UNIT 6 GROUP HOMOMORPHISMS

Structure
6.1 Introduction 14
Objectives
6.2 Homomorphi 14
6.3 Isomorphisms 19
6.4 The Isomorphism Theorems 21
6.5 Automorphisms 24
6.6 Summary 27
6.7 Solutions/Answers 27

6.1 INTRODUCTION
So far in this course we have not discussed functions from one group to another. You may
have wondered why we reviewed various aspects of functions in Unit 1. In this unit you will
see why.
In Sec.6.2 we will discuss various properties of those functions between groups which preserve
the algebrsic structure of their domain groups. These functions are called group
homomorphisms, a term introduced by the mathematician Klein in 1893. This concept is
analogous to the concept of a vector space homomorphism, that-you studied in the Linear
Algebra course.
In Sec.6.3 we will introduce you to a very important mathematical idea, an isomorphism. You
will see tlint an isomorphis~nis a bijective homomorphism. The importance of isomorphisms
lies in the fact that two groups are isomorphic if and only if they have exactly the same
algebraic properties.
In Sec.6.4 we will prove ,i very basic theorem of group the,ory, namely, the Fundamental
Theoren: of Hornoincrp!~isrn.We will also give some of its important consequences.
Finally, ,in Sec.6.5 we will discuss automorphisms, which are isomorphisms of a group onto
itself. W e shall look at the group of inner automorphisms in particular. This allows us to have
an insight into the structure of the quotient group of G by its centre, for any groupG.
Before starting this unit, we suggest that you go through Sec.1.5 and Unit 5 .

Objectives
After reading this unit, you should be able to
@ verify whether a function between groups is a homomorphism or not;
0 obtain the kernel and image of any homomorphism;
check whether a function between groups is an isomorphism or not;
state, prove and apply the Fundamental Theorem of Homomorphism;
0 prove that Inn G 4 Aut G and G/Z(G) = Inn G, for any group G.

6.2 HOMOMORPHISMS I

I
Let us start our study of functions from one group to another with an example.
Consider the groups (Z, f)and ({I, - 1 I,.). If we define

then you can see that f(a f b) = f(a).f(b) V a, b E 2. What we have jbst seen is an example
of a homomorphism, a function that preserves the algebraic structure of its domain.
I
Definition : Let (G I, *I) and (G?,*.) be two groups. A mapping f : GI
growp homomorphism (or just a homomorphism), if
,
--
G, is said to be a
- Group Homomorphisms

The word 'homomorphism' is

derived from the t w d ~ r e e kwords
Note that a homomorphism f from G I to G2 carries the product x * I y in G Ito the product 'homos', meaning 'link', and
f(x) +: f(y) in ( 3 2 . 'rnorphe', meaning 'form'.

Before discussing examples, let us define two sets related to a given homomotphism.
Definition : Let (G I , *I ) and (G:, *: ) be two groups and f : G I G2 be a homomorphism.
Then we define

i) the image o f f to be the set

Im f = (f(x) 1 x E GI).
ii) the kernel o f f to be the set
Ker f = j x E G I I f(x) = el}, where el is the idehtity of G 2 .
Note that Im f C G?, and Ker f = f ({e*]) C G I .
Now let us consider some examples.

exp : (R, +) -
Example 1 : Consider the two groups (R, +) and (R*,.). Show that the map
(R*,.) : exp(r) = e r is a group homomorphism. Also find 11-11exp and Ker exp.
Solution : For any rr, 1"2 E R, we know that erl+'?= er1.er2.
+
.: exp(rl r2) = exp(rl).cxp(rz).
Hence, exp is a homomorphism from the additive group of real numbers to the multiplicative
group of non-zero real nurnbers.
Now, Im exp = {exp(r) ( r E R } = {erI r E R},
Also, Ker exp = {r E R I e r = l } = {O].
Note that exp takes the identity 0 of R to the identity 1 of R*. exp also carries the additive
inverse - r of 1. to the multiplicative inverse of exp (r).
Example 2 : Consider the groups (R, +) and (C, +) and define
+
f : (C,+) -- (R, -I-)by f(x -1iy) = x, thc real part of x iy. Show that f is a
homomorphism. What are Im f and Ker f ?
+
Solution : Take any two elements ;, ib and c + id in C. Then,
+ + + + +
f((a -I-ib) (c id)) =: f((a c) i(b d)) = a c == f(a ih) + + + f(c + id)
Therefore, f is a group homomorphism.
Imf={f(x + i y ) ( x , y E R } = {XI x E R ) = R.
So, f is a surjective function (see Sec.l.5).
K e r f = { x i - i y ~ ~ ( f ( xi +y ) = O } = { x + i y ~ ~ ( x = O )
= { iy ( y E R 1, the set of purely imaginary numbers.
Note that f cavies the additive identity of C to the additive identity of R and ( - z) to - f(z),
for any z EC.
Thc following exercises will help you to see iT you have understood whai we have covered so
far.

E 1) Show that f : (R*,,) -- (R, -I-) : f(x) =lnx, the ~laturaltogarithm of x, is a group
homomorpliism. Find Kcr f and 9m f also.

E 2) Is f : (GL3(R),.) -+ (w*,.) : f(A) r=. det(A) a homomorphism? If so, obtain Ker f and
Im f.

In Examples 1 and 2 we observed that the homomorphisms carried the identity to the identity
and the inverse to the inverse. In fact, these observations can be proved for any group
homomorphism.
Theorem 1 : Let f ;(GI, *,) --+ (G2, *2) be a group homomorphism. 15
Some More Gmup Theory Then

a) f(el) = ez, where el is the identity of GI and e2 is the identity of G2.

b) . f(x-I) = [f(x)]-I for all x in G I .

Proof :'(a) Let x € G I . Then we have el 91 x = x. Hence,

f(x)=f(el 91 x)'=f(el) *: f(x), since f is a homomorphism. But
f(x)= e. *2 f(x) in G,.
Thus, f(e1) +: f(x)= e? *: f(x).
So, by the right cancellation law in Gz, f(e1) =ez.

=f(x *I x-') =f(eI) = el.

(b) NOW, for any x €GI, f(x) *? f(xW1)
Similarly, f(x-I) *2 f(x)=ez.
Hence, f(x-I) = [f(x)]-' V x E G I .
Note that the converse of Theorem 1 is false. That is, ~ff : Gt -- G2 is a function such thht
f(el) = el and [f(x)]-' = f(x-l)lf x E G I , then f need not be a homomorphism. For example,
consider f : Z -- Z : f(0) = 0 and ,

+ +
Since f(l 1) # f(1) f(l), f is not a homomorphism. But f(el) = ez and
f(n) = - f(- n) V n E Z.
Let us look at a few more examples of homomorphisms now. We can get one important class
of homomorphisms from quotient groups.
Example 3 : Let H G. Consider the map p : G -- G/H : p(x) = Hx. Show that p is a
homomorphism. (p E called the natural or canonical group homomorphism.) Alsp show that
p is onto. What is.Ker p?
Solution : For x, y E G, p(xy) = Hxy = Hx Hy = p(x) p(y). Therefore, p is a
. homomorphism.
Now, Im p = ( p(x) ( x E G ) = ( Hx I x E G } = G/H. Therefore, p is onto.
Ker p = { x E G I p(x) = H ). (Remember, H is the identity of G/H.)
=(XEG~HX=H} I
= { x E G Ix E H ), by Theorem 1 of Unit 4.
= H.
In this example you can see that Ker p 4 G. You can also check that Theorem 1 is true here.
Before looking at more examples try the following exercises.

E 3) Define the natural homomorphism p from Sg to S3/A3. Does (1 2) E Ker p? Does

(1 2) E Im p?

E 4) Let S = { z E c 1 1 zl = 1 } (see Example 1 of Unit 3).

Define f : (R, +) -- (S, .) : f(x) = el", where n is a fixed positive integer. Is f a
homomorphism? If so, find Ker f,

E 5) - G. Show that there exists a group G I and a

Let G be a group and H A
homomorphism f : G -- G I such that Ker f = H.
(Hint : Does Example 3 help?)

Another class of examples of homomorphisms concerns the inclusion map.

Example 4 : Let H be a subgroup of a group G. Show that the map i : H
homomorphism. .This function is called the inclu'sion map.
- G, i(h) = h is a

Solution : Since i(hl h2) = hl h2 = i(hl)i(hl)%' hl, h2 E H:i is a group homomorphism.

 I

i/ Let us bjiefly look at the inclusion map in the context of symmetric groups. Consider two Group Homomorphisms
; natural numbers m and n, where m I n.

1 Then, we can consider Sm C S,,, where any o E S,, written as u is the Greek letlei sigma.

! 1 2
I
I
( 4 ) ..,.
I:(,, ) , is considered to be the same as
...a.

1 2 ..... m m f l ..... n E Sn, i.e;, a(k) = k for m f 1 5 k 5 n .

1
1
( a(l) a(2) ..... o(n) m + 1..... n
1 Then we can define an inclusion map i : Sm -- S,.

1
2
- 1 2 3 4
For example, under i : S3 S4, (1 2) goes 10 ( 2
4).
i Try this exercise now.

I
1 E 6) What are the kernel and image of the inclusion map i : 3 2 -- Z?

!
I
We will now p r w e some results about homomorphisms. Henceforth, for convenience, we
shall drop the notation for the binary operation, and write a x b as ab.
Now let us look at the composition of two homomorphisms. Is it a homomorphism? Let us see.'
Theorem ,2 : I f f : G I -- G z and g : G2 -- G3 are two group homomorphisms, then the
composite map g f : G I . -
G3 is also a group homomorphism.
Proof : Let x. y E G I . Then
g 0 f(xy)=g(fIx:y))
=g(f(x)f(y),since f is a homomorphism.
=g(f(x)) g(f(g)),since g is a homomorphism.
= g f(x).g 0 f(y).
,-I

Thus. g , f is a homomorphism.
Now, using Theorem 2, try and solve the following exercise.

E 7) Let n E N . Show that the composition off : Z -- Z : f(x) = nx and

g : Z -- Z/nZ : g(x) = ji is a homomorphism. What are KerCg ,, f ) and ImIg ., f)?

So far you have seen that the.kernel and image of a homomorphism are sets. In the examples
we have discussed so far you may have noticed that they are subgroups. We will now prove
that the kernel of a homomorphism is a normal subgroup, and the image is a subgroup.
heo or em 3 : Let f : G - Gl be a group homomorphism. Then
I

a) Ker f is a normal subgroup of G I .

b) Im f is a subgroup of G!.
Proof : a) Since [(el) = el, el E Ker f. :. Ker f f 4.
, Now, if x, y E Ker f, then f(x) = el and f(y) = el.
Y'
.'. f(xy-I) = f(x) f(y-I) = f(x) [f(y)]" = e..
i
l 2'. xy-I E Ker f.
"
Therefore, by Theorem 1 of Unit 3, K o f~5 GI. Now, for any y E G I and x E Ker f,
f(y-Ixy) = f(y-') f(x)f(y)
= [f(y)]-le,f(y), since f(x) = ez and by Theorem 1.
-- el.
-
.'. Ker f A G I .

b) Im f # 4, since f(el) E Im f.
I

Now, let x?, y: E Im f. Then 3 x,, yl E G I such that f ( x ~ =

) x? and f(y11= Y2.
Some More Group Theory Usirfg this result, from Example 2 \ye can immediately see that the set of purely imaginary
numbers is a normal subgroup ofC.
Let .us also consider another example, which is a particular case of E 4 (when n = I).
Consider $ : (R, +) -- (c*,.) +
: 4(x) = cos x i sin x. We have seen that
+
4(x y) = &(x)4(y), that is, 4 is a group homomorphism. Now d(x) = 1 iff x = 2m for
some n fZ. Thus, by Theorem 3, Ker 45 = ( 2 n 1 n E Z ) is a normal subgroup of (R. $1.
Note that this is cyclic, and 2n is a generator.
Similarly, Im 4 is a subgroup of C*. This consists of all the complex numbers with absolute
value 1, i.e., the complex numbers on the circle with radius 1 unit and centre (0. 0).
You may have noticed that sometimes the kernel of a homomorphism is {e} (as in Example
l), and sometimes it is a large subgroup (as in Example 2). Does the size of the kernel indicate
anything? We will prove that a l~omomorphismis 1-1 iff its kernel is (el.
Theorem 4 : Let f : G I -- GI be a group homomorphism. Then f is injective iff Ker f = (el),
where et is the identity element of the group G I .
Proof: Firstly, assume that f is injective. Let x E Ker f. Then f(x) = el, i.e., f(x) = fjel). But f
is 1-1. :. x = el.
Thus, Kerf = {el}.
conversely, suppose Ker f = {el]. Let x, y E GI such that
f(x) = f(y). 'Then f(xym1)= f(x) f(y-')
= f(x) [f(~)]-'= ez.
:. xy-' EKer f = {el).:. xy-' = el and x = y.
This shows that f is injective.
So, by using Theorem 4 and Example 4, we can immediately say that any inclusion
i:B --+G is 1-1, since Ker i = {el. '
Let us consider another example.
Example 5 : Consider the group T of translations of ~ " ~ x a m ~6 l, Unit
e 2). We define a
+
map 4 : (R" ) -- (T,o) by 4 (a, b) = f,,~,.Sllow that I$ is an onto homomorphism,
which is also 1-1. i

Solution : For (a, b), (c, d) in R*,we have seen that

fa+c.h+d = fn,b fc.d
+
Q

.'. 4((a, b) (c, d)) = +(a, bj +(c, d).

(1

.noi $??ups.
Thus, 6, is a homornorpl~~
Now, any element of T is - ,.&(-7, b). Therefore, & is surjective. We now show that #I is
also injective.
Let (R, b) E Ker 4. Then $(a, b) = fo,~,
i.e., fa,h= f6,0
fa,b(O, 0) = fo,o (0, O),
i.e., (a, b) = (0,O)
.'. Ker 4 = (1 (0, 0) j
.'. I$ is 1-1.
So we have proved that 4 is a homomorphism, which is bijective.
Try the following exercise now.

E 8) For any n > 1, consider Z, and U, (the group of nth roots of unity discussed in
Example 5 of Unit 3). Let w denote an nth root of unity that generates U,. Then
r
Un= (11, W, u2,..., d""],Now, consider themap f : Z, -- U,, : i@) = o , Show that
f is a group homomorphism. Is f 1-I? 1s f surjective?

And now let us look at a very useful property oPa laomomorphism that is surjective
~h&rern5 : Iff : G I -- G? is an onto group homomorphism and S is a subset that generates Group Homomorph~sms
GI,then f(S) generates G,.
Proof: We know that
GI = < S > = { x~'lx?"... xmrmI m EN, xi E S, r, E Z for all i). We will show that
G: = < f(S) >.
Let x E G:. Since f is surjective, there exists y E G I such that f(y) = x. Since y E GI,
y = xlrl... xm.'m,for some rn E N, where xi E S and ri E Z, 1 5 i 5 m.
) f(xlr' ... xmrm)
Thus, x = f ( ~ =
= XI))'] ... (f(x,))'", since f is a homomorphism.
a x E < f(S) >. since f(x,) E f(S) for every i = 1, 2, ...,r.
Thus. G: = < f(S) >.
In the following exercise we present an important property of cyclic groups which you can
prove by using Theorem 5 .

E 9) Show that the homomorphic image of a cyclic group is cyclic, i.e., if G is a cyclic
group and f : G -- G' is a homomorphism. then f(G) is cyclic.

Once you have solved E 9. you can immediately say that any quotient group of a cyclic
group is cyclic.
So far you have seen examples of various kinds of homomorphisms-injective, surjective and
i.1 particular.
bijective. Let us now look at bijective homor~~orphisms

6.3 ISOMORPHISMS

In this section we will discuss homomorphisms that are 1-1 and onto. We start with some
definitions,
Definitions : Let G I and G: be two groups. A homomorphism f : G I -- G: is called an
isomorphism if f is 1-1 and onto.

In this case we say that the group G , is isomorphic to the group G l or GIand Gz are Thc word 'isomorphisms' 1s &rived
isomorphic. We denote this fact by G , = G1. from the Greek word 'isos' meaning
'equal'.
An isomorphism of a group G onto ikelf is called an autcirnorphism of G. For example, the
identity' funtion IG : G -- G : II;(x) = x is an automorphism.
Let us look at another example of an isomorphism.

Example 6 : Consider the set G =

Then G is a group with respect to matrix addition.
Showthatf:G--C:f ( [- ; b] =a + ib is an isomorphism.
Solution : Let us first verify that f is a homomorphism. Now, for a n y two elements

[- ba b]and[-i
a t]inG,

= (a + ib) + (c + id)

Therefore, f is a homomorphism.
Some More Group Theor)

Therefore, by Theorem 3, f is 1-1.

Finally. since Irn f = C. f is surjective
Therefore, f is an isomorphism.
Lt'e ivould like to make an important remark now.
Remark : If G ; and G: are isomorphic groups, they must have the same algebraic structure
and satisf> the same algebraic properties. For example, any group isomorphic to a finite group
must be finite and of the same order. Thus. two isomorphic groups are algebraically
indistinguishable systems.
The follo\+.ing result is one of the consequences of isomorphic groups k i n g algebraically alike
Theorem 6 : If f : G -- H is a group isomorphism and
Therefore.
Y E G , then -
< s > < f ( ~ >,
)

i) if s is of finite order. then o(x) = o(f(s)).

ii if x is of infinite order, so is f(xj.
iK
P r o o f : If we restrict f to any subgroup'K of G, we have the function f : K -- f(K), Since f
is bijective. sc is its restriction f : K . ... K= f(K) for an]; subgroup K of G. 1n particular, for any
x E G, < x > = f(< x >) = < f(x) >, by E 9.

Now if x has finite order, then o(x) = o(< x >) = o(< f(x) >) = o(f(x)), proving (i)
T o prove (ii) assume h a t x is of infinite order. Then < x > is an infinite group.
Therefore. < f(x) > is an infinite group, and hence. f(x) is of infinite order. So, we have
proved (ii).
Try the following exercises no\y. •

E 10) Show that Z = nZ,for a fixed integer n.

(Hint : Consider f : (Z. +) -- (nZ. -) : f(k) = nk.)
E 11) Is f : Z -- Z : f(x) = O a homomorphism? an isomorphism?

The next twoexercis:: ~nvol..: general properties of an ~somorphism.E 12 is the isomorphisrrr

analogue of Theoren, 2. E 13 gives us another e-iample to support the fact that isomorphic
groups h a t e the same algebraic properties.

E 12) If 6 : G -
H and 0 : H -- K are t \ ~ o~somorphisrnsd p r o u p s , [hen show that B u cb ,
is a n isomorphism of G onto K.
E 13) I f f : G - H is an isomorphism of groups and G is abelian. then show that H is alx,
abelian.
1

So far we have seen examples of isomorphic groups. Now consider the following example.
Example 7 : Shouf that (R*,.) is not isomorphic to (C*,.).
Solution : Suppose the) are isomorphic, and f : C* -- R* is an isomor~hism-Then

o(i) = o(f(i)), by Theorem 6, Now o(i) = 4. .'. o(f(i)) = 4.

However, the order of any real number different from + 1 is infinite: and o(1) = 1,
o( -1) = 2.
S o we reach a contradiction. Therefore, our supposition must be wrong. That is, R * and C*
are not isomorphic.
 Try these exercises now. Croup Homomorphisms

E 14) Show that (C*,,) is not isomorphic to (R, + ).

E 15) Is Z - Z/nZ, for any n # l?

You must have noticed that the definition of an isomorphism just says that the map is
bijective, i.e., the inverse map exists. It does not tell us any properties of the inverse. The nest
result does so.
Theorem 7 : If f : G I -- G: is an isomorphism of groups, then f-I : G: -- G I i5 also a n
isomorphism.
Proof: From Unit 1 you know that f-' is bijective. So, we onl! need to shon rhnt f - ' i> il
homomorphism. Let a', b' E G ? and a = f-' (a'), b = f - I (b'), Then f(n)= a' and f(h)= b'.
Therefore, f(ab) = f(a) f(b) = a'b'. On applying f-I, we get
f - ' (a'b') = ab = f-' (a') f'l (b'), Thus,
f" (aTb')=f-' (a') f-' (b') for all a', b g E G I .

Hence, f - I is an isomorphism.
From Example 5 and Theorem 7 we can immediately say that
4-I : T -- II2: 4-l(f0,t,) = (a, b) is an isomorphism.
Theorem 7 says that if GI -- G2, then G2 =" G I . We will be using this result quite often (e.g.,
while proving Theorem 9)
Let us now look at a very important theorem in group theory. In Block 3 you will study its
analogue in ring theory and in the Linear Algebra course you have already studied its
analogue for linear transformations.

6.4 THE ISOMORPHISM THEOREMS .

In this section we shall prove some results about the relationship between homomorphisms
and quotient groups. The first result is the Fundamental Theorem of Homomorphism for
groups. It is called 'fundamental' because a lot of group theory depends upon this result. This
result is also called the first isomorphism theorem,

and f : G I-
Theorem 8 (Fundamental Theorem of Homomorphism) Let G I and G2 be two groups

Gi/Ker f = Im f.
G2 be a group homomorphism. Then

In particular, if f is onto, then Gi/Ker f -- GI.

Proof: Let Ker f = H. Note that H A G I . Let us define the function
8
$ : GI/H -- Im f : $ (Hx) = f(x).
4 At first glance it seems that the definition of $ depends on the coset representative. But we will
I
I show that if x, y E GIsuch that Hx = Hy, then $(Hx) = I(I(Hy). This will prove that $ is a
well-defined function.
I
Now, Hx = Hy *xy-I E H = Ker f * f(xy-') = ez, the identity of G2.
f(x)[f(y)]-' = e2 => f(x) = f(y).
=3 $(Hx) = ICI(HY).
Therefore, $ is a well-defined function,
Now, let us check that $ is a homomorphism. For Hx, Hy E G ~ / H ,
ICI(tHx)(Hy)) = ICI(Hxy)
= ~(xY)
= f(x) f(y), since f is a homomorphism.
= $(Hx) NHY)
Therefore, $ is a group homomorphism.
Some More Group Theory Next, let us see whether $ is bijective or not.
- Now, g(Hx) = *(Hy) for Hx,HYin GI/H
==+ f(x) = f(y)
* f(x) [f(y)l-' = e2
==+ f(xfl) = e2
- =3 xy-I E Ker f = H.
-Hx= Hy
Thus, Il,is 1-1.
Also, any element of Irn f is f(x) = #(Hx), where x E G I.
:. Im i,b = Im f.
So, we have proved that 19, is bijective, and hence, an isomorphism. Thus, G1/Ker f = Im f.
Now, iff is surjective, Im f r Gz.Thus, in this case GdKer f -- G2.
The situation in Theorem 8 can be shown in the following diagram.

Here, p is the natural homomorphism (see Example 3).

The diagram says that if you first apply p, and then 9, to the elements of G I, it is the same as
. applying f to them. That is,

Also, note that Theorem 8 says that two. dements of GI have the same image under f iff they
belong to the same coset of Ker f.
Let us look at a few examples.
One of the simplest situations we can consider is IG : G G. On applying Theorem 8 here,
4'

we see that G/{e} -- G. We will be using this identification of G/{e) and G quite often.
Now for some non-trivial examples.
ExampIe 8 : Prove that C/R = R.
Solution : Define f : C -- .R : f(a $ ib) = b. Then f is a homomorphism, Ker f = R and
Im f = R. Therefore, on applying Theorem 8 we see that C/R R.

1, if n is even
Example 9 : Consider f : Z -- ({I, - I),.) : f(n) =
- 1, if n is odd.

At the beginning of ~ e c . 6 . 2you

, saw that f is a homomorphism. Obtain Ker f and Im f. What
does Theorem 8 say in this case?
Solution : Let Z, and ZQdenote the set of even and odd integers, respectively. Then
Kerf = { n EZI f(n) = 1 ) = Z,. b

Imf=(f(n)I n E Z ) = { l , - 1 )
Thus, by Theorem 8, Z/Z, --
{ 1, - 1 }.

This also tells us that o(Z/Z,) = 2. The two cosets of Ze in Z are Ze and 7' ,
I
{z~,zo}={l- , 1).

Example 10 : Show that GL2(R)/SL2(R) -- R*, where ,

SL2(R) = {A E GL2(R) I det (A) -' 1 ).
Solution : We know that the functioli
22 f : GL2(') -- B*: f(A) = &L (-A-; i , : ~i !?cxor-,lo:~:!Gsrn. Now, Ker E = SLz(R).
 Group Homomorphisms
Also, Im f = R*, since any r E R* can be written as det -
Thus, using Theorem 8, GLz(R)/SLz(R) -- R*.
Try the following exercises now.

E 16) Consider the situation in Example 1. Show that (R, + ) -- (R*,.), the group of
positive real numbers.

Define f : Z -
E 17) Let U4 be the multiplicative group of 4th roots of unity.
UI': f(n) = in. Use Theorem 8 to show that Z4 -- U4. (i = f i . 1

Now-we will use the Fundamental Theorem of Homomorphism to prove a very important
result which classifies all cyclic groups.
Theorem 9 : Any cyclic group is isomorphic to (Z, +) or (Z,, +).
Proof : Let G = < x > be a cyclic group. Defme
f:Z-G:f(n)=xn.
f is a homomorphism because
+
f(n m) = x""' = xn . xm = f(n) f(m).
Also note that Im f = G.
Now, we have two possibilities for Ker I- Ker f = {0) or Ker f Z (0).
Case 1 (Ker f = {O)) :'In this case f is 1-1. Therefore, f is an isomorphism. Therefore, by
Theorem 7, f ' is an isomorphism. That is, G =. (2, +).
Case2 (Ker f # {O)) : Since Ker f 5 Z, from Example 4 of Unit 3 we know that Ker f = nZ,
for some n E N . Therefore, by the Fundamental Theorem of Homomorphism, Z/nZ = G.
:. G = Z/nZ = (Z,, '+).
Over here note that since < x > = Z,, o(x) = n. So, a finite cyclic group is isomorphic to Zn,
where n is the order of the group.
Using Theorem 9 we know that all cyclic groups of order 4 ark isomorphic, since they are all
isomorphic to Z4. Similarly, all infinite cyclic groups are isomorphic.
And now you can prove the following nice result.

(Hint : Define f: R
Ker f = Z.)
-
E 18) Let S be the circle group { z E C I I z 1 = 1). Show that R/Z =! S.
S : f(x) = e2"IX.Show that f is an onto homomorphism and

We will now prove the second isomorphisxn theorem with the help of the Fundamental
Theorem of Homomorphism. It is concerned with intersections and products of subgroups. To
prove the theorem you will need the results given in the following exercise. So why not do this
exercise first!

E 19) Let G be a group, H 5 G and K 4 G. Then

a) H n K 4 H; and
b) if A 5 G such that KC A, then K 4 A .

Now let us discuss the theorem.

Theorem 10 : If H and K are subgroups of a group G , with K normal in G, then
H/(H n K) = (HK)/K.
Proof: We must first verify that the quotient groups H/(H n K) and (HK)/K are well-
n
defined. From E 19 you know that H K 4 H. Prom E 6 of Unit 5 you know that
HK 5 G. Again, from E 19 you know that K 4 HK. Thus the given quotient groups are
meanmgful.
Some More Group Theory NOW, what we want to do is to find an onto homomorphism f : H -- (HK)/K with kernel
H f' K. Then we can apply the Fundamental Theorem of Homomorphism. and get the
result. We define f : H- (HKj/K : f(h) = hK.
Now, for x, y € H,
f(xy) = xyK = (xK) (yK) = f(x) f(y).
Therefore, f is a homomorphism.

We will show that Im f = (HK)/K. Now, take any element hK E Im f. Since h E H, h f HK

:. hK E (HK)/K. :. Im f (HK-)/K. On the other hand, an! elemenr of (HK)/K is
hkK = hK, since k E K.
:. hkK E Im f. :. (HK)/K C Im f.
.'. Im f = (HK)/K.
Finally, Ker f = { h E fl f(h) = K } = { h E H hK = K1
= ( h ~ H l h € K ]
=HnK.
Thus, on applying the Fundamental Theorem. we gr H I (HnK)--: (HK) / K
We would like to make a remark here.
Remark : If H and K are subgroups of (G.+), thin Theorem 10 says that

Now you can use Theoreni 10 to solve the follou.ing exercises.

E 20) Let H and K be subgroups of a tinitt. group G ,and H A G.Show ~har

E 21) Show that 327122 = Z4.

(Hint : Take H = 3 2 , K = 42).

And now for the third isomorphism theorem. This is also a corollary to Theorem S.
II

Theorem II : Let H and K be normal subgroups of a group G such that K C H. Then

Prodf : We will define a homomorphism from G/K onto G/H, whose kernel will turn out to
be H/K.
Consider f : G/K -G/H : f(Kx) = Hx. f is well-defined because Kx = Ky tor x, y EG
==3xy-' € K cH +xy-' E H =3 H x = Hy f(Kx) = f(Ky)
Now we leave the rest of the proof to you (see the following exercise).

E 22) Show that f is an onto homomorphism and Ker f = H/K.

Let us now look at isomorphisms of a group onto itself.

6.5 AUTOMORPHISMS
In this section we will firs~showthat the set of all automorphisms of a group forms a group.
Then we shall define a special subgroup of this group.

Let G be a group. Consider

 Group Homomarphias
AutG = { f : ~ - - G I fisanisomorphism).
You have already seen that the identity map IGE Aut G. From E 12 you h o w that Aut G is
closed under the binary operation of composition. Ah.Theorem 7 says that iff E Aut G,
then f-' E Aut G. We sumnark this di5ciiion h the fouowhg theorem.
me~&nI t : Let G be a goup. Then Aut G, the set of automorphisms of G, is a group.
Let us look at an example of Aut G.
Example 11 : Show that Aut 2 = Zz.
Solution : Let f : -- Z be an automorphisrn. Let f(1) = n. We will show that n = 1
or - 1.Sincefisontoand 1 E Z , 3 m EZsuch thatf(m) = l,i.e.,mf(l)rl,ie.,m=l.
:. n = 1 o r n = - 1.
Thus. there are only two elements in Aut 2,I and - I.
So Aut Z = < - I > = 2 2 .
ion-. given an element of a group G. we will define an automorphism of G corresponding to
it.

f, : G-
Consider a fixed element g E G. Define
G : f,(x) = gxg-'.
We will show that f, is aa automorphism of G.
i) f, is a homomorphism : If x, y E G, then
f# (xy) = g(xy) g-'
= gx(e) yg-', whem e is the identity of G.
= gx(g-Ig) yg-'
= (gxg-') (as-')
= fdx) fdy).
ii) f, is 1-1 : For x, y E G, fkx) = fdy) gxg-' = gyg-' +x = y, by the
cancellation laws in G .
iii) f, is onto : If y E G, then
Y = (&%-I)Y @-'I
= g(g-'yg) g-'
= f&-'yg) E lm fs.
Thuz,f, is an automorphism of G. li'c @ve this automorphism a special name.
Definition : f, is called an inner automorphism of G induced by the element g in G.The
suMt of Aut G consisting of all inner automorphism of G is denoted by Inn G.
For example. consider S?.Let us compute f,(l). f,(l 3) and f, (1 2 3). where g = (1 2). Note
that g-' = ( I 2) = g.
NOW.f6(1) = g a 1 0 g-' = I,
.I f,Cl 3) = (1 2) ( 1 3) (1 2) = (2 3).
71 f ~ C 2l 3 ) = ( 1 2 ) ( 1 2 3 ) ( 1 2 ) = ( 1 32).
The following bxercise will give you some practice in obtaining inner automorphisms.
J
E 23) Obtain the image of f, E Inn G, where

8) G=GLz(R)anJg =
1
b) G = Zand g = 3.
c) G = Z/SZ and g = $.
I

You will now see that Inn G is a normal subgroup of Aut G.

I
i
'heorem 13: Let G be a group. Then Inn G is a oormal subgroup of Gut G.
Proof: Inn G is nonempty, because IG = fe EInn G, where e is the identity in G.
Some More Croup Theory Now, let us see if f, fh€Inn G for g, h E G.
0

For any x E G, f,. o fh(x) = fg(hxh-l)

= g(hxh-') g-l
= (gh) x (gh)"
= fgh(x)
Thus, fgh= fgo fh, i.e., Inn G is closed under composition. Also f, = I(; belongs to Inn G.
Now, for fgEInnG, 3 f,-1 €Inn G such that
fg fg-1 = fB8-I= fe = IG.Similarly, 5-1
0 o f, = IG.

Thus, f,-1 = (fd-I. That iq every element of Idn G has hn inverse in Inn G.
This proves that Inn G is a subgroup of Aut G.
Now, to p;ove that Inn G Aut G, let 4EAut G and f,EIna G. Then, for any x E G

4-' ? f, &(XI= +-I

0 fe(4 (XI)
= 4-I (g#J(x)g-')
= +-I (g) #J-I(&(x))&-I(g-')
= 4-' (g) x[+-'(g 11-'
= f ,-I(,, (x). (Note that 4-'(g) EG.)
-'- rf, ' o f , 0 4 = f , . ~ ( ~ ) € I n n G V4 E A u t G a n d f g E I n n G .
:. Inn G 4 Aut G.
Now for some exercisg! From E 23 you may have already got a hint of the useful result that
we give in E 24.

E 24) Show that a group G is commutative iff Inn G = {IG}.

E 2.5) Show that if x E G such that f,(x) = x V g E G , then < x > 4 G.

Now we will prove an interesting result which relates the cosets of the centre of a group G to
ln11G. Recall that the centre of G, Z(G) = { x E G ( xg = g x V g E G 1.
Theorem 14 : Let G be a group. Then G/Z(G) -- Inn G.
Proof: As usual, we will use the powerful Fundamefltal Theorem of Homomorphism to
provc this result.
Wc Jrfine f : G -- Aut G : f(g) = f,.

Firstly, I'is i1 homomorphism because for g, h E G,

f(gh) = [,:I,
-I, o f h (SIX proof of Thcorem 13)
-- [(g) f(I1).0

Next, Im F = ( f, 1 g E G ) = Inn G.
Finally, Ker f = ( g E G I f, = Ic; 1
= { g ~ ~ [ f ,=( X~V) X E G }
= { g ~ ~ ( g ~ g - ' = ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ j
={~EGI~X=X~VXEG)
= Z(G).

Therefore, by the Fundamental Theorem,

G/Z(G) = Inn G.
Now you can use Theorem 14 10 solve the next exercise.

E 26) Show that S3 -- Inn S3.

Now let us see what we have done in this unit.

 In this unit we have covered the following points.
1. The definition and example of a group homomorphism.

2, Let f : G, -- Gz be a group homomorphism. Then f(el) = el,

Ker f 4 G I .
[f(x)]-I = f(x-I), Im f 5 GGZ,

3. A homomorphism is 1-1 iff its kernel is the trivial subgroup.

4. The definition and examples of a gro~lpisomorphism.
5. Two groups are isomorphic iff they have exactly the same algebraic structure.

6. The composition of groap homomorphisms (isomorphisms) is a group homomorphism *

(i~on~orphism).

f : GI -
7. The proof of the Fundamental Theorem of Homomorphism, which says that if
Gz is.a group homomorphism, then Gl/Ker f = Im f,

8. Any infinite cyclic group is isomorphic to (Z, 4- ). Any finite cyclic group of order n is
isomorphic to ( Z , +).
9. Let G be a group, H 5 G, K 4 G. Then H/(H n K) ---- (HK)/K.
10. Let G be a group, H 4 G, K 4 G, K C H,Then (G/K)/(H/K) = G/H.
11. The set of automorphisms of a group GI Aut G, is a group with respect to the
composition of functions.
12. Inn G A Aut G, for any group G.
13. G/Z(G) = Inn G , for any group G.

E 1) For any x, y E It*, f (xy) = In(xy) = lnx Iny.+

:. f is a homomorphism.
~ e r =f ' { ~ E R * (f(x) = 0 ) = {I).
1 m f = (f(x)I X E R * ] = { l n x l X E R * } .

E 2) For any A, B EGL3(R),

f(AB) = det (AR) = det(A) det(B) = f(A) f(B)
.'. f is a homomorphism.
Ker f = [ A E GL3 (R))f(A) = 1 ) = ( A E GLs(R) 1 det(A) = 1 1
= SL3(R), the special linear group of order 3.

aI Im f = { det(A) I A E GL3 (R) )

[;::]
= R* (because for any r C R*, 3 A = 0 1 0 EGL,(R) such that det (A) = r.)

E 3) p : Ss S3/A3 : P(X) = AJX

Note that A3 = (I, (1 2 3), (1 3 2) }.
Now Ker p = A3. :. (1 2) @ ~ e p.r
Im p -- ( A3x I x E S3 1. :. (1 2) @ Im p,

E 4) For any x, y E R, f(x + y) = e,in(x+y)

= elnx. elny= f(x). f(y).

.:
f is a homomorphism.
Kerf=[xER~f(x)=l}=(x~~(e~"~~l}

E 5) From Example 3, we know that if we take G I = G/H and take f to be the natural
homomorphism from G onto G/H, then Ker f = H. +
 I

~ a n Marc
e Group Thewy . E 6) i : 3 2 -- Z : i(3n) = 3n.
I ~eri={3nI3n=Oj={O)
Im i = 32. I

I E7) g,of:Z-- Z / n Z : g o f ( x ) = z = n .
I Then, for any x, y E Z
g o f ( ~ t ~ ) = b = b + D = f(x)+gof(y).
~.
I' .: g f is a homomorphism.
I I

1 I Ker(gof)=Z,Im(gof)={ b ) .
1 1

E8) Forany7,iEZn.
f(i + g) = f(r-
+ S) = wI+' = ur.wS= f(C ).f(S).
:. f is a homomorphism
f is 1-1 because
f(r)=i +w1=1
* r I o(wj = n (see Unit 4)
*r=(j
.: Ker f = {c).
f is surjective because any element of U, is w' for 0 5 r 5 n '- 1, and w' = f('l).
E9) LetG=<x>andf:G--G'beahomomorphism.Thenf:G-f(G)isanonto
homomorphism.
<
Therefore, by Theorem 5, f(G) = f(x) >, i.e., f(G) is cyclic.

E 10) a) The function f : Z --

nZ : f(k) = nk is a welldefined fundtion.
+
Now,f(m+ k)=n(qi+ k ) = nm nk =f(m) t f ( k ) V m , k E Z .
.: f is a homomorphism
Kerf={O}.:. fisl-1.
Im f = nZ. :. f is sujective.
:. f is an isomorphism and Z ---- nZ.
E 1 4 f is a homomorphism, but not 1-1 . :. f is not an isomorphism.

E 12) By Theorem 2.6 4 is a homomorphism. Now let x EKer ( 6 o 4).

Then, (8 o 4 ) (x) =0 * )0
~ ( H x )=
*Nx)=O, since 0 is 1-1.
*x=O,since 4 is 1-1.
:. Ker(Be4)=(O]. .: flo+isl-I.
Finally, take any kCK. Then k = B(h), for some h EH, since 0 is onto.
Now, h = &g), for some g EG, since 4 is onto.

.'. k = B Ng). :. B 4 is onto.

0

:. fl 4 is an'isomorphism.
0

E 13) Let a, b E H. Then 3 x, y E G such that a = f(x), b = f(y).

Now ab = f(x) f(y) = f(xy).
= f(yx), since G is abelian.
= f(y) f(x)
= ba
.:
H is abelian.

1;14) suppo6ec* -- R and f : C* -- R is an isomorphism, Then o(f(i)) = 4. But, apart

from 0; every element of (R,+) is of infinite order; and o(0) = 1. So,we reach a
contradiction.
I

:. C * and R are not isomorphic. I

E 15) Since 2 is intinite and Z/nZ is finite, the two groups can't be isomotpbic. I

E16) ~ m e x p = ( e ~ \ r ~ R } = ~ ~ .
Ker exp = { 0 ). I

Thus,by the Fundamental Theotpm of Homomorphism, R = Rt.

28
-
I
 2 3
.E17) U4= ( l , i , ? , i ) = {f 1 , f i]. Croup Homomorphisms
f is a homomorphism, Ker f = ( n ( in = 1 ) = 4 2
~ r n'f = ~ 4 .
.'. 2 / 4 2 = u4
In Unit 5 we have seen that 2 / 4 2 is the same as Z4.

.'. f is a homomorphism.
Now any element of S is of the form cos 8 + i sin 0

.: f is onto.
Also, Ker f = ( x E R / e2"'" 1 }
= ( X E R J c o s 2 ~ r x fi s i n 2 r x = 1 )
= 2, since cos f3 4- i sin B = 1 iff 0 E 27rZ.

Therefore, by the Fundamental Theorem of Homomorphism,R/Z = S.

E19) a ) Y o u k n o w t h a t H ~ K ~ H . N o w , l e t h E H a n d x E H ~ K .
Then h-'xh E H, since h, x E H.
Also, h-'xh E K, since x E K and K A - G.
:. h-'xh E H n K. .: H n K 4 H.
b) Since K 5 G, K 5 A. Aiso, for any a E A, a E G.
Therefore, since K 4 G, a-'Ka = K. :. K A
- A.
E 20) By Theorem 10, (HK)/H = K/(H fl K).

E 21) Let H = 32, K = 42. By Theorem 10 we know that (H -1- K)/K -- H/(H Cl K).
Now H + K = 3 2 + 4 2 = Z. (Use E 9 of Unit 3 and the fact that 1 = 4 - 3.)
Also Kn-K = 3Z n 4 2 = 12Z(since x E 3 2 n 4 2 iff 3 1 x and 4 Ix).
Thus, by Theorem 1 0 , 2 / 4 2 = 32/122.
You also know that 2 / 4 2 = $4.
.'. 3ZJ12Z 54.
L-

E 22) For any Kx, Ky in G/K,

f((Kx)(Ky)) = f(Kxy) = Hxy = (Hx) (Hy) = f(Kx)f(Ky).
.'. f is a homomorphism.
Now, any element of G/H is of the form Hx. And
Hx = f(Kx) E Im f. :. Im f = G/H .
Finally, Ker f = { Kx E G/K 1 f(Kx) = H }
= (KXEG/K/HX=H)
={KxEG/Kl x E H )
= H/K

Therefore, by Theorem 8, (G/K)/(H/K) = G/H.

Some More Group Theory

c) Here too, since G is abelian, f, = I.

E 24) Firstly assume that G is abelian. Then, for any f, E Inn G,
fg-'(x)= gxg-' = gg-lx = x V x E G.
.: f, = IG.
.'. Inn G = { IG j.
Conversely, assume that Inn G = { I G ~ .
Then, for any x, y E G, f,(y) = Y.
3 xyx-I =.y ==3 xy = yx.
Therefore, any two element. of G commute with each other. That is, G is abelian.
E 25) To show that g-' < x > g = < x > V g E G, it is enough to show that
g-lxg E < x > V g E G. Now, for any g E G, we are given that
fg-' (x) = X.
==3 g-l~(~-')-l =x
* g-lxg = x.
:. g - ' < x > g = < x > . : . <x>AG.
E 26) We know that SdZ(S3) = Inn ST.
But, Z(S3) = { I 1.:. S3 = Inn S3.