PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 NOTES 2018

I. The Language of Research

Research-Language Formation
OBJECTIVES
The specialized forms of the language of research are
caused by the following factors (Trochim 2006):
At the end of this lesson, the student should be able to:
1. increase the number of English words you know;
1. Multisyllable words
2. communicate the world views using newly learned words;
3. describe the language of research;
Some terms reflecting the inherent characteristics of research as a
4. state the reasons behind research-language formation;
scientific method are made up of a number of syllables such as
the following:

• theoretical – concepts
• empirical – observable
• probabilistic – uncertain
• quantitative – numerical
• qualitative – opinionated
• scientific – systematic
• inquiry – investigation

2. Types and forms of questions

Research has its own types of questions. It has to ask questions that describe, show relationships, and give reasons behind the occurrence
of something. For instance, for a qualitative research, questions to be asked must elicit views, emotions, or opinions of people.
Quantitative research, on the other hand asks questions about the exact number, percentages, or frequency of things. Informative
questions rather than yes-or-no questions are the appropriate questions to ask in research.

3. Span of time covered by research

Owing to the length of time – months or years – that takes place in a study, research introduced the terms cross-sectional and
longitudinal studies. Cross-sectional study involves a one-time collection of data in a span of time; longitudinal study, repeated collection
of data for the purpose of finding out changes of patterns over time.

4. Variable relationships

Concerning itself with whether or not a variable has effects on another variable, based on cause-effect relationships and on a certain
pattern that may result in positive or negative relationship, research came out with the following terms for variables:
a. Independent variables – the cause of something
b. Dependent variables – bears the effect of the independent variable
c. Extraneous variable – extra or unexpected variable cropping up outside the research design
d. Confounding variable – unstable variable

5. Formulation of Hypotheses

Forming of hypotheses indicates the staging of research. It signals the occurrence of a scientific or investigative way of doing things.
Hence, there are these terms: null hypotheses for guessing negative results of the research and alternative hypotheses for positive
results.

6. Data

These are facts, information, or logically derived forms of knowledge that are called qualitative data if they are verbally and subjectively
expressed; quantitative data, if they are numerically and objectively expressed.

7. Unit of Analysis

The subject or object of your research study makes up one major entity and this may either be one of the following:

a. Individual, group, artefact (painting, book, travelogue)

b. Geographical unit (municipality, province, country)
c. Social interaction (husband-wife, teacher-learner, employer-employee)
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 NOTES 2018

Lesson 1 – Inquiry vs. Research: A Review

Characteristics of Research
OBJECTIVES
Research is a scientific, experimental, or inductive manner
After this lesson, the student should be able to: of thinking. Starting from particular to more complex ideas, you
1. relate an unfamiliar term with other terms to discover the execute varied thinking acts that range from lower-order to
meaning of such difficult term; higher-order thinking strategies reflected by these research
2. explain the meaning of research in relation to inquiry; activities: identifying the topic or problem, gathering data, making
3. point out the similarities and differences of research and theories, formulating hypotheses, analyzing data, and drawing
inquiry; conclusions. Cognitively driven terms like empirical, logical,
4. distinguish lower-level questions from top-level questions to cyclical, analytical, critical, methodical, and replicable are the
give stress to investigative kind of thinking; right descriptive words to characterize research.
5. judge the applicability of inquiry or research to a given
situation; and
6. appraise the value of concepts learned about inquiry and
research.

Inquiry vis-à-vis Research

Both inquiry and research encourage you to formulate questions to direct you to the exact information you want to discover about the
object of your curiosity. Although the core word for both inquiry and research is investigation and questioning, they are not exactly the same in all
aspects. Research includes more complex acts of investigation than inquiry because the former follows a scientific procedure of discovering truths
or meanings about things in this world.

-------------------------------------------------------------------- STUDENT ACTIVITY --------------------------------------------------------------------

CONCEPT ELABORATION

Directions: GROUP WORK. Form a group of three and do any of these group activities.
1. Speculative Thinking. Prove how inquisitive you are by raising investigative questions about this topics: 21st Century Educational
Strategies, Era of Globalization, Social Networking, Climate Change, Digital Age, Sustainable Community, Carcinogenic Foods, Email vs.
Postal Mail, Stem-Cell Therapy, Proliferation of Dermatological Clinics, and Food Supplements. Classify your questions into lower-level
and top-level questions.

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Lesson 2 – Quantitative Research

Definition of Quantitative Research
OBJECTIVES
Quantitative research makes you focus your mind on
After this lesson, the student should be able to:
specific things by means of statistics that involve collection and
1. familiarize themselves with vocabulary terms to clarify things
study of numerical data.
about quantitative research;
2. communicate with others using the newly learned vocabulary
Thus, to give the basic meaning of quantitative research
terms;
is to say that research is a way of making any phenomenon or any
3. speculate about quantitative research;
sensory experience clearer or more meaningful by gathering and
4. define quantitative research accurately;
examining facts and information about such person, thing, place,
5. compare and contrast qualitative and quantitative research or event appealing to your senses.
based on some criteria or standards;
6. draw distinctions between a qualitative question from a
You use mathematical operations of addition,
quantitative question;
subtraction, division, and multiplication to study and express
7. ask questions any quantitative research seeks to answer; and relationships between quantities or magnitudes shown by
analyze the power of print media or electronic devices to
numbers of symbols. Involving measurements and amounts,
trigger off students’ quantitative questioning.
quantitative research seeks to find answers to questions starting
with how many, how much, how long, to what extent, and the
like.
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 NOTES 2018

Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research

Standards Qualitative Quantitative

Mental survey of reality Results from social interactions Exists in the physical world
Revealed by automatic descriptions of
Cause-effect relationships Explained by people’s objectives circumstances or conditions
Researcher’s involvement with the object or Subjective; sometimes personally engaged Objective; least involvement by the
subject of the study researcher

Expression of data, data analysis, and findings Verbal language (words, visuals, objects) Numerals, statistics

Research plan Takes place as the research proceeds Plans all research aspects before collecting
gradually data
Behavior toward research aspects/conditions Desires to preserve the natural setting of Control or manipulation of research
research features conditions by the researcher
Obtaining knowledge Multiple methods Scientific method
Purpose Makes social intentions understandable Evaluates objectives and examines cause-
effect relationships
Data-analysis technique Thematic codal ways, competence-based Mathematically based methods
Style of expression Personal, lacks formality Impersonal, scientific, or systematic
Sampling technique More inclined to purposive sampling or use of Random sampling as the most preferred
chosen samples based on some criteria

Characteristics of Quantitative Research

1. Objective
2. Clearly Defined Research Questions
3. Structured Research Instruments
4. Numerical Data
5. Large Sample Sizes
6. Replication
7. Future Outcomes

Strengths of Quantitative Research

The advantages of quantitative research include:

1. It is objective. Since it provides numerical data, it can’t easily be misinterpreted.

2. The use of statistical techniques facilitates sophisticated analyses and allows you to comprehend a huge amount of vital characteristics of
data.
3. The numerical data can be analyzed in a quick and easy way. By employing statistically valid random models, findings can be generalized
to the population about which information is necessary.
4. Quantitative studies are replicable. Standardized approaches allow the study to be replicated in different areas or over time with the
formulation of comparable findings.

Weaknesses of Quantitative Research

The disadvantages of quantitative research are as follows:

1. Quantitative research requires a large number of respondents. It is assumed that the larger the sample is, the more statistically accurate
the findings are.
2. It is costly. Since, there are more respondents compared to qualitative research, the expenses will be greater in reaching out to these
people and in reproducing the questionnaires.
3. The information contextual factors to help interpret the results or to explain variations are usually ignored. It does not consider the
distinct capacity of the respondents to share and elaborate further information unlike the qualitative research.
4. Many information are difficult to gather using structured research instruments, specifically on sensitive issues like pre-marital sex,
domestic violence, among others.
5. If not done seriously and correctly, data from questionnaires may be incomplete and inaccurate. Researchers must be on the look-out on
respondents who are just guessing in answering the instrument.

Kinds of Quantitative Research

The kind of research is dependent on the researcher’s aim in conducting the study and the extent to which the findings will be used.
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 NOTES 2018

Variables and Data Collection Sample Titles

Kind Goal Experimental Technique
Manipulation
Descriptive to observe and report Variables are measured Questionnaire Assessing nurses’
on an certain as they occur. Observation Attitudes Toward
phenomenon Experimental Death and Caring for
manipulation is not Dying Patients in a
used. comprehensive cancer
center
(Lange, M., Thom, B.,
Kline, N.E., 2008)
Correlational To determine the Variables are measured Questionnaire The Relationship
nature of relationship as they occur. Test Between Service
between variables Experimental Observation Quality and Customer
without looking into manipulation is not Satisfaction in the
the cause used Telecommunication
Industry: Evidence
from Nigeria (Ojo, O.,
2010)
Ex post facto To infer the cause of Experimental Questionnaire Comparison of
a phenomenon which manipulation is not personal, Social and
has already occurred used. Academic Variables
Groups exposed to the Related to University
presumed with those Drop-out Rate and
who are not exposed Persistence
to it. (Bernardo, A., et al.,
2016)
Quasi - experimental To establish cause- Experimental Test The Impact of Smoking
and-effect relationships manipulation may have and Consumer
limited use. Behavior; Quasi-
Intact (i.e., Experimental Evidence
established) groups from Switzerland
are used; individual (Boes, S., Marti, J.C.,
subjects are randomly 2014)
assigned to the
treatment and control
groups.
Experimental To establish cause- Experimental Test Effect of Mobile
and-effect relationships manipulation is used. Technology Used on
Intact groups are not Walking
used ; individual (Perlmutter, S., et al.,
subjects are randomly 2014)
assigned to the
treatment and control
groups.
The random
assignment of
individual subjects
provides more
conclusiveness as to
the casual relationships
between the variables.
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 NOTES 2018

Purposes of Survey Research

1. To obtain information about people’s opinions and feelings about an issue.

2. To identify present condition, needs, or problems of people in a short span of time.
3. To seek answers to social problems.
4. To give school officials pointers on curricular offerings, guidance and counselling services, teacher evaluation,
and so on.

Planning a Survey Research

1. Explanation of objectives clearly
2. Formulation of research questions or hypotheses to predict relationships of variables
3. Determination of the exact kind of data referred to by the hypotheses or research questions
4. Assurance of the population or group of people to which the findings will be applied to
5. Finalization of the sampling method for selecting the participants
6. Identification of the method or instrument in collecting data; that is, whether it is questionnaire on paper,
through phone, via computer, or face-to-face.

Strengths of Survey Research

1. Versatility. It can tackle any issue affecting society.

2. Efficiency. It is not costly in terms of money and time, assuming there is excellent communication or postal
system.
3. Generality. It can get good representation or sample of a large group of people.
4. Confidentiality. It is capable of safeguarding the privacy or anonymity of the respondents.

Here are the weak points of survey research appearing in several books about this type of quasi-experimental research:

1. It cannot provide sufficient evidence about the relationships of variables.

2. It cannot examine the significance of some issues affecting people’s social life.
3. It cannot get data reflecting the effects of the interconnectedness of environmental features on the research
study.
4. It cannot consider man’s naturalistic tendencies as the basis of human behaviour unless his ways or styles of
living are related to his surroundings.
5. It cannot promote interpretive and creative thinking unless its formation of ideas results from scientific
thinking.
6. It cannot have an effective application to all topics for research.
7. It cannot use a questioning or coding method that can accurately register differences among the participants’
responses.
8. It cannot diffuse the main researcher’s abilities to control and manipulate some factors affecting the study.
9. It cannot account for real or actual happenings, but can give ideas on respondents’ views, beliefs, concepts, and
emotions.

Ethical Principles and Rules in Survey Research

1. Respect whatever decision a person has about your research work for his participation in your study comes
solely from his or her own decision-making powers.
2. Make sure that your study will be instrumental in elevating the living conditions of people around you or in
bringing about world progress.
3. Conduct your research work in a way that the respondents will be safe from any injury or damage that may
arise from their physical and emotional involvement in the study.
4. Practice honesty and truthfulness in reporting about the results of your study.
5. Accept the reality that the nature, kind, and extent of responses to your questions depend solely on the
dispositions of the respondents.
6. Decide properly which information should go public or secret.
7. Stick to your promise of safeguarding the secrecy of some information you obtained from the respondents.

Importance of Quantitative Research in Different Fields

Quantitative research has undeniable impact on the different aspects of society. The findings of a particular quantitative study can
influence crucial decisions affecting different organizations and individuals. For instance, companies may use quantitative data in evaluating the
effectiveness of certain leadership styles on employee performance. Educators can utilize quantitative research in examining the relationship
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 NOTES 2018

• Social inquiry : to better understand the behavior and social interactions among individuals
Sample Study: Malouff, j. M., Schutte, N. S., Rooke, S. E., & MacDonell, G. (2012). Effects on
Smokers of Exposure to Graphic Warning Images. The American Journal on Addictions, 21 (6),
555-557.

• Arts : to investigate methods or approaches that enhance one’s creativity

Sample Study: Brinegar, J., & Capra, R. (2011). Managing Music Across Devices and Computers.
In Proceedings of the 2011 iConference (pp. 489-495.)

• Information and Communications Technology : to examine the trends and tendencies in the use of information technology
Sample Study : Tripathi, M., & Kumar, S. (2014). Use of Online Resources at Jawaharlal
Nehru University: A Quantitative Study. Program, 48 (3), 272-292.

• Science : to determine the effectiveness of a newly developed medicine , treatment, or approach in addressing health problems
Sample Study: Fatmah, H. (2013) . Effect of Tempeh Dates Biscuits on Nutritional Status of
Preschool Children with Tuberculosis. Malaysian Journal of Nutrition, 19(2), 173-184.

• Agriculture and Fisheries : to examine how agriculture in a particular community is influenced by global trends
Sample Study: Namisko, P., & Aballo, M. (2013). Current Status of E-agriculture and Global
Trends: A Survey Conducted in Trans-Nzoia County, Kenya. International Journal of Science
and Research, 2 (7) , 18-22.

• Business: to assess approaches that will help companies in their decision-making practices
Sample Study: Ali, R., & Ahmed, M. S. (2009). The Impact of Reward and recognition
Programs on Employee’s Motivation and Satisfaction: An Empirical Study. International Review
of Business Research Papers, 5 (4), 270-279.

Lesson 3 – Variables
OBJECTIVES
Definition
Variables are “changing qualities or characteristics” of
After this lesson, the student should be able to: persons or things of like age, gender, intelligence, ideas,
achievements, confidence, and so on that are involved in your
1. define variables; research study. Made up of the root or base word “vary” which
2. characterize variables; means to undergo changes or to differ from, variables have
3. compare and contrast types of variables; different or varying values in relation to time and situation. For
4. distinguish independent from dependent variables; and instance, as years go by, your age or intelligence increases. But
5. determine the connection between variables and research placed in a situation where you are afflicted with a disease or
problems. have no means of reading or no access to any sources of
knowledge, your intelligence tend to decrease. (Suter 2013, p.
137)

Basic Types

Basically, variables are of two types: independent variables and dependent variables. Independent variables are those that cause changes
in the subject, while dependent variables are those that bear or manifest the effects caused by the independent variables. Hence, in a causal
relationship, the cause comes from the independent variables; the effects, on the dependent variables.

Variable relationships

As you carry out the research, it is possible that one, two, or more variables or extra variables crop up to create an impact on the
relationship between the independent and dependent variables. Being extra variables, they form this other type of variables called extraneous
variables. Extraneous variables are called participant variables if they refer to the moods, emotions, or intelligence of the subject; situational
variables, if they pertain to nature of the place: smelly, chilly, cold, hot, spacious, and the like.

Other Types of Variables

Extraneous variables are to be controlled by you, the experimenter. But if they do not give in to your control, they become confounding
variables that can strongly influence the study.
There are other types of variables which are as follows (Russell 2013; Babbie 2013):
1. Constant – do not undergo any changes during an experiment
2. Attribute – characteristics of people: intelligence, creativity, anxiety, learning styles, etc.
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 NOTES 2018

9. Endogenous – found inside; as a part of identified model

Continuous and Discrete Variables

A variable that can take infinite number on the value that can occur within the population is known as continuous variable. Its values can
be divided into fractions. Examples of this type of variable include age, height, and temperature. Discrete variable or also known as categorical or
classificatory variable, on the other hand, is any variable that has a limited number of distinct values and which cannot be divided into fractions like
sex, blood group, and number of children in a family.

Continuous variables can be further categorized as either interval or ratio variables:

Interval variable is a measurement where the difference between two values does have meaning.
Ratio variable possesses the properties of interval variable and has a clear definition of zero, indication that there is none of that
variable.

Discrete variables can be further categorized as nominal and ordinal:

Nominal variable is a variable with no quantitative value. It has two or more categories but does not imply ordering of cases.
Ordinal variable is a variable that has two or more categories which can be ranked.

-------------------------------------------------------------------- STUDENT ACTIVITY --------------------------------------------------------------------

ACTIVITY A. Variable Identification

Directions: INDIVIDUAL WORK. Identify the independent and dependent variables in each research problem. Write your answer under the right
column.

Research Queue Independent Variable Dependent Variable

1. How does logical thinking develop critical

thinking?

2. What are the effects of Koreanovelas on

the Filipino value system?

3. In what way does collaborative learning

increase communicative competence?

4. To what extent does texting decrease

students’ grammatical competence?

5. What corrupt practices trigger off one’s

resignation?

ACTIVITY B. Using Venn Diagrams, show the similarities and differences between continuous and discrete variable and independent and dependent
variables.

Continuous Discrete Independent Dependent

 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 NOTES 2018

Lesson 4 – Quantitative Research Topic, Problem, Background, Scope, Limitations

and Significance of the Study

OBJECTIVES Research Topic

The first challenge of any researcher is the identification of
After this lesson, the student should be able to: a research topic. A research topic or problem is an intellectual
1. increase the number of English words you know; stimulus calling for an answer in the form of scientific inquiry.
2. communicate your world views through the newly learned
words; Sources of Research topic or Problems
3. explain the meaning of a quantitative research problem; The following are the things that may be considered
4. evaluate the quality of qualitative research problem and before starting the research activity:
research questions;
5. use prose and non-prose means of comparing and contrasting 1. Prevailing theories or philosophy
the approaches and types of research questions; 2. Observations, intuitions or a combination of both
6. distinguish a researchable from a non-researchable research 3. Different subjects taken and from them identify a problem
problem; and that interests a student-researcher most
7. apply the guidelines in stating a quantitative research problem 4. Fields of interest or specialization or event from related fields
and research questions. 5. Existing problems in the classroom/school/campus/university
which one may want to solve are good sources of research
problems
6. Existing needs of the community or society
7. Repetition or extension of investigations already conducted
or may be an offshoot of studies underway (Angeles, 1966, p.
86)
8. Related studies and literatures
9. Advice of authorities or experts from funding agencies
10. Offshoots of friendly conversations
11. Incidental from interesting topics of professors during the
course

Selecting the Research Topic

In choosing a research problem, be guided by the following criteria:

1. It should be something new or different from what has already been written about.
2. It must be original.
3. It should be significant to the field of study or discipline.
4. It must be necessarily arouse intellectual curiosity.
5. It should be of researcher’s interest and researcher must be with the topic.
6. It should be a modest one for a beginner to be carried on within a limited period of time.
7. It should be clear, not ambiguous.
8. It should be specific, not general.
9. It should consider the training and personal qualifications of the researcher.
10. It should consider the availability of data involved in the study and the methods and techniques to be employed in gathering them.
11. It should consider the availability of effective instruments for gathering the data and their treatment.
12. It should consider the financial capacity of the researcher to support the project.
13. It should consider the time factor involved in the undertaking.

The researcher has to settle first the problem of selecting the problem to research on. The following may be considered as basis for selecting the
problem: technical and personal.

Technical Criteria Personal

• significant to chosen field/advancement of science or • interest

specialization • training
• pioneering or novel • expertise
• originality • financial capacity
• arouse intellectual curiosity • time factor involved in the project
• relevance to degree
• availability or manageability of data
• availability of instruments
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 NOTES 2018

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

After identifying your research topic, you must situate your research in a particular academic field his is when you establish the
background of your study. The background of the study introduces important facets that establish the general context where the study revolves.
This part may include le description of the subjects of the study or the history involving the research.

Let us use an example showing how to establish the background of the study. You may want to conduct a study on the effects of traffic
on your city. To establish the background of your study, you need to discuss several aspects describing your topic. For instance, you may first
provide a brief overview of the changes in the traffic situation in your city through the years. Then, you may discuss and determine the effects of
heavy traffic on both passengers and motorists. Finally, you may explain the factors that contribute to heavy traffic in your city. Possible factors
include the increase in the number of vehicles on the road and problems in the enforcement of traffic rules and regulations.

Another important component of the background of the study is the establishment of the research gap. A research gap is an issue that
has not been fully addressed by previous studies. Doing this helps you show where your research stands in the academic field. Here are the four
components to consider in establishing the research gap of your paper.

1. The current state of the field

Explain that the general field in which your current study is situated remains to be a significant area of research up to the present. Point
out that it continues to interest many researchers and practitioners.

2. The current and conventional practices in addressing the issue

Discuss the current practices being used by researchers, practitioners, or authorities within the particular field of study you are
investigating. Make sure to explain the merits of these practices and their contribution to your field of study.

3. The research gap

Explain that there are other aspects under the topic which may not have been addressed by current practices and conventions in your
field of study. It may be also possible that these established practices have failed to provide conclusive findings in investigating your Chosen topic.
Additionally, you may state that there are very few studies that have explored the area of your current research. Make sure that the research gap
you have identified remains relevant and has not been addressed yet; otherwise, you will fail to provide a convincing justification for conducting
your research.

4. The contribution of the present study in addressing the research gap

Discuss how your own study will help fill in the research gap you have identified. Filling the gap may be in the form of a new methodology
or approach, or the development of a new perspective or theory.

In writing this section, avoid making negative or biased remarks. For instance, refrain from using the words neglected and failed when
presenting established conventions in a certain field. Instead, phrase or state your idea in an objective manner: "While the study of (Author X)
investigates the area of_________________ the current study focuses on_____________" It is also important in this section to define terms or
concepts that are mentioned for the first time. This may be done informally (or provide the definition parenthetically) or formally (or use a
separate sentence for the definition).

IDENTIFYING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

After selecting your topic, the next thing is to identify your research problem. This refers to the particular issue which you will address in
your study as well as the specific area of concern of the research. The research problem states what is to be investigated, identifies the variables,
and discusses their relationships. Here are some steps that you can follow in identifying your research problem.

1. Conduct preliminary research using all available resources (print and non-print) in identifying your research problem. You may visit your school
library or use online resources such as Google Scholar, ProQuest, Science Direct, and JSTOR. You may also use other print sources, such as
newspapers and magazines.

2. Based on your preliminary research, prepare a concept map to generate and synthesize your ideas. Write your general topic inside a circle in the
middle of the paper. Let this circle branch out into smaller circles. These smaller circles will contain second-level ideas related to your general topic.
Further branch off these second-level circles until you end up with clusters or groups of concepts.

3. Identify your general research problem from these clusters. You can also think of other specific research problems based on this general
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 NOTES 2018

After identifying your research problem, you now have to state it and establish its place in your study. This is the function of the problem
statement. The problem statement formally points out the issue that your study wants to address. A good problem statement does not only
identify the problem in the study but also answers the question "Why is the problem worthy of being investigated?" It includes the following
components:

1. A clear explanation of the problem as well as its causes

2. Evidence that supports the existence of the identified problem
3. Definition of concepts relevant to the problem

FORMULATING THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Research questions are important components of your research which help define the research problem of your study. They indicate
specific concerns related to your research problem that your study also intends to answer. They are classified into general and specific types. The
general research question is derived from the main problem of the study. It must contain words related to quantitative research, such as effects or
relationship. The words who, when, or where shall not be placed in the general research question as these elicit factual questions that may not
require extensive investigation and discussion.

Specific research questions are anchored on the general research question. They are helpful in developing tools for collecting data,
gathering related references, organizing your paper, and drawing valid conclusions from findings. How you write your specific research questions
depends on the type of quantitative research you are doing. However, they must always include the significant variables in the study and the
subject being analyzed.

Types of Quantitative Research Questions

A quantitative research problem can generate a set of research questions or sub-problems that fall under any of these types of research
questions:
1. Descriptive research questions – ask questions on the kind, qualifications, and categories of the subjects or participants
2. Relation questions – are questions about the nature and manner of connection between or among variables
3. Causal questions – reasons behind the effects of the independent variable o the dependent variable is the focus of these types of
research questions

Approaches to Quantitative Research Questions

Likewise, you may start asking research problems or research questions based on any of these two approaches:

1. Deductive Approach
Your questions begin from “hunches or predictions” or expectations about the outcome of your research. Ask questions centering on a
theory or concept, discover the accuracy of the theory, ponder o variables to represent the extent of the application of the theory, and
make up your mind on which variable to study through observation, interview, or experimentation. Explaining the meaning of a variable
based on its involvement or role in the research process, particularly, in the measurement, manipulation, or control of the concept
application is giving such term its operational definition.

2. Inductive Approach
Deductive approach goes from bigger ideas such as theories or concepts to smaller ideas; conversely, inductive approach starts from
smaller and simpler ideas to bigger or more complex ones. Inductively formulated research questions focus on description of things to
prove an idea or system. Central to this approach are specific details to prove the validity of a certain theory or concept. (Walsh 2009, p.
35)

Related to the specific research questions are the research objectives or the goals that your research aims to achieve. Another important
component related to the research questions and the research problem is the thesis statement, which serves as a one-sentence summary of the
arguments that you are presenting in your study.

Specific Research Questions for Descriptive Research

The focus of descriptive quantitative research is to observe and report on the measurable aspects of a phenomenon. Specific research
questions in this kind of study can begin with phrases such as how often, how frequently, how many, how much, what is/are, to what extent, what
proportion, and what percentage. For example, in a study involving a group of employees' usage of Facebook, the following can be used as specific
research questions:

1. How often do employees use Facebook in one week?

2. How many hours do employees spend on Facebook per week?
3. What proportion of Filipino male and female employees uses Facebook?
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 NOTES 2018

Specific Research Questions for Correlational Research

Correlational research is interested in finding out the relationships among two or more variables. However, it only establishes mere
association and not causal relationships. Research questions for correlational studies usually begin with "Is there a relationship?" or "What is the
relationship?" In a study about the length of preparation for examinations and the scores obtained by test-takers, the following can be utilized as
specific research questions:

1. What is the relationship between the length of the review and examination scores?
2. Is there a relationship between the IQ of a test-taker and his/her performance in review sessions?
3. Is there a relationship between the performance of a test-taker in a previous examination and the length of review he/she takes for a
new one?

Specific Research Questions for Ex Post Facto Research

As earlier discussed, ex post facto studies attempt to discover the cause/s of a phenomenon. This cause has already occurred or taken
effect on the subject even before the conduct of the study, or has not been introduced in the study itself. The causal relationship, however, is not
as strong as the one established in quasi-experimental and experimental studies.

The presumed cause that exists even before the study is undertaken must be incorporated in the questions. This characteristic must also
be observed when the questions are comparative in nature. The questions must not suggest that an experiment is to be conducted in the study:
They must not imply that the manipulation of a variable during the study will cause certain conditions to occur.

For instance, in an ex post facto study involving digital literacy and the type of information technology education that students obtain, the following
can be used as specific research questions:

1. Are information technology education students and vocational education students digitally literate?
2. Using the four components of digital literacy, what can be identified as the strengths and weaknesses of information technology
education students and vocational education students?
3. Is there a difference between the digital literacy scores of information technology education students and vocational education
students?

Specific Research Questions for Experimental and Quasi-experimental Research

Specific research questions in experimental and quasi-experimental studies suggest a stronger causal relationship among the variables in
the study. In particular, this causal relationship is linked to the manipulation of a certain variable during the study itself.

Preferably, the first two questions for both experimental and quasi-experimental studies should be quantitative in nature. The next
question, on the other hand, should have a qualitative element to provide meaning to the numbers or statistical data that will be analyzed, this is
one way of using the mixed method in conducting research in general, or combining elements of qualitative and quantitative research in the
analysis of data. The following are examples of research questions for experimental and quasi-experimental studies on tutorial sessions and
academic performance:

1. Is there a significant posttest gain on students' academic performance?

2. Is there a difference between the posttest gains of the control group and treatment group?
3. How do students rate their experiences in one-on-one tutorial sessions?

Guidelines in Formulating a Quantitative Research Problem and Research Questions

1. Formulate a research problem that is researchable; meaning, open to empirical investigation.

2. See to it that you state your quantitative research problem clearly, concisely, and possibly, if under APA referencing style, not beyond 12
words.
3. Have your research problem focus on a general understanding of your research topic.
4. Construct a research problem that mirrors the importance of carrying out the research for finding answers or solutions to a problem.
5. Let our quantitative research problem state the variables and their relationships with one another
6. Construct and introductory statement to present your research problem, which is the main problem of your research.
7. State your research questions or sub-problems, not in the form of yes-or-no questions, but in informative questions.
8. Express your research problem and research questions either in an interrogative or declarative manner, but some research books say that
the former is more effective than the latter form. (Babbie 2013; Punch 2014; Walliman 2014)

FORMULATING THE RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 NOTES 2018

Purposes of Hypotheses

Some researchers find hypotheses essential because of the following reasons:

1. They guide you on which aspect of the research to focus on.

2. They provide opportunities to prove the relationship between variables.
3. They give the right direction of the research.
4. They outline your thoughts on your manner of summarizing the results and of explaining the conclusions.
5. They push for an empirical study to prove the existence of relationship of variables and the effects of independent variable on the
dependent variable.

There are two types of hypothesis: the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis. The definitions of these hypotheses differ based on
the kind of quantitative research in which they are used. It should be noted that there are generally no hypothesis used in descriptive research.

A null hypothesis (H0) states that there is no relationship between variables. In correlational studies, a null hypothesis merely states that
this relationship is, indeed, absent. In experimental, quasi-experimental, and ex-post facto studies, however, a null hypothesis states that the
independent variable has no effect on the dependent variable.

On the other hand, an alternative hypothesis (HA) states that there is a relationship between variables. Similar to the null hypothesis,
alternative hypotheses in correlational studies merely express the existence of this relationship. This statement changes in experimental, quasi-
experimental, and ex-post facto studies. In these studies, an alternative hypothesis states that the independent variable has an effect on the
dependent variable.

A hypothesis can also state a direction. The direction of the hypothesis points out if the variables have negative or positive relationship
with each other. It means that the increase or decrease of the value of the variable has a relationship with the increase or decrease of the another.
This indicates that the hypothesis must explicitly suggest either a positive or negative relationship between the variables. The hypothesis is now
referred to as the directional hypothesis. If the hypothesis is according to one specific direction, it is examined through a one-tailed test. On the
other hand, if the hypothesis does not specify a particular direction, it is now called a non-directional hypothesis. Such hypothesis merely states
that there is a relationship between two variables. This relationship is not specified as negative or positive. The hypothesis in this instance is
examined through a two-tailed test.

Guideline in Formulating Hypotheses

The craft in hypotheses formulation requires you to think of the following pointers (Mc Bride 2013; Lapan 2012):

1. Express your hypotheses in a declarative sentence.

2. Support your hypotheses with ideas based on theories, known facts, previous study, or your own experience and wisdom.
3. Establish a logical relationship between the hypotheses and the research problem.
4. Have your hypotheses predict the nature of relationship between or among variables.
5. Ascertain the possibility of having some means of testing, analyzing, and investigating your hypothesis.
6. Avoid wordiness by using clear, exact, or specific language in stating the hypotheses.

RESEARCH TYPE RESEARCH TITLE Null Hypothesis Alternative Hypothesis

Directional Non-Directional Directional Non-Directional

Correlational The relationship There is no positive There is no There is a positive There is a

between a person’s relationship between relationship between relationship between relationship between
weight and the a person’s weight a person’s weight a person’s weight a person’s weight
length of time spent and the length of and the length of and the length of and the length of
watching TV time spent watching time spent watching time spent watching time spent watching
TV. TV. TV. TV.

Experimental, quasi- The effects of group Group study will not Group study will not Group study will Group study will
experimental, or ex study on academic improve the affect the academic improve the affect the academic
post facto performance of high academic performance of high academic performance of high
school students performance of high school students. performance of high school students.
school students. school students.
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 NOTES 2018

-------------------------------------------------------------------- STUDENT ACTIVITY --------------------------------------------------------------------

Directions: Answer each question intelligently and concisely.
1. Why is a hypothesis a tentative explanation of something?
2. Is hypothesizing an example of HOTS? Why? Why not?
3. How do you formulate hypothesis?
4. Describe the relationship between hypotheses and research questions.
5. In research, what is the appropriate research time for hypotheses formulation? Explain your answer.
6. Should every research be provided with hypotheses? Give reasons for your answer.
7. Can any researcher formulate hypotheses? Why? Why not?
8. How do you determine the quality of hypotheses?
9. If you were to advise your friend on hypotheses formulation, what would you tell him/her?
10. Formulate hypotheses about the hottest issue in town.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

WRITING THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Another important component of the Introduction of your research paper is the significance of the study. This section details the
contribution or benefit that your study provides to different people and organizations, including the academe and other sectors of society. Thus,
the significance of the study may be in a practical, methodological, or theoretical sense.

In this part of the research, the researcher defines who will benefit out of the findings of the study. You describe how the problem will be
solved and specifically pinpoints who will benefit from such findings or results. Usually the beneficiaries of the study are those experts concerned
about the problem, the administrators or policy-makers who make the decisions or implement programs, the subjects themselves, future researchers
and those who are directly or indirectly affected by the problem. One may also ask into any contribution of the study to the field of specialization or
discipline, any advancement or new knowledge that the study contributes to the science or the state-of-the-art. In this portion of the study one may
also state the specific sectors who will benefit from the study. This part also justifies the rationale of the undertaking.

The significance of the study can be written topically or in an enumeration format. The topical arrangement is done in paragraphs and
based on the weight of the individual contributions. It can be also based on how you sequence your specific research questions. If you will use this
format, there should be one paragraph corresponding to each of the contributions or research questions.
On the other hand, when using an enumeration format, the details must be arranged according to the beneficiaries. Below are some of the parties
that may benefit from your study.

• field of study (e.g., business, education)

• government agencies
• private organizations
• organization or company involved in the study
• staff, heads, and administrators of a specific organization or company
• population the participants belong to
• other researchers

Some of the useful phrases that you can use in writing this section are as follows:

• The findings of this study will be useful to the following entities:

• This study will contribute to...
• This study will benefit the following groups or individuals:

Tips in Writing the Significance of the Study

1. Refer to the statement of the problem.

Your problem statement can guide you in identifying the specific contribution of your study. You can do this by observing a one-to-
one correspondence between the statement of the problem and the significance of the study.

2. Write from general to specific.

Write the significance of the study by looking into the general contribution of your study, such as its importance to society as a
whole, then to individuals which may include yourself as a researcher.
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 NOTES 2018

WRITING THE SCOPE AND DELIMITATION

The scope describes the coverage of the study. It specifies what is covered in terms of concept, number of subjects or the population
included in the study, as well as the timeline when the study was conducted. The components of the scope and delimitation include(but are not
limited to) the following items:

• Topic of the study

• Objectives of the study and the issues it will address
• Time frame in which the study will be conducted
• The locale or area where the study will be conducted
• Characteristics of the participants in the study (age, sex, education, economic status, civil status, and other traits)
• Response formats used in the study (if applicable)

Delimit by citing factors or variables that are not to be included and the boundary in terms of time frame, number of subjects,
participants or respondents who are excluded. Specify that which you will not deal within the study.

This section discusses the parameters of the research in paragraph. It answers the basic questions:

1. What – The topic of investigation and the variables included

2. Where – The venue or the setting of the research
3. When – The time frame by which the study was conducted
4. Why – The general objectives of the research
5. Who – The subject of the study, the population and sampling
6. How – The methodology of the research which may include the research design, methodology and the research instrument

It may also discuss why certain variables were not included in the research.

The scope and delimitation of the study must not be set merely for the sake of writing them. You must make sure that there are reasons
for the inclusion and exclusion of some variables, These reasons vary depending on the nature of the study. For example, you may choose to
delimit the participants to a particular city/community due to a large population. You may also choose to limit the objectives your study will
accomplish due to time constraints. You may use the following phrases when writing this section:

• This study covers...

• This study focuses on...
• The coverage of this study...
• This study is limited to...
• This study does not cover...

Example:
The main purpose of the study is to provide information regarding metro-sexuality and how being a metrosexual affects the
lifestyle of the student. The study considers the student’s personal information such as their name (optional) gender, age, and
section.
The researchers limited the study to male and female secondary education students enrolled in the second semester of school year
2015-2016 of Technological Institute of the Philippines. Each of the respondents was given a questionnaire to answer. The students
selected came from four different sections to prevent bias and get objective perceptions.

WRITING THE RESEARCH TITLE

Selected Guidelines in the Formulation of a Research Title

1. The title must contain the following elements:

a. the subject matter or research problem;
b. the setting or locale of the study;
c. the respondents or participants involved in the study; and
d. the time or period when the study was conducted (If the title becomes too long because of these elements, the timeframe or period
may be omitted except in evaluation studies)
2. The title must be broad enough to include all aspects of the study but should be brief and concise as possible.
3. The use of terms as “Analysis of”, “A Study of”, “An Investigation of” and the like should be avoided. All these are understood to have
been done in a research.
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 NOTES 2018

Characteristics of a Good Title

1. A title should give readers information about the contents of the research and is preferable to one that is vague or general.
2. Titles do not need to be stuffy or dull but they should generally give readers some idea at the outset of what the research paper will
contain.
3. Choose a title that is a phrase rather than a complete sentence.
4. Select a straightforward title over other kinds.
5. Use no punctuation at the end of a title.
6. Do not underline the title of research or enclose it in quotation marks, instead, use a word processing program or printer that permits
italics. Use them in place of italics.

Here are some titles of researches approved in various disciplines/programs:

1. Higher Order Thinking Skills in Reading of Freshmen in University of Northern Philippines, Academic Year 2015-
2016
2. Pinay Single Mom: Paghanga O Pagkutya? A Multi-Case Study on the Lives and Experiences of the Solo Parents
in Zamboanga City
3. Abakada O Aba! Kita…: A Multi-Case Study on Child Labor in the Selected Towns of the Province of Laguna
4. Magkapatid na Parang Aso’t Pusa: Magkasundo pa Kaya? A Multi-Case Study on Siblings with Rivalry in San
Jose, Mindoro Occidental
5. Establishment of Jackfruit Tea Processing Plant in Barangay Bantayan, Tabaco, Albay
6. Level of Acceptability of Worksheets for Film-Clippings by the Teachers of English in University of Antique,
Academic Year 2015-2016
7. Life’s Adjustment of Yolanda Victims in Tacloban City
8. Awareness on Traffic Rules and Regulations of Tricycle Operators and Drivers Association in Brgy. Culiat, Quezon
City, Calendar Year 2015-2016
9. Health Practices of Bachelor of Secondary Education Major in Music, Arts, Physical Education and Health
(MAPEH) at University of Rizal System Pilillia and Angono, Academic Year 2015-2016
10. Level of Acceptability of the Tracing Guide for Children with Cerebral Palsy by the Special Education Teachers in
the Division of Pampanga, School Year 2015-2016

-------------------------------------------------------------------- STUDENT ACTIVITY --------------------------------------------------------------------

Directions: Check the column that speaks of the quality of the given quantitative research problem. Accomplish the last column, too.

Quantitative Research Problem Researchable Non-researchable Comments, reasons, reactions

1. What are the viewers’

thoughts and feelings about
the ending of the movie?
2. What percentage of the
movie viewers find the
ending tragic?
3. How many find the movie
unrealistic?
4. Does the movie reflect
Philippine culture?
5. What fractional umber
represents the extent of the
movie, what reasons did he
give?
6. In the director’s attempt to
explain the cultural impact
of the movie, what reasons
did he give?
7. What kind of reasons or
causes did he give to clarify
the viewers’ questions on
Philippine culture in relation
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 NOTES 2018

is the reason on lack of

intercultural competence?
9. How many causes are
attributed to globalization?
10. What value system of the
director did the movie
reflect?

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

WRITESHOP ON THE INTRODUCTION

A. Using your approved outline and the information in Brainstorming the Research Problem, write your Introduction. Make sure that you have
accurately paraphrase, summarize, or directly quote the information you have taken from your sources. These sources should also be cited
properly.

B. Your teacher may ask you to color-code the text in your first draft based on each reference used. For example, ideas taken from reference 1
may be colored blue, so on and so forth. This way you and your teacher will easily see how you integrate the ideas into your own paper:

Below are additional guidelines when writing the Introduction.

1. Get additional reference materials that you might need in writing your paper. Be sure that your reference are taken from reliable
sources.
2. Add a references list at the end of the document using the following format: double-spaced, Times New Roman 12, one of the
document using the required documentation style.
3. Write your work on short bond paper using the following format: double-spaced, Times New Roman 12, one-inch margin on all sides.

Use the following template for the Introduction of your research paper:

1. Introduction
1.1. Background of the study
1.1.1. State the background of the study.
1.1.2. Establish the research gap.
1.1.2.1. Explain the current state of the field.
1.1.2.2. Explain the reasons or justifications for conducting the study.
1.1.2.3. Explain the research gap.
1.1.2.4. State that your research addresses the gap.

1.2. Statement of the Research Questions

The paper specifically aims to answer (or address) the following research questions (or objectives):
1.2.1. Specific problem 1 (question form for problem and declarative form for objective)
1.2.2. Specific problem 2 (question form for problem and declarative form for objective)
1.2.3. Specific problem 3 (question form for problem and declarative form for objective)

1.3. Research Hypothesis

The following hypotheses were formulated to guide this study:
H₀ = (State your null hypothesis).
Hᴀ = (State your alternative hypothesis).

1.4. Significance of the Study

The findings of this research will prove useful to the following entities:
Beneficiary 1. (Explain how beneficiary 1 will benefit from the result of the research).
Beneficiary 2. (Explain how beneficiary 2 will benefit from the result of the research).
Beneficiary 3. (Explain how beneficiary 3 will benefit from the result of the research).

1.5. Scope and delimitation of the Study

This research attempts to (state your general problem). Primarily the focus of this research is on (state the
scope or coverage of the research). (Explain why the study is delimited in that way).
It should be noted by the research). (Explain why the study Excluded those areas).
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 NOTES 2018

C. After completing your first draft, revisit it to clarify the major points and supporting details. Then, subjected to plagiarism checking online.

D. After you have reviewed your first draft, exchange your work with that of another classmate for peer critiquing. When evaluating your
classmate’s work, use a blue or green-inked pen and focus on content, organization, style, and structure of the paper. Start revising your
own work once the other group has finished evaluating it.
E. After revise your draft, submit it to your teacher for feedback. Your teacher will evaluate the content, style, organization, and structure of
your draft using the given rubric.

F. Revise your draft again based on your teacher’s feedback. Again, focus on the content, style, organization, and structure. Reserve the
editing of grammar and mechanics for the latter stage of your writing.
G. After completing your draft edit it focusing on grammatical and typographical errors. You may use an online grammar checker (e.g.,
grammarly.com) or ask for assistance from others in editing your work.

H. After the finishing touches, put your draft in a portfolio. You will use this completed work in writing the other parts of your research paper.

OBJECTIVES Lesson 6 – Review of Related

After this lesson, the student should be able to: Literature
1. Select relevant literature;
2. Cite related literature using a standard style
3. Synthesize information from relevant literature Definition of RRL
4. Write a coherent literature review
5. Follow ethical standards in writing a literature review RRL is an important component of research regardless of
the type of research. Be it qualitative or quantitative
research, you spend time and effort in reviewing related
literature. Reviewing related literature is one major activity in research that makes you examine or study again concepts or ideas related to your
research that people managed to publish in books, journals, or other reading materials in the past.

Purposes of RRL

1. To find out the connection of your research to the current conditions or situations of the world
2. To know more about theories or concepts underlying your research and to learn from theme with respect to your own research study
3. To discover the relation of your research with previous research studies
4. To obtain information on the accuracy or relevance of your research questions
5. To familiarize yourself with technical terms related to your research

The Importance of Related Theories and Concepts

By addressing simple questions, the researcher can begin to develop a loosely-structured theoretical framework to guide them. The
following questions have been adapted from Slevin and Basford (1999; 298):

1. What do I know about the phenomenon that I want to study?

2. What types of knowledge are available to me (empirical, non-empirical, tacit, intuitive, moral or ethical)?
3. What theory will best guide my teaching practice?
4. Is this theory proven through theory-linked research?
5. What other theories are relevant to this practice?
6. How can I apply these theories and findings in practice?

RRL in Quantitative Research

You have learned that there are two basic methods of reviewing related literature: traditional and systematic review. Traditional is for
qualitative research; systematic, for quantitative research. Systematic review, ‘a question-driven methodology’ is used by quantitative researchers
who begin their research work by asking questions – one big question that states the main problem of the research and a set of sub-questions that
deal with specific aspects of the research.

Steps in Conducting a Systematic Review

Systematic review of related literature happens through the following sequential steps:

1. Clarifying the research questions

2. Planning the research based on your understanding of the research questions
3. Searching for literature
4. Listing criteria for considering the values of written works
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 NOTES 2018

Reviewing the literature requires the ability to juggle multiple tasks, from finding and evaluating relevant material to synthesizing
information from various sources, from critical thinking to paraphrasing, evaluating, and citation skills (Budgen & Brereton, 2006). Pautasso (2013)
enumerated ten simple rules for writing a literature review:

1. Define the topic and audience.

2. Search and re-search the literature. Zotero is a computer application that you can use to collect
3. Take notes while reading. sources and cite them properly.
4. Choose the type of review you wish to write.
5. Keep the review focused, but make it of broad 1. Visit the following link: https://www.zotero.org/download
interest. 2. Download and install the Zotero application through the link.
6. Be critical and consistent. there are two versions of Zotero application: the one that can only
7. Find a logical structure.
be used via Mozilla Firefox, and Zotero Standalone, which can
8. Make use of feedback.
also be used for other browsers.
9. Include your own relevant research.
10. Be up-to-date in your review of literature and 3. After launching the application, collect sources from your browser
studies into your Zotero library. For Zotero for Firefox, do this by clicking
the book icon in the search bar. For Zotero Standalone, right-click
Remember that the quality of your paper is and choose the option “Save Zotero Snapshot from Current Page.”
influenced by the quality of references you use. The 4. Choose the citation style (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago style) you will
following are some of the points to remember in be using in your study. Click the gear symbol, then the preferences
conducting your literature search: option. After this, click Export and choose your preferred citation
style.
5. to import Zotero citation entries, drag and drop the item into the
1. Identify the topics and concepts that you need to
document.
incorporate into your paper. Your research title and
specific research questions and objectives can be
good source of these topics or concepts.
2. Specify the type of sources that you will use. Will they be mainly articles or a combination of articles, books, and other periodicals?
3. Search for scholarly work by visiting your school library or popular online databases. These include the following:
• Proquest • Springer
• Science Direct • Wiley
• JSTOR • Taylor and Francis
• EBSCO • Sage Publications
• Google Scholar
As much as possible, include only the references published in reputable journals and publishers
and those written by experts who specialize in your selected topic. Include also the landmark studies, articles, reports or books related to
your topic.
4. Use relevant key words to find your desire sources.
Example topic: Effects of Online Games on the Digital Literacy of Teenagers
Key words: Online games, Digital literacy
5. When conducting literature search online, use links that are considered reliable. These are the sites that end in . gov, mil, and .edu, for
example. Sites that end in .com and .org are also acceptable as long as they are associated with recognized companies and organizations.
some of these sites are www.un.org (United Nations), www.unesco.org (UNESCO), www.edition.cnn.com (Cable News Network), and
www.rd.com (reader’s Digest).
6. You may also utilize Boolean searching strategies in conducting your literature search online. Boolean searching strategies use certain
keywords to limit and focus one’s online search of a certain topic. The following are some of the Boolean searching strategies that you
can use:
a. Use And if you want to search for profiles or text that contain the terms connected by AND (e.g., university And colleges).
b. USE or if you want to search for profiles or text that contain either of the terms connected by OR (e.g., university OR colleges).
c. use NOT if you want to exclude a particular term in your search (e.g., university NOT colleges).
d. Use quotation marks if you want to search for a specific phrase (e.g., “top Philippine universities”).

If you intend to use your school library to get available materials for your research, you may follow these steps:

1. Visit the online public access catalog (OPAC) database of your school library.
2. Key in the important details about the material you want to find. These include the type, title, author, and publication year of the
materials.
3. You can utilize print and non-print sources from the library. Some examples of print materials that you can use include books, journals,
newspapers, magazine, archival records, and maps. Note that non-print material such as video, CDs, and cassettes may also be available
in libraries.
4. Use call numbers to locate your library materials, particularly those in print. Call numbers are unique of library materials.
5. Check the table of content of materials to see whether they are useful for your research. If needed, you may briefly read the actual content
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 NOTES 2018

Important Skills in Drafting the Literature Review

There are two skills that are particularly important in drafting the literature review; synthesizing and note taking. The first is synthesizing.
This skill involves the review of several references that talk about the same subject and consolidating them into one cohesive text. Synthesizing can
be done at the micro and macro levels. Microlevel synthesis involves the consolidation of ideas to explain a concept. To effectively perform
microlevel synthesis, you may follow these strategies:

1. Look into and take note of related ideas in the materials you are examining.
2. Cluster the ideas shared among the materials, determine those that are distinct, and put them in a separate list.
3. Decide on how will arrange the ideas. Discuss first the common ideas to give a general overview of the topic. Then, present the distinct
ideas and relate them to your study.
4. Use multiple citations if one idea can be found in several sources.
5. Insert the corresponding citations while writing the synthesis.

Macrolevel synthesis, on the other hand, is performed when several studies are consolidated to establish a research gap and not just to
explain a concept. It also involves drawing conclusions based on the similarities and differences of the reviewed references and studies. This type of
synthesis does not only involve the description of certain aspects in these materials such as the methods and conclusions generated. It also relates
the various issue and topics in these materials to one another, and highlights how these can be used in your paper. Here are some strategies that
you can use in synthesizing your references:

1. Note any similarities and differences across your references that are relevant to your paper.
2. Take note of issues that were not addressed by your references.
3. Arrange the related studies and references logically; this can be done either thematically or chronologically.
4. Draw conclusions about the materials in order to highlight their importance.

Meta-analysis in Quantitative Research

What is meta-analysis in relation to RRL? Meta-analysis is a kind of review of related literature in which you re-examine and combine the
results of two or more statistical studies for coming out with a grand total to indicate stronger effects of the research outcome. Putting the results
together and making them appear as one result work to strengthen whatever impact the independent variable has on the dependent variable.
Similar in many ways, these studies that are apt for combination purposes are called homogenous studies. Conversely, with a number of
differences from other studies, they are called heterogeneous studies and are exempted from this type of systematic review of related literature
called meta-analysis.

In-text Citation and Referencing Styles

Referring to authors within the main body of the paper is called Citation or In-text Citation; at the end of the paper, it is called
Bibliography or References. The two most commonly used referencing styles are the MLA (Modern Language Association) and the APA (American
Psychological Association). The following table shows you how these two referencing styles differ in some aspects.

Aspect APA System MLA System

Writing the author’s name Full surname first, then followed by initials of Full surname first, followed by full first name,
first and middle name and optional initial of the middle name
Writing the title of the reading material Italicized title with only the beginning word Underlined or italicized title with all content
capitalized (exception: capital for every words capitalized
proper noun)
Writing the copyright date Written after the author’s name Witten after the publisher’s name
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 NOTES 2018

Lesson 7 – Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks

OBJECTIVES Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks

As you look for related literature for your research, you

will encounter several theories and concepts which may support
After this lesson, the student should be able to: your study and will help you explain its possible findings. These
theories and concepts make up the theoretical and conceptual
1. explain the meaning of conceptual framework; framework of your study. A theoretical framework is general
2. clarify the difference between a conceptual framework and a frame of reference used for observation, defining concepts,
theoretical framework; developing research designs, and interpreting and generalizing
3. justify the essence of a conceptual framework based on some findings. This can be used in different types of studies.
pointers; and
4. critique a conceptual framework applying the guidelines on A conceptual framework, on the other hand, refers to a
doing this important aspect of the research. system of ideas, beliefs, assumptions, and theories that inform,
5. explain the meaning of operational definition; support, and cater specifically to your study. Together, the
6. distinguish an operational definition from other types of theoretical and conceptual frameworks function like a map or
definition; travel plan that will help you traverse an unfamiliar territory. This
7. compare and contrast operational and theoretical definition; means that your theoretical and conceptual frameworks help you
and navigate through understanding your research. They serve as the
8. give an operational definition of a term based on the backbone of your study.
guidelines they learned about defining terms operationally.
For a clearer presentation of information, theoretical
and conceptual frameworks may be presented using both visual
and narrative forms. The visual form is characterized by the use of
diagrams and charts, while the narrative form is characterized by
the use of paragraphs that explain the visual representation of the
frameworks.

Theoretical and conceptual frameworks possess similar characteristics. First both of them provide a comprehensive understanding of a
phenomenon. Second, they both provide a theory that underpins your study. Third, they help justify the methods you will use and assumptions
that you will make in your research. Fourth, they will help you refine your objectives, develop relevant research questions, choose appropriate
methods, and identify possible threats to validity. Finally, they both guide you in exploring and interpreting your data to arrive at your desired
results.

Because of these similarities, these two terms are sometimes used interchangeably. However, theoretical and conceptual framework
actually have distinct features. The theoretical framework is broader in scope and derived from the theories that are already used in the field. On
the other hand, the conceptual framework is narrowed in scope and uses specific concepts which are identified from the study itself. It also shows
how these concepts can guide your analysis. Another distinction between the theoretical framework and the conceptual framework is number of
theory at a time, a conceptual framework may synthesize to your current study, especially those that were mentioned in your research questions
and objectives.

The following table summarizes the difference between the theoretical and conceptual framework:

Theoretical Framework Conceptual Framework

Scope Broader in shape as it can be used in More focused in shape as it directly relates to a specific
different studies study

Focus of content A particular theory A set of related concepts in the study

Number of theories Contains only one theory in one May combine different theories into one cohesive
framework framework

Time of development Already existing prior to the conducted Developed while planning and writing a specific research
of the study

Selecting your Theoretical Framework

The following guidelines will help you choose witch theoretical framework best suits your study.
1. Understand the variables included in your study as well as their relationship with one another.
2. Review the existing literature related to your research topic.
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 NOTES 2018

DEVELOPING Your Conceptual Framework

Here are some strategies that you can use in developing the conceptual framework of your study.

1. Identify the key concepts in your study by referring to your research questions or objectives.
2. Search for existing theories that incorporate the same concepts and look into their relationship with one another.
3. Using the existing theories as guide, plot your conceptual framework using a concept map.
4. In case that there are concepts not covered by the selected theories, incorporate them into your framework. However, make sure that
you are incorporating this concept into your framework because it is necessary for your paper.
5. After completing the initial draft of your conceptual framework, write a narrative explanation of each concept and how each of them
relates with one another. again there should be a basis for the relationship among the concepts being incorporated.
6. Refer once again to your research questions. Check if the conceptual framework is aligned with them.
7. Note that the process of creating a conceptual framework is developmental. This means that it may still be refined or changed as you
read more literature and took into more theories.

In some cases, the research hypothesis are presented at the end of the conceptual framework.

Concept Map

Made up of varied figures: lines, circles, boxes, and other marks or symbols representing your concepts on these varied features of your
research – research question, a review of related literature, research methodology, and variables, among others – a conceptual framework looks
like a map showing the main features of a plan or project plus the relationship between or among the features or variables in the research.
Through the proper connection of lines and pointing of arrows to boxes and other codes symbolizing your concepts about the research, the readers
are able to visualize a comprehensive picture of your study.

Here is an example of a Conceptual Framework of a research study.

Research Problem or Topic: “Improving Critical thinking through Systemic Functional Grammar”

Systemic Functional Grammar or SFG is a modern language theory which states that man’s critical thinking increases whenever he uses
language for these reasons: first, for ideational function or for knowledge acquisition; second, for interpersonal function or creating human
relationships, and third, for textual function or for strategic and coherent expression of ideas. In this case, the independent variables are the SFG
components (ideational, interpersonal, and textual functions) and the dependent variable is critical thinking. Here is the conceptual framework to
present the concepts underlying this study. (Ravich & Riggan 2012)
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 NOTES 2018

Ideational
Function

Systemic Functional
Interpersonal Grammar Textual
Function Function

Critical
Thinking

A Sample Conceptual Framework

Conceptual Framework vs. Theoretical Framework

All your plans, concepts, or ideas about the many aspects of your research are shown and clarified graphically and verbally in the
conceptual framework. However, looking so broad or numerous, all components of the study, concrete and abstract, are not extensively and
thoroughly explained by the conceptual framework. Hence, there is this other part of your research paper, called theoretical framework that gives
and explains the theories, principles, generalizations, and research findings, which have some connection to your research study.

Conceptual framework enables the readers to clearly see in their minds the basic structure of the research and the relationships of
variables and other factual things involved in the study. Theoretical framework, on the other hand, makes people know and understand evidence-
based truths, concepts, speculations, and assumptions underlying each aspect of the research and the relationships of these research features with
one another.

An in-depth knowledge of the theoretical principles governing or controlling the things involved in the research makes you think well and
accurately of the varied aspects of your study; thereby, giving you the chance to have a better view of not only the main problem of your research
but also of its other components. You get to read in the theoretical framework the basis or foundation of the research; in the conceptual
framework, the broad outline plan to carry out the research on the basis of the theories, principles, or generalizations proven true by facts and
logical reasoning. (Shields & Rangarjan 2013; Walliman 2014)

Pointers in Writing a Conceptual Framework

1. Familiarize yourself with the objective of the conceptual framework.

2. Base the contents of the conceptual framework on your own understanding of the elements and of the relationships of the research
features.
3. See to it that all aspects of the conceptual framework are related to the objective of the research.
4. Let others read your conceptual framework for comments or feedback for improvement purposes.
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 NOTES 2018

Another example of a theoretical-conceptual framework:

With the continued rise of drug related mortality in the Philippines, your school plans to implement a
survey research on drug awareness program for the entire province. According to the Guardian (2016), “The most
widely abused drugs in the Philippines are methamphetamine hydrochloride, known locally as shabu, and cannabis,
which can easily be grown in the country’s rural areas.” As reported in 2014, 89% of drug seizures involved shabu
while 8.9% involved cannabis, according to the Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency. The cooperating agencies are
Department of Education (DepEd), Philippine National Police (PNP), and the Provincial Capitol. The purpose of the
undertaking is to evaluate the level of awareness among parents and the most vulnerable groups which are the
middle adulthood and the youth. The research aims to examine the extent of drug awareness at household levels
with due considerations of the following characteristics: (1) socio-economic status, (2) gender, (3) age group, (4)
educational attainment, and (5) household size. The survey expects to involve high school and senior high school
teachers for data-gathering I different schools in the province. The study also aims to gather information data about
the integration of drug awareness program in the graduate school.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

Operational Definition

Operational definition is making the concept or the thing meaningful by specifying the way your research should measure such concept. It
defines the basic concept through the operation used or research activity involved to measure the concept.

Guideline in Giving Operational Definition

Gleaned from books on research are the following pointers on defining terms operationally:
1. Have a clear understanding of the concept focused on by your study before you begin defining such concept operationally.
2. Base your operational definition on the concept under study.
3. Express the operational definition in only one sentence.
4. Let the operational definition explain the measurement of variables clearly.
5. Construct an operational definition that other researchers can understand, assess, and repeat in other research studies.

Examples of Operational Definitions

1. Defining Temperature

Ø Theoretical/Conceptual Definition: heat flowing between infinite reservoirs

Ø Operational Definition: define temperature in relation to operations with gas thermometers

2. Defining Electric Current

Ø Theoretical/Conceptual Definition: force between two parallel conductors

Ø Operational Definition: mention the device, current balance, to measure electric current

3. Defining Anger

Ø Theoretical/Conceptual Definition: intangible; not directly measured by observation

Ø Operational Definition: mention facial expressions, vocabulary, or voice tone to measure anger

4. Defining Virgo

Ø Theoretical/Conceptual Definition: constellation of stars (cannot tell the process of formation)

Ø Operational Definition: mention the way of locating Virgo in the sky (repeatable process)
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 NOTES 2018

-------------------------------------------------------------------- STUDENT ACTIVITY --------------------------------------------------------------------

ACTIVITY A:
Plan a good and doable research proposal by completing the following:
1. Create a theoretical-conceptual framework of the study. Outline and discuss the schema showing the interrelationships between
identified variables.
2. State the BEST title of the study.
Rubric for constructing theoretical-conceptual framework

Component Excellent (3) Good (2) Poor (1)

Conceptual/theoretical A valid situation is made for the Adequately stated situation The situation is not valid and not
framework/model significance of the topic/issue which is significance of the well-developed theoretical or
within a theoretical or policy topic/issue within a theoretical or policy framework.
framework. policy framework.

Background theory Background theory is presented The theory cited is The theory cited is
objectively with no obvious gaps. misinterpreted, has little gap and misinterpreted, has very serious
not explained well. gaps, or is superficially
presented.

Role of theory/on quantitative Demonstrates understanding of Theoretical-conceptual Theoretical-conceptual

research the role of theory in quantitative framework not clear, frameworks are not well
study demonstration of understanding developed and the role of theory
of the role of theory is in quantitative research is not
quantitative study is not so clearly addressed.
evident.

ACTIVITY B:
Directions: Convert each theoretical definition to operational definition.
1. A university is a place for learning.

2. Electric fan is a device for convenience.

3. Painting is an art.

4. A phrase is a group of words.

5. Patience is an ability to wait.

 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 NOTES 2018

ACTVITY C:
Directions: PAIR WORK. Decide whether each set of words make up a conceptual or a theoretical framework. Put a check mark (✔) on the line
under your correct answer.

Conceptual Theoretical
Framework Framework

1. Relationship of variables

2. Language has a social basis

3. Einstein’s ideas on nuclear energy

4. Conducting pre-test and post-test

5. Analysis of rhetorical patterns

6. Reading as a psycholinguistic language

7. Universe formation through explosion

8. Seeing the link between the Science book

and the CHED syllabus
9. Syllabus as the blueprint of the course

10. Testing the effects of Ebola virus on rats

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

WRITESHOP ON REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

1. Conduct a preliminary research for your literature review. Make sure that the sources you will use in your research are reliable.
2. Pay further attention to its structural features and answer the questions that follow. Discuss your observations with your groupmates.

a. How does the text begin?

b. What organization does the text follow? How is it structured?
c. How will you describe the way the ideas are presented?
d. What is the focus or main idea if each paragraph?
e. How are the supporting details for each of the main idea presented? Are the explanations sufficient?
f. What cohesive device are used to improve the flow and clarity of ideas?

3. Prepare a preliminary outline for your literature review. You may follow the structure of the given sample in Exercise 3.7. Be sure to observe the
principles of and guidelines for an effective outline. Seek the approval of your outline from your teacher before proceeding to the
actual writing of your literature review.

WRITING THE LITERATURE REVIEW

1. Using your approved outline, write the first draft of your literature review. Accurately paraphrase, summarize, or directly quote the information
you have borrowed from your sources and cite them properly. Your teacher may ask you to color-code the text in your first draft based on
each reference used. For example, use blue for ideas taken from reference 1 and so on. This way you and your teacher will easily see how you
have integrated the ideas into your own paper.
2. Define the key terms that you will incorporate into your work. State how your research hypothesis and your paper in general related to the
literature review.
3. Search for additional reference materials that you may need for writing your paper. Make sure that these reference are reliable.
4. Add a reference list at the end of the document using the required documentation style.
5. Use the following format in typing your review: double-spaced, Times New Roman 12, one-inch margin on all sides. Print your work on a short
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 NOTES 2018

Here is the format for the heading, subheadings, and content of your literature review.

2. Literature Review
2.1. Introduction for Literature Review
• state the purpose of writing the literature review.
• Indicate the scope or coverage of the review.
• Present the organization of the reviews content.
1.2 Concept 1
• Definition
• Description (types, functions, importance, features, effects and/ or causes,
Advantages and / or disadvantages if applicable
2.3. Concept 2
• Definition
• Description (types, functions, importance, features effects and/ or causes,
Advantages if applicable)
2.4. Concept 3
• Definition
• Description (types, functions, importance, features, effects and/ or causes,
Advantages and / or disadvantages if applicable)
2.5 Related Studies
Study 1.
» General and specific objectives of study 1
» Research design, participants, and instruments used
» Major findings related to your paper
» Conclusions related to your paper
» Weaknesses of Study 1 that were addressed by Study 2
Study 2.
» General and specific objectives of Study 2
» Research design, participants, and instruments used
» Major findings related to your paper
» weaknesses of Study 2 that were addressed by Study 3
Study 3.
» General and specific objectives of Study 3
» Research design, participants, and instruments used
» Major findings related to your paper
» Conclusion related to your paper
» Weaknesses of study 3 that were addressed by your study
2.6 Synthesis
• Reinforcement of research gap after reviewing the available literature
• Explanation of the conceptual and theoretical framework

6. After completing your first draft, revisit it to clarify the major points and supporting details. Then, subject it to plagiarism checking online.
7. After you have received your first draft, exchange your work with that of another classmate for peer critiquing. When evaluating your work
with that of another classmate for peer critiquing. When evaluating your classmate’s work, use a blue or green-inked pen and focus on
content, organization, style, and structure of the paper
8. Start revising your own paper once the other group has finished evaluating it.
9. After revising your paper, submit it to your teacher for feedback. Your teacher will evaluate the content, style, organization, and structure of
your paper using the rubric. Revise your paper again based on your teacher’s feedback. Focus on the content, organization, style and
structure of your paper. Reserve the editing of grammar and mechanics for the latter stage of your writing.
10. After completing your final draft, edit for grammatical and typographical errors. You may use an online grammar checker (e.g.,
grammarly.com) or ask for assistance from others.

After the finishing touches, compile your work in a portfolio. You will use this completed paper in the writing of the other parts of your research
paper.
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 NOTES 2018

Lesson 8 – Quantitative Research Design

Meaning of Quantitative Research Design

OBJECTIVES
In any research type, much more, in a quantitative
research where you do a great deal of abstraction and scientific
After this lesson, the student should be able to: or logical thinking, a research design is a part and parcel of your
study. By means of your research design, you are able to make
1. explain the meaning of quantitative research design; these aspects of your research clear: your methods or
2. compare and contrast the types of quantitative research techniques in finding answers to your research questions and in
designs; collecting data.
3. classify the types of quantitative research designs;
4. outline the experimental research-design stages;
5. present a graphical look of the experimental research-design
stages; and
6. judge the quality of finished quantitative research designs.

TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

Experimental Research Design

1. Definition

Experimental research design is a quantitative research design that bases its research method on a scientific activity called
experiment, in which a test or examination of a thing under a manipulated or controlled environment is done to determine the validity or
truthfulness of such thing. This design involves two groups of subjects: the experimental group on which the condition, treatment, or
intervention is applied and the control group that is not given any treatment or condition.

Following this experimental design, you conduct two kinds of tests: pre-test for both groups and post-test for the experimental
or treatment group to see the difference between them based on the effects of the treatment or condition given to the experimental
group. (Picardie 2014; Yin 2012)

2. Types

There are two types of experimental research designs: the true experimental design and the quasi-experimental design. (De Mey 2013;
Croswell 2013)

a. True Experimental Design – What proves this as a true experimental design, is its random selection of participants. It is a bias-
free selection that ensures objectivity of the results. This design is the best way to examine causal relationships. This design
comes in different types:

b. Quasi-experimental Design – The term quasi (pronounced as kwahz-eye) means partly, partially, pseudo, or almost. The non-
adherence of this research design to random selection of participants is the reason it got the name, quasi-experimental
research which means a research with the capacity to yield findings that are seemingly or more or less true. Prone to bias
caused by your purposive, rather than random selection of participants, quasi-experimental design is incapable of establishing
cause-effect relationships.

Experimental Research Design Stages

The true experimental and quasi-experimental designs follow the same stages in research designing. Their difference lies only in the
participant-selection process, in that the first is randomized; the second, purposive. (Lapan 2012; Walliman 2014)
1. Clear knowledge of the research objectives that enable you to decide not only on the kind of research you have to do, but also on the
manner you have to follow in conducting the research.
2. Formulation of hypotheses to state your guesses of what may not be true (null hypotheses) or may be true (alternative hypotheses)
about the results.
3. Method of testing your hypotheses or of examining their validity like deciding whether you have to follow the experimental design or the
quasi-experimental design.
4. Choice of which instrument to use in collecting data; that is, whether to use interview, observation, or questionnaire.
5. Process of selecting the subjects to compose the control group and the experimental group.
6. Performance of experimentation that allows control of the cropping up of extraneous variables and of the experimenter’s bias.
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 NOTES 2018

Non-Experimental Research Design

1. Definition
Non-experimental research design is a quantitative research design that is capable of giving qualitative and quantitative data, but more
on qualitative data; hence, this is often used in the field of social sciences. Unlike the experimental design that allows manipulation or control
of some aspects of the research, Non-experimental research design shuns controlling variables. Instead, it involves variables the way they
naturally exist on earth.

2. Types
The following are the types of non-experimental research designs (Schreiber 2012; Letherby 2013; Creswell 2014):

Ø Descriptive – depicts an image or a picture of an individual or group

Ø Comparative – states the differences or similarities between or among people, things, objects, etc.
Ø Correlative – shows the extent and direction of variable relationships, that is, whether negative or positive
relationship exists between or among them
Ø Survey – describes the attitudes, preferences, views, feelings, and other behavioral patterns of a big number of
people for arriving at a certain conclusion about societal concerns and issues
Ø Ex Post Facto - translates itself into these English words, “that which is done afterwards” and has the purpose of
deriving data from things that are by nature taking place, so as to obtain explanations about past events
(Litchman 2013, p. 42)

-------------------------------------------------------------------- STUDENT ACTIVITY --------------------------------------------------------------------

ACTIVITY A.
Directions: Answer each questions intelligently and concisely.

1. What should you be thinking before designing your research?

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
2. Does your research still follow a quantitative research design despite its non-use of random selection of subjects? Why? Why not?

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
3. How do you know that one is applying a quantitative research design?

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. Supposing you cannot apply a true experimental design but you still want to follow a quantitative research design, what research can you
do? Give reasons for your answer.

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
5. What do you mean by experimental and control group?

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
6. Should the experimental and control group always be selected randomly? Why? Why not?

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
7. Why do some researchers resort to applying quasi-experimental design rather than true experimental design?

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

8. Do you agree that the best research results come from experimental designs? Justify your point.

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
9. If you were to conduct a quantitative research, which quantitative research design would you follow? Explain you answer.
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 NOTES 2018

Lesson 9 – The Sample and Sampling Procedures

SAMPLING PROCEDURE
OBJECTIVES
Basic Concept

After this lesson, the student should be able to: Sampling means choosing from a large population the
respondents or subjects to answer your research questions. The
1. explain the meaning of sampling; entire population is involved but for your research study, you
2. familiarize with the factors affecting ample selection; choose only a part of the whole. The word population is a
3. compare and contrast sampling techniques; technical term in research which means a big group of people
from where you choose the sample or the chosen set of people
4. find ways to overcome bias in sampling;
to represent the population.
5. enumerate the pluses and minuses of some random-sampling
techniques; Sampling frame, on the other hand, is the list of the
6. adopt the most appropriate sampling technique for a chosen members of the population to which you want to generalize or
research topic; and apply your findings about the sample, and sampling unit is the
7. carry out a sampling technique with scientific value. term referring to every individual in the population. The
sampling, as well as the research results, is expected to speak
about the entire population. Unless this does not refer to the
population, in general, the sample-selection procedure has no
scientific value. (Emmel 2013; Lapan 2013)

Sampling Plan is a detailed outline of which measurements will be taken at what time on which measurements will be taken at what
times, on which material, in what manner and by whom that support the purpose of an analysis. Sampling plans should be designed in such a way
that the resulting data will contain representative sample of the parameters of interest and allow for all questions, as stated in the research
objectives to be answered.

The following are the steps involved in developing a sampling plan:

1. identify the parameters to be measured, the range of possible values, and the required resolution.
2. design a sampling scheme that details how and when samples will be taken
3. select sample sizes
4. design data storage formats
5. assign roles and responsibilities

Ways on Determining the Sample Size

1. Heuristics – refers to the rule of thumb for the sample size used in the study. Below are the suggested sample sizes in the different
quantitative research designs (Lunenburg and Irby, 2008).

Research Design Number of Participants

Survey 800
Correlation 100 – 200
Ex post facto 30+
Experimental 30 or more

2. Literature Review – Check on studies similar to your research and check the sample size that they used. These studies can serve as a
reference in proving the validity of the sample size you want to use.

3. Formulas – The formula below by the National Education Association in the United States can be used to compute for the needed
sample size. Each variable in the formula has a set of value you can use for the computation.

Where: s = required sample size

X2 = table value of chi square for 1 degree of freedom at the desired confidence level (1.96)2
N = population size
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 NOTES 2018

Factors Affecting Sample Selection

In choosing your respondents, you do not ilist listen to the dictates of your own mind but also to other factors such as the following
(Babble 2013; Edward 2013; Tuckman & Engel 2012):

1. Sample Size

How big should the sample be? Some researchers base their decision on their own experience and on research studies they have already
read. But the best way to guide you in determining the right sample size is the representativeness of the sample with respect to the population.
See to it that the sample truly represents the entire population from where the sample came.

The representativeness or accuracy of a sample size is really hard to determine. However, using the right sampling technique such as a
randomized one, your chances of getting a sample reflecting 95% distribution of the population or of a sample representing the whole population is
highly probable. This acceptable level of probability of the representativeness of the sample is called confidence level or 0.05 level. This theory of
probability is true only for randomly selected respondents, not for any non-probability type of sampling.

2. Sampling Technique

Sampling techniques fall under two categories: probability sampling and non-probability sampling. The first one uses a random selection;
the ‘second, a purposive or controlled selection. Probability sampling that gives all population members equal opportunity to be chosen as people
to constitute the sample is a precise way of sampling. Based on pure chance, it is unbiased or an accurate manner of selecting the right people to
represent the population.

Bias is the leading factor in choosing your respondents. This is one of the Causes of sampling errors. The other errors in sampling are
attributed to your procedure in sampling.

3. Heterogeneity of Population

Heterogeneous population is composed of individuals with varied abilities. There is a wide variation among the people composing the
population. If it is a homogeneous population where lots of uniformity in abilities exist among population members, a sample of one will do. But for
a heterogeneous group, a sampling technique that will widely spread the choosing of a large sample among all members of the population is
necessary.

4. Statistical Techniques

The accuracy of the sample depends also on how precise or accurate your methods are in calculating the numbers used in measuring the
chosen samples or in giving a certain value to each of them. Any error in your use of any statistical method or computing numbers representing the
selected subjects will turn in unfounded results.

5. Time and Cost

Choosing samples makes you deal with one big whole population, with each member of this large group needing your attention, time and
effort, let alone the amount of money you will fork out for the materials you will need in making the sampling frame. Hence, considering all these
things, your sample selection makes you spend some of your time deliberating or mulling over several factors affecting or influencing your sample
selection.

Sampling Methods

The sampling methods are of two groups which are as follows (Tuckman 2012; Em el 2013; De Vaus 2013; Picardie 2014):

1. Probability Sampling

This is a sampling method that makes you base your selection of respondents on pure chance. In this case, everybody in the population
participates. All are given equal opportunity or chance to form the sample that is capable of reflecting the characteristics of the whole population
from where such sample was drawn. The following are the different probability sampling techniques:

a. Simple-random sampling - choosing of respondents based on pure chance

b. Systematic sampling - picking out from the list every 5th or every 8th member listed in the sampling frame until the completion of
the desired total number of respondents
c. Stratified sampling - choosing a sample that will later on be subdivided into strata, sub-groups, or sub-samples during the stage of the
data analysis
d. Cluster sampling - selecting respondents in clusters, rather than in separate individuals such as choosing 5 classes of 40 students each
from a whole population of 5,000 students/ Ensuring a bias-free selection of subjects, these probability sampling techniques are
considered by many as more capable than the non-probability sampling techniques in coming out with the accurate or exact samples to
give pieces of information about the population as a whole.
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 NOTES 2018

2. Non-probability Sampling

The sampling techniques included in this category are not chosen randomly, but purposefully. Not randomized, they are susceptible to
bias. Unlike the probability sampling techniques that exclude the researcher's judgment, the non-probability sampling techniques succumb to the
control, likes, or wishes of the researcher and to restrictions imposed by the researcher on the sampling procedure. The following are the non-
probability sampling techniques:

a. Quota sampling
b. Voluntary sampling
c. Purposive sampling
d. Availability sampling
e. Snowball sampling

Advantages and Disadvantages of Five Basic Sampling Techniques

Sampling Techniques Advantages Disadvantages

Random Sampling The most accurate theoretically; Unavailable list of the entire population
influenced only by chance sometimes or prevention of random
sampling by practical considerations

Stratified Sampling Assures a large sample to subdivide on Can be biased if strata are given false
important variables; needed when weights, unless the weighting procedure
population is too large to list; can be is used for overall analysis
combined with other techniques

Systematic Sampling Similar to random sampling; often easier Sometimes permits bias
than random sampling

Cluster Sampling Easy to collect data on the subject Prone to bias when the number is small

Quota Sampling Available when random sampling is Presence of bias is not controlled by the
impossible; quick to do quota system

-------------------------------------------------------------------- STUDENT ACTIVITY --------------------------------------------------------------------

ACTIVITY A.
Directions: PAIR WORK. In the space provided, classify the following expressions based on certain criterion or factor. Write the basis for each class.
sampling technique availability sampling heterogeneous group
stratified sampling snowball sampling sample size
quota sampling cluster sampling simple random sampling
systematic sampling sampling unit voluntary sampling
time and cost purposive sampling simple random sampling
population sample statistics

Class A Class B Class C

Basis: ______________ Basis: _______________ Basis: _________________

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 NOTES 2018

Lesson 10 – Quantitative Data Collection Techniques and Instrumentation

QUANTITATIVE DATA-COLLECTION TECHNIQUES

OBJECTIVES
Definition of Quantitative Data

After this lesson, the student should be able to: Data are pieces of information or facts known by people in
this world. Appearing measurable, numerical, and related to a
1. explain the meaning of quantitative data; metrical system, they are called quantitative data. These data
2. differentiate the quantitative data-collection techniques; result from sensory experiences whose descriptive qualities such
3. describe each quantitative data-collection instruments; as age, shape, speed, amount, weight, height, number, positions,
and the like are measurable. Denoting quantity, these words
4. specify the appropriate data-collection instruments for each
appear in records in numerical forms that are either discrete (1, 2,
data-collection method; 3, 4, 5, 6…) or continuum (amount of flour…). However, these
5. evaluate the effectiveness of interview questions; and quantitative data become useful only on so far as they give
6. name the right quantitative measurement scale for a research answers to your research questions. (Russell 2013; Creswell 2013)
question.
7. design a research instrument Techniques in Collecting Quantitative Data
8. evaluate for the validity and reliability of the research
Collecting data is one major component of any type of
instrument
research. Undermining its importance would result in the
production of inaccurate data sufficient to render your research
study invalid. Hence, in collecting quantitative data, stress is given
to the accuracy or appropriateness of your data-gathering
technique as well as of the right instrument to collect the data.
1. Observation

Using your sense organs, you gather facts or information about people, things, places, events, and so on, by watching and
listening to them; then record the results of the functioning of your eyes and ears. Expressing these sensory experiences to quantitative
data, you record them with the use of numbers. For instance, watching patients lining up at a medical clinic, instead of centering your
eyes on the looks of the people, you focus your attention on the number, weight, and height of every patient standing up at the door of
the medical clinic.

As a researcher preoccupied with collecting quantitative data through observation, you begin to count the number of patients
and get the measurement of their height, and weight. These numbers representing the results of your counting and measurement are
then jotted down in your record notebook. Seeing, touching, and hearing the sources of data personally, you engage yourself in direct
observation. It is an indirect observation, if you see and hear them, not through your own eyes and ears, but by means of technological
and electronic gadgets like audiotapes, video records, and other recording devices used to capture earlier events, images, or sounds.

2. Survey

Survey is a data-gathering technique that makes you obtain facts or information about the subject or object of your research
through the data-gathering instruments of interviews and questionnaire.

Questionnaire

Questionnaire is a paper containing series of questions formulated for an individual and independent answering by several
respondents for obtaining statistical information. Each questions offers a number of probable answers from which the respondents, on
the basis or their own judgment, will choose the best answer. Making up a questionnaire are factual and opinionated questions.
Questions to elicit factual answers are formulated in a multiple-choice type and those to ask about the respondents’ views, attitudes,
preferences, and other opinionated answers are provided with sufficient space where the respondents could write their sentential
answers to opinionated questions.

Responses yielded by this instrument are given their numerical forms (numbers, fractions, percentages) and categories and are
subjected to statistical analysis. Questionnaire is good for collecting data from a big number of respondents situated in different places
because all you have to do is either to hand the paper to the respondents or to send it to them through postal or electronic mail.

Interview

Survey as a data-gathering technique likewise uses interview as its data-gathering instrument. Similar to a questionnaire,
interview makes you ask a set of questions, only that, this time, you do it orally.
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 NOTES 2018

3. Experiment

The process of collecting data through experimentation involves selection of subjects or participants, pre-testing the subjects prior to the
application of any treatment or condition, and giving the subjects post-test to determine the effects of the treatment on them. These
components of experiment operate in various ways. Consider the following combination or mixture of the components that some
research studies adopt:

a. Treatment Evaluation
b. Pre-test Treatment Post-test
c. Pre-test Multiple Treatments Post-test
d. Pre-test Treatment Immediate Post-test 6-mos.
Post-test 1-yr Post-test

These three words: treatment, intervention, and condition, mean the same thing in relation to experimentation. These are the terms to
mean the things given or applied to the subjects to yield certain effects or changes on the said subjects. For instance, in finding out the extent of
the communicative competence of the subjects, put these participants in a learning condition where they will perform varied communicative
activities.
Dealing with or treating their communicative abilities in two or more modes of communication is giving them multiple treatments. The
basic elements of experiment which are subjects, pre-test, treatment, and post-test do not operate only for examining causal relationships but also
for discovering, verifying, and illustrating theories, hypotheses, or facts. (Edmonds 2013; Morgan 2014; Picardie 2014)

4. Content Analysis

Content analysis is another quantitative data-collection technique that makes you search through several oral or written forms
of communication to find answers to your research questions. Used in quantitative and qualitative research studies, this data-collection
method is not only for examining printed materials but also for analyzing information coming from non-book materials like photographs,
films, video tapes, paintings, drawings, and the like. Here, you focus your study on a single subject or on two entities to determine their
comparative features. Any content analysis you want to do is preceded by your thorough understanding of your research questions
because these are the questions to guide you in determining which aspect of the content of the communication should you focus on to
find the answers to the main problem of your research.

Measurement Scales for Quantitative Data

In quantitative research, measurements of data expressed in numerical forms form in a scale or one that consists series of graduated
quantities, values, degrees, numbers, and so on. Thinking about the type and scale of measurement that you have to use in your quantitative
research is important because your measurement choices tell you the type of statistical analysis to use in your study. Not knowing which scale of
measurement to use may result in your erroneous examination of the data.

There are two categories of scales of measurement: qualitative scales of measurement and quantitative scales of measurement. Under
quantitative scales of measurements are these two: the nominal scale to show the classification of things based on a certain criterion such as
gender, origin, brand, etc., and the ordinal scale to indicate the rank or hierarchical order of things. The quantitative scales of measurement are the
interval scale for showing equal differences or intervals between points of the scale in an arbitrary manner (showing differences in attitudes,
inclinations, feelings, ideas, fears, opinions, etc.) and the ratio scale, like the interval scale, that shows equal differences or intervals between points
on the scale. However, these two quantitative scales of measurements are not exactly the same, in that, the latter gives value to zero, while the
former does not give any value to zero for the value depends solely on the respondent. (Schreiber 2011; Letherby 2013)

Examples:
1. Nominal Scale – categorizing people based on gender, religion, position, etc. (one point for each)

religion – Catholic, Buddhist, Protestant, Muslim

gender – male, female
position – CEO, vice-president, director, manager, assistant manager
Summing up the points per variable, you will arrive at a certain total that you can express in terms of percentages, fractions, or decimals
like: 30% of males, 25% of females, 10% of Catholics, 405 of Buddhists, and so forth.

2. Ordinal Scale – ranking or arranging the classified variables to determine who should be the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, etc. in the group

3. Interval Scale – showing equal intervals or differences of people’s views or attitudes like this one example of a scale called Likert Attitude
Scale:

Reading is important.
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 NOTES 2018

4. Ratio Scale – rating something from zero to a certain point

Performance in Math subject – a grade of 89% (from 0 to 100%)

Instrumentation

An important part of the research study is the instrument in gathering the data because the quality of research output depends to a large
extent on the quality of research instruments used. Instrument is the generic term that researchers use for a measurement device .like survey, test,
questionnaire, and many others. To help distinguish between instrument and instrumentation, consider that the instrument is the device and
instrumentation is the course of action which is the process of developing, testing, and using the device.

Researchers can choose the type of instruments to use based on their research questions or objectives. There are two broad categories of
instruments namely; 1) researcher-completed instruments and 2) subject-completed instruments. Examples are shown on the following table
below:

Researcher – completed Instrument Subject – completed Instruments

Rating scales Questionnaires
Interview schedules / guides Self – checklists
Tally sheets Attitude scales
Flowcharts Personality inventories
Performance checklists Achievement / aptitude tests
Time – and – motion logs Projective devices
Observation forms Sociometric devices

A critical portion of the research study is the instrument used to gather data. The validity of the findings and conclusions resulting from
the statistical instruments will depend greatly on the characteristics of your instruments. We will discuss the general criteria of good research
instruments which are validity and reliability.

Validity
Validity refers to the extent to which the instrument measures what it intends to measure and performs as it is designed to perform. It is
unusual and nearly impossible that an instrument is 100% valid that is why validity is generally measured in degrees. As a process, validation
involves collecting and analyzing data to assess the accuracy of an instrument. There are numerous statistical tests and measures to assess the
validity of quantitative instruments that generally involves pilot testing. There are three major types of validity. These are content validity,
construct validity and criterion validity which are presented in the table below while discussion for each type follows.

Types of Validity Description

When it “appears” to measure the variables being studied. Hence checking for face validity is a
Face Validity
subjective process.
Refers to the degree to which an instrument covers a representative sample (or specific
Content validity
elements) of the variable to be measured.
The degree to which an instrument measures the variables being studied as a whole. Thus the
instrument is able to detect what should exist theoretically.
Construct Validity
* A construct is often intangible or abstract variable such as personality, intelligence or moods. If
your instrument cannot detect this intangible construct, it is considered invalid.
This refers to the degree that an instrument predicts the characteristics of a variable in a certain
way. This means that the instrument produces results similar to those of another instrument in
measuring a certain variable.

Criterion validity Concurrent validity - when it is able to predict results similar to those of a test already validated
in the past.

Predictive validity – when it produces results similar to those of another instrument that will be
employed in the future.

Reliability

Reliability relates to the extent to which the instrument is consistent. The instrument should be able to obtain approximately the same
response when applied to respondents who are similarly situated. Likewise, when the instrument is applied at two different points in time, the
responses must highly correlate with one another. Hence, reliability can be measured by correlating the responses of reliability, an estimate of
reliability can be achieved through different measures. The four attributes of reliability is outlined on the following table.
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 NOTES 2018

Attributes Description
The extent to which all items on a scale measure one construct.

There are three ways in measuring the internal consistency or reliability.

Split-half coefficient / split half reliability – is obtained by administering a single instrument

aimed at measuring only one construct. However, upon computing the results, the items of the
1. Internal Consistency or instrument are divided (or “split”) into two sets; the results for these two sets are then
Homogeneity compared with each other.

Cronbach’s alpha – measures reliability with respect to each item and construct being examined
by the instrument.

Kuder – Richardson formula – tests reliability in terms of instruments of a dichotomous nature

such as yes or no tests
2. Stability or Test – Retest
The consistency of results using an instrument with repeated testing.
Correlation
Consistency among responses of multiple users of an instrument, or among alternate forms of an
3. Equivalence
instrument. In short, these two tests have the same coverage , difficulty level, test type and format.
Measures the consistency of scores assigned by two or more raters on a certain set of results. The
Kappa coefficient is one of the most popular statistical tool in measuring inter-rater reliability. The
4. Inter-rater reliability
higher the value of the kappa the more reliable the instrument is.

-------------------------------------------------------------------- STUDENT ACTIVITY --------------------------------------------------------------------

ACTIVITY A
Directions: Using the table below, compare and contrast each pair of expressions.

Pair of Expressions Comparison Contrast

Quantitative data vs. Qualitative data

Interview vs. Questionnaire

Direct observation vs. Mediated

observation

Pre-test vs. Post-test

Interval scale vs. Ratio scale

 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 NOTES 2018

WRITESHOP IN METHODLOGY

WRITING THE METHODOLOGY

A. Using your approved outline, write the first draft of your methodology. Accurately paraphrase, summarize, or directly quote the information
you have borrowed from your sources and cite them properly. Your teacher may ask you to color-code the text in your first draft based on
each reference used. For example, ideas taken from reference 1 might use blue text and so on. This way you and your teacher will easily see
how you have integrated the ideas into your own paper.

B. Below are the additional guidelines when writing this section.

1. Get the additional reference materials that you might need for writing your paper. Make sure that you references are taken from
reliable sources.
2. Add a reference list at the end of your work using the documentation style required by your teacher.
3. Use appropriate headings and sub-headings to make your paper more organized.
4. Use the format provided for the writing task in the previous lessons. Print your work on a short bond paper.

Use your outputs in the previous tasks and the suggested format below as a guide.

1. Methodology
1.1. Research design
A. Explain why you use quantitative research in your study.
B. Explain the specific quantitative approach used and why this is chosen.
1.2. Context and Participants
A. Explain the context of the study or the time and place where the study is conducted.
B. Explain relevant details about participants. These include the number of participants and their
demographic characteristics such as age, gender, socio-economic status, and other relevant background
information.
1.3. Instruments
A. Describe instrument 1 and justify its use. Explain how it is validated and revised. If it is adopted, explain
the reason for its adoption and describe its reliability and validity.
B. Describe instrument 2 and justify its use. Explain how its is validated and revised. if it is adopted, explain
the reason for its adoption and describe its reliability and validity.
C. Describe instrument 3 and justify its use. Explain how it is adoption and describe its reliability and validity.
1.4. Data gathering procedure
Explain the specific steps that you will undertake to complete the data gathering phase.
1.5. Data Analysis
Describe the statistical test that you will use to analyze your data. Justify your choice.

A. After completing your first draft, revisit it to clarify the major points and supporting details. Then, subject it to plagiarism checking online.
B. After you have reviewed your first draft, exchange your work with that of another classmate for peer critiquing. When evaluating your
classmate’s work, use a blue or green-inked pen below during peer critiquing. Start revising your own paper once your classmate has
finished evaluating it.
C. After revising your work, submit it to your teacher for feedback. Your teacher will evaluate the content, style, organization, and structure
of your work also using the rubric below. Revise your own paper again based on your teacher’s feedback. Focus on the content, style,
organization, and structure of your own paper. Reserve the editing of grammar and mechanics for the latter stage of your writing.
D. After completing your final draft, edit it focusing on grammatical and typographical errors. You may use an online grammar checker (e.g.,
grammarly.com) or ask for assistance from others in editing your work.
E. After the finishing touches, compile your work in a portfolio. You will use this complete paper in the writing of the other parts of your
research paper.
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 NOTES 2018

Lesson 11 – Quantitative Data Analysis

QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
OBJECTIVES
Quantitative data analysis is time consuming because it
involves series of examinations, classifications, mathematical
After this lesson, the student should be able to: calculations, and graphical recording, among others. Hence, a
thorough and advance planning is needed for this major aspect of
1. differentiate the quantitative data analysis techniques; your study.
2. organize data in a tabular manner;
3. use a graph to show frequency and percentages distribution; However, all these varied analytical studies that you
pour into your research become significant only if prior to
4. calculate the measures of central tendency; and
finalizing your mind about these activities, you have already
5. use descriptive statistics in analyzing data. identified the measurement level or scale of your quantitative
6. use inferential statistics in analyzing data data; that is, whether your study measures the data through a
ratio or interval scale, not by means of nominal or ordinal scale
because these last two levels of measurement are for qualitative
data analysis. it is important for you to know what scale of measurement to use, for the kind of quantitative analysis oyu will do depends on your
measurement scale. (De Mey 2013; Letherby 2013; Russel 2013)

Steps in Quantitative Data Analysis

Having identified the measurement scale or level of your data means you are now ready to analyze the data in this manner (Badke 2012;
Letherby 2013; Mc Bride 2013)

Step 1: Preparing the Data

Keep in mind that no data organization means no sound data analysis. Hence, prepare the data for analysis by first doing these two
preparatory sub steps:

1. Coding System

To analyze data means to quantify or change the verbally expressed data into numerical information. Converting the
words, images, or pictures into numbers, they become fit for any analytical procedures requiring knowledge of arithmetic and
mathematical computations. But it is not possible for you to do the mathematical operations of division, multiplication, or
subtraction in the word level, unless you code the verbal responses and observation categories.

For instance, as regards gender variable, give number 1 has the code or value for Male and number 2 for Female. As
to educational attainment as another variable, give the value of 2 for elementary; 4 for high school, 6 for college, 9 for MA, and
12 for PhD level. By coding each item with a certain number in a data set, you are able to add the points or values of the
respondents’ answers to a particular interview question or questionnaire item.

2. Data Tabulation

For easy classification and distribution of numbers based on a certain criterion, you have to collate them with the help of a
graph called Table. Used for frequency and percentage distribution, this kind of graph is an excellent data organizer that
researchers find indispensable. Here's an example of tabulated data:

Total Sample Size: 24

Gender Male: 11 (46%)

Female: 13 (54%)
Course Fine Arts: 9 (37%)
Architecture: 6 (25%)
Journalism: 4 (17%)
Com. Arts: 5 (20%)
School FEU: 3 (12%)
MLQU: 4 (17%)
PLM: 3 (12%)
PUP: 5 (20%)
TIP: 4 (17%)
UE: 5 (20%)
Attended in 2016 Summer Arts Seminar-Workshop Yes: 18 (75%)
No: 6 (25%)
Role in the 2016 Seminar-Workshop on Arts Speaker: 4 (17%)
Organizer: 3 (12%)
Demonstrator: 5 (20%)
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 NOTES 2018

Step 2: Analyzing the Data

Data coding and tabulation are the two important things you have to do in preparing the data for analysis. Before immersing yourself into
studying every component of the data, decide on the kind of quantitative analysis you have to use, whether to use simple descriptive statistical
techniques or advanced analytical methods. The first one that college students often use tells some aspects of categories of data such as:
frequency of distribution, measure of central tendency (mean, median, and mode), and standard deviation. However, this does not give
information about population from where the sample came. The second one, on the other hand, fits graduate-level research studies because this
involves complex statistical analysis requiring a good foundation and thorough knowledge about statistics. The following paragraphs give further
explanations about the two quantitative data-analysis techniques. (De Mey 2013; Litchtman 2013; Picardie 2014).

1. Descriptive Statistical Technique

This quantitative data-analysis technique provides a summary of the orderly or sequential data obtained from the sample
through the data-gathering instrument used. The results of the analysis reveal the following aspects of an item in a set of data
(Morgan 2014; Punch 2014; Walsh 2010):

Ø Frequency Distribution - gives you the frequency of distribution and percentage of the occurrence of an item in asset
of data. In other words, it gives you the number of responses given repeatedly for one question.

Example:

Question: By and large, do you find the Senators’ attendance in 2015 legislative sessions awful?

Measurement Scale Code Frequency Distribution Percent Distribution

Strongly agree 1 14 58%
Agree 2 3 12%
Neutral 3 2 8%
Disagree 4 1 4%
Strongly disagree 5 4 17%

Ø Measure of Central Tendency - indicates the different positions or values of the items, such that in a in a category of
data, you find an item or items serving as the:
Mean - average of all the items or scores

Example: 3 + 8 + 9 + 2 + 3 + 10 + 3 = 38

38 + 7 = 5.43 (Mean)

Median - the score in the middle of the set of items that cuts or divides the set into two groups

Example: The numbers in the example for the Mean has 2 as the Median.

Mode - refers to the item or score in the data set that has the most repeated appearance in the set

Example: Again, in the given example above for the Mean, 3 is the Mode.

Standard Deviation - shows the extent of the difference of the data from the mean. An examination of this gap
between the mean and the data gives you an idea about the extent of the similarities and differences between the
respondents. There are mathematical operations that you have to do to determine the standard deviation.

2. Advanced Quantitative Analytical Methods

Design the Data Analysis Procedure

After planning your data collection, you will now proceed to designing your data analysis procedure. In quantitative research, data analysis
involves the use of statistical test to address your research questions or objectives. These statistical test shall examine the relationship between the
independent variable and independent variable. The data involving these two variable are also known as the bivariate data.

One of the important considerations n data gathering is identifying which statistical information is the most important in your analysis. This
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 NOTES 2018

Here are some points to consider when choosing when statistical test for your study.

1. Use parametric test if you are using interval or ratio scales. Use non-parametric test if your measurement scale is ordinal or minimal.
2. Use parametric test of you sample size is 30 or more per group. Use non-parametric test if your sample size is fewer than 30.
3. Use parametric test if the distribution of your data is normal. Use non-parametric test if the distribution of your data deviates markedly
from normality or normal distribution.
To find out if your data is in normal distribution, check the value of the following using available statistical software such as SPSS Statistics
or Statistica;

a. Kurtosis or the measure of the heaviness of the tail of the distribution, thus indicating the presence of numerous outliers in your
data
b. Skewness or the lack of evenness in the distribution of data
Kurtosis and skewness both help describe certain aspects of data distribution. The closer their value to zero is, the more data reach
normal distribution. Knowing the kurtosis and skewness of your data will help you determine the right statistical technique to use in
your research.

The following are the statistical techniques that you can use in quantitative research:

Purpose Statistical Techniques

Parametric Non-parametric

To test the relationship between two Pearson’s r Phi coefficient (nominal, dichotomous
variables variables)
Spearman’s rho (ordinal)

To test the difference between two t-test for two dependent samples McNemar change test (nominal
data sets from one group (e.g., pretest dichotomous variables)
and posttest) Wilcoxon signed-rank test (ordinal)

To test the difference between data t-test for independent samples Two-way chi-square (qualitative in
sets from two different groups (e.g., general)
control group and treatment group) Mann-Whitney U test (ordinal)

-------------------------------------------------------------------- STUDENT ACTIVITY --------------------------------------------------------------------

ACTIVITY A
Directions: Match the expression in A with those I B by writing the letter of your answer on the line before the word.
A B
______ 1. Mean a. data-set divider
______ 2. Ratio b. facts or information
______ 3. Data c. part-by-part examination
______ 4. Coding d. data-preparation technique
______ 5. Analysis e. repetitive appearance of an item
______ 6. Mode f. sum divided by no. of items
______ 7. Median g. valuable zero
______ 8. Standard deviation h. ANOVA
______ 9. Regression i. shows variable predictor
______ 10. Table j. data organizer
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 NOTES 2018

Lesson 12 – Statistical Methods

OBJECTIVES STATISTICAL METHOD

Basic Concept
After this lesson, the student should be able to:
Statistics is the term that pertains to your acts of
1. define statistics; collecting and analyzing numerical data. Doing statistics then
2. justify the relevance of statistics to research; means performing some arithmetic procedures like addition,
3. differentiate descriptive statistics from inferential statistics; division, subtraction, multiplication, and other mathematical
4. explain the methods of bivariate-data analysis; calculations.
5. familiarize themselves with bivariate statistical methods; and
6. compare and contrast the kinds of tests to measure
correlation or covariation.

Statistical Methodologies

1. Descriptive Statistics

This describes a certain aspect of a data set by making you calculate the Mean, Medium, Mode and Standard Deviation. It tells
about the placement or position of one data item in relation to the other data, the extent of the distribution or spreading out of data, and
whether they are correlations or regressions between or among variables. This kind of statistics does not tell anything about the
population.

2. Inferential Statistics

This statistical method is not as simple as the descriptive statistics. This does not focus itself only on the features of the
category of set, but on the characteristics of the sample that are also true for the population from where you have drawn the sample.
Your analysis begins with the sample, then, based on your findings about the sample, you make inferences or assumptions about the
population. Since the sample serves as the basis of your conclusions or generalizations about the population, it is a must that you use
random sampling to guarantee the representativeness of the sample; meaning, to make sure that the sample truly represents the
population in general.

Inferential statistics is a branch of statistics that focuses on conclusions, generalizations, predictions, interpretations,
hypotheses, and the like. There are a lot of hypotheses testing in this method of statistics that require you to perform complex and
advanced mathematical operations. This is one reason inferential statistics is not as popular as the descriptive statistics in the college
level where very few have solid foundation of statistics. (Argyrous 2011; Russell 2013; Levin & Fox 2014)

Types of Statistical Data Analysis

Types of statistical analysis of variables in a quantitative research are as follows:

Univariate Analysis — analysis of one variable

Bivariate Analysis — analysis of two variables (independent and dependent variables)
Multivariate Analysis - analysis of multiple relations between multiple variables

Pearson’s r

Pearson’s r is a parametric statistical method used for determining whether there is a linear relationships is indicated by the Pearson’s r
coefficient. There are three possible outcomes after analyzing data using the Person’s r test. These are positive correlation, negative correlation,
and no correlation. Positive correlation means that when the numerical value of one variable increase or decreases, the other variable increases or
decreases as well. Negative correlation, on the other hand, indicates that as the numerical value of one variable increase, the other variable
decreases, and vice-versa. No correlation means that the two variables have no relationship with each other. Correlational values can be
interpreted as seen in the table below (Evans, 1996). It can be noticed in the table that as the value approaches 1, the correlation between the
variable becomes weaker.
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 NOTES 2018

Value Interpretation
.00-.19 Very weak
.20-.39 Weak
.40-.59 Moderate
.60-.79 Strong
.80-1.00 Very strong

Researchers typically use scatter plots to visually present the results of Pearson’s r. A scatter plot is a set of points that display the
relationship between two variables. Each dot represents the relationship between two variables according to one observation. The series of dots,
in turn, represents the relationship between two variables according to the successive observations made throughout the study. A scatter plot is a
good way to represent correlations since the distribution of the dots show how closely linked the variables are to each other. The closer the dots
are to one another, the tighter the relationship is between variables.

Spearman’s rho

Spearman’s rho is a non-parametric statistical technique that test the relationship between ordinal variables. It uses rankings instead of
actual values. In ranking the data, the highest value should be ranked first, the second highest value should be ranked second, and so on.

Similar to Pearson’s r, Spearman’s rho whether the data have positive correlation, negative correlation, or no correlation. Correlational
values can be interpreted as seen in the table below (Evans, 1996). Spearman’s rho coefficients are also analyzed similarly as Pearson’s coefficients.
The values for Spearman’s rho closer to 0 indicating a weak relationship while those that are closer to 1 indicate a strong relationship. A scatter plot
can also be used to plot values analyzed using the Spearman’s rho test.

Value Interpretation
.00-.19 Very weak
.20-.39 Weak
.40-.59 Moderate
.60-.79 Strong
.80-1.0 Very strong

ANOVA (Analysis of Variance)

The ANOVA (analysis of variance) is a statistical tool used for testing differences among the means of two or more groups of samples. In
order to determine these differences, the ANOVA consider both the variation within and between the sample groups. There are two main types of
ANOVA measures: the one-way ANOVA and the two way ANOVA. One-way ANOVA test differences among groups concerning one variable.
In the main formula for the one-way ANOVA, the total sum of squares is merely represented as the sum of the squares between and within
groups. However, the total sum of squares still needs to be computed separately. This is because performing the separate computation provides
values that shall be used for finding out whether only one or both independent variables cause changes in the dependent variable.

Two-way ANOVA

The two-way ANOVA is used for determining the relationships between two independent nomination variables (also referred to as
“factors”) and one dependent interval or continuous variable. In particular, it can be used for finding out whether only one or both independent
variables cause changes in the dependent variable.

As in the one-way ANOVA formula, the sum of squares for the first, second and both factors are represented as values individually
computed from the raw data, resulting in the total sum of squares. However, it should be noted that the total sum of squares is calculated
separately. Meanwhile, the sum of squares for both factors is not computed from the individual values in the data alone. Instead it is obtained
through subtracting the sum of squares of each factor from the total sum of squares.

a. ANCOVA (Analysis of Covariation) - study of two or more dependent variables that are correlated with one
another
b. MANCOVA (Multiple Analysis of Covariation) - multiple analyses of one or more independent variables and
one dependent variable to see if the independent variables affect one another

Multiple regression

Multiple regression is a statistical tool used for testing the relationship between one dependent and variable and at least two
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 NOTES 2018

T-test
T-test are a parametric statistical technique that test the difference between two means. When performing T-test, there are statistic
values that need to be computed first. These are called the descriptive statistic values, since they indicate the primary characteristics of the data
in the study. The descriptive statistic values are the mean, variance and the standard deviation.

Aside from determining the descriptive statistical values for your data, you need to analyze them in relation to the alpha level and the p-
value. The alpha level (also known as the significance level) refers to the probability value that must be reached before claiming that the findings
obtained are statically significant. The alpha level is set at 0.05 for social sciences and 0.01 or 0.001 for physical, natural, or life sciences. The p-
value, meanwhile, is a calculated probability that is compared to the alpha level. This comparison helps determine if there is a statistical
difference between the scores obtained for the two groups. Therefore, the findings can be considered statistically significant. The alpha level and
the p-value will later be used in hypothesis testing. Meanwhile, the t-value is the statistic computed for the t-test indicating the extent of the
difference between the two groups being examined.

You can use a table to present the information analyzed through t-test. In your table, you need to include the sample size (denoted by the
symbol n), the degree of freedom, and the t-value. You also have to include the degree of freedom (df), which refers to the number of values in
the final computation of statistic that has freedom to vary. The df is computed by subtracting 1 from the size of each group (df = n – 1). If you have
two samples, the formula is df = (n1 + n2) – 2. Finally, you need to indicate your alpha level and p-value in the table.

T-test for Two Dependent Samples

There are two types of t-test, the first of which is the t-test for two dependent samples (also known as the paired t-test). In the t-test for two
dependent sample groups are highly related to each other, since they involve the same subjects (as in pretest and posttest groups).

-------------------------------------------------------------------- STUDENT ACTIVITY --------------------------------------------------------------------

ACTIVITY A
Directions: INDIVIDUALWORK. Answer the following questions intelligently and concisely.
1. Describe a research study that uses statistics.
2. Do non-experimental research methods use statistics, too? Why not?
3. Differentiate the two kinds of statistical methods.
4. What is the role of hypotheses in inferential statistics?
5. How does bivariate analysis take place?
6. Which research method fits inferential statistics? Give reasons for your answer.
7. Do you agree that standard deviation can measure variable relationships? Why? Why not?
8. Could you possibly do any of the statistical methods you have learned? Explain your point.
9. Is it correct to say,”To be a quantitative researcher is to know much about statistics”? Justify your point.
10. Whom could you approach for help with regard to the true experimental research study you intend to conduct, soon? Give reasons for
your answer.

ACTIVITY B
Directions: Compare and contrast the following expressions.

1. Univariate, bivariate, multivariate

2. Correlation, covariation, variance

3. ANOVA vs MANCOVA

4. Spearman’s r vs Pearson’s r

5. t-test vs Chi-Square
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 NOTES 2018

Lesson 13 – Research Report Writing

OBJECTIVES Guidelines in Research-Report Writing

Now, you know that research-report writing is not plain

After this lesson, the student should be able to: writing of a report where you just present facts and opinions
of other people that you got from varied reading materials. It
1. explain the meaning of research-report writing; is a special kind of writing that communicates not only
declarative knowledge or discovered ideas, but also
2. compare and contrast research writing and report writing;
procedural knowledge or the processes you did in discovering
3. apply the guidelines on research-report writing; ideas. Hence, to make your research report communicate all
4. become familiar with the language of academic writing; these forms of knowledge to readers, you need to apply the
5. point out the similarities and differences between APA and following guidelines in research-report writing.
MLA styles;
6. familiarize with standard research-writing format;
7. acquire awareness of the mechanics of research-report
writing; and
8. critique the structural organization of a sample research-
report component.

1. Organize the parts of your research report based on the standard research-report structure that consists of the following
sequential components:

a. Title. This part of your research ‘paper gives information and descriptions of the things focused on by your research study

b. Abstract. Using only 100 to 150 words, the abstract of a research paper, presents a summary of the research that makes
clear the background, objectives, significance, methodologies, results, and conclusions of the research study.

c. lntroduction. Given a stress in this section of the paper are the research problem and its background, objectives, research
questions, and hypotheses.

d. Methodology. This part of the research paper explains the procedure in collecting and analyzing data and also describes
the sources of data.

e. Results or Findings. There's no more mentioning of analysis of data or not yet analyzed data in this section. What it does
is to present the research findings that are expressed through graphics, statistics, or words.

f. Conclusions. This section explains things that will lead you to significant, points, insights, or understanding, or conclusions
that derive their validity, credibility or acceptability from the factual evidence gathered during the data-collection stage.
Stated here, too, is the significance of the results; that is, whether or not these are the right answers to the research
questions or the means of hypotheses acceptance or rejection. Your assessment of the data in relation to the findings of
previous research studies is also given a space in this section of the research paper.

g. Recommendations. Due to teachers’ instructions or discipline-specific rules, this section tends to be optional in some
cases. Done by some researchers, this section gives something that will expand or extend one’s understanding of the
conclusions raised earlier, such as suggesting a solution to the problem or recommending a further research on the subject.

h. References. It is in this part where you display the identities or names of all writers or owners of ideas that you
incorporated in your research paper.

i. Appendices. Included in this section are copies of materials like questionnaires, graphs, and letters, among others that you
used in all stages of your academic work, and are, then, part and parcel of your research study.

2. Familiarize yourself with the language of academic writing.

 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 NOTES 2018

language of research-report writing uses rich-information vocabulary and adopts an objective, formal, or impersonal tone or
register.

Here are some ways to maintain an objective and an impersonal tone in academic texts such as your report about
your research study:

a. Dominantly use passive voice than active voice sentences.

b. Use the third-person point of view by using words like his or her, they, or the user, instead of the personalized first-person
point of view like I, We, Me, Our, etc
c. De-emphasize the subject or personal nature of the academic text by avoiding the use of emotive words like dissatisfied,
uninteresting or undignified.
d. Use modality (words indicating the degree of the appropriateness, effectiveness, or applicability of something) to express
opinionated statements that are prone to various degrees or levels of certainty. For instance, use low modality when you
think your opponents have strong chances to present their valid reasons against your argument, or high modality, when
you are sure you have sufficient basis to prove your point.

High modality expressions like could, should, must, definitely, absolutely, surely, necessarily, and essentially are usually used for
recommending solutions to problems or for specifying reasons for some actions.

3. Observe the mechanics of research-report writing which are as follows:

a. Physical Appearance. Use white bond paper having the size of 8 ½ x 11 in. and provide 1 ½ in. left-right margin, plus 1
in. top—bottom margin. Unless your teacher instructs you to use a particular font style and size, use the standard
Tunes Roman, 12 pts.
b. Quotations. A one-line, double-spaced quotation is in quotation marks; 4- to 5-line, single-spaced quotations are
indented further from the margin to appear as block quotation.
c. Footnotes. Footnotes appear at the bottom of the page and are numbered consecutively stating with number one (1)
in each chapter.
d. Statistics and Graphs. Use tables, charts, bar graphs, line charts, pictograms, flowcharts, schematic diagrams, etc. in
connection with the objectives of the study.
e. Final Draft. Subject the final form of the research report to editing, revising, rewriting, and proofreading.
f. Index. Alphabetize these two types of index: subject index and author index.