Physics 101.

1 Manual
A Compilation of Laboratory Protocols and Worksheets of
Fundamental Physics Laboratory I Experiments

Compiled by:

Wilbur H. Galarion Jr.

Carlisle Aurabelle M. Casuga
 UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES BAGUIO

Physics 101.1 Manual: A Compilation of Laboratory Protocols and Worksheets of Fundamental Physics Lab I Experiments
Compiled by: Wilbur H. Galarion Jr.
Carlisle Aurabelle M. Casuga

2016 University of the Philippines

This manual is not for sale and is for the sole purpose of Physics 101 laboratory classes.

University of the Philippines

Department of Physical Sciences
Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines, 2600
 Table of Contents
Experiment 1: Measurement ........................................................................................................................... 5
Laboratory Protocol ........................................................................................................................................ 5
Worksheet ...................................................................................................................................................... 7

Experiment 2: Vectors ................................................................................................................................... 12

Laboratory Protocol ...................................................................................................................................... 12
Worksheet .................................................................................................................................................... 15

Experiment 3: Projectile Motion ................................................................................................................... 20

Laboratory Protocol ...................................................................................................................................... 20
Worksheet .................................................................................................................................................... 23

Experiment 4: Uniformly Accelerated Motion .............................................................................................. 26

Laboratory Protocol ...................................................................................................................................... 26
Worksheet .................................................................................................................................................... 28

Experiment 5: Friction ................................................................................................................................... 32

Laboratory Protocol ...................................................................................................................................... 32
Worksheet .................................................................................................................................................... 35

Experiment 6: Equilibrium............................................................................................................................. 38
Laboratory Protocol ...................................................................................................................................... 38
Worksheet .................................................................................................................................................... 40

Experiment 7: Light and Color ...................................................................................................................... 42

Laboratory Protocol ...................................................................................................................................... 42
Worksheet .................................................................................................................................................... 45

References...................................................................................................................................................... 48
 Experiment 1. Measurement
LABORATORY PROTOCOL

OBJECTIVES:

1. Use and read different measuring devices such as ruler, Vernier caliper, and micrometer caliper.
2. State measurements correctly.
3. Analyze data with some basic statistical tools.

PRINCIPLES:

The process of giving a qualitative description or a definite magnitude to a physical concept, e.g.
length, time, mass and others, constitute the rule of measurement. For measurement to be meaningful, the
following elements must be present: (1) defined units of measures, (2) existence of the determinable
magnitude of a particular quantity, and (3) uncertainty of all physical measurements.
The first element requires that some segment, amount, and duration must exactly correspond to a unit
of length, mass and time respectively. The three mentioned physical quantities are the fundamental units in
mechanics in which other units of measures are defined.
The second element asserts that there is a magnitude to be measured. However, it does demand a
procedure of quantifying it. This procedure of comparing a given quantity with an appropriately chosen unit of
measure by means of acceptable devices is known as measurement. These acceptable devices are called
measuring devices.
The third element renders all physical measurements susceptible to errors since comparison is
affected by subjective judgment. The process of comparison normally involves the reading of some scale. The
fineness of the gradation of the scale is limited and the width of the lines marking the boundaries is by no
means zero. This leaves it to the observer to estimate the smallest fraction of the scale. The term estimate
makes it clear that no physical measurement is ever exact: there is always some amount by which the
measurement is uncertain.
For multiple measurements, it is often easier to report your results as a single number. One way of
doing it is by determining the arithmetic average of the measurements, or otherwise called mean. The mean
of the readings is approximated by,

(Eq 1.1)

where is the ith reading and is the total number of readings. The reliability of the mean as a substitute
representation for all the measurements should also be taken into account. This can be done by determining
the standard deviation. The standard deviation, , gives an experimental estimate of the random error of
individual measurements. This value describes how the measured values are distributed within a set of
measurements and is given by

(Eq 1.2)

The best estimate of a physical quantity is given by the mean of the readings plus or minus the
standard deviation. In equation form, the best estimate, , is given by,

. (Eq 1.3)

The percentage error between a measured quantity and its accepted or theoretical value gives the
degree of accuracy of the measurement. It is equal to the absolute value of the difference between the
experimental value and the theoretical value times 100%.

(Eq 1.4)

5
 Experiment 1. Measurement
LABORATORY PROTOCOL

MATERIALS:

 Foot Ruler
 Vernier Caliper
 Micrometer Caliper
 Digital Weighing Scale
 Pieces of Metal

PROCEDURE:

1. Determining the mass of metal 1

Measure the mass of the metal using the weighing scale. Record the mass in Table 1.4.

2. Determining the dimensions of metal 1 using the ruler.

Measure the dimension (in millimeter) of metal 1 to determine its volume using the ruler. Make at least
3 trials. Record all these measurements in Table 1.1.

3. Determining the dimensions of metal 1 using the Vernier caliper.

Measure the dimension (in millimeter) of metal 1 to determine its volume using the Vernier caliper.
Make at least 3 trials. Record all these measurements in Table 1.2.

4. Determining the dimensions of metal 1 using the micrometer caliper.

Measure the dimension (in millimeter) of metal 1 to determine its volume using the micrometer caliper.
Make at least 3 trials. Record all these measurements in Table 1.3.

5. Determining the density

Compute the volume of the metal using the averaged values of the dimensions for the different
measuring devices. Convert the units from to . Then compute for the density of the metal
using the equation 5. Record your calculations in Table 1.4

(Eq 1.5)

6. Determining the kind of metal

Search through references and determine the kind of metal based on the density.

Using the actual value of the density of the material, compute for the percentage errors of the
experimental values obtained from the different devices.

7. Metal 2 and 3
Repeat steps 1 – 6 for metal 2 and 3. Record your data in Tables 1.6 and 1.11 respectively.

6
 Experiment 1. Measurement
WORKSHEET
NAME: _________________________________________________________________________________
SECTION AND GROUP NAME: _____________________________________________________________

Table 1.1 Dimensions of the metal 1 using the ruler

TRIAL DIMENSION 1 DIMENSION 2 DIMENSION 3

____________ ____________ ____________

(mm) (mm) (mm)
1
2
3

SD

Table 1.2 Dimensions of metal 1 using the Vernier caliper

TRIAL DIMENSION 1 DIMENSION 2 DIMENSION 3

____________ ____________ ____________

(mm) (mm) (mm)
1
2
3

SD

Table 1.3 Dimensions of metal 1 using the micrometer caliper

TRIAL DIMENSION 1 DIMENSION 2 DIMENSION 3

____________ ____________ ____________

(mm) (mm) (mm)
1
2
3

SD

Table 1.4 Density of the metal 1

BEST ESTIMATE BEST ESTIMATE BEST ESTIMATE
MEASURING DEVICE MASS UNCERTAINTY VOLUME SD DENSITY SD
(cm3) (cm3) (cm3) (cm3) (g/cm3) (cm3)
RULER
VERNIER CALIPER
MICROMETER CALIPER

KIND OF METAL (METAL 1): ________________________________

Table 1.5 Comparison of the experimental and actual density of metal 1

MEASURING DEVICE EXPERIMENTAL DENSITY ACTUAL DENSITY % ERROR
3 3
(g/cm ) (g/cm ) (%)
RULER
VERNIER CALIPER
MICROMETER CALIPER

7
 Experiment 1. Measurement
WORKSHEET
NAME: _________________________________________________________________________________
SECTION AND GROUP NAME: _____________________________________________________________

Table 1.6 Dimensions of the metal 2 using the ruler

TRIAL DIMENSION 1 DIMENSION 2 DIMENSION 3

____________ ____________ ____________

(mm) (mm) (mm)
1
2
3

SD

Table 1.7 Dimensions of metal 2 using the Vernier caliper

TRIAL DIMENSION 1 DIMENSION 2 DIMENSION 3

____________ ____________ ____________

(mm) (mm) (mm)
1
2
3

SD

Table 1.8 Dimensions of metal 2 using the micrometer caliper

TRIAL DIMENSION 1 DIMENSION 2 DIMENSION 3

____________ ____________ ____________

(mm) (mm) (mm)
1
2
3

SD

Table 1.9 Density of the metal 2

BEST ESTIMATE BEST ESTIMATE BEST ESTIMATE
MEASURING DEVICE MASS UNCERTAINTY VOLUME SD DENSITY SD
(cm3) (cm3) (cm3) (cm3) (g/cm3) (cm3)
RULER
VERNIER CALIPER
MICROMETER CALIPER

KIND OF METAL (METAL 2): ________________________________

Table 1.10 Comparison of the experimental and actual density of metal 2

MEASURING DEVICE EXPERIMENTAL DENSITY ACTUAL DENSITY % ERROR
3 3
(g/cm ) (g/cm ) (%)
RULER
VERNIER CALIPER
MICROMETER CALIPER

8
 Experiment 1. Measurement
WORKSHEET
NAME: _________________________________________________________________________________
SECTION AND GROUP NAME: _____________________________________________________________

Table 1.11 Dimensions of the metal 3 using the ruler

TRIAL DIMENSION 1 DIMENSION 2 DIMENSION 3

____________ ____________ ____________

(mm) (mm) (mm)
1
2
3

SD

Table 1.12 Dimensions of metal 3 using the Vernier caliper

TRIAL DIMENSION 1 DIMENSION 2 DIMENSION 3

____________ ____________ ____________

(mm) (mm) (mm)
1
2
3

SD

Table 1.13 Dimensions of metal 3 using the micrometer caliper

TRIAL DIMENSION 1 DIMENSION 2 DIMENSION 3

____________ ____________ ____________

(mm) (mm) (mm)
1
2
3

SD

Table 1.14 Density of the metal 3

BEST ESTIMATE BEST ESTIMATE BEST ESTIMATE
MEASURING DEVICE MASS UNCERTAINTY VOLUME SD DENSITY SD
(cm3) (cm3) (cm3) (cm3) (g/cm3) (cm3)
RULER
VERNIER CALIPER
MICROMETER CALIPER
KIND OF METAL (METAL 3): ________________________________

Table 1.15 Comparison of the experimental and actual density of metal 1

MEASURING DEVICE EXPERIMENTAL DENSITY ACTUAL DENSITY % ERROR
(g/cm3) (g/cm3) (%)
RULER
VERNIER CALIPER
MICROMETER CALIPER

9
 Experiment 1. Measurement
WORKSHEET
NAME: _________________________________________________________________________________
SECTION AND GROUP NAME: _____________________________________________________________

CALULATIONS:

OBSERVATIONS:

10
 Experiment 1. Measurement
WORKSHEET
NAME: _________________________________________________________________________________
SECTION AND GROUP NAME: _____________________________________________________________

GUIDE QUESTIONS:
1. Compare the accuracy and precision of the measurements done using the ruler, Vernier caliper, and
micrometer caliper. Which is the most accurate? The most precise? What are the bases of your
conclusions?

2. Minus all the systematic and random errors in the measurements, which instrument should give the
most precise values? The most accurate? Explain.

3. What instrument is the best to use in measuring dimensions?

4. To determine the kind of metal, is calculating the density of an unknown metal enough? Explain.

11
 Experiment 2. Vectors
LABORATORY PROTOCOL

OBJECTIVE:

Verify the methods of vector algebra using experimental, graphical, and analytical techniques.

PRINCIPLES:

A vector is a mathematical entity having magnitude and direction. An arrow in space may
geometrically represent it, with its length proportional to the vector’s magnitude.
Vectors obey certain rules of combination (such as addition and multiplication) that is similar to that of
ordinary algebra. These combinations also follow distributive and commutative axioms. However, two vectors
are equal only if they have equal magnitudes and direction and division by a vector is meaningless. It is also
worthwhile to mention that the negative of a vector is a vector with the same magnitude but opposite in
direction.

Figure 2.1. Tail tip method of determining the vector sum of vectors.
[Young, H and Freedman, R. 2008. University Physics with Modern Physics, 12th edition. California, CA: San Francisco]

Figure 1 shows vectors A and B and illustrates how the vector sum (or resultant) C is obtained. The
tail of the second vector is placed at the head of the first vector and the resultant is determined by drawing a
vector from the tail of A to the head of B. Physically, A and B can be the scaled representations of
consecutive displacements of a particle. Say A represents displacement from point a to b and B from b to c.
The resultant vector C can then be interpreted as the scaled representation of the effective displacement that
gives the same effect (i.e, transfer of the particle from point a to point c). Thus we see that

C=A+B (Eq 2.1)

The actual displacement represented by vector C can be determined graphically by measuring the
direction of the displacement relative to some reference orientation and length of the vector C relative to a
scale.
From Eq 1, we see that we can set A and B to be perpendicular to each other. Thus, we can always
choose any two perpendicular vectors that sum to any vector. Fixing these perpendicular directions is
equivalent to choosing an x- and y-axis in a plane. Any vector lying in an x-y plane can therefore be
represented as the resultant of a vector parallel to the x-axis and a vector parallel to the y-axis. These vectors
are called x- and y- component vectors, respectively. This is illustrated for vectors A, B, and C in figure 2. The
component vectors can completely describe a vector. Given the components, the magnitude and direction of a
vector can be determined by,

(Eq 2.2)

. (Eq 2.3)

The components can also be used to determine the resultant vectors. Let’s illustrate this for vectors A
and B discussed above: Since A = Ax+ Ay and B = Bx + By, the resultant of A and B can be expressed as the
sum of the component vectors.

12
 Experiment 2. Vectors
LABORATORY PROTOCOL

Figure 2.2. Components of a vector.

[Young, H and Freedman, R. 2008. University Physics with Modern Physics, 12th edition. California, CA: San Francisco]

Rearranging the terms (commutatively), as well as grouping terms together (associatively) we obtain:

C = (Ax + Bx) + (Ay + By) (Eq 2.4)

The sum (Ax + Bx) is parallel to the x-axis while the sum (Ay + By) is parallel to the y-axis.
Therefore, they are the components of the resultant C

Cx = Ax + Bx (Eq 2.5)
and
Cy = Ay + By (Eq 2.6)

The equilibrant of a set of forces is the single force that must be combined with the set of forces to
maintain the system in equilibrium. The equilibrant (sometimes called antiresultant) must be equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction to the resultant vector.

MATERIALS:

 Force Table
 Set of weights
 Block of wood
 Platform Balance
 Graphing Paper
 Ruler
 Bubble Level

PROCEDURE:

Let’s play “Keep The Ring At The Center”…

(a.k.a. “KTRATC”: pronounced kay-traht-sih)

Your objective is to keep the ring at the center (a.k.a. KTRATC) by pulling at different directions
around the ring so that you maintain equilibrium. You can vary the pulling magnitude by changing the hanging
mass. You can vary the pulling direction by adjusting the position of the pulley.

 Before starting the experiment, use the bubble level to check if the force table is in level. If it is not,
adjust the legs of the force table until it is in level.
 Connect a thread to the ring. Attach a mass (including the mass of pan) to the other end of the
string; this is your hanging mass 1. Attach the pulley at and let the thread to pass through the
pulley. Do not disturb the hanging mass unless you are told to do so.

13
 Experiment 2. Vectors
LABORATORY PROTOCOL

CASE 1: Add another pulley and mass. Adjust the magnitude (mass) and position (angle) of this hanging
mass to KTRATC. Record the angle and mass to table 2.1. (Total Masses Hanging = 2)

CASE 2: Use two different pulleys to KTRATC (i.e., two different masses at different positions). Record the
magnitudes and positions. (Total Hanging Masses = 3)

CASE 3: From the set up in case 2, change the position of one of the pulleys by at least . Once adjusted,
DO NOT MOVE THE PULLEYS ANYMORE. (Total Hanging Masses = 3)
a. Try to KTRATC by adjusting only the magnitude of this hanging mass.

Were you able to KTRATC?

b. If it is not possible to KTRATC by just changing the magnitude of the hanging mass, try adjusting its
position by at least as well.

CASE 4: Set the two added hanging mass to be perpendicular with each other. Try adjusting the magnitude of
both hanging masses to KTRATC. (Total Hanging Masses = 3)

CASE 5: Use three different pulleys to KTRATC. Vary the magnitudes and positions to KTRATC. (Total
Hanging Masses = 4)

The analytical column in table 2.2 is filled out by computing for the resultant of hanging mass 1,2, and 3 for
each case then taking the equilibrant of the resultant. The theoretical equilibrant is the hanging mass 1.

Graph all the hanging masses’ magnitude and direction for each case as accurately as possible. Indicate your
scale. From the graphs, determine the resultants and equilibrants. No calculations will be done. The data will
come from purely with the use of a pen, paper, protractor, and ruler. Input the equilibrant for each case under
the graphical column in table 2.3.

Now, remove all the hanging masses and replace hanging mass 1 with a block of wood of unknown mass.

TRIAL 1: Add two hanging masses with equal magnitude and try to KTRATC by adjusting the position of both
the hanging masses. If you can’t, adjust the hanging masses’ magnitudes (but keep them equal) and try
again.

TRIAL 2: Once you were able to KTRATC, increase the hanging masses’ magnitudes (but keep them equal)
and adjust the positions to KTRATC again.

Measure the actual mass of the block using the platform balance. Then, from your data, calculate the mass of
the block of wood.

14
 Experiment 2. Vectors
WORKSHEET
NAME: _________________________________________________________________________________
SECTION & GROUPNAME: ________________________________________________________________

Table 2.1. Experimental Data

Hanging mass 1 Hanging mass 2 Hanging mass 3 Hanging mass 4
CASE
P (0) 0
M (g) M (g) P( ) M (g) P (0) M (g) P (0)
1 200 210
2 200 210
3 200 210
4 200 210
5 200 210

Table 2.2. Percentage Error of Equilibrant (through calculation)

THEORETICAL ANALYTICAL ERROR
CASE
M (g) P (0) M (g) P (0) M (g) P (0)
1
2
3
4
5

Table 2.3. Percentage Error of Experiment Equilibrant (through graphing)

THEORETICAL GRAPHICAL ERROR
CASE
M (g) P (0) M (g) P (0) M (g) P (0)
1
2
3
4
5

Table 2.4. Unknown Mass

HANGING MASS 1 HANGING MASS 2 MASSCALC MASSACTUAL
TRIAL % ERROR
M (g) P (0) M (g) P (0) (g) (g)
1
2

CALCULATIONS:

15
 Experiment 2. Vectors
WORKSHEET
NAME: _________________________________________________________________________________
SECTION & GROUPNAME: ________________________________________________________________
GRAPHS:

CASE 1:

CASE 2:

16
 Experiment 2. Vectors
WORKSHEET
NAME: _________________________________________________________________________________
SECTION & GROUPNAME: ________________________________________________________________
GRAPHS:

CASE 3:

CASE 4:

17
 Experiment 2. Vectors
WORKSHEET
NAME: _________________________________________________________________________________
SECTION & GROUPNAME: ________________________________________________________________
GRAPHS:

CASE 5:

OBSERVATIONS:

18
 Experiment 2. Vectors
WORKSHEET
NAME: _________________________________________________________________________________
SECTION & GROUPNAME: ________________________________________________________________

GUIDE QUESTIONS:
1. Is there a limit in the number of hanging masses that may be used to KTRATC? Explain.

2. How were the graphical technique and the analytical technique related? Which is more accurate?

3. Based on the experiment, why hanging mass 1 considered the equilibrant?

4. Throughout this experiment, we have used the units “grams” to express the magnitude of the forces
acting, and yet we know grams measure mass and not force. How can we be sure that the law of
vector addition is being validly tested?

5. When the ring is at the center, what is observed when one of the hanging masses is disturbed?

19
 Experiment 3. Projectile Motion
LABORATORY PROTOCOL

OBJECTIVE:

Determine the trajectory of a projectile and study motion in two dimensions.

PRINCIPLES:

Figure 3.1. Trajectory of a projectile motion in a 2-dimensional space given a velocity of

[Giancoli, D. 2014. Physics Principles with Application, 7th edition. United States of America]

A body that is given an initial velocity and allowed to move in a 2-dimentional space under the effects
of gravitational acceleration undergoes projectile motion. The path followed by a projectile is called its
trajectory. Projectile motion moves in a vertical plane by the direction of the initial velocity. The 2D motion is a
combination of a horizontal motion with constant velocity and vertical motion with constant acceleration. In a
projectile motion, the horizontal motion and the vertical motion are independent of each other, that is, neither
motion affects the other. The equations that govern projectile motion are:

where (Eq. 3.1)

where (Eq. 3.2)

(Eq. 3.3)

where is the initial velocity and is the angle of inclination of the projectile at its release and is the initial
height of the ball relative to the ground.

MATERIALS:

 Projectile gun
 Steel ball
 Meterstick
 Sheets of Carbon Paper
 Masking Tape
 Sheets of Bond Paper

20
 Experiment 3. Projectile Motion
LABORATORY PROTOCOL

PROCEDURE:

A. INITIAL VELOCITY OF A PROJECTILE

Figure 3.2. Set-up to determine the initial velocity of a projectile.

1. Place the gun securely on the edge of a table so that the projectile will fall on the floor when fired
(Figure 3.2). Set the gun so that it fires horizontally and load the brass ball to short range
2. Place a carbon paper on top of a bond paper at the area on the floor where you think the ball will hit.
Fire the gun and mark the point where the ball lands.
3. Measure the horizontal, R, and vertical distances, , from the origin of the ball (mouth of the gun) to
the point of impact.
4. Record the measurements in Table 3.1.
5. Make 5 trials.
6. Compute for the initial velocity using the height of the origin, , and the range, R. Use the
equation:

(Eq. 3.4)

B. RANGE OF A PROJECTILE

Figure 3.3. Set-up to determine the range of a projectile at different angles of release.

1. Place the gun securely on the edge of the table so that the projectile will fall on the table (Figure 3.3).
Make sure that the initial position of the ball is at x = 0; y = 0, that is, the mouth of the gun should be
leveled with the table.
2. Incline the projectile at an angle given in table 3.2, set the gun and load the brass ball to short range.
3. Place a carbon paper on top of a bond paper at the area on the table where you think the ball will hit.
4. Fire the gun and mark the point where the ball lands.
5. Measure the horizontal distance from the origin of the ball to the point of impact and indicate this as
the range, R, of the projectile for the given angle, .
6. Record your measurements into Table 3.2.
7. Make 5 trials for each angle.

21
 Experiment 3. Projectile Motion
LABORATORY PROTOCOL

C. TRAJECTORY

Figure 3.4. Set-up to determine the trajectory of the projectile at a 300 angle of inclination.

1. Place the gun at the edge of a table at a distance x (of your own choice) from the face of a wall.
2. Set the angle of release at 300 and point the gun facing the wall (Figure 3.4).
3. Set the gun, load to short range and fire.
4. Mark the positions of impact along the wall using carbon and bond paper. Measure the height of
these points relative to the ground.
5. Repeat steps 1 – 3, with 5 different x of your own choice.
6. Take note the initial height of the ball, .
7. Record your data in Table 3.3.
8. Using a plotting software, plot the following in one graph (print the graph and paste it on the space
provided in the worksheet):
a. vs.
b. Theoretical projectile trajectory
NOTE: For the theoretical projectile trajectory, calculate the theoretical y and x values by using the
equations of projectile motion. Use the initial conditions and in the experiment to plot the
theoretical projectile trajectory.

22
 Experiment 3. Projectile Motion
WORKSHEET
NAME: _________________________________________________________________________________
SECTION & GROUPNAME: ________________________________________________________________

Table 3.1. Initial velocity of the projectile

Range of Projectile, R (cm) Height, Initial Velocity,
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5 Average (cm) (cm/s)

Table 3.2. Range of the projectile at different angles of release

Angle, Range of Projectile, R (cm)
(0) Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5 Average
20
30
45
60
70

Table 3.3. Trajectory of the projectile at a 30 0 angle of inclination.

(cm) (cm) (cm)
1
2
3
4
5

GRAPH FOR PART C:

23
 Experiment 3. Projectile Motion
LABORATORY PROTOCOL
NAME: _________________________________________________________________________________
SECTION & GROUPNAME: ________________________________________________________________

CALCULATIONS:

OBSERVATIONS:

24
 Experiment 3. Projectile Motion
LABORATORY PROTOCOL
NAME: _________________________________________________________________________________
SECTION & GROUPNAME: ________________________________________________________________

GUIDE QUESTIONS:

1. From the simple fact that a projectile has a horizontal motion component (constant velocity along the
horizontal) and vertical motion component (free fall along the vertical), derive the equation we used
for the computation of the initial velocity, , in PART A.

2. Refer to Table 3.2.

a. Which angle was the range greatest?

b. Compare the range of complementary angles (200 and 700, 300 and 600). Explain.

c. Use the equation of the range of a projectile to explain 2a and 2b.

3. Refer to the plot of the projectile trajectory in PART C. Describe the graph. Compare with it with the
theoretical. What are the possible sources of error?

25
 Experiment 4. Uniformly Accelerated Motion
LABORATORY PROTOCOL

OBJECTIVES:

1. Measure the acceleration of a glide on the linear air track.

2. Construct and analyze graphs related to uniformly accelerated motion.

PRINCIPLES:

A body undergoing a motion in which its velocity does not change in time is said to be in a uniform
motion. If its velocity changes with time, the body undergoes acceleration, and if the acceleration is constant
with time, the body is said to be in a uniformly accelerated motion. The following equations describe
quantitatively a uniformly accelerating body in a linear motion.

(Eq 4.1)

(Eq 4.2)

(Eq 4.3)

where is the position of the body at any arbitrary time , velocity at time , position at time
, and acceleration.
A common example of a uniformly accelerated motion is that of bodies in free fall. In negligible air
resistance, all bodies, regardless of mass, shape and size, fall with the same constant acceleration . Recall
Galileo’s experiments with free falling bodies that led him to make these conclusions. The value of used for
most purposes is . This quantity is known to depend on the location’s latitude and altitude.
Another example of a uniformly accelerated motion is an object moving down an inclined plane.
Theoretically, the acceleration for this motion is , where is the acceleration due to gravity and
is the angle of inclination.
For a uniformly accelerated body starting from rest ( ), and . Plotting the
position versus time yields a parabolic curve. If is plotted with instead, the resulting curve will be a
straight line.
A straight line curve is particularly interesting because one can use the concept of linear regression
so that the acceleration can be computed from . Comparing with the general equation for a straight
line, , it is clear that solving the slope will yield as , the slope of versus curve. The
acceleration can also be computed from the versus curve.

MATERIALS:

 Glider
 Linear Aluminum Track
 Stopwatch
 Iron Stand
 Meterstick
 Digital Balance

26
 Experiment 4. Uniformly Accelerated Motion
LABORATORY PROTOCOL

PROCEDURE:

Figure 4.1. Experimental setup.

1. Make sure that the aluminum track is clean. Use a cloth to wipe the track to remove dust and other
particles.
2. Elevate one end of the air track with an iron stand so that it is inclined at an angle of your choice.
Calculate the angle of inclination using trigonometric relations.
3. Set the glider at the top of the track, this will be the initial position of the track.
4. Measure a distance d of your choice from the initial position along the track; this will be the final
position of the glider.
5. Release the glider so that it accelerates down the inclined aluminum track. Using a stopwatch, record
the time the glider took to travel the distance d (initial position to final position).
6. Record your result in Table 4.1.
7. Make 4 trials.
8. Repeat the process for 5 different distances.
9. Plot versus . Calculate the slope using linear regression.
10. Plot versus . Calculate the slope using linear regression.
11. Calculate the theoretical acceleration.
12. Measure the mass of the glider using a digital balance.

27
 Experiment 4. Uniformly Accelerated Motion
WORKSHEET
NAME:_________________________________________________________________________________
SECTION & GROUPNAME: ________________________________________________________________

NOTE: In all of your plot, be careful to label all the axes properly with their corresponding units.

Table 4.1. Time, distance and velocity measurements of a glider

Distance Time elapsed, t
travelled, d (s) (s) (s2) (cm/s)
(cm) Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5 Average,

Table 4.2. Acceleration of the glider

(cm/s2) (cm/s2) % error (%)
from vs.
from vs.

GRAPH FOR (Print your results and paste it here):

28
 Experiment 4. Uniformly Accelerated Motion
WORKSHEET
NAME:_________________________________________________________________________________
SECTION & GROUPNAME: ________________________________________________________________

GRAPH FOR (Print your results and paste it here):

CALCULATIONS:

29
 Experiment 4. Uniformly Accelerated Motion
WORKSHEET
NAME:_________________________________________________________________________________
SECTION & GROUPNAME: ________________________________________________________________

OBSERVATIONS:

GUIDE QUESTIONS:
1. Why is plotted against instead of ?

2. In the versus plot, what would a non-zero y-intercept value mean? Explain.

30
 Experiment 4. Uniformly Accelerated Motion
WORKSHEET
NAME:_________________________________________________________________________________
SECTION & GROUPNAME: ________________________________________________________________

3. Does the mass of the glider affect its acceleration on the air track? Why or why not?

4. In this experiment, you can compute for the acceleration due to gravity (g). Compare this experiment
to a freefall experiment. Which will give a more accurate value of g? Explain.

5. Is there a difference in your results if the experiment was done in Manila rather than here in Baguio?

31
 Experiment 5. Friction
LABORATORY PROTOCOL

OBJECTIVES:

1. Measure the coefficients of static and kinetic friction between two surfaces
2. Measure the critical angles

PRINCIPLES:

When a body is in direct contact with a surface, contact forces are present as part of the interaction of
the object and the surface it is residing on. The contact force can be broken down into its components that are
perpendicular and parallel to the surface. The perpendicular component of the contact force is called the
normal force, N, and the component parallel to the surface is the frictional force, f. The direction of the
frictional force is opposite that of the motion of the body relative to the surface.

Figure 5.1. Free body diagram of a body on a rough plane

[Young, H and Freedman, R. 2008. University Physics with Modern Physics, 12th edition. California, CA: San Francisco]

Figure 1 shows the forces acting on a body when the body is (A) at rest and (B) in motion. (T =
applied tension; n = normal force; fs = static friction; fk = kinetic friction; W = weight)

The frictional force for an object in motion is called kinetic friction (force). Kinetic friction force is
present whenever two surfaces are in motion relative to each other. The magnitude of this force is
proportional to the normal force and is given as

(Eq 5.1)

whereN is the magnitude of the normal force and is called the coefficient of kinetic friction.
Friction is also present even when there is no relative motion. This is called the static friction force,
and we could define a corresponding coefficient of static friction . The static friction force is also proportional
to the magnitude of the normal force while at rest, as given by

(Eq. 5.2)

From equation 5.2, we can see that maximum static friction force is and this occurs at the point
where the body starts to move relative to the surface

The coefficients of friction are dependent on the nature of the surfaces and their relative speeds.
Ultimately, depends on the electronic interaction of the molecules that constitute the surfaces. The contact
area between the surfaces, however, doesn’t affect the value of . For a certain range of speeds, is fairly
constant. The coefficient of static friction is greater than the coefficient of kinetic friction. Strictly speaking,
decreases as speed increases.

32
 Experiment 5. Friction
LABORATORY PROTOCOL

MATERIALS:

 Steel Track
 Angle Indicator
 Pulley
 A block of wood with two surfaces
 Weight Holder
 A set of weights
 Thread
 Digital Weighing Scale

PROCEDURE:

D. Determining the coefficient of static friction

Method 1
(Eq. 5.3)
1. Set the aluminum track on a flat table. Place the angle indicator on the track. Place the friction block
on the track with the wooden surface in contact with the aluminum track.
2. Slowly lift one end of the track while keeping the other end fixed until the block just starts to move.
The angle at which the block just starts to move is called the critical angle.
3. Record the critical angle in Table 5.1.
4. Repeat the procedure at least four times.
5. Repeat this with the rubber/felt surface in contact with the aluminum track and then using the smaller
areas in contact with the aluminum track.
6. Calculate the coefficient of static friction, , using the equation given above. Record the values in
table 5.1.

Method 2
(Eq. 5.4)
1. Position the aluminum track so that one end is on the edge of a table. Use a bubble level to make
sure that the aluminum track is leveled. Set a pulley on one end of the aluminum track as shown in
figure 5.2.
2. Place the wooden surface of the friction block in contact with the aluminum track and tie a string from
the block going through the pulley (Figure 5.2).
3. On the other end of the string, tie a weight holder and let it hang.
4. Slowly add masses on the weight holder until the block just starts to move. This will be your m1
5. Record the mass of m1 in Table 5.2.
7. Repeat the procedure at least five times.
8. The block will be your m2. Record its mass in on table 5.2.
9. Repeat this with the rubber/felt surface in contact with the aluminum track and then using the smaller
areas in contact with the aluminum track.
10. Calculate the coefficient of static friction, , using the equation given above. Record the values in
table 5.2.

Figure 5.2. Experimental set-up for determining the static friction using method 2.

33
 Experiment 5. Friction
LABORATORY PROTOCOL

E. Determining the coefficient of kinetic friction

(Eq. 5.5)
1. Elevate one end of the aluminum track such that the angle of inclination is much greater than the critical
angle (critical angle for wood surface – large area) of the friction block in Method 1.
2. Place the large area of the wooden surface of the block on the upper portion of the track.
3. Set an initial and final position of the block on the aluminum track. This will be your distance. Record this
in table 5.3.
4. Release the block. Record the time it takes for the block to travel the distance.
5. Record your data in Table 5.3.
6. Repeat this for at least four trials.
7. Do the above procedures for the large area of the rubber/felt surface. This time, the angle of inclination
should be much greater than the critical angle for rubber/felt surface – large area.
8. Calculate the coefficient of kinetic friction, , using the equation given below. Record the values in table
5.3.

34
 Experiment 5. Friction
WORKSHEET
NAME:_________________________________________________________________________________
SECTION & GROUPNAME: ________________________________________________________________

Table 5.1. Determining the coefficient of static friction using method 1.

Critical angle, (o) Coefficient of
Surfaces
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Average static friction,
Wood on Steel (Large Area)
Rubber on Steel (Large Area)
Wood on Steel (Small Area)
Rubber on Steel (Small Area)

Table 5.2. Determining the coefficient of static friction using method 2.

m1 (grams) m2 Coefficient of
Surfaces
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Average (grams) static friction,
Wood on Steel
(Large Area)
Rubber on Steel
(Large Area)
Wood on Steel
(Small Area)
Rubber on Steel
(Small Area)

Table 5.3. Determining the coefficient of kinetic friction.

Trial Acceleration Coefficient of kinetic
Surface Average
1 2 3 4 (m/s2) friction,
Wood on Distance (m)
Steel (Large Time (s)
Area)
Rubber on Distance (m)
Steel (Large Time (s)
Area)

CALCULATIONS:

35
 Experiment 5. Friction
WORKSHEET
NAME:_________________________________________________________________________________
SECTION & GROUPNAME: ________________________________________________________________

OBSERVATIONS:

GUIDE QUESTIONS:

1. Based on your data, does friction depend on the area of contact?

2. In theory, identify which has a greater value, or , and explain. Is this consistent with your
calculations? Why or why not?

36
 Experiment 5. Friction
WORKSHEET
NAME:_________________________________________________________________________________
SECTION & GROUPNAME: ________________________________________________________________

3. What are the factors that affect the coefficient of friction? In what way do these factors affect the
coefficient of friction?

4. What are the possible sources of errors in the determination of or in this experiment?

5. Which among the configurations (aluminum to wood, aluminum to rubber/felt) had the largest ?
Largest ? Why is this so?

37
 Experiment 6. Equilibrium
LABORATORY PROTOCOL

OBJECTIVES:

3. Verify the conditions for equilibrium

4. Determine unknown masses using the concept of static equilibrium

PRINCIPLES:

When a rigid body is in equilibrium, it does not accelerate. This is the first condition of equilibrium.
That is, for a body of zero acceleration, according to Newton’s second law, the vector sum of all the external
forces acting on the body is zero, or

(Eq. 6.1)

When the vector sum of all the torques acting on the rigid body is zero, it does not rotate. The sum of
the torque due to all the external forces acting on the body, with respect to any specified point, must be zero.
This is the second condition of equilibrium, or in equation form

(Eq. 6.2)

A body satisfying the first and the second condition is said to be in equilibrium. Moreover, when a
body is at rest and has no angular velocity with respect to an inertial observer, the body is said to be in static
equilibrium.

There is a particular point in a rigid body where the sum of the torques due to its weight elements is
zero. This point is called the center of gravity of the object. We can think of the center of gravity as the point
where the weight effectively acts. An object suspended at its center of gravity will not rotate.

MATERIALS:

 Iron Stand
 Meter stick
 Metal Pans
 Set of masses
 Weighing Scale
 Thread

PROCEDURE:

F. The point of support is at the center of gravity of the meterstick

1. Suspend the meterstick in air with a thread. Tie the other end of the thread to an iron stand.
2. Locate the center of gravity of the meterstick by adjusting the meterstick on the holder until both ends
of the meter stick are of the same height. At this point, the stick is said to be in static equilibrium.
3. Make this position the point of support of the meter stick.

Trial 1:
1. Hang pan 1 of unknown mass on one side of the meter stick 20.0 cm from its center of gravity.
2. At the opposite side of the stick, hang pan 2. Change the mass and/or location of pan 2 until the stick
is in equilibrium.
3. Record the location of pan 2 and its mass on Table 6.1. Include the thread in the measurement of the
masses of the pans.
4. Determine the actual mass of pan 1 using a weighing scale and record it on Table 6.2.

38
 Experiment 6. Equilibrium
LABORATORY PROTOCOL

Trial 2:
1. Using the same set-up in Trial 1, move pan 2 20.0 cm from the center of gravity of the meter stick.
2. At the opposite side of the stick, change the mass and/or location of pan 1 until the stick is in
equilibrium.
3. Record the location of pan 1 and its mass on Table 6.1. Include the thread in the measurement of the
masses of the pans.
4. From your data in Table 6.1, calculate the analytical masses of the pans from the two trials using the
conditions for static equilibrium.
5. Record these on Table 6.2 and calculate for the percentage error.

G. The point of support is NOT at the center of gravity of the meterstick

1. Make the point of support a distance of 30.0 cm from the zero mark of the meterstick.
2. Hang pan A on the shorter side of the meter stick.
3. Hang pan B on the longer side of the meter stick.
4. Change the location and/or mass of the pans until the stick is in equilibrium.
5. Record your data in Table 6.3. Include the thread in the measurement of the masses of the pans.
6. Determine the actual mass of the meterstick using a weighing scale.
7. Calculate for the percentage error.

39
 Experiment 6. Equilibrium
WORKSHEET
NAME:________________________________________________________________________________
SECTION & GROUPNAME: _______________________________________________________________

Position of the center of mass of the meter stick: ___________________ cm

Table 6.1. Determining the mass of the pans.

Pan 1 Pan 2
Location (cm) Mass (g) Location (cm) Mass (g)
Trial 1 20.0
Trial 2 20.0

Table 6.2. Comparing the actual and analytical mass.

Actual Mass (g) Analytical Mass (g) % error
Pan 1
Pan 2

Table 6.3. Determining the mass of the meterstick.

Experimental Actual
Pan A Pan B % error
Mass (g) Mass (g)
Location of the added mass
from the point of support
(cm)
Mass (g)

CALCULATIONS (Use a separate sheet if needed):

OBSERVATIONS (Use a separate sheet if needed):

40
 Experiment 6. Equilibrium
WORKSHEET
NAME:_________________________________________________________________________________
SECTION & GROUPNAME: ________________________________________________________________

GUIDE QUESTIONS:

1. In some cases, the center of gravity of the meterstick is NOT located at the 50.0 cm mark. Why?

2. Explain how the first condition of equilibrium is satisfied for the meterstick in the experiment. Draw a
free body diagram.

3. Explain how the second condition of equilibrium is satisfied for the meterstick in the experiment. Draw
a free body diagram.

4. If the mass of the meter stick is changed, will the position of the pans in your data change?

41
 Experiment 7. Simple Pendulum
LABORATORY PROTOCOL

OBJECTIVE:

1. Determine the dependence of the period of oscillation to the length of the string, mass of the bob,
and angle.
2. Determine the best estimate of the acceleration due to gravity, , using a simple pendulum.

PRINCIPLE:

A simple pendulum is an excellent example of Simple Harmonic Motion. Consider the simple
pendulum shown in Figure 7.1.

Figure 7.1. Simple pendulum and its dynamics.

[Giancoli, D. 2014. Physics Principles with Application, 7th edition. United States of America]

The restoring force acting on that tends to return it to equilibrium position is just the component of
the weight that is perpendicular to the string. The magnitude of this restoring force is thus given by:

(Eq 7.1)
The negative sign denotes that the direction of the force is always opposite the direction of the
displacement .
For small angles,
(Eq 7.2)
Thus, we would have

(Eq 7.3)
Note that this could be considered as a case of simple harmonic motion where

with (Eq 7.4)

Since the period (A period is the time requires for an object to go back to its original state, i.e.
position and velocity) of simple harmonic motion is given by

(Eq 7.5)
then for simple pendulum (released from small displacement), we shall have

(Eq 7.6)

42
 Experiment 7. Simple Pendulum
LABORATORY PROTOCOL

MATERIALS:

 Iron Stand
 Pendulum Bob
 Inelastic String
 Stop Watch
 Pendulum clamp

PROCEDURE:

Figure 7.1. Experimental Set-up.

A. Dependence to the angle

1. Attach the pendulum clamp to the iron stand. Attach one end of the string to the pendulum clamp. Tie
the other end of the string to a pendulum bob. Measure the length L of the string. Take not that the
length L of the string is measured from the end attached to the iron stand up to the center of gravity of
the pendulum bob.
2. Make the pendulum oscillate by setting the bob at an angle with respect to the resting equilibrium
position (vertical position). Use 5o, 30o, 45o and 60o.
3. Measure the time required for the pendulum to have 20 complete periods. Record your time in Table
1. Repeat for 3 trials.
4. To determine the period of the pendulum, divide the average time required for 20 periods by 20.

B. Dependence on the mass of the pendulum bob

1. Make the pendulum oscillate by setting the bob at 10 o with respect to the resting equilibrium position.
2. Measure the time required for the pendulum to have 20 complete periods. Record your time in Table
2. Repeat for 3 trials.
3. Repeat step 2-3 for 4 different masses.
4. To determine the period of the pendulum, divide the average time required for 20 periods by 20.

C. Dependence on the length of the string

1. Make the pendulum oscillate by setting the bob at 5 o with respect to the resting equilibrium position.
2. Measure the time required for the pendulum to have 20 complete periods. Record your time in Table
3. Repeat for 3 trials.
3. Repeat step 2-3 for 4 different string lengths.
4. To determine the period of the pendulum, divide the average time required for 20 periods by 20.

43
 Experiment 7. Simple Pendulum
LABORATORY PROTOCOL

D. Determination of the value of the acceleration due to gravity

1. From the data obtained in Table 3, graph T 2 versus L.
2. Using linear regression, compute for the experimental estimate of the acceleration due to gravity, g.
3. Compare the experimental g with the theoretical value. Record the percentage error in table 7.4.

44
 Experiment 7. Simple Pendulum
WORKSHEET
NAME:_________________________________________________________________________________
SECTION & GROUPNAME: ________________________________________________________________

A. Dependence on the angle

Mass, m = ___________ g; Pendulum Length, L = ___________ cm

Table 7.1. Periods for varying angles.

20 T (s) Average Period, T (s) % Error
Angle,
1 2 3 20 T(s) Experimental Theoretical (%)
5o
30o
45o
60o

B. Dependence on the mass of the pendulum bob

Angle, = 10o; Pendulum Length, L = ___________ cm

Table 7.2. Periods for varying masses.

Mass, m 20 T (s) Average Period, T (s) % Error
(g) 1 2 3 20 T(s) Experimental Theoretical (%)

C. Dependence on the length of the string

o
Angle, = 5 ; Mass, m = ___________ g

Table 7.3. Periods for varying lengths.

Length, L 20 T (s) Average Period, T (s) % Error
(cm) 1 2 3 20 T(s) Experimental Theoretical (%)

D. Determination of the value of the acceleration due to gravity

Table 7.4. Comparison of experimental and theoretical value of g.
Experimental value of g Theoretical value of % Error
(m/s2) g (m/s2) (%)

GRAPH:

45
 Experiment 7. Simple Pendulum
WORKSHEET
NAME:_________________________________________________________________________________
SECTION & GROUPNAME: ________________________________________________________________

CALCULATIONS:

OBSERVATIONS:

46
 Experiment 7. Simple Pendulum
WORKSHEET
NAME:_________________________________________________________________________________
SECTION & GROUPNAME: ________________________________________________________________

GUIDE QUESTIONS:

1. It was suggested that the time for several periods may be measured and the average period
determined, rather than timing only one period. What are the advantages or disadvantages of this
method? How and why would the result be affected if larger number of periods were timed?

2. In general, the results in Table 7.1 may not have shown clear-cut evidence that the period increases
as dramatically with the angle as might be indicate bu the following equation:

To understand why, compute T in terms of To for angles 5o and 60o. To is calculated using equation
(7.6). Comment on the theoretical predictions and experimental accuracy.

3. Would air resistance cause the period to be larger or smaller than the theoretical value?

47
 References
PASCO Scientific Manuals. (n.d.). Retrieved from PASCO Scientific website: http://www.pasco.com

Giancoli, D. C. (2014). Physics Principles with Applications (7th ed.). United States of America: Pearson
Education, Inc.

Serway, R. A., & Faughn, J. S. (1995). College Physics (4th ed.). United States of America: Harcourt Brace
College Publishers.

Young, H. D., & Freedman, R. A. (2012). University Physics with Modern Physics (13th ed.). San Fransisco, CA:
Pearson Education, Inc.

48