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MODELS FOR VOLCANIC-HOSTED EPITHERMAL

PRECIOUS METAL DEPOSITS; A REVIEW
By

Kyaw Linn Zaw

Department of Geological Engineering, Faculty of Engineering

Gadjah Mada University

Introduction
Hydrothermal deposit is a mineral deposit formed from hydrothermal solution
released from the magmatic system, at a range of temperature and pressure. Based on
range of temperature and pressure, there are three types of hydrothermal deposits;
epithermal deposit, mesothermal deposit and hypothermal deposit. Epithermal deposits
are formed within about 1 km (less than 1500 m) of the Earth’s surface (at a shallow
depth) and fairly low temperature 50 °C to 200 °C. Mesothermal deposits are formed at
considerable depth (1200 - 4500 m) in the temperature range of 200 °C to 400 °C.
Hypothermal deposits are formed at great depth (3000-15000 m), in the temperature
range of 400 °C to 600 °C.
Epithermal environment is being shallow in depth, typically hosting Au, Ag and
base metals. Epithermal deposits consists of opal, chalcedony, quartz, calcite, aragonite,
barite and fluorite with a number of other gangue minerals and they also contain in places
metallic gold and certain sulfides such as cinnabar, stibnite and pyrite but not the other
common ore minerals such as chalcopyrite, galena, sphalerite and arsenopyrite (Lindgren,
1922). Epithermal deposits generally occur in igneous flow rocks and most commonly in
andesite, latite, trachyte and rhyolite but rarely found in basalts. These deposits also cut the
underlying or adjacent formations.

Epithermal systems have also been exploited for a wide range of metals and
minerals including Hg, Sb, S, kaolinite, alunite and silica, and maximum depth of
formation is 1000 m. The estimate of upper pressure limit is 100 atm, which corresponds
to that of low salinity, low gas water that is boiling at ~1000 m depth. Deposit with texture
and mineral assemblages characteristic of the epithermal environment have minerals and
fluid inclusions that record a maximum temperature of about 300 C, although most

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deposits form in a temperature range about 160 °C to 270 °C (Hedenquist,et.al., 2000). Ore
deposition occurs because rapidly ascending fluids quickly change composition within a
kilometre of the surface. This change is caused by boiling, the processes that most favours
precipitation of bisulfide-complexed metal such as gold. Boiling and rapid cooling result in
deposition of gangue minerals as quartz with a colloform texture, adularia and bladed
calcite, and the formation of stream-heated waters that create advanced argillic and argillic
alteration blankets and halos. Moreover sharp depressurization follows hydraulic
fracturing and this also causes the flow of vigorously boiling fluid. The above mentioned
conditions results in the deposition of epithermal deposits.
Though most of these deposits are found not only in the Tertiary flow but also in
some regions of recent volcanism, and that similar veins have been formed during pre-
Tertiary out-breaks although erosion has removed most of the older representatives of this
type. These deposits are originated partly by mechanical and partly by chemical processes.
These deposits are usually formed in fissure veins. Because of the fissuring of the
rock near the surface, under slight load, open cavities are abundant and give rise to
conspicuous filling, crustification, and comb structure. The vein materials are often frozen
to the walls since the walls are likely to be irregular. Splitting, chambering and brecciation
are features of the veins. While metasomatic processes have been active in the surrounding
rocks the ore is usually confined to open fissures. Short and irregular veins are more
frequent than the regularly developed conjugated fractures resulting from strong
compressive stress. Divergent systems of fractures are thought to be due to the gravitative
setting of volcanic piles. Banding caused by crustification is much more delicate and
frequent than in deposits formed at greater depth and higher temperature.
Gold and silver are the most important epithermal metal deposits, although base
metals are present, their sizes are not economically important. Large bodies of galena and
sphalerite occur on some places, but the copper minerals are not abundant. The pyritic
deposits are confined to the deeper zones of higher temperatures. Arsenic and antimony,
bismuth, tellurium and selenium are common but are rarely of economic importance; quick
silver is present in some places. Cobalt and nickel, tungsten and molybdenum are not
unknown, but are entirely subordinate especially in the deeper deposits.
The pure gold deposits are relatively scare, and those carrying silver only are
common in certain regions like Mexico. The usual metals are gold and silver occurring

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together in varying proportions. Gold and silver can also be found as the native elements in
the epithermal deposits.

Types of Epithermal deposits

The deposits and their relative mineral assemblages are classified as follows:

Cinnabar deposits - cinnabar, marcasite, stibnite, hydrocarbons,

quartz, opal, calcite
Stibnite deposits - stibnite, pyrite and some other sulfides; also
quartz
Base metal deposits - chalcopyrite, galena, sphalerite, tetrahedrite,
abundant quartz, carbonate, fluorite or barite.
Principal values usually in gold and silver.
Gold deposits - native gold, alloyed with silver. Subordinate
argentite, ruby silver, etc., quartz
Argentite- gold deposits - argentite, silver selenides, ruby silver, tetrahedrite,
etc., native gold, quartz, calcite
Argentite deposits - argentite, ruby silver, tetrahedrite, etc,; quartz or
calcite, barite and fluorite.
Gold-telluride deposits - gold telluride, quartz or quartz and fluorite
Gold-telluride deposits with Alunite - gold telluride, gold pyrite, alunite, kaolin.
Gold-selenide deposits - gold selenides, pyrite, quartz, and calcite

Nature of the Epithermal Environment

Two contrasting styles of hydrothermal systems exist within the epithermal
environment (Henley and Ellis, 1983) since the two epithermal deposit style of contrasting
alteration and ore assemblages form within these two different styles in different volcanic
settings as low sulfidation and high sulfidation environments. Although the terms low
sulphur and high sulphur refer to the total amount of sulfide minerals in a deposit, the
terms low and high sulfidations do not refer to this amount but reflect the oxidation
potential and sulphur fugacity of the fluid that deposited sulfide (Barton and Skinner,
1979, Hedenquist et.al. 2000). While low-sulfidation and high-sulfidation deposits

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typically have low and high sulfide contents, respectively, there are low-sulfidation
deposits which are pyrite rich and high-sulfidation deposits which are poor sulfides.

Low – Sulfidation System

One of these two epithermal environments is low sulfidation system with near
neutral pH dilute fluid formed by the entrainment of magmatic components within deep
circulating ground waters, reduce sulphur species to H2S (Corbett and Leach, 1998, and
Corbett, 2002). In this system, the degree of fluid- rock interaction is rock-dominated
(Giggenbach, 1992) and the liquid is typically low salinity (<1-2 wt % NaCl) and may be
CO2 and H2S gas rich. Where this liquid discharges at the surface, boiling, neutral-pH
springs deposit silica sinter. Steam-heated waters also occur in this environment, formed
by condensation of vapour into ground water. This vapour condenses within the vadose
zone and forms blankets of sulfate-rich waters. Surface features are associated with the
steam-heated zone include steaming ground, mud-volcanoes, and collapse craters in clay-
altered ground.

Figure (5) Schematically illustration of the various processes deduced for volcanic-
hydrothermal and geothermal system, and the respective environments of high-
sulfidation and low-sulfidation styles of epithermal ore deposits relative to the
intrusive engine.

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 The low sulfidation system deposits precious ± base metal ore in quartz veins by
alteration halos. Within low sulfidation deposits the Ag: Au ratio can be different. Some
low-sulfidation deposits are Au-rich, having a high base metal content which will increase
with increasing depth (Buchanan, 1981 and Hedenquist, 2001). Some low-sulfidation
deposits are Au-rich which show crustiform vein textures with dominant chalcedony and
are typically hosted by rhyolitic-dacitic rocks that have bimodal character and formed in
extensional setting (Sillitoe, 1993). These deposits are formed at shallow depth and low
temperature environments. The most common gangue mineral is adularia and illite
typically forms an alteration halo. The sulfide minerals as pyrite, pyrrhotite and high Fe
sphalerite are minor and selenides are common, however tellurides are common in the
alkalic volcanic host rocks.
Some low-sulfidation epithermal deposits are Ag-rich deposits which are hosted by
andesite-rhyodacite volcanic rocks in arc setting i.e. setting of most porphyry copper
deposits. Quartz veins are crystalline, massive and comb textured, and the most common
alterations and gangue minerals is sericite whereas adularia is relatively uncommon.
Sulfide minerals as pyrite, Fe poor sphalerite, galena, chalcopyrite and tennantite-
tetrahedrite are common along with Mn carbonates, especially in the base metals-rich
varietiy. This sulfide assemblage may represent an intermediate sulfidation state
(Hedenquist et.al. 2001). The shallow and deep low-sulfidation systems can be
distinguished based on the depth of their formation and associated features. The alteration
processes associated with low- sulfidation epithemal system are propylitic, phyllic (illite)
and argillic alteration.

High - Sulfidation System

High-sulfidation system is fluid-dominated system with the composition of the
fluid in acidic and oxidized (Hedenquist et.al. 2000). Most of these deposits are generated
in extensional to neutral calc-alkaline andesitic-dacitic arcs; although compressive arcs
characterized by the suppression volcanic activity can cause a few major deposits while
rhyolitic rocks lack appreciable high-sulfidation deposits. In these system, highly acidic
fluids form advanced argillic lithocaps which overlies on porphyry system and may host
subsequent high-sulfidation mineralization which itself is due to higher pH, moderate to
low salinity fluids. The high sulfidation epithermal deposits possess a close connection
with the porphyry copper deposits (Sillitoe, 2002).

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 High–sulfidation deposits are characterized by copper (enargite) - gold
mineralisation with high contents of S, Se and Te, sometimes Hg. Although the main ore
mineral is enargite-luzonite with gold, sometimes with tetrahedrite-tennantite, some
deposits have only gold with negligible enargite but some are lack of gold. The distinct
features of high-sulfidation deposits are pyrite rich, high-sulfidation state sulphide
assemblages; enargite, luzonite, digenite, chalcocite and covellite, and advanced argillic
alteration assemblages; quartz, alunite, pyrophyllite and kaolinite/ dickite (Arribas, 1995,
Sillitoe, 1999). Another prominent characteristic is the vuggy residual quartz, the product
of extreme base leaching and massive to semi-massive sulphide bodies of replacement
origin, dominated by exceedingly fine-grained pyrite, melnikovite and marcasite which are
in common place and marked principal fluid upflow channels. These vuggy quartz forms
erosionally resistant ledges that are typically surrounded by quartz-alunite, quartz-
pyrophyllite/dickite/kaolinite and argillic assemblages that are originated by the
progressive neutralization and cooling of the acidic fluid outwards from the upflow
channels.

Figure a)Sketch showing the high-sulphidation - porphyry transition, and b) the alteration
zones associated with the porphyry system

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Table. High and low sulfidation deposits characteristics (Hedenquist et al., 2000)
Low-sulfidation deposits High-sulfidation deposits
Genetically related volcanic Andesite-rhyodacite(AR), bimodal rhyolite-basalt (RB), alkali (A) Andesite-rhyodacite, dominated by calc-alkaline magma
rocks
Shallow Deep Shallow Intermediate Deep
Depth of formation 0-300m 300-800m <500m 500-1000m >1000m
Rarely>1000m
Setting, typical host rock Domes; pyroclastic and Domes, diatremes(AR,A); Dones, central vent; Domes, diatremes; volcanic Domes, diatremes; porphyry,
sedimentary rocks pyroclastic and sedimentary rocks pyroclastic and rocks volcanic, clastic sedimentay
sedimentary rocks rocks
Deposit form Vein , vein swarm, Vein ,breccias body, disseminated Disseminated, breccias Massive sulfide vein, Dissemination, veinlets,
stockwork, disseminated and veinlet breccias, ledges breccias
Ore textures Fine bands, combs, Coarse bands Vuggy quartz hosts Massive sulfide late veins/ Replacement
crustiform, breccia replacement breccia
Alteration Alunite-kaolinite blanket, Clays,sericite, carbonates; Silicic (vuggy), quatz- Silicic (vuggy), quatz-alunite, Pyrophyllite-sericite, quartz-
clay halo roscoellite,fluorite(A) alunite pyrophyllite-dickite-sericite sericite
Gangue Chalcedony-adularia-illite- Quartz-carbonate-rhodonite- Alunite, barite, kaolinite Anhydrite, Kaolinite, dickite Sericite, Pyrophyllite
calcite sericite-
adularia±barite±anhydrite±hemati
te±chlorite (AR)
Sulfides Cinnabar, stibnite; Pyrite-Au-Ag sulfides/sulfosalts, Enargite/Luzonite, Enargite, luzonite, Bornite, digenite, chalcocite,
pyrite/marcasite-arsenopyrite, variable sphalerite, galena, covellite, pyrite Chalcopyrite, covellite
Au-Ag selenites, Se chalcopyrite, tetrahedrite/tennantite,
sulfosalts, Pyrrhotite, Fe – tetrahedrite/tennantite (AR) sphalerite, late covellite,
rich sphalerite (RB) pyrite
Metals Au-Ag-As-Sb-Se-Hg-Ti Ag-Au-Pb-Zn, Ba, Mn, Se, (AR), Au-Ag, Cu leached (Hg Cu-Au-Ag-Bi-Te-Sn Cu-Au
(RB), low Ag:Au; <0.1-1.0% high Ag:Au; 2-10 (20+)% base overprint)
base metal metal
Notable features Sinter, chalcedony blanket Some intermediate sulfidation – Steam – heated blanket Vuggy quartz host Overprinted on porphyry
state veins adjacent to high features
sulfidation ore
Fluids <1% NaCl, gas rich, <220 °C 3-10+% NaCl, 220-280 °C+ (AR) <2wt%NaCl 4-15+wt%NaCl variable
(rb)
Examples McLaughlin, Midas, Round Comstock, Tonopah, Creede, Yanacocha, Publo Viejo, Ei Indio, Pepanto, Bisbee, MM, Chuquicamata
Mountain, Sleeper, Hishikari Fresnillo, Casapalca, Victoria Pierina, Lacoipa, Tambo, Chinkuashih, Goldfield,
(low sulfidation) (intermediate sulfidation state) Pascua, Paradise peak, Lahoca
Summitville,
Rodalquilar, Kasuga

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 High-sulfidation deposits comprise all or part of lithocaps, extensive zones of advanced
argillic and argillic alteration which originated between the subvolcanic intrusive environments
and the paleosurface. In the porphyry environment, high-sulfidation mineralization occurs in the
roots of lithocaps, however deep or shallow epithermal mineralization emplaced at depths
shallower intrusion through to the paleosurface.
Depending on the depth where high-sulfidation mineralization occur, the high-sulfidation
deposits can also be grouped as shallow, intermediate and deep classes, and their related
significant characteristic as depth of formation, typical host rocks, alteration mineral
assemblages, gangue mineral assemblages and ore minerals formed in specific environments are
represented in (Table).

Alkalic Model
Although seven major gold deposits in the world occur in alkali rocks only a few authors
have proposed models for epithermal, volcanic hosted precious metal deposits which incorporate
an alkalic or gold telluride model.

Figure shows a schematic model of an alkali precious mineral deposit. Precious metal
deposits of the alkalic type are associated with syenites, trachytes, phonolites and shoshonitic
volcanic rocks. They can occur in a variety of volcanic settings including maar-diatreme
complexes.
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 Regional or district alteration is porphyritic. Veins and mineralized stockworks and
breccias are characterized by quartz-carbonate-roscoelite-fluorite-adularia alteration which forms
a narrow alteration halo around the mineralized structures. The characteristic ore minerals in
these deposits are Au-Ag tellurites, micro-gold in pyrite, minor base metal sulphides, and in
some deposits cinnabar and stibnite. Mutschler and others (1984) suggest that the gold telluride
deposits in alkaline volcanic rocks may grade downward into alkali porphyry copper-precious
metal deposits. Au-Ag tellurides are also common in high-sulfur systems and can occur in low
sulfur deposits.

Veins, sheeted zones, and hydrothermal breccias as shown in figure..... are the main types
of mineralized structures present in these deposits. Mutschler, et al., (1984) suggest a series of
chemical criteria of recognition of areas of alkaline rocks which have good potential for the
occurrence of precious metal deposits. These include: wt.% SiO2>45 unless wt.%CO2>50,
wt.%Na2O+K2O>8.0, wt.%Na2O/K2O<1.0, wt.%Fe2O3>1.7 FeO; Au>10 ppb and local
anomalies in Ag, As, Bi, Hg, La, Mo, Nb, Pb, Sb, Te, Ti, U and V.

Conclusion
Epithermal ore deposit is one of the hydrothermal systems which can also be
related with the porphyry system. The low-sulfidation and high-sulfidation system are the two
common deposit types which are distinguished based on the oxidation capacity and the acidity of
the hydrothermal system. Low-sulfidation system mostly occurs in the environment of near
neutral pH state and high-sulfidation system occupies in the environment mostly proximal to the
porphyry stem.
The low sulfur systems contain a distinct alteration and ore mineral assemblage.
The gangue and alteration minerals are characterized by the occurrence of adularia, quartz,
carbonates, including manganese carbonate, and in some deposits, manganese silicates, and
fluorite. Adularia is a characteristic gangue and alteration mineral in low sulfur systems. It does
not occur in high sulfur systems, but does occur in alkalic deposits. Telluride minerals are rare as
are hypogene sulfates. Several subtypes of the low sulfur model can be distinguished based upon
gold/silver ratios and the amount and kind of base metals present. The low sulfur systems may
show the temporal and spatial association with rhyolitic volcanism of calc alkalic or alkali-calcic

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type. In some deposits, there is also clear genetic link with the rhyolitic volcanism, while in other
the genesis of the metal and sulfur in the deposits is obscure.
High-sulfur of enargite precious metal deposits form a very distinct group of
deposits characterized by the occurrence of advanced argillic alteration and the presence of
enargite-luzonite group minerals. The advanced argillic assemblages are characterized by the
present, in various combinations, of alunite, kaolinite, pyrophyllite, native sulfur, diaspore,
quartz, zunyite, and barite, in strongly silicified zones enveloped by extensive areas of argillic
and porphyritic alteration. The ore minerals, except for pyrite are largely restricted to silicified
zones and veins. Au-Ag tellurides are usually present but seldom in major amounts. A clear
spatial and temporal association with andesitic to rhyodacitic volcanism is present in nearly all
high-sulfur deposits.
The alkali deposits form a distinct group hosted by trachytes, phonolites, syenites
and shoshonitic volcanic rocks. Alteration assemblages are characterized by the occurrence of
quartz, adularia, fluorite, roscoelite and carbonate. Fluorite is invariably present and roscoelite, a
vanadium mica, is present in many alkalic gold deposits. The alkali, epithermal precious metal,
systems are, typically, low in total sulfur. Mustchler, et al., (1984) have suggested that these
systems are the upper volcanic portions of alkali porphyry copper systems. It seems clearly that
there is a genetic tie between alkali magmatism and the precious metal deposits hosted by alkali
volcanic rocks.

References

Arribas, A. Jr., 1995, Characteristic of High-Sulfidation Epithermal Deposits, and their Relation
to Magmatic Fluid, in Thompson, J. F. H., ed., Magmas Fluid and Ore Deposits:
Mineralogical Association of Canada Short Series, v. 23, p. 419-454

Barton, P.B., Jr.,and Skinner, B.J.,1979, Sulphide Minerals Stabilities, in Barnes, H.L., ed.,
Geochemistry of Hydrothermal Ore Deposits: p. 278-403

Bonham, H. F., Jr., 1984, Three major types of epithermal precious-metal deposits: Abstract with
programs, The geological Society of America, annual meeting, vol. 16, no. 6, p.449.

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Bonham, H. F., Jr., 1986, Models for volcanic-hosted epithermal precious metal deposits: a
review, The international volcanological congress, Newzeland.
Buchanan, L. J., 1981, Precious metal deposits associated with volcanic environments in the
southwest: in relation of tectonics to ore deposits in the southern Cordillera, Dickison,
W.R., and Payne, W.D., editors, Arizona Geological Society digest, vol. 14.
Corbett, G. J., and Leach, T.M., 1996, South West Pacific Rim Gold-Copper: Structure,
Alteration, and Mineralization Workshop Minual Jakarta, Indonesia.
Corbett, G. J., 2001, Styles of Pacific Rim Epithermal Gold Mineralization, Lima Peru,
Preceeding CD.
Giggenbach, W.F., 1992, Magma Degassing and Mineral Deposition in Hydrothermal System
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Lindgren, W, 1922, A Suggestion for the Terminology of Certain Mineral Deposits: Economic
Geology, v. 17, p. 292-294
Hedenquist, J. W., Arribas, A., Jr and Gonzales- Urien, E., 2000, Exploration for Epithermal
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Hedenquist, J.W., 2001, Relationship between porphyry and high-sulfidation epithermal
deposits: lectures with a field trip to ore deposits in the Cajamarca region, Per˙,
following ProExplo Congreso.
Mutschler, F.E., Griffin, M.E., Stevens, D.S., and Shannon, S.S.Jr., 1984, Precious metal
deposits related to alkaline igneous rocks in the North America cordillera: Abstract
with programs, Geological Society of America annual meeting, vol. 16, no.6. p.606.
Sillitoe, R.H., 1993, Epithermal Models: Genetic Types, Geometrical Controls and Shallow
Features; in Kirkham, R.V., Sinclair, W.D., Thorpe, R.I., and Duke, J.M., eds.,
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403-417.

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