where voting is
not compulsory, there is no way to identify which people will vote at a
forthcoming election (in advance of the election). These imprecise populations
are not amenable to sampling in any of the ways below and to which we could
apply statistical theory.
As a remedy, we seek a sampling frame which has the property that we can
identify every single element and include any in our sample.
PURPOSES
Purpose(s) of sampling may be many and varied depending of the type of research
being conducted as well as the personal perceptions of the researcher. However,
we found the following points to be common and being agreed upon by many as
being the reasons why sampling is used in research. They are as follows

 Saves cost
The most basic and important reason of sampling is that it reduces cost of the
study. It reduces the cost of their projects, a study based on samples definitely
costs lower than conducting a census study.

 Saves time
Sampling saves time of the researcher or the research team. Many a times the
researcher is going to feel pressurized into completing the research project within
a certain time limit. This is where the sampling approach is likely to come in
handy.

Thus by reducing the larger population into smaller subsets and then making
inferences for the whole after studying these samples, the researcher often is able
to save a large amount of one of the most critical assets in while doing research
i.e. time.

 Increases chances of accuracy

Sampling increases the accuracy and reliability of the obtained results. This
increases chances of obtaining more accurate and reliable results and at the same
time minimizes the amount of sampling error.

 Only way to deal with large populations

Sampling is the only way to go about for collecting data, if the population under
consideration contains infinitely great numbers of members.

 Studying whole population can be destructive

If the nature of a test involves the destruction of any item under study, sampling
is the only way that would help to identify that particular item.
  Helpful for inaccessible populations
Sometimes the research researcher may choose a population and then at a later
stage realize that some parts are not accessible, he can then select samples
representative of the entire population, drawn conclusions and generalize the
results to the whole population.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD SAMPLE

1. REPRESENTIVES: A sample is a subset of the population or universe. The

sample must be representatives of the universe. Therefore, the researcher
must select the sample members who have the the characteristics of the
universe. For example, when a research is undertaken to study job
satisfaction in police force; then the sample members must be the police
persons belonging to different levels in the police force

2. FOCUS ON OBJECTIVES: The sample size must be selected depending

upon the research objectives. For instance, if a research is undertaken to
find out the impact of inflation on the poor then the sample size would be
larger, as there are more poor households in India. (In 2008, there were
about 147 million households of poor people in India yearly income of less
than Rest. 90,000).

3. FLEXIBILITY: The sample size should not be rigidly followed. The

sample size can be modified depending upon the circumstances. For
instance, the sample size may be reduced, if sufficient information is
already available or if there is limitation of time and funds. However,
sample size may be increased, if proper information is not available from
the current sample.

4. METHOD OF SAMPLING: The researcher must select proper method of

sampling. The sampling methods are broadly divided into two groups’
probability methods and non-probability methods. Certain methods require
less time to complete data collection. For instance, convenience sampling
require less time to collect data. Therefore, the researcher may select
convenience method, if there are limitation of time. PROPER
 5. SELECTION OF SAMPLE UNIT: The sample unit must be appropriate.
The universe comprises of the elements, and each element can be further
divided into units. For instance, if a study is conducted to study job
satisfaction among bank employees, then bank employees comprise the
universe. The element of universe may comprise of bank employees /
manager in rural banks, and in urban banks. The sample unit may include
male and female employees, junior or senior.

SAMPLING PROCESS
An operational sampling process can be divided into seven steps as given below:

1. Defining the target population.

2. Specifying the sampling frame.
3. Specifying the sampling unit.
4. Selection of the sampling method.
5. Determination of sample size.
6. Specifying the sampling plan.
7. Selecting the sample.

1. Defining the Target Population:

Defining the population of interest, for business research, is the first step in
sampling process. In general, target population is defined in terms of element,
sampling unit, extent, and time frame. The definition should be in line with the
objectives of the research study. For ex, if a kitchen appliances firm wants to
conduct a survey to ascertain the demand for its micro ovens, it may define the
population as ‘all women above the age of 20 who cook (assuming that very few
men cook)’. However this definition is too broad and will include every
household in the country, in the population that is to be covered by the survey.
Therefore the definition can be further refined and defined at the sampling unit
level, that, all women above the age 20, who cook and whose monthly household
income exceeds Rs.20,000. This reduces the target population size and makes the
research more focused. The population definition can be refined further by
specifying the area from where the researcher has to draw his sample, that is,
households located in Hyderabad.

A well defined population reduces the probability of including the respondents

who do not fit the research objective of the company. For ex, if the population is
defined as all women above the age of 20, the researcher may end up taking the
opinions of a large number of women who cannot afford to buy a micro oven.

2. Specifying the Sampling Frame:

Once the definition of the population is clear a researcher should decide on the
sampling frame. A sampling frame is the list of elements from which the sample
may be drawn. Continuing with the micro oven ex, an ideal sampling frame would
be a database that contains all the households that have a monthly income above
Rs.20,000. However, in practice it is difficult to get an exhaustive sampling frame
that exactly fits the requirements of a particular research. In general, researchers
use easily available sampling frames like telephone directories and lists of credit
card and mobile phone users. Various private players provide databases
developed along various demographic and economic variables. Sometimes, maps
and aerial pictures are also used as sampling frames. Whatever may be the case,
an ideal sampling frame is one that entire population and lists the names of its
elements only once.

A sampling frame error pops up when the sampling frame does not accurately
represent the total population or when some elements of the population are
missing another drawback in the sampling frame is over –representation. A
telephone directory can be over represented by names/household that have two
or more connections.

3. Specifying the Sampling Unit:

A sampling unit is a basic unit that contains a single element or a group of

elements of the population to be sampled. In this case, a household becomes a
sampling unit and all women above the age of 20 years living in that particular
house become the sampling elements. If it is possible to identify the exact target
audience of the business research, every individual element would be a sampling
unit. This would present a case of primary sampling unit. However, a convenient
and better means of sampling would be to select households as the sampling unit
and interview all females above 20 years, who cook. This would present a case
of secondary sampling unit.

4. Selection of the Sampling Method:

The sampling method outlines the way in which the sample units are to be
selected. The choice of the sampling method is influenced by the objectives of
the business research, availability of financial resources, time constraints, and the
nature of the problem to be investigated. All sampling methods can be grouped
under two distinct heads, that is, probability and non-probability sampling.

5. Determination of Sample Size:

The sample size plays a crucial role in the sampling process. There are various
ways of classifying the techniques used in determining the sample size. A couple
those hold primary importance and are worth mentioning are whether the
technique deals with fixed or sequential sampling and whether its logic is based
on traditional or Bayesian methods. In non-probability sampling procedures, the
allocation of budget, thumb rules and number of sub groups to be analyzed,
importance of the decision, number of variables, nature of analysis, incidence
rates, and completion rates play a major role in sample size determination. In the
case of probability sampling, however, formulas are used to calculate the sample
size after the levels of acceptable error and level of confidence are specified. The
details of the various techniques used to determine the sample size will be
explained at the end of the chapter.

6. Specifying the Sampling Plan:

In this step, the specifications and decisions regarding the implementation of the
research process are outlined. Suppose, blocks in a city are the sampling units and
the households are the sampling elements. This step outlines the modus operandi
of the sampling plan in identifying houses based on specified characteristics. It
includes issues like how is the interviewer going to take a systematic sample of
the houses. What should the interviewer do when a house is vacant? What is the
recontact procedure for respondents who were unavailable? All these and many
other questions need to be answered for the smooth functioning of the research
process. These are guide lines that would help the researcher in every step of the
process. As the interviewers and their co-workers will be on field duty of most of
the time, a proper specification of the sampling plans would make their work easy
and they would not have to revert to their seniors when faced with operational
problems.

7. Selecting the Sample:

This is the final step in the sampling process, where the actual selection of the
sample elements is carried out. At this stage, it is necessary that the interviewers
stick to the rules outlined for the smooth implementation of the business research.
 This step involves implementing the sampling plan to select the sampling plan to
select a sample required for the survey.

FACTORS INFLUENCING SAMPLING PROCESS

1. Homogeneity or Heterogeneity of the universe: Selection of sample depends

on the nature of the universe. It says that if the nature of universe is homogeneous
then a small sample will represent the behavior of entire universe. This will lead
to selection of small sample size rather than a large one. On the other hand, if the
universe is heterogeneous in nature then samples are to be chosen as from each
heterogeneous unit.
2. Number of classes proposed: If a large number of class intervals to be made
then the size of sample should be more because it has to represent the entire
universe. In case of small samples there is the possibility that some samples may
not be included.
3. Nature of study: The size of sample also depends on the nature of study. For an
intensive study which may be for a long time, large samples are to be chosen.
Similarly, in case of general studies large number of respondents may be
 appropriate one but if the study is of technical in nature then the selection of large
number of respondents may cause difficulty while gathering information.

TYPES OF SAMPLING

Any research study requires two essential types of sampling. They are:

1. Probability Sampling: Probability sampling is a sampling method that selects

random members of a population by setting a few selection criteria. These
selection parameters allow every member to have the equal opportunities to be
a part of various samples.
Example: We want to estimate the total income of adults living in a given
street. We visit each household in that street, identify all adults living there,
and randomly select one adult from each household. (For example, we can
allocate each person a random number, generated from a uniform
distribution between 0 and 1, and select the person with the highest number
in each household). We then interview the selected person and find their
income.
People living on their own are certain to be selected, so we simply add
their income to our estimate of the total. But a person living in a household
of two adults has only a one-in-two chance of selection. To reflect this,
when we come to such a household, we would count the selected person's
income twice towards the total. (The person who is selected from that
 household can be loosely viewed as also representing the person
who isn't selected.)
In the above example, not everybody has the same probability of selection;
what makes it a probability sample is the fact that each person's probability
is known. When every element in the population does have the same
probability of selection, this is known as an 'equal probability of selection'
(EPS) design. Such designs are also referred to as 'self-weighting' because
all sampled units are given the same weight.

2. Non-probability Sampling: Non probability sampling method is reliant on a

researcher’s ability to select members at random. This sampling method is not
a fixed or pre-defined selection process which makes it difficult for all elements
of a population to have equal opportunities to be included in a sample.
In this blog, we discuss the various probability and non-probability sampling
methods that can be implemented in any market research study.

Example: We visit every household in a given street, and interview the first person
to answer the door. In any household with more than one occupant, this is a
nonprobability sample, because some people are more likely to answer the door
(e.g. an unemployed person who spends most of their time at home is more likely
to answer than an employed housemate who might be at work when the
interviewer calls) and it's not practical to calculate these probabilities.

SAMPLING METHODS

Within any of the types of frames identified above, a variety of sampling methods
can be employed, individually or in combination. Factors commonly influencing
the choice between these designs include:

 Nature and quality of the frame

 Availability of auxiliary information about units on the frame
 Accuracy requirements, and the need to measure accuracy
 Whether detailed analysis of the sample is expected
 Cost/operational concerns

PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHODS

Probability Sampling is a sampling technique in which sample from a larger

population are chosen using a method based on the theory of probability. This
 sampling method considers every member of the population and forms samples
on the basis of a fixed process. For example, in a population of 1000 members,
each of these members will have 1/1000 chances of being selected to be a part of
a sample. It gets rid of bias in the population and gives a fair chance to all
members to be included in the sample.

There are 4 types of probability sampling technique:

 Simple Random Sampling: One of the best probability sampling techniques

that helps in saving time and resources, is the Simple Random
Sampling method. It is a trustworthy method of obtaining information where
every single member of a population is chosen randomly, merely by chance and
each individual has the exact same probability of being chosen to be a part of a
sample.
For example, in an organization of 500 employees, if the HR team decides on
conducting team building activities, it is highly likely that they would prefer
picking chits out of a bowl. In this case, each of the 500 employees has an equal
opportunity of being selected.

 Cluster Sampling: Cluster sampling is a method where the researchers divide

the entire population into sections or clusters that represent a
population. Clusters are identified and included in a sample on the basis
of defining demographic parameters such as age, location, sex etc. which
makes it extremely easy for a survey creation.
For example, if the government of the United States wishes to evaluate the
number of immigrants living in the Mainland US, they can divide it into
clusters on the basis of states such as California, Texas, Florida, Massachusetts,
Colorado, Hawaii etc. This way of conducting a survey will be more effective
 as the results will be organized into states and provides insightful immigration
data.

 Systematic Sampling: Using systematic sampling method, members of a

sample are chosen at regular intervals of a population. It requires selection of a
starting point for the sample and sample size that can be repeated at regular
intervals. This type of sampling method has a predefined interval and hence
this sampling technique is the least time-consuming.
For example, a researcher intends to collect a systematic sample of 500 people
in a population of 5000. Each element of the population will be numbered from
1-5000 and every 10th individual will be chosen to be a part of the sample
(Total population/ Sample Size = 5000/500 = 10).

 Stratified Random Sampling: Stratified Random sampling is a method where

the population can be divided into smaller groups, that don’t overlap but
 represent the entire population together. While sampling, these groups can be
organized and then draw a sample from each group separately.
For example, a researcher looking to analyse the characteristics of people
belonging to different annual income divisions, will create strata (groups)
according to annual family income such as – Less than $20,000, $21,000 –
$30,000, $31,000 to $40,000, $41,000 to $50,000 etc. and people belonging to
different income groups can be observed to draw conclusions of which income
strata have which characteristics. Marketers can analyse which income groups
to target and which ones to eliminate in order to create a roadmap that would
definitely bear fruitful results.

Use of the Probability Sampling Method

There are multiple uses of the probability sampling method. They are:

 Reduce Sample Bias: Using the probability sampling method, the bias in the
sample derived from a population is negligible to non-existent. The selection
of the sample largely depicts the understanding and the inference of the
researcher. Probability sampling leads to higher quality data collection as the
population is appropriately represented by the sample.

 Diverse Population: When the population is large and diverse, it is important

to have adequate representation so that the data is not skewed towards
one demographic. For example, if Square would like to understand the people
that could their point-of-sale devices, a survey conducted from a sample of
people across US from different industries and socio-economic backgrounds,
helps.
 Create an Accurate Sample: Probability sampling helps the researchers plan
and create an accurate sample. This helps to obtain well-defined data.

Merits and Demerits of probability sampling methods:

Merits
 Cost Effective
As the task of assignment ogf random number to different items of
population is over, the process is half done. This process saves cost and time
to a great extent. We can take any number of samples from this process.

 Involves lesser degree of judgment

While assigning the number to an item of the population, the person assigns
it in a random trend that makes the process of probability sampling more
effective and more accurate.

 Comparatively easier way of sampling

Probability sampling does not involve any complex and long process. Thus
this is an easier way for sampling.

 Less time consuming

This process is a simple and short process. This takes lesser time to
complete. The saved time can be used for analysis and interpretation.

 Can be done even by non- technical persons

Assignment of Random number can be done by any kind of person after a
short briefing as this does not involve any lengthy, complex and crucial
process.

 Sample representative of population

Probability Sampling uses random numbers which ensures that the samples
vary as much as the population itself.
 Demerits
 Chances of selecting specific class of samples only
If a surveyor is appointed to survey about any data relating to family
members, there is likely chances that s/he will develop a trend of starting to
number from the eldest member to the youngest and numbers will be only
increasing or decreasing only. In this case, only oldest or the latest
generations will be taken as samples.

 Redundant and monotonous work

As the surveyor is asked to do a repetitive job to assign the numbers and to
take the information, there is likely chances that the surveyor suffers from
monotony and the effectiveness of the system will be reduced.

NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHODS

The non-probability method is a sampling method that involves a collection of

feedback on the basis of a researcher or statistician’s sample selection capabilities
and not on a fixed selection process. In most situations, output of a survey
conducted with a non-probable sample leads to skewed results, which may not
totally represent the desired target population. But, there are situations such as
the preliminary stages of research or where there are cost constraints for
conducting research, where non-probability sampling will be much more
effective than the other type.

There are 4 types of non-probability sampling which will explain the purpose of
this sampling method in a better manner:

 Convenience sampling: This method is dependent on the ease of access to

subjects such as surveying customers at a mall or passers-by on a busy street. It
is usually termed as convenience sampling, as it’s carried out on the basis of
how easy is it for a researcher to get in touch with the subjects. Researchers
have nearly no authority over selecting elements of the sample and it’s purely
done on the basis of proximity and not representativeness. This non-probability
sampling method is used when there are time and cost limitations in collecting
 feedback. In situations where there are resource limitations such as the initial
stages of research, convenience sampling is used.
For example, start up’s and NGOs usually conduct convenience sampling at a
mall to distribute leaflets of upcoming events or promotion of a cause – they
do that by standing at the entrance of the mall and giving out pamphlets
randomly.

 Judgmental or Purposive Sampling: In judgemental or purposive

sampling, the sample is formed by the discretion of the judge purely
considering the purpose of study along with the understanding of target
audience. Also known as deliberate sampling, the participants are selected
solely on the basis of research requirements and elements who do not suffice
the purpose are kept out of the sample. For instance, when researchers want to
understand the thought process of people who are interested in studying for
their master’s degree. The selection criteria will be: “Are you interested in
studying for Masters in …?” and those who respond with a “No” will be
excluded from the sample.
 Snowball sampling: Snowball sampling is a sampling method that is used in
studies which need to be carried out to understand subjects which are difficult
to trace. For example, it will be extremely challenging to survey shelter less
people or illegal immigrants. In such cases, using the snowball theory,
researchers can track a few of that particular category to interview and results
will be derived on that basis. This sampling method is implemented in
situations where the topic is highly sensitive and not openly discussed such as
conducting surveys to gather information about HIV Aids. Not many victims
will readily respond to the questions but researchers can contact people they
might know or volunteers associated with the cause to get in touch with the
victims and collect information.

 Quota sampling: In Quota sampling, selection of members in this sampling

technique happens on basis of a pre-set standard. In this case, as a sample is
formed on basis of specific attributes, the created sample will have the same
 attributes that are found in the total population. It is an extremely quick method
of collecting samples.

Use of the Non-Probability Sampling Method

There are multiple uses of the non-probability sampling method. They are:

 Create a hypothesis: The non-probability sampling method is used to create a

hypothesis when limited to no prior information is available. This method helps
with immediate return of data and helps to build a base for any further research.
 Exploratory research: This sampling technique is widely used when
researchers aim at conducting qualitative research, pilot studies or exploratory
research.
 Budget and time constraints: The non-probability method when there are
budget and time constraints and some preliminary data has to be collected.
Since the survey design is not rigid, it is easier to pick respondents at random
and have they take the survey or questionnaire.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PROBABILITY & NON PROBABILITY

SAMPLING

We have looked at the different types of sampling methods above and their
subtypes. To encapsulate the whole discussion though, the major differences
between probability sampling methods and non-probability sampling methods are
as below:
 Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling
Methods Methods
Probability Sampling is a Non-probability sampling is a
sampling technique in sampling technique in which
which sample from a larger the researcher selects samples
Definition
population are chosen using based on the subjective
a method based on the judgment of the researcher
theory of probability. rather than random selection.
Alternatively Non-random sampling
Random sampling method.
Known as method
Population The population is selected The population is selected
selection randomly. arbitrarily.
Market The research is conclusive The research is exploratory in
Research in nature. nature.
Since there is method to Since the sampling method is
deciding the sample, the arbitrary, the population
Sample
population demographics is demographics representation
conclusively represented. is almost always skewed.
Take a longer time to
conduct since the research This type of sampling method
design defines the selection is quick since neither the
Time Taken
parameters before the sample or selection criteria of
market research study the sample is undefined.
begins.
This type of sampling is
This type of sampling is
entirely biased and hence the
entirely unbiased and hence
Results results are biased too
the results are unbiased too
rendering the research
and conclusive.
speculative.
In probability sampling,
In non-probability sampling,
there is an underlying
Hypothesis the hypothesis is derived after
hypothesis before the study
conducting the research study.
begins and the objective of
 this method is to prove the
hypothesis.

CONCLUSION
Sampling is a statistical procedure that is concerned with the selection of the
individual observation; it helps us to make statistical inferences about the
population.
In sampling, we assume that samples are drawn from the population and sample
means and population means are equal. A population can be defined as a whole
that includes all items and characteristics of the research taken into study.
However, gathering all this information is time consuming and costly. We
therefore make inferences about the population with the help of samples.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
 Polit & Beck; Nursing Research , 8th edition, Wolter’s Kluwer
Publications
 Suresh K Sharma, nursing research and Statistics, 4th edition, Elsevier
Publications