Ionic Liquid Properties PDF

Yizhak Marcus
Ionic Liquid
Properties
From Molten Salts to RTILs
Ionic Liquid Properties
Yizhak Marcus
Ionic Liquid Properties

From Molten Salts to RTILs
Yizhak Marcus
Hebrew University of Jerusalem
Jerusalem, Israel
ISBN 978-3-319-30311-6 ISBN 978-3-319-30313-0 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-30313-0
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016938795
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016

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Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 List of Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2 The Properties of Ions Constituting Ionic Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1 The Properties of Isolated Ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 The Sizes of Ions in Condensed Phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3 High-Melting Salts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.1 The Liquid Range of High-Melting Salts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.2 Structural Aspects from Diffraction Measurements
and Computer Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.2.1 X-Ray Diffraction Studies of Molten Salts . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.2.2 Neutron Diffraction Studies of Molten Salts . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.2.3 EXAFS Studies of Molten Salts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.2.4 Modeling of Molten Salts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.2.5 Computer Simulation Studies of Molten Salts . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.3 Static Thermochemical Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.3.1 Theoretical Predictions of Thermochemical Properties . . . . 41
3.3.2 Enthalpies of Phase Changes, Cohesive Energies,
and Heat Capacities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.3.3 Volumetric Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.3.4 Surface Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.4 Transport Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.4.1 Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.4.2 Electrical Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.4.3 Self Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.4.4 Thermal Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.5 Solvent Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
v
vi Contents
4 Network Forming Ionic Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

4.1 Binary Network Forming Salts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.2 Molten Borates and Silicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5 Low-Melting Ionic Salts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.1 Salts Melting Between 100 and 250 C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.2 Molten Hydrated Salts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
6 Room Temperature Ionic Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
6.1 Structural Aspects of RTILs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
6.1.1 Diffraction Studies and Computer Simulations . . . . . . . . . 125
6.1.2 Modeling of RTIL Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
6.2 Thermochemical Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.2.1 Melting and Decomposition Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.2.2 Vaporization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
6.2.3 Cohesive Energies and Solubility Parameters . . . . . . . . . . 137
6.2.4 Critical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
6.2.5 Heat Capacities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
6.2.6 Surface Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
6.3 Volumetric Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
6.3.1 Densities and Molar Volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
6.3.2 Compressibilities and Internal Pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
6.4 Optical and Electric Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
6.4.1 Refractive Index and Molar Refractivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
6.4.2 Static Permittivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
6.5 Transport Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
6.5.1 Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
6.5.2 Electrical Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
6.5.3 Thermal Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
6.6 Chemical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
6.6.1 Solvatochromic Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
6.6.2 Mutual Solubility with Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
6.6.3 Hydrophilic/Hydrophobic Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
6.6.4 Carbon Dioxide Solubility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

Chapter 1
Introduction
This book deals with ionic liquids, i.e., with single substances in their liquid state of
aggregation that are dissociated into ions to a major extent. Because of the enormous
amount of information that is available regarding this subject, the book does not deal
with mixtures of ionic liquids nor with their solution (as electrolytes) in molecular
solvents. Furthermore, the information presented here is in no way exhaustive, it is
rather illustrative of the subjects dealt with and deals mostly with what was published
in readily accessible literature to the end of 2014. The book emphasizes the properties
of the ionic liquids and does not deal with their reactions and possible applications.
The properties of ionic liquids, because they are dissociated to a major extent
into ions, depend on those of the constituting cations and anions. Therefore, Chap. 2
of the book is devoted in part to the properties of isolated ions that do not interact
with their environment. These properties comprise their mass and charge, their
standard thermodynamics of formation, and their entropy and heat capacity under
standard conditions. The sizes of ions, once they are in a condensed phase, depends
on their being constrained by their neighboring particles due to the repulsion of their
outer electron shells. These properties of the individual constituting ions of ionic
liquids are assumed to be ‘portable’ when they form the ionic liquid, some of them
being subject to changes induced by the mutual interactions of the ions.
Ionic liquids comprise, as the chapter headings indicate, high-temperature mol-
ten salts, network-forming ionic liquids, low-temperature molten salts, and room
temperature ionic liquids (RTILs). The interest of researchers in high-temperature
molten salts, dealt with in Chap. 3, peaked in the 1950s and 1960s of the last century
in connection of their possible use in the metallurgical industry and in nuclear fuel
reprocessing. An introductory text [1], several multi-author monographs [2–4], a
handbook [5] and data compilation [6], and a series of ‘advances’ from vol. 1 [7] to
vol. 6 [8] were published. The interest in high-temperature melting salts has waned
since then, but information is still accruing, summarized in the proceedings of
international conferences, e.g., that of the 17th, held in Las Vegas in 2010 or of
EUCHEM conferences held regularly up to date.
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 1

Y. Marcus, Ionic Liquid Properties, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-30313-0_1
2 1 Introduction
Network-forming molten salts, described in Chap. 4, are based on relatively

low-melting zinc halides an on molten slags, i.e., high-melting borates, silicates,
and germanates. Their structures involve polyhedral anions that share corners,
sides, or faces, among which small cations are dispersed. These substances in the
liquid state are in thermodynamic equilibrium, but they tend to form glasses rather
than to crystallize when sufficiently cooled, such glasses being outside the scope of
this book.
Low-melting ionic liquids, discussed in Chap. 5, have melting points character-
istically <250 C and share many properties with the high-melting salts. They
involve many substances in which either cation or anion is organic, e.g., tetraalk-
ylammonium or carboxylate, but also purely inorganic salts. A special class of such
low-melting ionic liquids are salt hydrates, in which the cation is hydrated, which
on cooling from the liquid state may crystallize congruently (to a salt with the same
composition as the melt) but need not do so. Salt hydrates have been suggested as
thermal energy storage materials.
Room temperature ionic liquids (RTILs), the subject of Chap. 6, have become en
vogue from the beginning of the present century, the number of publications dealing
with them increasing exponentially since then and several books dealing with RTILs
have by now been published, from an introduction [9] to further in depth discussions
[10–12]. These substances are liquid at <100 C and a large variety of them have
become commercially available by now, but new ones with various functionalities
are being synthesized all the time. Again, due to the enormous variety of RTILs, only
a small sub-group of them is dealt with here, namely aprotic RTILs with no added
functionality in their cations and with a restricted variety of anions.
Certain inorganic salts, such as HgI2, AsBr3, and AlCl3, have low melting points
(<250 C) but they do not dissociate appreciable to ions in the molten state. Since
they do not constitute ionic liquids, such salts are outside the scope of this book.
Once the ions are combined to form ionic liquids with whatsoever melting
points, the properties of such liquids become the subject of this book, ranging
from their structures to thermodynamic, transport, electrical and optical properties
as well as chemical properties as appropriate. Structures are determined by diffrac-
tion methods (with x-rays and neutrons) and similar techniques (EXAFS) and
computer simulations. Thermodynamic properties include the liquid range, from
the melting to the (normal) boiling point, or up to the critical point when relevant,
the energetic changes involved in the phase changes, heat capacities, and surface
tensions. Volumetric properties, such as density, thermal expansibility, and com-
pressibility are presented. The cohesive energy and cohesive energy density of the
liquid salt are also included. The transport properties include self-diffusion, viscos-
ity, electrical conductivity, and thermal conductivity. The electrical and optical
properties include the permittivity, the refractive index, and molar refraction. The
chemical properties involve those that affect the abilities of the ionic liquids to act
as solvents, hence their solvation abilities, mutual solubilities with water, as
the most important representative of molecular liquids, their hydrophilicity and
hydrophobicity, where relevant, and the solubility of carbon dioxide and some other
solutes in them.
1.1 List of Symbols 3
These properties are compiled in tables and are annotated: in many cases with
reference to previous critical compilations and reviews, where references to the
original literature may be found, and augmented with references to more recent
references or those otherwise not included in the compilations and reviews. The
selection of the data included in the tables is the responsibility of the author of this
book, and it was attempted to select the data critically. No attempt was made, however,
to be exhaustive of the profusion of available data nor was it attempted to be
comprehensive at all. The data that are presented in the Tables are discussed in
terms of the physicochemical effects behind these data. Where appropriate, methods
to predict such data from other information on the ionic liquids or their constituent ions
or at least to make appropriate correlations with such information were presented.
1.1 List of Symbols
Chemical species and units of physical quantities are denoted by Roman type
characters, whereas physical quantities that can be expressed by numerical values
are denoted by Greek or italics characters. Mathematical symbols have their usual
meaning and are not listed here. The same symbol is used for an extensive property
of a system and for the molar quantity of a constituent of the system. The SI systems
of physical units is used throughout, but some extra-SI ones commonly used in the
physicochemical literature are also included where they simplify the notation.
These include the symbols C for centigrade temperatures (T/K – 273.15).
Principal Latin Characters

A Helmholz energy, molar Helmholz energy (in J mol1)
aX thermodynamic activity of species X
B(T ) Tait expression temperature-dependent parameter
Bx activation energy for process x (η, κ, Λ, or D)
ce cohesive energy (in kJ mol–1)
ced cohesive energy density (in MPa)
CP molar heat capacity at constant pressure (in J∙K1∙mol1)
Cv molar heat capacity at constant volume (in J∙K–1∙mol–1)
cX molar concentration of species X (in M ¼ mol∙dm3)
Czþ a generalized cation
D diffusion coefficient (in m2∙s1)
d interionic distance (in nm)
E energy, molar energy (in J∙mol1)
e elementary charge (1.6022 1019 C)
ETN normalized polarity index
F Faraday constant (9.6485 104 C∙mol1)
G Gibbs energy, molar Gibbs energy (in J∙mol1)
4 1 Introduction
g(r) pair correlation function

GP Gordon parameter
H enthalpy, molar enthalpy (in J∙mol1)
h solvation (hydration) number
I radiation scattering intensity
I moment of inertia
kB Boltzmann constant (1.3807 10–23 J∙K1)
KH Henry’s law constant
m number of segments
MX molar mass of species X (in kg∙mol1)
NA Avogadro’s number (6.0221 1023 mol1)
Nco coordination number
nD refractive index at the sodium D line
P pressure (in Pa)
p vapor pressure (in Pa)
PO W octanol/water partition constant
Pσ parachor
R gas constant (8.3145 J∙K1∙mol1)
rcorr linear correlation coefficient
RD molar refractivity at the sodium D line (in m3∙mol1)
rX radius of particle of species X (in nm)
S entropy, molar entropy (in J∙K1∙mol1)
S(q) structure factor in q (reciprocal length) space
T temperature (in K)
t transference number
U Potential interaction energy in the system (in J)
u speed of sound (in m∙s1)
u(r) potential energy function
V volume, molar volume (in m3∙mol1)
vX microscopic volume of species X (in nm3)
xX mole fraction of species X
y packing fraction
Z lattice parameter
ZX atomic number of element X
zX charge number of ionic species X (taken algebraically)
Principal Greek Characters

Δx change of quantity for process x
α Kamlet-Taft hydrogen bond donation ability of solvent
αP isobaric thermal expansibility (in K1)
αX polarizability of species X (in m3)
β Kamlet-Taft electron pair donation ability of solvent
δ chemical shift of NMR signal (in ppm)
1.1 List of Symbols 5
δH Hildebrand solubility parameter (in MPa1/2)

ε, εs, relative static permittivity
ε0 permittivity of empty space (8.8542 1012 C2∙J1∙m1)
η dynamic viscosity (Pa∙s)
θ D, θ E Debye or Einstein temperature
κ specific conductance (S∙m1)
κ S, κ T adiabatic (isentropic), isothermal compressibility (in Pa–1)
Λ molar conductivity (in S∙cm2∙mol1)
λ wavelength of radiation
λth thermal conductivity (in W∙m1∙K1)
νI stoichiometric coefficient (number of ions I per formula)
π* Kamlet-Taft polarity/polarizability of solvent
ρ density (in kg∙m3)
σ surface tension (in N∙m1)
σI softness parameter of ion I
Φ fluidity (reciprocal of viscosity) (in Pa1 s1)
χ molar (diamagnetic) susceptibility (in m3∙mol1)
ω frequency of an electromagnetic wave (in s1)
Principal Subscripts
þ, of cation, anion
0 of a unit quantity
0 characteristic temperature in VFT equation
b of boiling (at atmospheric pressure)
c critical
els contribution from electrostriction
f of formation
g of glass transition
h of a hole
hyd pertaining to hydration
I pertaining to the ion I
int internal
intr intrinsic value
L, latt of lattice
m of melting
r reduced quantity
s of sublimation
sd of solid
solv of solvation
v of vaporization
vd of void space, of cavity
6 1 Introduction
Principal Superscripts
*
characteristic quantity
o
standard thermodynamic function (for T ¼ 298.15 K, for P ¼ 0.1 MPa)
A chemical substance or ion is generally referred to in the text by its name or

formula, but in tables and as subscripts abbreviations are generally employed. The
symbol Iz denotes a generalized ion, Cþ or Mzþ denote a cation, and A and Xz
denote an anion. The abbreviations cr for crystal, g for gas, ig for ideal gas, l for liquid
denote the state of the ion or substance described. The common abbreviations of
alkyl chains, Me ¼ methyl, Et ¼ ethyl, Pr ¼ 1-propyl, Bu ¼ 1-butyl, Pe ¼ 1-pentyl,
Hx ¼ 1-hexyl, Oc ¼ 1-octyl, Dc ¼ 1-decyl, Do ¼ 1-dodecyl, Td ¼ 1-tetradecyl, and
also Ph ¼ phenyl are employed.
References
1. Bloom H (1967) The chemistry of molten salts. Benjamin, New York, 184 pp
2. Blander M (ed, multi-author) (1964) Molten salt chemistry. Interscience Publication,
New York, 775 pp
3. Sundheim BR (ed, multi-author) (1964) Fused salts. McGraw-Hill, New York, 464 pp
4. Inman D, Lovering DG (eds, multi-author) (1981) Ionic liquids. Plenum, New York, 459 pp
5. Janz GJ (1967) Molten salt handbook. Academic, New York, 588 pp
6. Janz GJ, Allen CB, Bansal NP, Murphy RM, Tomkins RPT (1979) Physical properties data
compilations relevant to energy storage. USA NBS, Washington, DC, 442 pp
7. Braunstein J, Mamantov G, Smith GP (eds, multi-author) (1971) Advances in molten salts
chemistry, Plenum Press, New York, vol 1, 250 pp
8. Mamantov G, Mamantov CB, Braunstein J (eds, multi-author) (1987) Advances in molten salts
chemistry, Plenum Press, New York, vol 6, 350 pp
9. Freemantle M (ed, multi-author) (2010) An introduction to ionic liquids. Royal Society of
Chemistry, Cambridge, 281 pp
10. Gaune-Escard M, Seddon KR (eds, multi-author) (2010) Molten salts and ionic liquids: never
the twain? Wiley, New York, 441 pp
11. Plechkova NV, Seddon KR (eds, multi-author) (2013) Ionic liquids uncoiled: critical expert
overviews. Wiley, New York, 413 pp
12. Gaune-Escard M, Haarberg, GM (eds, multi-author) (2014) Molten salts chemistry and
technology. Wiley, New York, 600 pp
Chapter 2
The Properties of Ions Constituting Ionic
Liquids
Ions are defined as particles of atomic or molecular size that carry electrical
charges. They may exist in gaseous phases as individual ions but in condensed
phases (solids and liquids) they exist as electrically neutral combinations of posi-
tively charged cations and negatively charged anions. High temperature ionic
liquids may consist of monatomic ions, such as Ca2+ or F, their anions (but hardly
the cations) may also consist of a few atoms, such sulfate, SO42. At somewhat
lower temperatures molten salts may consist of quaternary ammonium or phospho-
nium cations with a variety of anions, e.g., Bu4N+ BF4. A class of ionic liquids,
molten hydrated salts, on the contrary, consist of cations, such as Mg(H2O)62+, in
which a monatomic cation is coordinated to water molecules. Finally, room tem-
perature ionic liquids (RTILs) consist mostly of large organic cations, such as
1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium, and polyatomic anions, such as bis(trifluoromethyl-
sulfonyl)amide, (CF3SO2)2N. The physical properties of ions are designated in
this book by having the subscript I for the ion.
2.1 The Properties of Isolated Ions
Ions in an ideal gaseous state, termed isolated or bare ions, are devoid of interac-
tions with other particles or their surroundings and are commonly monatomic or
consist of relatively few atoms. Generalized ions are designated by Iz, where zI is
an integral positive or negative number. The primary characteristics of isolated ions
are the amount of electrical charge they carry and their mass. The amount of charge
is given in terms of zIe, where e ¼ 1.60218 1019 C is the elementary unit of the
charge. The masses of ions are generally specified as their molar mass, MI, that is,
the mass of Avogadro’s number, NA ¼ 6.02214 1023 mol1, of ions. The units of
the molar mass, are kg∙mol1. The molar masses of the ions constituting the ionic
liquids dealt with in this book are shown in Table 2.1, and are, of course, additive,

8 2 The Properties of Ions Constituting Ionic Liquids
Table 2.1 The names, formulas, charge numbers, zI, and molar masses, MI, of common ions
Cations zI MI /kg∙mol1
Lithium, Li+ +1 0.006941
Sodium, Na+ +1 0.02294
Potassium, K+ +1 0.03910
Rubidium, Rb+ +1 0.08547
Cesium, Cs+ +1 0.13291
Copper(I), Cu+ +1 0.06355
Silver, Ag+ +1 0.10787
Thallium(I), Tl+ +1 0.20438
Beryllium, Be2+ +2 0.009012
Magnesium, Mg2+ +2 0.02431
Calcium, Ca2+ +2 0.04008
Strontium, Sr2+ +2 0.08762
Barium, Ba2+ +2 0.13733
Vanadium(II), V2+ +2 0.05094
Chromium(II), Cr2+ +2 0.05201
Manganese(II), Mn2+ +2 0.05494
Iron(II), Fe2+ +2 0.05585
Cobalt, Co2+ +2 0.05893
Nickel, Ni2+ +2 0.05869
Copper(II), Cu2+ +2 0.06355
Zinc, Zn2+ +2 0.06539
Cadmiun, Cd2+ +2 0.11241
Tin(II), Sn2+ +2 0.11871
Lead, Pb2+ +2 0.2072
Aluminum, Al3+ +3 0.02698
Scandium, Sc3+ +3 0.04496
Vanadium(III), V3+ +3 0.05094
Chromium(III), Cr3+ +3 0.05201
Iron(III), Fe3+ +3 0.05585
Gallium, Ga3+ +3 0.06971
Yttrium, Y3+ +3 0.08891
Indium, In3+ +3 0.11482
Lanthanum, La3+ +3 0.13891
Cerium(III), Ce3+ +3 0.14012
Praseodymium, Pr3+ +3 0.14091
Neodymium, Nd3+ +3 0.14424
Promethium, Pm3+ +3 0.147
Samarium(III), Sm3+ +3 0.15036
Europium(III), Eu3+ +3 0.15197
Gadolinium, Gd3+ +3 0.15725
Terbium, Tb3+ +3 0.15893
Dysprosium, Dy3+ +3 0.16251
(continued)
2.1 The Properties of Isolated Ions 9
Table 2.1 (continued)

Holmium, Ho3+ +3 0.164936
Erbium, Er3+ +3 0.16726
Thulium, Tm3+ +3 0.16893
Ytterbium(III), Yb3+ +3 0.17304
Lutetium, Lu3+ +3 0.17497
Thallium(III), Tl3+ +3 0.20438
Bismuth, Bi3+ +3 0.20898
Zirconium, Zr4+ +4 0.09122
Tin(IV), Sn4+ +4 0.11871
Cerium(IV), Ce4+ +4 0.14012
Hafnium, Hf4+ +4 0.17849
Thorium, Th4+ +4 0.23204
Uranium(IV), U4+ +4 0.23803
Cations of low- and room-temperature melting salts zI M/kg∙mol1
Ammonium, NH4+ +1 0.01804
Hydroxylaminium, HONH3+ +1 0.03404
Hydrazinium, H2NNH3+ +1 0.03305
Guanidinium, C(NH2)3+ +1 0.06008
Tetraalkylammonium, [H(CH2)n]4N+ +1 0.01803 + 0.05611n
Tetraalkylphosphonium, [H(CH2)n]4P+ +1 0.03500 + 0.05611n
1-Alkyl-3-methylimidazolium (Cnmim), [H(CH2)n]C4H6N2+ +1 0.08307 + 0.01403n
1-Alkylpyridinium (CnPy+), [H(CH2)n]C5H5N+ +1 0.07911 + 0.01403n
1-Alkyl-1-methylpyrrolidinium(CnMePyrr), [H(CH2)n]C5H11N+ +1 0.08506 + 0.01403n
Tetraphenylphosphonium,Ph4P+ +1 0.33939
Tetraphenylarsonium, Ph4As+ +1 0.38334
Cations of hydrated molten salts zI M/kg∙mol1
M(H2O)nz+ (M is a monatomic cation) +z MI + 0.01802n
Anions zI M/kg∙mol1
Fluoride, F 1 0.01899
Chloride, Cl 1 0.03545
Bromide, Br 1 0.07991
Iodide, I 1 0.12691
Hydroxide, OH 1 0.01701
Hydrosulfide,SH 1 0.03307
Cyanide, CN 1 0.02602
Cyanate, NCO 1 0.04203
Thiocyanate, SCN 1 0.05808
Azide, N3 1 0.04202
Hydrogenfluoride, HF2 1 0.03901
Triiodide, I3 1 0.38071
Metaborate, BO2 1 0.04281
Nitrite, NO2 1 0.04601
Nitrate, NO3 1 0.06201
(continued)

Chlorate, ClO3 1 0.08345
Bromate, BrO3 1 0.12761
Iodate, IO3 1 0.17491
Perchlorate, ClO4 1 0.09945
Permanganate, MnO4 1 0.11894
Pertechnetate, TcO4 1 0.16301
Perrhenate, ReO4 1 0.25002
Tetrafluoroborate, BF4 1 0.08681
Trifluoromethyltrifluoroborate, CF3BF3 1 0.14281
Tetracyanoborate, B(CN)4 1 0.11488
Formate, HCO2 1 0.04502
Acetate, CH3CO2 1 0.05904
Benzoate, PhCO2 1 0.12112
Chloroacetate, CH2ClCO2 1 0.09349
Trifluoroacetate, CF3CO2 1 0.11302
Methylsulfonate, CH3SO3 1 0.09510
Trifluoromethylsulfonate, CF3SO3 1 0.14906
4-toluenesulfonate (tosylate) CH3C6H4SO3 1 0.17121
Tetraphenylborate, BPh4 1 0.31923
Hexafluorophosphate, PF6 1 0.14496
Trifluoro-tris(pentafluoroethyl)phosphate (FAP), PF3(C2F5)3 1 0.44503
Hexafluoroantimonate, SbF6 1 0.23574
Hydrogensulfate, HSO4 1 0.09707
Methylsulfate, CH3SO4 1 0.11110
Ethylsulfate, C2H5SO4 1 0.12512
Octylsulfate, C8H17SO4 1 0.20931
Tetrachloroaluminate, AlCl4 1 0.17179
Tetrachloroferrate, FeCl4 1 0.20066
Dicyanamide (DCA), N(CN)2 1 0.06604
Difluorosulfonylamide (FSA), N(FSO2)2 1 0.18014
Bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)amide (NTF2), N(CF3SO2)2 1 0.28015
Oxide, O2 2 0.01600
Sulfide, S2 2 0.03207
Carbonate, CO32 2 0.06001
Sulfite, SO32 2 0.08007
Sulfate, SO42 2 0.09607
Selenate, SeO42 2 0.14297
Chromate, CrO42 2 0.11599
Molybdate, MoO42 2 0.15994
Tungstate, WO42 2 0.24785
Thiosulfate, S2O32 2 0.11212
Hexafluorosilicate, SiF62 2 0.14208
Dichromate, Cr2O72 2 0.21599
(continued)

Phosphate, PO43 3 0.09497
Hexacyanoferrate(III), Fe(CN)63 3 0.21195
Hexacyanocobaltate(III), Co(CN)63 3 0.21611
Hexacyanoferrate(II), Fe(CN)64 4 0.21195
multiplied by the appropriate stoichiometric coefficients vI, to make up the molar

mass of the ionic liquid (molten salt).
Thermodynamic quantities that pertain to isolated ions in the ideal gas state
(designated as ‘ig’) and to their formation from the elements in their standard states
are well defined. The standard molar entropy and constant-pressure heat capacity,
S (Iz,ig) and CP (Iz,ig), of isolated ions are recoded in Table 2.2 in J∙K1∙mol1
for the standard temperature T ¼ 298.15 K and pressure P ¼ 0.1 MPa. The
standard molar Gibbs energy and the enthalpy of formation, ΔfG (Iz,ig) and
ΔfH (Iz,ig), in kJ∙mol1 of many ions are also recorded in Table 2.2, The values
of the Gibbs energies having been obtained from the enthalpies and entropies:
Δf G Iz ; ig ¼ Δf H Iz ; ig T S Iz ; ig ΣS ðelements; igÞ in a manner
that is thermodynamically consistent.
The standard molar entropy of isolated monatomic ions with no unpaired
electrons reflects the translational entropy alone and depends only on the mass of
the ion. At T ¼ 298.15 K and P ¼ 0.1 MPa the standard molar entropy is then

S Iz ; ig ¼ 108:85 þ 3=2 lnðM=M ÞJ K1 mol1 , where M/M is the relative
molar mass (M ¼ 1 kg∙mol1). The standard molar heat capacity of monatomic
ions with no unpaired electrons depends on the translational degrees of freedom
alone, hence is common to all the monatomic ions:

CP Iz ; ig ¼ 5=2 R ¼ 20:79 J K1 mol1 , where R ¼ 8.31451 J∙K1∙mol1 is the
gas constant. Monatomic ions with unpaired electrons have a contribution from
electronic spin to the heat capacity and entropy and polyatomic ions have contri-
butions from their rotational and vibrational modes.
The standard molar volume of an isolated ion is a trivial quantity, being the same

for all ions: V Iz ; ig ¼ RT =P ¼ 0:02479 m3 mol1 :
Values are provided for some ions not to be found in molten salts (e.g., H+) and for
a few cations relevant to low-melting salts and RTILs, but for most of the latter no
data could be found, nor for most of the polyatomic anions relevant to the RTILs.
The shape of isolated monatomic ions is spherical, but ions that consist of
several atoms may have any shape. The common ones are planar (NO3, CO32),
tetrahedral (NH4+, BF4), octahedral (PF64), elongated (SCN), or more irregular,
as they are for the ions constituting RTILs that generally have low symmetry
(otherwise higher melting salts result). Tetrahedral and octahedral ions approximate
spherical shape for many purposes and are termed globular. The size of an isolated
ion cannot be specified readily, because its outer electron shell extends indefinitely
around the inner ones and the nucleus. The sizes of ions in condensed liquid phases
Table 2.2 The standard molar entropy So(Iz,ig) [1] and constant-pressure molar heat capacity
CPo(Iz,ig) [2] and the standard molar enthalpy ΔfHo(Iz,ig) and Gibbs energy ΔfGo(Iz,ig)
of formation [3] of isolated ions at the standard temperature To ¼ 298.15 K and pressure
Po ¼ 0.1 MPa
S (Iz,ig)/ CP (Iz,ig)/ ΔfH (Iz,ig)/ ΔfG (Iz,ig)/
Ion J∙K1∙mol1 J∙K1∙mol1 kJ∙mol1 kJ∙mol1
H+ 108.9 20.8 1536.2 1523.2
Li+ 133.0 20.8 685.78 654.8
Na+ 148.0 20.8 609.36 580.5
K+ 154.6 20.8 514.26 487.3
Rb+ 164.4 20.8 490.1 464
Cs+ 169.9 20.8 457.96 432.7
Cu+ 161.1 20.8 1089.99 1051.9
Ag+ 167.4 20.8 1021.73 984.5
Tl+ 175.3 20.8 772.2 739
Be2+ 136.3 20.8 2993.23 2955.4
Mg2+ 148.7 20.8 2348.5 2300.3
Ca2+ 154.9 20.8 1925.9 1892.1
Sr2+ 164.7 20.8 1790.54 1757
Ba2+ 170.4 20.8 1660.38 1628.3
Ra2+ 176.6 20.8 1659.79
V2+ 182.1 29.6 2590.86 2545.2
Cr2+ 181.7 31.2 2655.71 2592
Mn2+ 173.8 20.8 2519.69 2477.4
Fe2+ 180.3 25.9 2749.93 2689.6
Co2+ 179.5 22.9 2844.2 2785.7
Ni2+ 178.1 21.7 2931.39 2873.4
Cu2+ 176.0 20.8 3054.07 3011.5
Zn2+ 161.1 20.8 2782.78 2747.2
Cd2+ 167.8 20.8 2623.54 2588.9
Sn2+ 168.5 20.8 2434.8 2399.9
Pb2+ 175.5 20.8 2373.33 2328.6
Al3+ 150.2 20.8 5483.17 5446.9
Sc3+ 156.4 20.8 4652.31 4616
V3+ 177.8 20.8 5424.6 5380.2
Cr3+ 179.0 20.8 5648.4 5602.1
Fe3+ 174.0 20.8 5712.8 5669.1
Ga3+ 161.9 20.8 5816.6 5780.5
Y3+ 164.9 20.8 4199.86 4163.9
In3+ 168.1 20.8 5322 5289.1
Sb3+ 169.0 20.8 5151 5114
La3+ 170.5 20.8 3904.9 3871
Ce3+ 185.5 20.8 3970.6 3936.8
Pr3+ 188.9 20.8 4005.8 3971.3
(continued)

Nd3+ 191.6 20.8 4050 4014.6
Pm3+ 191.0 20.8 4079 [4] 4044
Sm3+ 189.0 20.8 4100 4065.1
Eu3+ 181.0 20.8 4230 4199.4
Gd3+ 189.3 20.8 4163 4126.9
Tb3+ 193.5 20.8 41967 41614.1
Dy3+ 195.5 20.8 4205 4169
Ho3+ 196.2 20.8 4243 4207
Er3+ 195.9 20.8 4268 4231.4
Tm3+ 194.3 20.8 4297 4261.2
Yb3+ 190.5 20.8 4367.3 4328.3
Lu3+ 173.4 20.8 4350 4293.5
Tl3+ 175.3 20.8 5639.2 5606.1
Bi3+ 175.9 20.8 5004 4968.1
U3+ 195.5 20.8 4176 [5] 4132.4
Zr4+ 165.2 20.8 8261 [4] 8223.4
Sn4+ 168.5 20.8 9320.7 9285.8
Ce4+ 170.6 20.8 7523 7493.6
Hf4+ 173.6 20.8 8192 8153.2
Th4+ 176.9 20.8 7021 6984.2
U4+ 186.4 20.8 7327 [5] 7286.4
H3O+ 192.8 34.9 570.7 [6] 602.2
NH4+ 186.3 34.9 630 [4] 681
C(NH2)3+ 264.5 [8] 77.9 [7] 462 [7]
Me4N+ 331.9 [2] 109.6 537 [9] 73.4
Et4N+ 483 201 [10] 411 [7] 712
Pr4N+ 641 294 [10] 307 [7]
Bu4N+ 386 [10] 221 [7]
Ph4P+ 651.0 [2] 366.3
Ph4As+ 650.0 [2] 368.6
Etmim+ 243 [11]
Bumim+ 195 [11]
F 145.6 20.8 255.39 268.6
Cl 154.4 20.8 233.13 241.4
Br 163.6 20.8 219.07 245.1
I 169.4 20.8 197 230.2
OH 172.3 29.1 143.5 144.8
SH 186.2 29.1 120 [12] 146.6
CN 196.7 29.1 36 [12] 59.2
(continued)

NCO 218.9 38.0 192 [4] 196.4
SCN 232.5 43.2 49
N3 212.25 37.9 180.7 203.1
HF2 211.3 34.0 683 [4] 666
I3 334.7 61.7 482 [4] 529.9
BO2 215.8 38.4 667 [3] 668
NO2 236.2 37.1 202 [12] 182.7
NO3 245.2 44.7 320 [12] 272.8
ClO3 264.3 57.6 200 [12] 153.8
BrO3 278.7 60.4 145 [12] 113.7
IO3 288.2 62.0 208 [12] 184.9
ClO4 263.0 62.0 344 [12] 266.8
MnO4 277.8 72.4 723.8 674.8
ReO4 284.1 74.7 976 [2] 930.4
BF4 267.9 67.8 1687 [4] 1644.2
HCO2 238.2 38.8 460 [13] 452.7
CH3CO2 278.2 61.4 504.2 [13] 464.1
PhCO2 338.0 [8] 117.9 400.4 [13] 330.6
CF3CO2 331.0 [2] 89.3 1194 [4] 1138
CF3SO3 346.0 [2] 107.6
BPh4 656.0 [2] 363.7 [2]
HSO4 283.0 70.9 953 [4] 886.1
PF6 299.6 [8] 104.7 2109.9 [4] 2005.6
SbF6 345.5 [8] 124.0 1993 [4] 1901
AlCl4 205 [14] 1159 [15]
N(CN)2 161.5 [11]a
N(CF3SO2)2 2020.5 [11]a
O2 143.3 20.8 950 [4] 939.7
S2 152.1 20.8
CO32 246.1 44.4 321 [12] 300.9
SiO32 57.6 [14]
Si2O52 101.9 [14]
SO32 264.3 52.6 1035.5
SO42 263.6 62.4 758 [12] 704.8
SeO42 281.2 73.5
CrO42 281.4 74.8 705 [12] 659.5
MoO42 291.1 77.0
WO42 296.6 76.6
S2O32 291.1 71.0
SiF62 309.9 113.1 2161 [4] 2183.4
Cr2O72 379.7 140.8
(continued)

PO43 266.4 65.4
Fe(CN)63 491.6 [2] 217.1
Co(CN)63 464.8 210.2
Fe(CN)64 469.8 210.6
References are provided for data not found in those given in this caption
a
When the value for ΔfH (Cl,ig) in this Table is used as a reference, but when the value for
ΔfH (NO3,ig) is used it yields values 31 kJ mol1 more negative for anions, more positive for
cations)
(molten salts and RTILs), however, are generally taken as being the same as those
in crystals, in which they may be determined by x-ray or neutron diffraction
methods. These sizes, expressed as ionic radii or ionic volumes, are dealt with
below and in the following chapters.
Some other properties of isolated ions have been determined: the magnetic
susceptibility, the polarizability, and the softness/hardness. These properties of iso-
lated ions are portable and additive. This means that these properties of ions are not
appreciably sensitive to the environment of the ions, whether they are isolated, in
crystalline compounds, or in molten salts. The property of a compound is the sum of
the stoichiometrically weighted properties of its constituting cations and anions.
These values for many ions were critically selected and reported by Marcus [4].
The molar magnetic susceptibilities, χ Im, are rather insensitive to the environment
in which the ions are situated, whether isolated or in a condensed phase. Ions are
diamagnetic, that is, they are repulsed out from a magnetic field, unless they have one
or more unpaired electrons in their electronic shells. The consequence is that most
RTILs are diamagnetic, and only a few RTILs have been prepared with paramagnetic
anions, such as FeCl4. The χ Im values of diamagnetic ions have the dimension of a
molar volume and are negative, ranging from a few to several tens of the unit –1012
m3∙mol1. Ions that have n unpaired electrons in their electronic shells are paramag-
netic, are attracted into a magnetic field, and have positive molar susceptibilities. A
paramagnetic ion with n unpaired electrons has χ Im ¼ þ1:676nðn þ 2Þ 109 m3
mol1 at T ¼ 298.15 K. The values of χ Im for many ions are shown in Table 2.3.
The polarizibility, αI, of an ion is obtained indirectly from the molar refractivity,
but the molar refractivity can be obtained experimentally only for neutral species
(salts), either in crystals or in dilute solutions. The molar refractivity RD of a salt is
generally determined from the refractive index at the sodium Dline (589 nm), nD,
according to the Lorenz-Lorentz expression: RD ¼ V n2D 1 = n2D þ 2 , where
V ¼ (M/ρ) is the molar volume and M and ρ are the molar mass and the density. The
molar refractivity of a salt is not very sensitive to the environment of the ions, so
that it may be ascribed to the neutral combinations of the bare cations and anions. It
must then be split appropriately between the cations and the anions, but no
Table 2.3 The magnetic susceptibility, χ Im, the molar refraction at the sodium D line, RD
(normalized to the value for Na+), the polarizability α and the softness parameter σ of isolated ions
Cation χ Im 1012 m3∙mol1 RD 106 m3∙mol1 α 103 nm3 σ
H+ 6.6a 0.3 0.12 0.30
Li+ 3a 0.08 0.03 1.32
Na+ 2.3a 0.65 0.26 0.90
K+ 11.2a 2.71 1.07 0.88
Rb+ 20.1a 4.1 1.63 0.83
Cs+ 34a 6.89 2.73 0.84
Cu+ 12 3.1 1.23 0.52
Ag+ 24 5.1 2.02 0.12
Tl+ 34 11.5 4.56 0.10
Be2+ 6 0.93
Mg2+ 5 [17] 0.7 0.28 0.71
Ca2+ 8 [17] 1.59 0.63 0.96
Sr2+ 9a 2.65 1.05 0.94
Ba2+ 21.5a 5.17 2.05 0.96
Mn2+ 20.7 2.2 0.87 0.45
Fe2+ 19.6 2.1 0.83 0.46
Co2+ 18.5 2.05 0.81 0.41
Ni2+ 17.5 1.6 0.63 0.41
Cu2+ 16.4 1.3 0.52 +0.08
Zn2+ 10 1.39 0.55 +0.05
Cd2+ 22.5 3.22 1.28 +0.28
Sn2+ 20 0.01
Pb2+ 28 11.9 4.72 +0.11
Al3+ 3.1 1.18 0.47 0.61
Sc3+ 6 [18] 1.6 0.63 0.92
V3+ 10 [18] 3.5d 1.39 0.59
Cr3+ 16 0.40
Fe3+ 15.6 3.2 1.27 +0.03
Ga3+ 8 5 [17] 2 0.01
Y3+ 12 [18] 2.4 0.95 0.99
In3+ 19 1.7 [17] 0.67 +0.18
Sb3+ 14 [18] 8.8d 3.49 +0.33
La3+ 20 [18] 2.74 1.09 1.05
Ce3+ 20 [18] 3.4 [17] 1.35 1.02
Pr3+ 20 [18] 3.3 [17] 1.31 0.93
Nd3+ 20 [18] 3.1 [17] 1.23 0.88
Sm3+ 20 [18] 2.9 [17] 1.15 0.66
Eu3+ 20 [18] 2.7 [17] 1.07 0.49
Gd3+ 20 [18] 2.6 [17] 1.03 0.96
Tb3+ 19 [18] 2.5 [17] 0.99 0.94
Dy3+ 19 [18] 2.4 [17] 0.95 0.80
(continued)

Cation χ Im 1012 m3∙mol1 RD 106 m3∙mol1 α 103 nm3 σ
Ho3+ 19 [18] 2.2 [17] 0.87 0.83
Er3+ 18 [18] 2.1 [17] 0.83 0.87
Tm3+ 18 [18] 2.0 [17] 0.79 0.73
Yb3+ 18 [18] 2.0 [17] 0.79 0.57
Lu3+ 17 [18] 0.84
Tl3+ 31 2.2 [17] 0.87 +0.77
Bi3+ 25 8.1 3.21 +0.52
Zr4+ 12.5 1.0 [17] 0.40 0.73
Sn4+ 16 1.3 [17] 0.52 +0.26
Ce4+ 21 1.9 [17] 0.75 0.40
Hf4+ 16 [18] 4.3 [19] 1.70 0.91
Th4+ 31.2 6.8 [19] 2.70 0.97
U4+ 35 [25] 0.46
NH4+ 11.5 4.7 1.86 0.90
C(NH2)3+ 11.21 [7] 4.44
Me4N+ 65 22.9 9.08 +0.11
Et4N+ 43 17
Pr4N+ 61 24
Bu4N+ 79 31
Ph4As+ 229 115.3 45.7 +6.61
C1mim+ b 10.98 [20]b
Cnmim+ 21.6+4.7nc
CnPy+ 19.9+5.0nc
RR’3N+ 4.90nC totalc
TdHx3P+ 158.2c
Anion χ Im 1012 m3∙mol1 RD 106 m3∙mol1 α(Iz,ig) 103 nm3 σ

F 13a 2.21 0.88 0.36
Cl 28a 8.63 3.42 +0.21
Br 39a 12.24 4.85 +0.47
I 56.7a 18.95 7.51 +0.80
OH 12a 4.65 1.84 +0.30
SH 12.8 5.07 +0.95
CN 18 7.9 3.13 +0.71
NCO 21 +1.01
SCN 35 17 6.7 +1.15
N3 11 4.4 +1.06
HF2 1.54
BO2 0.64
NO2 15a 8.7 3.45 +0.45
NO3 23a 10.43 4.13 +0.33
ClO3 32 12.1 4.80 +0.33
BrO3 40 15.2 6.03
(continued)

Anion χ Im 1012 m3∙mol1 RD 106 m3∙mol1 α(Iz,ig) 103 nm3 σ
IO3 50 18.85 7.47
ClO4 34 12.77 5.06 0.00
MnO4 +0.16
ReO4 60 [18] 0.10
BF4 39 7.5c 2.80 [20] 0.00
PF6 11.0c 4.18
HCO2 21 9.43 [17] 3.74 0.03
CH3CO2 32.4 13.87 5.50 +0.08
CF3CO2 50 5.23 [20]
CH3SO3 6.30 [20]
CF3SO3 17.7c 6.88 [20]
MePhSO3 15.55 [20]
N(CN)2 17.5c 6.11 [20]
B(CN)4 27.5c
NTF2– d 34.8c 13.59 [20]
MeSO4– c 6.94c [20]
BPh4 215 108.7 43.1 +7.16
HSO4 37 [17]
O2 12
S2 38 +1.39
CO32 34a 11.45 4.54 0.20
SO32 38 12.9 5.11 0.04
SO42 40 13.79 5.47 0.08
SeO42 51 16.4 6.50
CrO42 51 27.5 [19] 10.90
MoO42 55 25.2 [19] 9.99
WO42 61 23.2 [19] 9.20
S2O32 49 23.2 9.20
SiF62 11.01 [19] 4.36
SO32 38 12.9 5.11 0.04
SO42 40 13.79 5.47 0.08
SeO42 51 16.4 6.50
CrO42 51 27.5 [19] 10.90
PO43 50 15.1 5.99 0.48
Fe(CN)63 50.7 [19] 20.1 +3.52
Co(CN)63 46.7 [19] 18.5
Fe(CN)64 +3.93
References are shown for data not selected in [4]
a
In aqueous solutions
b
Also for other Cnmim+ (1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium) cations 9.20 + 1.78n
c
Also for other CnSO4 anions 5.15 + 1.79n
d
bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)amide
c
From values for room temperature ionic liquids, Table 6.10
2.2 The Sizes of Ions in Condensed Phases 19
theoretically valid way to do this is known. Therefore, an empirical expedient has to

be resorted to, assuming the additivity of the stoichiometrically weighted values for
the cations and anions, RD ¼ ΣνIRDI. The establishment of an ionic scale of polar-
izabilities has been made on the basis of the empirical value RD(Na+) ¼ 0.65 cm3

∙mol1 at 25 C. The polarizability of an isolated ion is then: α Iz ; ig ¼ 3RID =4
πN A ¼ RID =2:5227 1030 (for RDI in cm3∙mol1), yielding values of the order of
103 nm3∙particle1. The temperature coefficient of RD is rather small, approxi-
mately +0.01 cm3∙mol1∙K1. Values of RID and α are shown in Table 2.3 for many
ions. Negative values of α and RID for very small ions (H+, Mg2+, and Al3+) should
be understood only in connection with their effects on the overall polarizability of
compounds containing them.
A property of ‘softness’ or ‘hardness’ can be ascribed to an ion and is loosely
related to its polarizability. The originally [16] softness parameters σ I were based
on the arbitrary assignment of zero to the hydrogen ion for cations and to the
hydroxide ion for anions. A common scale for ions of both charge signs is
produced when 0.3zI units are subtracted/added from/to the original cation/
anion values. Positive values of the softness parameter denote ‘soft’ ions and
negative values denote ‘hard’ ions. The σ I values of many ions are recorded in
Table 2.3.
2.2 The Sizes of Ions in Condensed Phases
The sizes of isolated ions are ill-defined, as mentioned above, but due to the strong
repulsion of the contagious electronic shells of ions in condensed phases the ions
can be assigned definite sizes. The inter-ionic distances in crystals can be measured
by x-ray and neutron diffraction with an uncertainty of a fraction of a pm. An early
discussion of the application of diffraction methods to molten salts is that of Levy
and Danford [21], a more recent review of this subject (concerning neutron dif-
fraction) is that of Neilson and Adya [22] and still more recently also applications to
RTILs have been added by Neilson et al. [23]. Diffraction measurements yield the
pair distribution function, the peaks in the curves denoting the distances between
pairs of atoms, as dealt with in detail in Chap. 3. However, only for monatomic and
globular ions may individual ionic radii be assigned unequivocally, provided the
additivity of ionic radii is assured and the radius of a key ion is assigned. These
individual ionic radii, rI, do depend on the coordination numbers of the ions and a
set for the characteristic coordination in salt crystals has been established by
Shannon and Prewitt [24, 25]. These radii, as selected in [4] and annotated there,
are listed in Table 2.4.
In molten salts (typically, alkali metal halides) the cation-anion distances are
~5 % shorter and the anion-anion distances are ~5 % longer than in salt crystals at
the melting point, but are very near the distances in the crystals at room tempera-
ture, the coordination numbers being 10 % lower in the molten salts than in the
Table 2.4 Ionic radii, rI [4], thermochemical ionic radii, rIth [26], and ionic volumes vI [27], from
these references except where otherwise noted
Ion rI/pm rIth/pm vI/ nm3
Li+ 69 0.00199
Na+ 102 0.00394
K+ 138 0.00986
Rb+ 149 0.01386
Cs+ 170 0.01882
Cu+ 96
Ag+ 115
Tl+ 150
Be2+ 35 0.0002 [29]
Mg2+ 72 0.00199
Ca2+ 100 0.00499
Sr2+ 113 0.00858
Ba2+ 136 0.01225
V2+ 79 0.0016 [29]
Cr2+ 82 0.0024 [29]
Mn2+ 83 0.0032 [29]
Fe2+ 78 0.0022 [29]
Co2+ 75 0.0022 [29]
Ni2+ 69 0.0020 [29]
Cu2+ 73
Zn2+ 75 0.0024 [29]
Cd2+ 95 0.0046 [29]
Sn2+ 93
Pb2+ 118 0.0069 [29]
Al3+ 53 0.0008 [29]
Sc3+ 75 0.0024 [29]
V3+ 64 0.0012 [29]
Cr3+ 62 0.0011 [29]
Fe3+ 65 0.0013 [29]
Co3+ 65 0.0011 [29]
Ga3+ 62 0.0010 [29]
Y3+ 90 0.0031 [29]
In3+ 79 0.0021 [29]
Sb3+ 77 0.0019 [29]
La3+ 105 0.0076 [29]
Ce3+ 101 0.0069 [29]
Pr3+ 100 0.0065 [29]
Nd3+ 99 0.0064 [29]
Pm3+ 97
Sm3+ 96 0.0060 [29]
Eu3+ 95 0.0060 [29]
Gd3+ 94 0.0057 [29]
(continued)
2.2 The Sizes of Ions in Condensed Phases 21

Tb3+ 93 0.0054 [29]
Dy3+ 91 0.0051 [29]
Ho3+ 90 0.0049 [29]
Er3+ 89 0.0047 [29]
Tm3+ 88 0.0047 [29]
Yb3+ 87 0.0042 [29]
Lu3+ 86 0.0041 [29]
Tl3+ 88 0.0048 [29]
Bi3+ 102
U3+ 104
Zr4+ 72 0.0028 [29]
Sn4+ 69 0.0017 [29]
Ce4+ 80 0.0045 [29]
Hf4+ 71 0.0025 [29]
Th4+ 100 0.0056 [29]
U4+ 97 0.0049 [29]
NH4+ 148 0.021
C(NH2)3+ 210 [7]
Me4N+ 280 234 0.113
Et4N+ 337 0.199
Pr4N+ 379
Bu4N+ 413
Pe4N+ 443
Ph4P+ 424
Ph4As+ 425
F 133 126 0.025
Cl 181 168 0.047
Br 196 190 0.056
I 220 211 0.072
OH 133 152 0.032
SH 207 191 0.057
CN 191 187 0.050
NCO 203 193 0.054
SCN 213 209 0.071
N3 195 180 0.058
HF2 172 172 0.047
I3 470 272 0.180 [29]
BO2 240
NO2 192 187 0.055
NO3 200 200 0.064
ClO3 200 208 0.073
BrO3 191 214 0.072
(continued)

IO3 181 218 0.075
ClO4 240 225 0.082
MnO4 240 220 0.088
ReO4 260 227 0.098 [29]
BF4 230 205 0.073
HCO2 204 200 0.056
CH3CO2 232 194
BPh4 421
HSO4 190 221 0.087 [29]
PF6 245 242 0.109
SbF6 282 252 0.121
O2 140 141 0.043
S2 184 189 0.067
CO32 178 189 0.061
SO32 200 204 0.071
SO42 230 218 0.091
SeO42 243 229 0.103
CrO42 240 229 0.097
MoO42 254 231 0.088
WO42 270 237 0.088
S2O32 250 251 0.104
SiF62 259 248 0.112
Cr2O72 320 292 0.167
PO43 238 230 0.090
AsO43 248 237 0.088
Fe(CN)63 440 347 0.265
Co(CN)63 430 349 0.263
Fe(CN)64 450
crystals. Therefore the concept of an ionic radius in molten salts, equating it to that
in crystals, should be used with due caution.
The ionic radius has a much more vague meaning for non-spherical ions. An
approximate value of rI is the cube root of (3/4π) times the volumes of their
ellipsoids of rotation with axes a and b. For elongated rod-like ions, a > b and
their radii are rI (4πa2b/3)1/3, examples being SCN– and I3. For planar ions, a <
b and their radii are rI (4πab2/3)1/3, examples being NO3 and CO32. The sizes
of polyatomic (non-globular) ions in crystals are also expressed by their thermo-
chemical radii rIth according to Jenkins and co-workers [26]. The uncertainties of
these radii, listed in Table 2.4, are 20 pm for uni- and divalent anions increasing
to twice this amount for trivalent ones. These values are based on the Goldschmidt
radii for the alkali metal counter-ions, r+G, rather than the Shannon-Prewitt
ones [24, 25].
References 23
A different approach to the sizes of ions is to consider their volumes rather than
their radii [27]. The volume of a formula unit of the salt MpXq, obtained from the
unit cell volume from x-ray diffraction of crystals of the salt, is assumed to be
additive in the individual ionic volumes: v Mp Xq ¼ pvþ þ qv . The Goldschmidt
radii of the alkali metal cations were used to define v+ ¼ (4π/3)r+G 3, obtaining the
anion volumes by difference. Individual ionic volumes calculated on this basis by
Glasser and Jenkins are also shown in Table 2.4 [28]. They differ considerably from
previously reported values [17, 27] by the same authors. Protonated anions, such as
HSO4–, are smaller than their non-protonated parent anions, such as SO42–, because
the lowered negative charge diminishes the repulsion between, the electrons,
causing shrinkage of the anionic volume, whereas the added proton does not
contribute appreciably to the volume.
The relationship between the ionic radii rI and the ionic volumes vI leads directly
to vI ¼ (4π/3)(rI)3 and a set of such volumes, denoted as vM is reported in [17]. The
ionic volumes obtained from the formula unit volumes in crystals [28], denoted as
vJ, is also shown in [17], with vJ ¼ (1.258 0.016)vM having been established with
a correlation coefficient of 0.995 for 55 cations. The larger size of vJ takes into
account the void spaces between the (more or less spherical) ions. Another way to
express this, based on the suggestion of Mukerjee [29] regarding such ions in
solution, is to use the factor k ¼ 1.213 multiplying the radius of univalent
monatomic ions: vI ¼ (4π/3)(krI)3. This factor is near the value, 1.159, that is
geometrically required for close-packed spheres of arbitrary but comparable sizes.
The ionic volumes of the constituents of room temperature ionic liquids are
derived from the densities, hence molar volumes, of these RTILs, using the ionic
volumes of anions that were established for crystals [28]. These ionic volumes
are presented and discussed in Chap. 6 in relationship with the densities of the
RTILs [30].
References
1. Marcus Y, Loewenschuss A (1985) Standard entropies of hydration of ions. Annu Rep

81C:81–135
2. Loewenschuss A, Marcus Y (1987) Standard thermodynamic functions of gaseous poly-
atomic ions at 100 to 1000 K. J Phys Chem Ref Data 16:61–89
3. Wagman DD, Evans WH, Parker VB, Schumm RH, Halow I, Bailey SM, Churney L, Nuttall
RL (1982) The NBS tables of chemical thermodynamic properties. J Phys Chem Ref Data 11:
(Suppl. 2)
4. Marcus Y (1997) Ion properties. Dekker, New York, and references therein
5. Bratsch SB, Lagowski JL (1986) Actinide thermodynamic predictions. 3. Thermodynamics of
compounds and aquo-ions of the 2+, 3+, and 4+ oxidation states and standard electrode
potentials at 298.15 K. J Phys Chem 90:307–312; (1987) Predicted and experimental standard
electrode potentials in liquid ammonia at 25 C. J Solution Chem 16:583–601
6. Olivella S, Urpi F, Vilarrasa J (1984) Evaluation of MNDO calculated proton affinities. J
Compt Chem 5:230–236
7. Marcus Y (2012) The guanidinium ion. J ChemThermodyn 48:70–74
8. Marcus Y, Loewenschuss A (1996) Standard thermodynamic functions of some additional

isolated ions at 100–1000 K. J Phys Chem Ref Data 25:1495–1507
9. Marcus Y (2014) The enthalpy of formation of gaseous tetra-n-propylammonium cations. J
Chem Thermodyn 71:196–199
10. Abraham MH, Marcus Y (1986) The thermodynamics of solvation of ions. Part 1. The heat
capacities of hydration at 298.15 K. J Chem Soc Faraday Trans 82:3255–3274
11. Verevkin SP, Emel’yanenko VN, Zaitsau DH, Heintz A, Muzny CD, Frenkel M (2010)
Thermochemistry of imidazolium-based ionic liquids: experiment and first-principles Calcu-
lations. Phys Chem Chem Phys 12:14994–15000
12. Dasent WE (1982) Inorganic energetics, 2nd edn. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
UK
13. Caldwell G, Renneboog R, Kebarle P (1989) Gas-phase acidities of aliphatic carboxylic acids,
based on measurements of proton-transfer equilibria. Can J Chem 67:611–618
14. Glasser L, Jenkins HBD (2012) Single-ion heat capacities, Cp(298)ion, of solids: with a novel
route to heat-capacity estimation of complex anions. Inorg Chem 51:6360–6366
15. Wood RH, D’Oratio LA (1966) Lattice energy of Na tetrachloroaluminate and the heat of
formation of the tetrachloroaluminate ion. Inorg Chem 5:682–894
16. Marcus Y (1986) On enthalpies of hydration, ionization potentials, and the softness of ions.
Thermochim Acta 104:389–394
17. Marcus Y, Jenkins HBD, Glasser L (2002) Ion volumes – a comparison. J Chem Soc Dalton
Trans 3795–3798
18. Selwood PW (1956) Magnetochemistry, 2nd edn. Interscience, New York, p 403
19. Salzmann JJ, Jørgensen CK (1968) Molar refraction of aquo ions of metallic elements and
evaluation of light refraction measurements in inorganic chemistry. Helv Chim Acta
51:1276–1293
20. Bica K, Deetlefs M, Schr€oder C, Seddon KR (2013) Polarisabilities of alkylimidazolium ionic
liquids. Phys Chem Chem Phys 15:2703–2711
21. Levy HA, Danford MD (1964) Diffraction studies of the structure of molten salts. In: Blander
M (ed) Molten salt chemistry. Interscience, New York, pp 109–125
22. Neilson GW, Adya AK (1997) Neutron diffraction studies of liquids. Annu Rep Progr Chem C
93:101–145
23. Neilson GW, Adya AK, Ansel S (2002) Neutron X-ray diffraction studies on complex liquids.
Annu Rep Progr Chem C 98:273–322
24. Shannon RD, Prewitt CT (1969) Effective ionic radii in oxides and fluorides Acta Cryst. B
25:925–946; (1969) Revised values of effective ionic radii. 26:1046–1048
25. Shannon RD (1976) Revised effective ionic radii and systematic studies of interatomic
distances in halides and chalcogenides. Acta Cryst V 32:751–767
26. Roobottom HK, Jenkins HDB, Passmore J, Glasser (1999) Thermochemical radii of complex
ions. J Chem Educ 76:1570–1573
27. Jenkins HDB, Roobottom HK, Passmore J, Glasser L (1999) Relationships among ionic lattice
energies, molecular (formula unit) volumes, and thermochemical radii. Inorg Chem
38:3609–3620
28. Glasser L, Jenkins HDB (2008) Internally consistent ion volumes and their application in
volume-based thermodynamics. Inorg Chem 47:6195–6202
29. Mukerjee P (1961) Ion-solvent interactions. I. Partial molal volumes of ions in aqueous
solutions. II. Internal pressure and electrostriction of aqueous solutions of electrolytes. J
Phys Chem 65:740–744
30. Marcus Y (2015) Ionic and molar volumes of room temperature ionic liquids. J Mol Liq
209:289–293
Chapter 3
High-Melting Salts
Sodium chloride is often considered to be the prototype of the concept ‘salt’ in

general as well as in the fused state of ‘molten salts’. It melts without decomposi-
tion to a water-like (in appearance) liquid beyond its melting point of 801 C and
remains liquid at ambient pressure up to the normal boiling point of 1465 C. Its
critical temperature, beyond which the distinction between liquid and vapor van-
ishes and the fluid has no longer a surface (in a gravitational field) has been
estimated to be 3100–3600 C by various authors. Sodium chloride does not exhibit
pre-melting solid phase transitions to a plastic crystal form, contrary to some other
salts. Such a transition permits more ready movement of the ions about their
equilibrium positions without destroying the long-range order of the crystal. The
sodium chloride melt solidifies without significant undercooling to the usual cubic
crystalline form without eventually forming a glass. In the following, ‘molten salts’
(synonymous with ‘fused salts’) are to be understood as referring to high-melting
salts similar in their general properties to sodium chloride.
The structural picture of molten salts emerging from the data dealt with in Sect.
3.2, consists of intertwining quasi-lattices of cation sites and anion sites. In charge-
symmetrical salts: 1:1 (e.g. NaCl) and 2:2 (e.g. CaO) a majority of the sites are
occupied by the ions, with some of them empty. However, charge-unsymmetrical
salts, namely 1:2 (e.g. CaF2), 1:3 (e.g. LaCl3), 2:1 (e.g. Li2CO3), etc., have a
substantial number of unoccupied sites, whether of sizes commensurate with
those of the ions or collapsed to smaller sizes. It is expedient to deal with charge-
symmetrical molten salts separately from the charge-unsymmetrical ones.
3.1 The Liquid Range of High-Melting Salts
The many molten salts that behave in a similar manner to sodium chloride are
discussed in the present chapter. Their liquid range thus extends from the melting
point, Tm, to the critical temperature, Tc, but at ambient pressures the boiling point,

26 3 High-Melting Salts
Tb, is relevant as the upper limit of this range. The melting points of alkali metal
salts, and when known also their boiling points, are shown in Table 3.1, mainly
taken from several compilations [1–3], converted from C to the K-scale. Differ-
ences between the Tm values reported in the literature may exceed 10 C in some
cases, although better agreement is seen in most cases.
The alkali metal salts generally melt without decomposition, and where there are
no entries in Table 3.1 there appear to be no available data. On the other hand for
the univalent copper, silver and thallium salts the empty spaces in this table denote
that the salts decompose on heating or are unstable in the first place (in particular Cu
(I) salts). In the case of the divalent metal salts, the oxides and sulfides melt at very
high temperatures, but most of the salts with polyatomic anions decompose on
heating. Univalent molten salts with monatomic anions boil at ambient pressures
without decomposition, hence many of their boiling points could be reported in
Table 3.1. This is rarely the case for molten salts with polyatomic anions, excep-
tions being some of the hydroxides and cyanides.
The charge-unsymmetrical salts with the univalent halide anions generally melt
without decomposition, but some of them (e.g., HgI2 and AlCl3) have low melting
points (<300 C) because they are not ionic liquids, in the sense that the bonding
between the atoms is mainly covalent. Such salts are not dealt with here. The
melting points, Tm, and boiling points at ambient pressures, Tb, when known, of the
ionic salts are shown in Table 3.2, taken mainly from the compilation in [1] with
some additional entries from [2] or as annotated, converted from C to the K-scale.
Temperatures above ca. 1500 C have not been obtained with accuracies better
than 2 C, and those where ‘3’ is the last digit reported in Table 3.2 (because of
the conversion from C to the K-scale) are generally reported to the nearest 10 C,
those ending in ‘73’ are generally reported to the nearest 100 C. Salts with no
entries either are low melting, i.e., not characteristically ionic, or decompose on
heating, for instance because the cation is reduced by bromide and iodide ions to
lower valence states (e.g., EuBr3).
Some alkali metal salts with divalent oxy-anions other than the carbonates and
sulfates are also stable on melting, with the melting points shown in Table 3.1. The
disulfates (pyrosulfates) form stable melts on heating of the corresponding
hydrogensulfates and have conveniently low melting points [23–25].
The critical temperatures of high-melting salts are generally very large and
practically only the alkali metal halides have been considered in this respect.
Carlson et al. [50] used Eyring’s significant structures theory for the estimation of
the melting and boiling properties and of the critical constants of four salts. They
considered the molten salts to be mixtures of solid-like and gaseous-like (dimeric
molecules) domains and used parameters for such species for the calculation of the
partition function and the desired data. The melting and boiling points thus obtained
are generally within 10 K of the experimental values. The resulting critical con-
stants are shown in Table 3.3. Earlier McQuarrie [51] used a different theoretical
approach, considering the molten salt to be a fluid of hard spheres with definite ion
sizes, to obtain the partition function, an equation of state, and the critical constants
of 16 salts, shown in Table 3.3. A different approach was used by Kirshenbaum
Table 3.1 The melting points, Tm/K (upper row), and normal boiling points, Tb/K (lower row), of charge-symmetrical salts, from [1] and values in
parentheses are from Barin and Knacke [2], unless otherwise annotated
Li+ Na+ K+ Rb+ Cs+ Cu+ Ag+ Tl+

F 1121 1266 (1269) 1125 (1130) 1106 (1048) 976 779 659
1946 (1966) 1977 (1983) 1775 (1663) 1683 (1666) 1524q (1504) 1432 1099
Cl 883 1074 1043 (1044) 995 (988) 915 (908) 695 728 703
1656 1738 1680k (1710) 1663 (1654) 1570 (1579) 1673 1820 993
Br 823 1020 1007 965 (952) 909 (908) 770 707 733
1573 (1562) 1663 (1666) 1656k (1671) 1613 (1625) 1573 1618 1775 1092
I 742 933 954 920 (913) 899 (894) 879 829 650
1444 (1449) 1577 1596 (1618) 1573 (1577) 1553 1563 1779 1097
OH 744 (744) 591 (593) 679 (673) 656 616
1899 (1803) 1661 (1663) 1600 (1600)
3.1 The Liquid Range of High-Melting Salts
CN 433a 836 (835) 907 (895) 623 747s

(1803) (1898)
SCN 550b 560 446 457m 479m 507v
N3 573 608 590 599 607q
BO2 1122 (1117) 1239 1220l 1005
NO2 473c 557 714 722n 697 459c
NO3 525 579 611 (607) 583 687 485 483
ClO3 401 488 641 615o 661o 488t
BrO3 533d 654 707 703
IO3 705e 690i 833 843p
ClO4 509 753 798 554 523
ReO4 692f 693f 828f 878f 893f
BF4 577 681 843 855 828
HCO2 545j 531 440 443 536r 375w
(continued)
27
28

CH3CO2 559 602 577 519 464 401w
HSO4 455j 488j 479j 491j
O2 S2 CO32 SO42
2+
Be 2850
Mg2+ 3098 2499 1263 1400u
3533
Ca2+ 2888 2797 1603 1733
3773 1673u
Sr2+ 2804 2499 1767 1878u
Ba2+ 2245 2502 1828 1623u
Mn2+ 2058 1803 973u
Fe2+ 1650 1468
Ni2+ 2228 1249
Co2+ 2103 1455
Cu2+ 1719
Zn2+ 2247 1973
Cd2+ 1173t 2023 1273u
Sn2+ 1154
1483
Pb2+ 1158 1386
1808
a
[5], b[7], c[12], d[16], e[17], f[20], g[21], h[175], i[18], j[26], k[4], l[11], m[8], n[13], o[14], p[19], q[10], r[22], s[6], t[15], u[3], v[9], w[37]
3 High-Melting Salts
3.1 The Liquid Range of High-Melting Salts 29
Table 3.2 The melting points, Tm/K (upper row), and normal boiling points, Tb/K (lower row), of
charge-unsymmetrical salts [1] unless otherwise annotated. Values for the monovalent metal salts
and for divalent metal salts with divalent anions are also included
F Cl Br I NO3 O2 S2 CO32 SO42
+
Li 1121 883 823 742 525 1843 1645 996 1132
1946 1656 1573 1444 2836
Na+ 1266 1074 1020 933 579 1405 1223 1131 1175
1977 1738 1663 1577
K+ 1125 1043 1007 954 611 1110b 1171 1349
1775 1680a 1656a 1596
Rb+ 1106 995 965 920 583 698 1146 1346
1683 1663 1613 1573
Cs+ 976 915 909 899 687 763 1065 1292
1524a 1570 1573 1553
Cu+aa 695 770 879 1509 1402c
1673 1618 1563
Ag+bb 779 728 707 829 485 1098 933p
1432 1820 1775 1779
Tl+cc 659 703 733 650 483 852 721 905
1099 993 1092 1097 1640
Be2+ 825 713 781 743 2850
1442 755 793 760
Mg2+ 1536 981 987 923 699d 3098 2499 1263 1400p
2500 1685 3533
Ca+ 1691 1055 1003 1057 835d 2888 2797 1603 1673p
2806 2208 2088 3773
Sr2+ 1673 1148 916 788 843 2804 2499 1767 1878p
2733 1523 2046
Ba2+ 1593 1235 1123 1013 863 2245 2502 1828 1623p
2533 1833 2108
Mn2+ 1203 923 971 911 2058 1803 973p
1463
Fe2+ 1373 950 946 860 1650 1468
1296
Co2_ 1400 1013 951 793 2103 1455
1673 [1323]
Ni2+ 1747 1282 1236 1053 2228 1249
Cu2+ 1109 770e 771 528 1719
1949 794f 1173
Zn2+ 1145 591 671 719 1973 2247
1773 1005 970 898
Cd2+ 1383 841 840 666 628 2023 1273p
2021 1233 1117 1015
Sn2+ 486 519 488 593 1154
1123 896 912 987 1483
(continued)

2+
Pb 1103 774 646 683 779g 1158 1386 1360
1566 1224 1165 1145 1808
UO22+ 851y
Al3+ 2523 2326 1373
Sc3+ 1788 1240 1242 2758 2048
Cr3+ 1673 1425 1403 2602
Fe3+ 1838
Ga3+ >1273q 351 395 465 2079 1363
474 552 613
In3+ 1443 856 709 483 2185 1323
Y3+ 1408h 953 1177 1237i 2711 2198
La3+ 1766 1145 1061 1051 2577 2573
3893
Ce3+ 1733 1095 1006j 1039 2483 2723
Pr3+ 1646 1060x 966 1010 2456 2038
4033
Nd3+ 1650 1031 955 1051 2506 2480
2573 1873 1813 4033
Sm3+ 1579 955 913 1123 2542 1993
4053
Eu3+ 1549 896 2564
4063
Gd3+ 1504 882 1043 1198 2619
4173
Tb3+ 1446k 861 1103l 1250 2303
Dy3+ 1427 953 1152 1251 2729
4173
Ho3+ 1416 991 1192 1267 2603
Er3+ 1420 1049 1196 1287 2617 2003
4193
Tm3+ 1431 1097 1277 1294 2614
4213
Yb3+ 1430 1140 2638
4343
Lu3+ 1455 1198 1298 1323 2700
2473 4253
Tl3+ 823 1107
Bi3+ 998 503 491 602 1090 1123 983p
1173 720 726 895
U3+ 1768m 1110 1000 1039
Zr4+ 1176n 710 723 772 2950
4548
(continued)
3.1 The Liquid Range of High-Melting Salts 31

4+
Hf 1298o 705 697 722 3047
Th4+ 1383 1043 952 843 3663 2178
4673
U4+ 1309 863 792 779 3100
1690 1064
a
[4], b[27], c[28], d[29], e[30], f[31], g[32], h[33], i[34], j[35], k[36], l[37], m[37], m[38], n[39], o[40],
p
[2], q[41], x[42] a value 1060 K was reported here, the value 963 K [1] appears to be too low, y
[43], Values for further anions: aa[44] CuCN Tm ¼ 747 K, bb[45] AgClO3Tm ¼ 488 K, cc[46]
TlSCN Tm ¼ 507 K, [47] TlN3Tm ¼ 607 K, [48] TlNO2Tm ¼ 459 K, [49] TlHCO2Tm ¼ 375 K,
TlCH3CO2Tm ¼ 401 K
Table 3.3 Critical constants of the alkali halide salts according to various authors
[50] [51] [52] [53]
Tc Pc ρc Tc Pc ρc Tc Pc ρc Tc Pc
kg m kg m kg m
3 3 3
Salt K MPa K MPa K MPa K MPa
LiF 6350 92.21 213 4140
LiCl 4960 34.75 167 3080
LiBr 4640 26.45 278 3020
LiI 4220 18.24 324 3250
NaF 5530 53.20 227 4270
NaCl 3600 23.86 200 4540 24.32 175 3400 35 220 3900 25.8
NaBr 3364 18.86 300 4280 19.25 259 3200
NaI 3950 13.88 297 3160
KF 4780 29.79 204 3460
KCl 3092 13.73 170 4060 15.60 161 3200 22 180 3470 18.0
KBr 3060 11.99 250 3880 12.97 223 3170
KI 3610 9.73 252 2980
RbF 4520 23.91 311 3280
RbCl 3880 12.97 226 3140
RbBr 3720 10.94 272 3130
RbI 3490 8.41 289 3035
CsF 2915
CsCl 3040
CsBr 3045
CsI 3020
et al. [52], based on density measurements of the molten and vapor phases of NaCl
and KCl, leading by means of the rectilinear diameter law to estimated values of Tc,
also shown in Table 3.3. The values for other alkali metal halides were obtained
from those of NaCl and KCl according to the corresponding states principle for the
entropy of vaporization. In the cases of NaCl and KCl the uncertainties in Tc were
estimated as 200 K. Pitzer [53] used an approach similar to that of Kirshenbaum
et al. [52], but different values for the vapor densities, hence arrived at somewhat
different values of the critical constants.
On the other hand, estimates of Tc from the extrapolation of the surface tension
with increasing temperatures up to its vanishing [54, 55] yielded somewhat smaller
values than in [52]: 2890 K for NaCl and 2820 K for KCl. A computer simulation
study of sodium chloride [56] yielded the following critical constants: Tc ¼ 3300 K,
Pc ¼ 32.5 MPa, and ρc ¼ 180 kg m3, commensurate with the values in [52]. Very
few salts other than the alkali metal halides had their critical constants estimated.
Magnesium oxide was studied by Leu et al. [57], using the significant structure
theory, and had the following constants estimated: Tc ¼ 5950 K, Pc ¼ 34.0 MPa,
ρc ¼ 192 kg m3. Hoch [58] studied alumina and uranium oxide, the reported
critical constants were Tc ¼ 4950 K and ρc ¼ 890 kg m3 for Al2O3 and Tc ¼ 7930 K
and ρc ¼ 2457 kg m3 for UO2.
3.2 Structural Aspects from Diffraction Measurements and

Computer Simulations
Some 60 years ago Zarzycki [59] studied the structure of molten sodium chloride by
means of x-ray diffraction. He could conclude that the data substantiate the intuitive
and theoretical picture of the structure in terms of two intertwining quasi-lattices of
cation and anion sites, most of which are actually occupied by the ions. An early
review of x-ray (and also some neutron diffraction) studies of molten salts is that by
Levy and Danford [60], in which 25 salts are featured, most of them being molten
alkali metal halides. More recently Ohno et al. [61] reviewed x-ray diffraction
(XRD) studies of molten 1:1 salts, and still more recently Neilson and Adya [62]
reviewed neutron diffraction studies of molten salts, and Neilson, Adya and Ansell
reviewed both XRD and neutron diffraction of molten salts and also room temper-
ature ionic liquids (RTILs) [63]. Complementary information on the structure of
molten salts (excluding those consisting of light elements) can be obtained from
extended x-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) measurements [64].
Consider an ion Iz placed at the origin of coordinates with other ions of either
sign surrounding it. The number of particles of these species (subscript J) in a
spherical shell of thickness dr at a distance r from the center of the ion at the origin
is:
dnIJ ðr, dr Þ ¼ 4πr 2 gIJ ðr Þρbulk dr ð3:1Þ
where ρbulk is the total number density of ions of both signs in the bulk. The
function gIJ(r), called the pair correlation function, is the conditional probability
of finding an ion J (the same as Iz or differing from it) at the distance r from the ion
3.2 Structural Aspects from Diffraction Measurements and Computer Simulations 33
Iz at the origin. There is no correlation between the particles at large distances,
hence gIJ(r ! 1) ¼ 1, but at very small distances r < dIJ, where dIJ is the distance
between the centers of the ions at contact, gIJ(r < dIJ) ¼ 0, because the large
repulsion of the electronic shells of the ions prevents their overlapping. Generally
4πr2[gIJ(r)–1]ρbulk has a maximum at a distance near dIJ and undulates further out,
has a second maximum and eventually reaches 4πr2ρbulk asymptotically. The
coordination number, Nco, of the ion Iz is obtained from the area below the first
peak in the 4πr2[gIJ(r)–1]ρbulk curve:
ð r0
N co ¼ 4πρbulk ½gIJ ðr Þ 1r 2 dr ð3:2Þ
0
The choice of the upper limit of the integration, r0 , is somewhat arbitrary: com-
monly it represents the distance at which 4πr2[gIJ(r)–1]ρbulk reaches its minimum
after the first peak. An alternative is to assume symmetry of the peak, to use the
peak distance to represent r0 , and to take the coordination number as twice the
integral (3.2) up to this point. The second peak in the 4πr2[gIJ(r)–1]ρbulk curve
represents the distance of the ion Iz from its next-nearest neighbors, and a third
peak may also be observed, representing more distant correlations.
The primary information of the diffraction measurements is the intensity of the
scattered beam I(q) as a function of the angle φ to which the radiation is scattered,
where q ¼ (4π/λ)sin(φ/2) and λ is the wavelength of radiation employed, whether
x-rays or neutrons. The space variable q has the dimension of a reciprocal length, its
units usually being Å1. The structure factor S(q) is obtained from the intensities of
the diffracted beam, corrected for absorption and incoherent scattering and nor-
malized to instrumental factors, in a manner dependent on the method employed,
whether x-ray or neutron diffraction, as detailed in the next sections. The pair
correlation function gIJ(r) is derived from S(q) by using its Fourier transform as:
ð1
1
gIJ ðr Þ ¼ 1 þ 2π 2 ρbulk r ½SðqÞ 1q sin ðqr Þdq ð3:3Þ
0
A model of the molten salt obtained by computer simulations is nowadays generally

used to refine the structure, avoiding errors arising from incomplete knowledge of
S(q) at very small and very large angles, q(r ! 0) and q(r ! 1) required for the
integration (3.3).
3.2.1 X-Ray Diffraction Studies of Molten Salts
X-rays are diffracted from the electron shells of the individual ions making up the
sample. The atomic scattering intensity a(q) of each kind of atom in the sample
depends on the electron density of the atom ρa and the scattering angle φ via the
space variable q as:
ð ra
aðqÞ ¼ 4π ρa sin ðqr Þðqr Þ1 dr ð3:4Þ
0
the integration extending up to the radius of the atom (ion), ra. The structure factor
for x-ray diffraction, after correction for incoherent scattering, is
SðqÞ ¼ ½I ðqÞ=I ð0ÞΣZ k 2 nk 1 αk ðqÞ2 ð3:5Þ
where the summation extends over all the atomic species (subscript k) present, the
number of each kind of atom in the sample being nk, their atomic number being Zk.
In a binary molten salt, consisting of only two kinds of atoms (cations and
anions) I and J, the experimentally obtained structure factor S(q) according to
Eq. (3.5) is a linear superposition of the three partial structure factors for the
various types of pairs of ions, I-J, I-I, and J-J, weighted by the appropriate form
factors. Consequently, the overall pair correlation function g(r) resulting from the
Fourier transform, Eq. (3.3) represents the sum of three partial pair correlation
functions: gIJ(r) for cation-anion correlation, and gII(r) and gJJ(r) for correlations of
ions of the same sign. Therefore, the model of the molten salt, specifying nearest
neighbors to be of opposite sign, is resorted to and yields gIJ(r) for cation-anion
correlation up to the first peak in the g(r) curve at the distance R1 with a coordina-
tion number Nco1. The second peak, at a larger distance, R2, pertains to both cation-
cation and anion-anion correlations, with respect to both distances and coordination
number Nco2.
The earlier studies of Zarzycki [59], Antonov [65], Ohno and Furukawa [66],
Levy et al. [67], and Saito et al. [68] among others applied x-ray diffraction to the
alkali metal halides and very few other binary salts (CaF2, BaCl2, CuBr). More
recently the structures of some other 1:2 and of 1:3 salts were examined by x-ray
diffraction. The first peak corresponded to the cation-anion distance dIJ, which is
commensurate with the sum of their ionic radii in crystals at room temperature, r+ +
r (Table 2.4). The coordination numbers were definitely smaller than in the
crystalline solids (6 for NaCl-type lattices, 8 for CsCl-type lattices), having values
between 3.5 and 5.6, but they depended on the choice of r0 , the upper limit of
integration of Eq. (3.2) as mentioned above. The second peak reflected mainly the
anion-anion correlations (modified slightly by the cation-cation correlations),
because the anions, having generally more electrons, dominate the scattering. The
resultant inter-ionic distances and coordination numbers for the first and second
peak are shown in Table 3.4.
Generally, the cation-anion distances in the melt are commensurate with the sum
of their ionic radii or are slightly lower, but they are some 15 % smaller than the
corresponding distance in the expanded crystal at the melting point. Notable
exceptions to this in Table 3.4 are ZnBr2 and CdCl2, with considerably smaller
Table 3.4 Interionic distances and coordination numbers for the first and second peak of x-ray
diffraction from molten salts
T First peak Second peak
Salt K R1/pm Nco1 (r+ + r)/pma R2/pm Nco2
LiF 1133 195 [69] 3.7 202 300 [70] 8
LiCl 247 [67] 4.0 250 385 [67] 12.0
LiBr 268 [67] 5.2 265 412 [67] 12.8
LiI 285 [67] 5.6 289 445 [67] 11.3
NaF 1273 230 [69] 4.1 235 344 [59] 9
NaCl 1093 280 [69] 4.7 283 420 [59] 9
NaBr 305 [65] 298 456 [65] 11.7
NaI 315 [65, 67] 4.0 322 480 [67] 8.9
KF 1143 270 [69] 4.9 271 ~386 [59] 9
KCl 1083 310 [59] 3.7 319
KBr 335 [65] 334
KI 352 [65] 358 490 [65] 7.2
RbCl 330 [60] 4.2 329
RbBr 340 [65] 344 472 [65] 7.4
RbI 365 [65] 368 515 [65] 7.6
CsCl 353 [67] 4.6 351 487 [67] 7.1
CsBr 355 [67], 366 [65] 4.6 366 ~540 [67] 8.3
CsI 385 [65, 67] 4.5 390 ~550 [67] 7.2
CaF2 1773 235 [59] 6.8 233
BaCl2 1273 320 [59] 5.8 318
ZnBr2 723 244 [72] 4.0 271 400 [72] 11.3
CdCl2 923 247 [71] 3.8 276
LaCl3 1150 285 [73], 282 [74] 7.1 286 362 [73] 8.0
LaBr3 1150 294 [73] 7.5 301 370 [73] 8.0
NdCl3 1073 277 [75] 5.5 280 404 [75] 11.3
ErCl3 1053 263 [76] 5.8 270 375 [76] 9
UCl3 1200 285 [77] 8.0 278
a
In crystals at room temperature, from Table 2.4
R1 values than their r+ + r, for which incomplete ionization and a partial covalent
bonding are responsible.
In the case of x-ray diffraction involving molten salts with polyatomic anions
(nitrate, carbonate, sulfate) [69, 70] the information is obscured by the intra-anionic
distances (central atom to oxygen) and little useful information on the structure of
the melt is obtained. The same problem occurs with alkali metal thiocyanates [78],
where the data confirm the structure of the linear SCN anion but does not position
the cations with respect to it.
3.2.2 Neutron Diffraction Studies of Molten Salts
Neutron diffraction has several advantages over x-ray diffraction when applied to
molten salts. One advantage is that the diffraction occurs from the nuclei of the ions
and not from the electronic shells. Consequently the atomic scattering intensity is
independent of the diffraction angle and space variable q and is given by the bound
atom scattering length, averaged over all the isotopic species of the atom and spin
states <b>. The scattering intensity I(q) for neutron diffraction depends on <b>2,
contrary to the case of x-ray diffraction, where it depends on α(q)2. Elimination of
instrumental factors and incoherent scattering from the intensities yields:
SðqÞ ½I ðqÞ I ð0Þ=½I ð1Þ I ð0Þ ð3:6Þ
The resulting structure factor is still a linear superposition of the three partial
structure factors for the various types of pairs of ions, I-J, I-I, and J-J:
SðqÞ ¼ 2nI nJ bI bJ ðSIJ ðqÞ 1Þ þ nI 2 bI 2 ðSII ðqÞ 1Þ þ nJ 2 bJ 2 ðSJJ ðqÞ 1Þ ð3:7Þ
Variation of b in three different experiments by varying the isotopic composition

permits the three independent linear equations to be solved to yield the three partial
structure factors. The Fourier transform of each of these yields the partial pair
correlation functions: gIJ(r) for cation-anion correlation, and gII(r) and gJJ(r) for
correlations of ions of the same sign. The Neutron diffraction with isotope substi-
tution (NDIS) method permits this variation of b, because different isotopes of the
elements have different b values, some of which may even be negative.
Page and Mika [79] were the first to apply this methodology, studying
the structure of molten cuprous chloride. They used isotopically enriched 63Cu and
65
Cu as well as 35Cl and 37Cl and derived the partial structure factor and pair
correlation function for Cu-Cl. The peak in gCu-Cl at 230 pm was definitely shorter
than r+ + r ¼ 277 pm, signifying incomplete ionization of this salt (partial covalent
bonding). The structure of molten sodium chloride by Edwards et al. [80] studied by
the NDIS method was later refined by Biggin and Enderby [81], and many other
structures of molten salts were obtained by the NDIS method as later reviewed by
Neilson and Adya [62], with results shown in Table 3.5. The distance between the
ions designated in the subscripts is R and the coordination number of the second ion
around the first is Nco.
Comparison of the data in Tables 3.4 and 3.5 for salts common to the two tables
shows the first peak distances obtained by the NDIS method to be ~3 % shorter on
the average, and to be ~4 % shorter than the sum of the room temperature ionic radii
r+ + r. These apparent discrepancies have not been explained.
Table 3.5 Molten salt structural data from neutron diffraction with isotope substitution
Salt IJ T/K RIJ/pm NcoIJ RII/pm NcoII RJJ/pm NcoJJ
LiCl [82] 958 230 3.5–4.0 370 370
LiCl [83] 958 5.5
NaCl [80] 1148 272 5.8 389 13.0 390 13.3
NaCl [81] 1148 278 5.8 396 13.0 390 13.3
KCl [84] 1073 306 6.1 484 12 482 12.3
RbCl [85] 1023 318 6.9 486 13 480 14
CsCl [89] 968 340 5.8 495 15.4 485 16.3
CsCl [86] 973 338 385 385
CuCl [86] 773 230 3 370 390
CuCl [79] 713 230 330 360
CuBr [87] 788 250 3.63 397 11.1
AgCl [88] 783 260 4.5 340 3.1
AgCl [88] 1173 255 2.7 315 4.1 315 2.7
MgCl2 [90] 998 242 4.3 381 51 356 12 1
CaCl2 [91] 1093 278 5.4 360 4.2 373 7.8
SrCl2 [92] 1198 290 6.9 495 13.6 380 9.3
BaCl2 [93] 1298 310 7.7 490 14 2 386 71
MnCl2 [90] 973 250 4 358 8.4
NiCl2 [94] 1295 236 4.7 100 6 380 13.8
NiBr2 [94] 1258 247 4.7 371 5.3 397 14
NiI2 [94] 1103 260 4.2 460 5.3 410 13 1
DyCl3 [95] 973 265 6 420 350
3.2.3 EXAFS Studies of Molten Salts
Extended x-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) is a technique to study the near-
neighbor structure of liquids, including molten salts. A recent review of the
application of this method by Hardacre [96] provides much information. The
absorption of high energy x-rays results in the ejection of core electrons (generally
the K-edge) and as the energy of the radiation is increased past the absorption edge
the fine structure is revealed. The ejected electron wave is scattered by the sur-
rounding atoms. The measured amplitude of the scattering is the sum of quantities
proportional to the number of scattering atoms and their characteristic scattering
amplitude, and the Fourier transform yields the pair correlation function of the
back-scattering atoms around the absorbing atom. The absorption edge character-
istic of a particular element identifies the atom (ion, in the case of molten salts),
the local structure about which is being studied. The method is most usefully
applied to atoms with relatively high atomic number Z. The resulting inter-ionic
distances and the coordination numbers obtained by the EXAFS method are shown
in Table 3.6.
The inter-ionic distances of the nearest neighbors in the molten salts (cation-
anion distances) are obtained from the EXAFS method with the same accuracy as
Table 3.6 Molten salt structural data from EXAFS measurements

Salt IJ T/K dIJ/pm NcoIJ dII/pm NcoII dJJ/pm NcoJJ
KBr [97] 1025 321 3.78 507 8.79
KBr [98] 1003 ~315
RbCl [99] 1023 480 90
RbBr [98] 1003 ~330
CuBr [100] 793 244 3.0 [101] 410
CuI [102] 903 277 2.7
AgCl [103] 763 253 2.7
AgBr [103] 743 258 2.8
AgI [103] 863 273 2.2
SrCl2 [104] 1273 299 6.6 0.2
ZnCl2 [99] 613 231 4.3 0.2
ZnBr2 [105] 723 246 3.9 0.5
PbF2 [106] 1130 236 3.76
YCl3 [107] 272 5.9 0.6
LaCl3 [107] 289 7.4 0.5 490 7.8 0.7
GdCl3 [108] 923 274 6.5 0.3
for the x-ray and neutron diffraction methods, but the coordination numbers have
lower precision. Although the application of multiple-edge EXAFS experiments
has been established, permitting also cation-cation and anion-anion correlations to
be measured separately, this has only rarely been done, as seen in Table 3.6. It is
noteworthy that the copper(I) and silver halide melts show much shorter cation-
anion distances than the sum of the ionic radii, signifying partial covalent bonding
in these melts.
3.2.4 Modeling of Molten Salts
Models of molten salts have evolved with time and so have the inter-ionic potentials
relevant to them. The restricted primitive model (RPM) considers the ions to be
charged hard spheres of uniform size (radius rI) interacting through their coulomb
potentials. The potential function is then:
uðr Þ ¼ zþ z e2 =4πε0 r for r > 2r I and uðr Þ ¼ 1 for r 2r I ð3:8Þ
A modification introduces a relative ‘dielectric constant’ ε replacing 4πε0 in the

denominator of (3.8) [109, 110]. The ‘restricted’ is removed when the cations and
anions are permitted to have different sizes, r+ and r, and then the inter-ionic
potential becomes similar to (3.8), but with 2rI replaced by r+ + r. The ‘hard
sphere’ restriction is removed by the inclusion of a repulsion term [111]
uðr Þ ¼ zþ z e2 =4πε0 r þ b exp½ðr þ þ r r Þ=r 0 ð3:9Þ
Here b is a salt-dependent parameter and r0 denotes unit radius. To this expression

van der Waals interaction terms have been added [111], yielding:
uðr Þ ¼ zþ z e2 =4πε0 r þ b exp½ðr þ þ r r Þ=r 0 c r 6 d r 8 ð3:10Þ
where, again, c and d are salt-specific parameters. This is the Born-Huggins-

Mayer-Fumi-Tosi (BHMFT) potential for the rigid ion model (RIM) [56, 112] that
has been widely employed for the computer simulations of molten salts
(Sect. 3.2.5). A further modification [113] replaced the repulsion term
b exp½ðr þ þ r r Þ=r 0 by a term b ’exp½ðr þ þ r r Þ=r 0 r 4 and another
modification employs perturbation theory and replaces the repulsion term by
λexp½r=ðr þ þ r Þ, where λ is a salt-specific parameter [114], but these modifi-
cations have not been widely used for molten salts. A polarizable ion model (PIM)
[115, 116] or a soft ion model (SIM) have more recently been employed in the cases
where the ions of the molten salt are highly dipole- and quadrupole-polarizable,
e.g., Ag+.
3.2.5 Computer Simulation Studies of Molten Salts
Computer simulations have been applied to studies of the structure of molten salts
along two lines: one is the free standing application of the computer simulation to
obtain the partial pair correlation functions, the other is the refining of x-ray and
neutron diffraction and EXAFS measurements by means of a suitable model. In
both cases a suitable potential function for the interactions of the ions must be
employed, as discussed in Sect. 3.2.4. Such potential functions are employed in
both the Monte Carlo (MC) and the molecular dynamics (MD) simulation methods.
A further aspect that has been considered in the case of molten salts is the long
range coulombic interaction that exceeds the limits of the periodic simulation boxes
usually involved (for ~1000 ions altogether), requiring the Ewald summation that is
expensive in computation time and is prone to truncation errors if not applied
carefully.
Woodcock and Singer [117] were among the early persons who studied the
structure of molten salts, in their case potassium chloride at 772 and 1033 C, by
means of Monte Carlo computer simulations. At about the same time Woodcock
[118] reported the partial pair correlation functions for molten lithium chloride at
1000 C obtained by molecular dynamics simulations.
Many authors have since then applied Monte Carlo (MC) and molecular dynam-
ics (MD) simulations to molten salts. The simulations yielded the partial pair
correlation functions, from which the inter-ionic distances and coordination num-
bers were deduced, as shown in Table 3.7. Generally the interionic distances were
Table 3.7 Molten salt structural data from computer simulations: Monte Carlo (MC) or molecular
dynamics (MD)
Salt IJ Method T/K RIJ/pm NcoIJ RII/pm NcoII RJJ/pm NcoJJ
LiCl [119] MC 883 245 6.2 375 12.6 375 12.5
LiCl [126] MD 900 225 4.05 387 11.81 376 11.86
LiI [119] MC 742 260 4.3 445 14.1 445 14.1
LiI [125] MC 800 270 4.8 420 13.0 420 13.4
LiI [125] MC 1453 270 4.5 450 12.4 440 12.4
LiNO3 [125] MD 800 3.91b
LiCH3CO2 [125] MD 800 3.17b
Li2CO3 [125] MD 800 3.49b
NaCl [119] MC 1074 270 5.2 425 13.9 425 14.7
NaCl [126] MD 1080 261 4.76 417 13.59 405 13.54
NaClO3 [130] MD 560 335a 6.6 432 8.6 518 12.2
NaNO3 [125] MD 800 4.62b
Na2CO3 [125] MD 800 3.76b
KCl [117] MC 1045 294 5.3 446c 15.7c 446c 15.7c
KCl [117] MC 1306 293 5.2 461c 14.6c 461c 14.6c
KCl [126] MD 1053 296 5.18 458 14.57 458 14.28
KBr [119] MC 1007 320 5.5 480 15.0 480 15.0
KBr [97] MD 1100 327 3.64 500 8.79
KI [119] MC 954 345 5.9 490 16.0 490 16.6
K2CO3 [125] MD 800 3.85b
RbF [122] MD 1155 260 400 400
RbCl [119] MC 995 320 5.8 460 16.5 460 16.4
RbCl [122] MD 1359 310 480 450
RbCl [126] MD 1000 312 5.41 467 15.66 474 15.71
RbBr [122] MD 1365 330 490 480
RbI [122] MD 1341 350 530 530
CsF [119] MC 976 290 5.4 440 16.9 440 16.8
CsF [123] MD 962 270 420 410
CsCl [123] MD 996 330 470 460
CsCl [126] MD 900 330 5.70 476 16.26 490 16.34
CsBr [123] MD 942 350 480 500
CsI [123] MD 871 370 520 520
AgCl [120] MC 728 250 5.0 380 15.3 380 15.3
AgCl [120] MC 1500 250 4.5 400 12.9 400 13.0
ZnCl2 [124] MC 623 225 405 365
ZnCl2 [124] MC 873 220 405 365
a
The Na+ – Cl distance and coordination number, bCoordination number of the central atom of the
anion (N or C) around the cation, cOnly like-like values reported, not whether cations or anions
3.3 Static Thermochemical Data 41
reported to the nearest 10 pm and only rarely with a better accuracy. The cation-
anion gIJ(r) and NcoIJ of all the molten alkali halide salts IJ obtained by MC
simulations with the rigid ion model (RIM) of pair potentials (3.8) were summa-
rized by Baranyai et al. [121].
X-ray and neutron diffraction data (structure factors) are nowadays commonly
refined by assuming a model for the molten salt and applying computer simulations
to the model until full agreement with the experimental data is achieved. Examples
of such applications of computer simulations are the following: x-ray diffraction
data from molten UCl3 was refined in [126], both (anomalous) x-ray diffraction and
neutron scattering data of molten Cu(I) halides were refined in [127], and neutron
diffraction data from molten alkaline earth chlorides according to models were
refined in [128], whereas EXAFS data for molten AgBr were refined in [129]. In the
case of Monte Carlo simulations a variant, caller reversed Monte Carlo (RMC)
simulations, has been applied [124] to molten ZnCl2. It has the advantage that no a
priori interatomic potentials are required, and configurations are generated, of
which the correlation functions correspond well to the experimental functions.
3.3 Static Thermochemical Data
3.3.1 Theoretical Predictions of Thermochemical Properties
Theories for the prediction of thermochemical properties of molten salts have been
reviewed a number of times over the years [131–134]. The main approaches that
have been used are: hole theory [135–137], corresponding states theory [138–140],
perturbation theories [114, 141], and the significant structure theory [142–
144]. Empirical correlation expressions have also been developed for the various
properties as dealt with in the appropriate sections below.
Hole theory was first applied to molten salts by Bockris and Richards [137],
regarding their compressibility. According to this approach, the main change
occurring on the melting of a crystalline salt is the introduction of randomly
distributed holes, accounting for the 15–25 % volume increase on melting, ΔmV.
The occurrence of holes in the molten salt is manifested also in a decrease of the
mean coordination numbers relative to the room temperature crystals, but not of the
interionic distances, as seen in Tables 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, and 3.7. According to Fürth
[136] the mean volume of a hole is vh ¼ 0:68ðkB T=σ Þ1=2 , where σ is the surface
tension of the fluid. This quantity is directly involved in the expressions for the
isothermal compressibility and the isobaric expansibility of molten salts
[137]. Pandey et al. [145] applied this approach to the calculation of the surface
tension of molten salts:
1
σ=mN m1 ¼ 3500 V=cm3 mol1 ð1 Δm V=V Þ1 ð3:11Þ
The numerical coefficient has been changed from that in [145] to account for the
average deviation of the calculated from the experimental values for the alkali
metal halides. Cavity formation in molten salts is compatible with their restricted
primitive model (RPM), Eq. (3.8) [146]. For a molten salt having N ions of mean
diameter d ¼ ðr þ þ rÞ in a volume V, the size distribution of cavities with radii
r < 0.5d is:
Cðr Þ ¼ 4πr 2 d 3 N=V ð3:12Þ
The reversible work for the creation of a cavity of radius r is:

ðr
Δμðr Þ ¼ kB Tln 1 Cðr’Þdr’ ð3:13Þ
0
The surface tension of an RPM fluid is therefore σ ¼ Δμ(r)/4πr2, in fair agreement

with the results of Monte Carlo computation with this model. The main point is that
there are a good number of cavities with sizes commensurate with those of the ions
in a molten salt.
The corresponding states theory was developed by Reiss, Mayer and Katz [138]
to deal with molten salts. It employs the primitive model with a single distance
parameter d (¼2rI in Eq. 3.8) to which all the inter-ionic distances in the entire
volume of the molten salt V are proportional: rIJ ¼ ξIJd for all ions I and J, whether
I ¼ J or I 6¼ J. Reduced thermodynamic quantities are then defined as:
Pr ¼ Pd 4 zI 2 ; T r ¼ Td zI 2 ; V r ¼ Vd 3 ð3:14Þ
where for the charge-symmetrical salts considered zI ¼ z+ ¼ z. The distance

parameter d is not necessarily equal to r+ + r, but could be so construed, or
alternatively it is related to the melting point of the salt, Tm, according to:
d ¼ τm zI 2 T m 1 ð3:15Þ
where τm 300/zI K nm for uni-univalent and di-divalent salts is a universal

constant. Modified reduced thermodynamic quantities then result:
Pr ’ ¼ PzI 6 T m 4 ; T r ’ ¼ T T m 1 ; V r ’ ¼ V T m 3 zI 6 ð3:16Þ
Fairly constant values of the reduced vapor pressures Pr’, corresponding to devia-
tions of <2 % in the enthalpy of vaporization, resulted at corresponding tempera-
tures of T ¼ 1.30 Tm and 1.55 Tm. Fairly constant values of the reduced surface
tension of uni-univalent salts also resulted at T ¼ 1.00 Tm and 1.10 Tm. Agreement
with experimental data was obtained for charge-symmetrical molten salts except for
the lithium halides, and for charge-unsymmetrical salts only for the alkaline earth
metal fluorides, whereas for other salts of this class some degree of covalent
bonding was supposed to account for the deviations.
Young and O’Connell [140] introduced a characteristic temperature T* ¼ 0.4/αP,

i.e., a temperature that is inversely proportional to the isobaric expansibility αP. The
temperatures T* for molten alkali metal halides, hydroxides and nitrates were listed.
For the alkali metal halides T* ¼ (1.15 0.04)Tm, but different ratios were obtained
for the nitrates (1.56 0.11) and the two hydroxides tested (1.99 0.003). With a
set of characteristic molar volumes V* listed for these salts a universal expression
over the range 0.5 T/T* 1.2 was obtained for the reduced molar volumes:
2
V=V * ¼ 0:7458 þ 0:1084T=T * þ 0:1458 T=T * ð3:17Þ
The perturbation theories for molten salts of Harada et al. [114, 141] use a
hypothetical fluid obeying the RPM as a reference, leaning on the Monte Carlo
simulations of Larsen [109, 110] for such a fluid. Two state variables are employed:
the reduced temperature Tr and the reduced packing fraction yr defined in terms of
the interionic distance parameter d as:
T r ¼ kB d e2 T; yr ¼ ðπ=6ÞðN=V Þd 3 ð3:18Þ
The perturbation consisted of relaxing the RPM potential (3.8) to include repulsion
and multipole interactions as in the potential (3.9), but with the first term replaced
by z+ze2ξ/r and the second term replaced by λ exp½r=ðr þ þ r Þ [114]. The two
added parameters ξ and λ are salt-specific, the former being close to unity
(0.827 ξ 1.038). The perturbation due to the changed potential yields an
expression for the effective interionic distance parameter d to be used in (3.18):
d =ðr þ þ r Þζ ¼ 0:4069 þ 0:9075lnðλ =kB T Þ þ 6:042

107 ðλ =kB T Þ ð3:19Þ
where ζ is a listed salt-specific parameter, close to unity (0.929 ζ 1.005)

accounting for the size differences between cation and anion. The three salt-specific
parameters ξ, λ, and ζ together with the sum of the ionic radii r+ + r yield listed
sets of characteristic temperatures T* and molar volumes V* of the salts, and a new
set of reduced quantities:
T r ¼ T=T * ; V r ¼ V=V * ; pr ¼ pV * =RT * ð3:20Þ
where p is the vapor pressure. The melting point and the corresponding molar
volume of potassium chloride are equated with its T* and V* and those of the other
alkali metal halides are selected so that the molar volume and vapor pressure fit
those for potassium chloride. Then:
V r ¼ 1:142 0:5570T r þ 0:4224T r 2 ð3:21Þ

logðpr =p0 Þ ¼ 4:945 11:905=T r 5:033logT r ð3:22Þ
Expressions are also provided for the surface tension and the isothermal compress-
ibility along the saturation (liquid-vapor coexistence) line. The average melting
temperature is taken to be Tm ¼ 1.03 T* (except for the lithium salts) and the critical
temperature is Tc ¼ 3.29 T* [141].
The significant structures theory of liquids [147] postulated that the liquid
consists of solid-like particles or domains and gas-like ones, randomly
intermingled. The partition function of the liquid is, therefore, the product of the
two partition functions, as reported by Carlson et al. [50]. Subsequently, Lu
et al. [142] modified this theory by noting that the gas-like particles in a molten
salt are of two kinds at equilibrium: monomers and dimers. The partition function
was modified accordingly. The total number of gas-like particles per mole of
molten salt is NAΔmV/V, where, as before, V is the molar volume of the molten
salt and ΔmV is the change of the molar volume on melting. The equilibrium
constant for the monomer-dimer equilibrium of the gas-like particles is subse-
quently disposed of, setting the number of monomeric gas-like particles approxi-
mately equal to their total number shown above. The required parameters for the
calculation of the partition function, hence of the thermodynamic quantities (as well
as transport quantities) are moment of inertia of the dimeric gaseous particles, Id,
and their ground state vibration frequency, ωd, the molar sublimation energy of the
solid at the melting point, Es, the Einstein temperature, θE, of the solid, and the
number n of nearest neighbors for the solid-like particles. The latter number is
approximated by n ¼ Z ð1 Δm V=V m Þ, where Z ¼ 6, the lattice parameter for
crystalline alkali metal halides and Vm is the molar volume of the molten salt at
the melting point. For NaCl, NaBr, KCl, KBr, and KI, the salts tested for prediction
of their properties, 4.13 n 4.35, somewhat lower than obtained from diffraction
or computer simulation studies, Tables 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, and 3.7 (except for KBr).
Vilcu and Misdolea [143] applied the significant structure theory and considered
dimeric gaseous species too, obtaining acceptable values of the calculated constant
volume heat capacity, but not of the constant pressure values. Contrary to these
results, the constant pressure heat capacity calculated by Lu et al. [142] agreed with
the experimental data, but the estimated critical temperatures were only 49–76 % of
the values in Table 3.3, with opposite trends regarding the sizes of the anions. This
was remedied by Cheng et al. [144] who applied a version of the significant
structure theory to the estimation of thermophysical quantities for the same alkali
metal halides as studied by Lu et al. [142] with acceptable success.
Although the significant structure theory specifies the Einstein temperature, θE,
for the solid-like particles, the reference provided [148] for the values employed
[142] are the Debye temperatures, θD. These are proportional to a function of the
mean molar masses of the cations and anions of the alkali halide salts (except
cesium ones) and the sum of the crystal ionic radii [149]:
1:5
θD =K ¼ 11:7 ðMþ þ M Þ=kg mol1 0:5 ½ðr þ þ r Þ=nm ð3:23Þ
The Einstein temperatures θE are approximately 0.75 of the Debye temperatures θD

for the alkali metal halides [150].
All these theoretical approaches to the prediction of thermochemical properties
of molten salts have dealt with charge-symmetrical salts only, and most of the
calculation have been applied to alkali metal halides (mainly successful with
sodium, potassium, and rubidium salts; lithium and cesium salts may show devia-
tions). The corresponding states theory provided suggestions for corresponding
temperatures at which the properties should be compared and characteristic tem-
peratures, to be used as proportionality coefficients for reduced temperatures, have
been suggested: 1.15Tm [139] and 0.97Tm [141]. A temperature somewhat above
the melting point appeared to be necessary, in order to avoid problems with vestiges
of the crystalline structures remaining in the melt [151]. A temperature of 1.1Tm
was found useful [138] for the comparison of the surface tensions of molten salts.
This temperature was used by Yosim and Owens [152] and Cantor et al. [153] to
account for various thermochemical properties and was adopted by the present
author [154–156] too for this purpose.
3.3.2 Enthalpies of Phase Changes, Cohesive Energies,

and Heat Capacities
The molar enthalpies of melting, ΔmH, and of vaporization, ΔvH are important
quantities characterizing molten salts. The enthalpies of melting, ΔmH, shown in
Table 3.8 for uni-univalent salts pertain to the melting point temperature, Tm,
because most high melting salts do not supercool appreciably nor can retain
crystalline states above Tm. The vapor pressures of molten salts are expressed as
either the simpler or as some extended equation:
lnðp=p0 Þ ¼ a b=T ð3:24aÞ

lnðp=p0 Þ ¼ a b=T clnðT=T 0 Þ ð3:24bÞ
The Clausius-Clapeyron expression for the enthalpy of vaporization is:
Δv H ¼ RT 2 ð∂lnp=∂T ÞP ð3:25Þ
resulting in ΔvH ¼ Rb from Eq. (3.24a) and ΔvH ¼ Rb – RcT from Eq. (3.24b).
Although in principle the enthalpies of vaporization should depend on the temper-
ature, for many salts only the constant values from Eq. (3.24a) have been reported.
It should be noted that Eq. (3.25) is applicable only when the molar volume of the
liquid is much smaller than that of the vapor, which is regarded as an ideal gas. At
temperatures approaching the critical one, Tc, these postulates are no longer valid.
For all the salts with univalent cations the ΔmH values and the ΔvH values, as
reported in [2] at the normal boiling point Tb, are reproduced in Table 3.8. Similar
Table 3.8 The molar enthalpies of fusion of univalent metal salts, ΔmH/kJ mol1 (upper row),
from [2], and of vaporization of the halides, ΔvH/kJ mol1 (lower row) at Tm from [157], unless
otherwise annotated

F 27.2 33.1 28.2 26.4 21.7 16.7r 13.8
231.4 228.9 195.8 186.2 167.8 204.9s
Cl 19.8 28.2 26.3 18.4 21.8c 10.2 13.0 15.9
184.9 189.5 182.8 177.0 170.3 177.8
Br 17.7 26.1 25.5 15.5 20.3c 9.6 13.0c 16.3
176.1 178.2 174.5 170.7 160.2 192.0
I 14.6 23.6 24.0 12.6 25.5c 10.9 9.4 14.6
161.9 163.6 166.9 162.3 160.7 144.3
OH 21.0 6.4 8.6c 8.9n 4.6n
167.8 133.9
CN 18.4c 14.6
SCN [24.1] [12.8] 6.0p
BO2 33.9 33.5c 31.8l 34.8q
212.5 271.1
NO2 17.1a 16.5a 9.9a 11.0a 12.0a 6.9a
NO3 26.7b 15.6b 10.0b 4.6o 14.1o 12.6 b
8.8b
ClO4 17.0c 20.5h
ReO4 32.6h 38.9h 21.8h 31.4h
BF4 14.5d 13.6d 18.0d 19.6d 19.2d
HCO2 16.1e 16.9i 11.9i
CH3CO2 12.6f 17.4f 12.0f 8.9f 11.0f
O2 43.1c 47.7 20.9c 64.0c 30.2c
S2 30.1j 16.2c
9.6c 7.9 c
23.0c
CO32 43.9g 30.0g 32.9g 58.7g 49.2g
SiO32 28.0c 52.3c 50.2c 39.7c
SO42 7.7m 23.0 36.8 38.4c 36.4c 18.0
CrO42 25.1b 31.5b
MoO42 [47.7] 24.4b 38.7b 31.8c
WO42 28.5c 31.5b 30.7b
S2O72 41.7k 21.2k 17.8k 19.5k
a
[48], [158], [175], [159], [168], [173], [169], [162], [165], j[171], k[172], l[164], m[160], n
b c d e f g h i
[163], o[166], p[174], q[161], r[167], s[170]
data for the halides of multivalent metal salts are shown in Table 3.9. For several of
the latter salts pre-melting solid-solid transitions occur, and the enthalpy of melting
shown in these tables are from the crystalline structure stable just under the melting
point. Such enthalpies may then be rather small, because a considerable amount of
heat has already been absorbed during the solid-solid transition.
The cohesive energy of molecular liquids is related to their enthalpy of vapor-
ization, ce ¼ ΔvH – RT. However, because the vaporization of molten salts at the
Table 3.9 The molar enthalpies of melting of multivalent metal halides, ΔmH/kJ mol1 (upper
row), and their molar enthalpies of vaporization at Tb, ΔVH/kJ mol1 (lower row), from [2] unless
otherwise noted
F Cl Br I
2+
Be 14.6 8.7 10.0b 20.9
195.4 105 100.0 96
Mg2+ 58.2 43.1 34.7 29.3b
273.2 156.2 127.9u,x
Ca2+ 29.7 28.5 28.9 41.8b
390.8a 251.5a
Sr2+ 29.7b 15.9 18.8 19.7
277.2i
Ba2+ 23.3b 16.7 31.4 28.5
242.8i
Mn2+ 25.0 37.7 33.5b 42
149.0 113
Fe2+ 51.9 43.1 51.9b 44.8
125.5
Co2+ 44.9c 36.4j 27.2j
157.3k
Ni2+ 77.3l
223.5m
Cu2+ 55.2b 200.8m
184.0
Zn2+ 39.9d 10.3 15.6
119.2 98.3
Cd2+ 23.0e 30.1 35.3v 20.7v
110.3m 116.9u 107.2u
Sn2+ 12.8 18.0b 18.8b
81.6
Pb2+ 14.7b 23.8 16.4b 23.4b
156.9 126.8 115.9 112.9
UO22+ 44.1n
Fe3+ 43.1
148.4m
Sc3+ 62.8b 67.4b
Y3+ 28.0f 31.5b
La3+ 55.9j 55.7o 54.4s 56.0w
305.4p
Ce3+ 56.5j 55.5o 52.0w 52.4q
284.5p
Pr3+ 57.3j 52.1o 47.3s 52.3b
264.4p
Nd3+ 54.8j 48.1o 45.2s 41.5w
247.7p
(continued)

F Cl Br I
3+
Sm 52.4j 44.8q
Eu3+ 52.9j 45.0r
Gd3+ 52.4j 40.6o 36.4s 54.0w
Tb3+ 58.4j 25.3b 57.4w
Dy3+ 58.4j 25.5q
Ho3+ 56.8j 29.3s 50.1w
Er3+ 27.5j 32.6s
Tm3+ 28.9j 35.6o
Yb3+ 29.7j 28.8q
Lu3+ 29.3j
Bi3+ 21.6h 23.7t 21.7v 39.1b
Th4+ 43.9b 61.5b 54.4b 48u
152.7
U4+ 30.7b 44.8 55.2 23.6b
141.4
a
[195], b[175], c[185], d[188], e[189], f[187], g[180], h[186], i[191], j[177], k[179], l[183], m[31],
n
[43], o[193], p[176], q[194], r[196], s[184], t[182], u[192], v[181], w[190], [178]
corresponding temperature 1.1Tm is to a large extent to (monomeric or dimeric)

molecular species of the salt rather than to individual ions at infinite separation, ce
6¼ ΔvH – RT. Instead, the cohesive energies of molten salts at 1.1Tm are calculated
from Eq. (3.26) (Figs. 3.1, 3.2, and 3.3):
ce ¼ U L ½ðH 298 H 0 Þ ðH 1:1Tm H 298 Þ 1:1νRT m ð3:26Þ
as shown schematically in Fig. 3.3. The lattice potential energies –UL are from the
compilation by Jenkins and Roobottom in [1]. Relatively small corrections to –UL
to yield ce pertain to the raising of the temperature from 0 to 298.15 K as (H298 –
H0) with data from [197], and from 298.15 K through the melting process up to
1.1Tm as (H1.1Tm – H298) with data from [2]. The term νR(1.1Tm) is the correction
from the enthalpies to the energies, where v is the number of ions per unit formula
of the salt. The sum of corrections (H298 – H0) + (H1.1Tm – H298), if not available in
[197] and [2], may be approximated by 2νRTm. Some lattice energies have been
obtained from [198–200] as noted. In those cases where the –UL values were not
available in [1] nor in the latter three references, they can be estimated according to
Jenkins et al. [201] from the microscopic volumes, vm, which are additive for the
constituent ions (Table 2.4) times their number per unit formula of the salt, and the
expression:
1=3
UL =kJ mol1 ¼ νzþ jz j 138:7= vm =nm3 þ 26:7 ð3:27Þ
Fig. 3.1 Molten KCl: liquid (circles) and vapor (triangles) densities and the rectilinear diameter
(dashed line) from data of Kirschenbaum et al. [52]. Their meeting point should represent the
upper limit of Tc, the vertical dotted line is the reported Tc, which is supposed to be 200 K below
this upper limit, but is actually ~400 K below it
The derived cohesive energies at the corresponding temperature 1.1Tm are shown in
Table 3.10. Included also in this table are the cohesive energy densities, ced, at the
same temperature, using the molar volumes reported in Sect. 3.3.3 in Tables 3.13
and 3.14. Where no entries for ced are shown in Table 3.10 the reason is lack of
density data for the molten salt.
The most widely used method for the measurement of the constant pressure
molar heat capacity of molten salts, CP, was drop calorimetry, in which a sample
preheated to some definite temperature imparted its heat to a fluid in the calorim-
eter, raising its temperature. The expected accuracy of the measurements was
1 %. An alternative method introduced more recently is differential scanning
calorimetry, but it has a somewhat lower accuracy (uncertainty
2 %), due to the
smallness of the samples employed. It turned out that CP of molten salts varied
generally hardly at all with the temperature as it was reported in [2], [175], and
[202] and shown in Table 3.11.
4πρ g(r) r 2
σ r r r
max min
Fig. 3.2 The number of neighboring particles in a fluid that a particle at the origin has, thick
curve, as a function of the distance r. It reaches asymptotically the dashed line that signifies no
correlation between the particles. Two maxima are seen, representing the first and second
coordination spheres of the particle at the origin. The vertically hatched area represents the
coordination number Nco in the first coordination sphere up to the first minimum in the curve,
rmin; the cross-hatched area represents the coordination number Nco in the first coordination sphere
assuming symmetry around the peak, rmax. (From: Y. Marcus, Introduction to Liquid State
Chemistry, Wiley, Chichester, 1977, by permission of the publisher)
The constant volume molar heat capacity of molten salts, CV, is not measured
directly but is derived from CP and requires volumetric data:
CV ¼ CP TVαP 2 =κT ð3:28Þ
where V is the molar volume, αP is the isobaric expansibility, and κ T is the

isothermal compressibility (see Tables 3.13, 3.14, 3.15, and 3.16 for such data).
The CP values of symmetrical molten salts with univalent monatomic ions (i.e.,
practically the alkali metal halides) are approximated well [152] by:

CP ¼ 3R þ 2RTαP 1 þ y þ y2 =ð1 yÞ3 ð3:29Þ
NaCl Vap [Na++Cl- + NaCn +(NaCl)2], 1.1Tm , 0.1 MPa
Na+,ig, 1.1Tm + Cl-,ig, 1.1Tm ?
3.3Tm Δ H (1.1T )
Na+,ig,0 K + Cl-,ig,0 K v m
ce
NaCl, I, 1.1T m , 0.1MPa

H (1.1Tm) - H (Tm)
NaCl, I, T m , 0.1 MPa
Δ H
Ulat NaCl, cr, T m, 0.1 MPa m
ΔH(Tm) - ΔH (298)
NaCl, cr, 298 K, 0.1 MPa
ΔH (298)
NaCl, cr, 0 K, 0.1 MPa
Fig. 3.3 A schematic representation of the energetic steps leading from the crystalline salt (NaCl)
at 0 K to its ions in the ideal gas state (Na+,ig and Cl–,ig) at 1.1 Tm at the standard pressure,
0.1 MPa. On the left hand side the lattice energy Ulat is invested and the ions are heated to 1.1 Tm.
On the right hand side The crystal is heated to 298 K, then to the melting point Tm, the enthalpy of
melting is invested, ΔmH, and the liquid salt is heated to 1.1 Tm, then vaporized by investment of
ΔvH to produce the vapor at 1.1 Tm and 0.1 MPa. The vapor is not an ideal gas, and some energy is
regained on expansion to this state. The cohesive energy ce of the molten salt at 1.1 Tm is
calculated from the energies of the ideal gas ions and that of the liquid at this temperature
where y ¼ πNAd3/V is the packing fraction and d ¼ r+ + r is the sum of the cation
and anion radii (Table 2.4). Computer simulations were applied in [118] to charge-
symmetrical salts to obtain the constant volume heat capacities CV of some molten
salts. On the whole, for the uni-univalent salts with monatomic ions, Table 3.11, CP
varies little with the nature of the ions, being (8 1)R, but is linearly correlated
with the sum d of the cation and anion radii [202]:
CP =J K1 mol1 ¼ ð54:4 4:8Þ þ ð45:4 16:0Þðd=nmÞ ð3:30Þ

Table 3.10 The cohesive energy ce and its density ced of molten salts at 1.1Tm
1.1Tm/ ced/ 1.1Tm/ ced/
Salt K ce/kJ mol1 MPa Salt K ce/kJ mol1 MPa
LiOH 820 1035 58.1 BeF2 908 3487 147.8
LiF 1232 956 64.6 BeCl2 784 3024 53.5
LiCl 971 818 28.4 MgF2 1690 2918 110.1
LiBr 902 735 20.9 MgCl2 1057 2467 42.9
LiI 816 691 15.5 MgBr2 1086 2433 33.9
LiNO3 578 796 20.1 MgI2 1015 2318 24.8
LiClO3 441 16.0b CaF2 1860 2630 82.7
LiClO4 560 700 13.1 CaCl2 1151 2316 42.5
LiBF4 635 710 13.9 CaBr2 1103 1702 26.1
LiCH3CO2 615 851 13.0 CaI2 1163 1978 22.6
Li2CO3 1109 2428 60.4 Ca 906 2291 33.5b
(NO3)2
Li2SO4 1245 2158 38.4 SrF2 1925 2472 67.0
Li2MoO4 1076 1999 32.4b SrCl2 1261 2134 35.8
Li2WO4 1117 2000 32.2b SrBr2 1008 2020 29.7
NaOH 656 825 36.2 SrI2 867 2293 27.1
NaF 1395 883 39.4 Sr(NO3)2 966 2200 27.4b
NaCl 1181 690 17.7 BaF2 1805 2330 53.7
NaBr 1122 665 14.6 BaCl2 1359 2035 30.2
NaI 1026 610 10.8 BaBr2 1265 1958 25.4
NaNO2 599 758 19.4 BaI2 1114 2166 22.9
NaNO3 638 682 15.3 Ba 955 2086 22.5b
(NO3)2
NaClO3 573 780 14.0b MnCl2 1015 2535 46.6
NaBF4 749 669 11.4 FeCl2 1045 2595
NaCH3CO2 662 766 11.6 CoCl2 1114 2735 49.0
Na2CO3 1244 2274 41.2 NiCl2 1309 2786 57.8
Na2SO4 1273 1758 24.9 CuCl2 847 2793 57.8
Na2CrO4 1177 1866 25.3 ZnCl2 650 2549 46.6
Na2MoO4 1058 1983 26.4b ZnBr2 734 2637 39.9
Na2WO4 1064 1987 25.7b ZnI2 791 2601 30.8
Na3AlF6 1407 3809 36.0 CdCl2 925 2567 46.5
KOH 696 776 23.6 CdBr2 924 2493 36.5
KF 1244 725 22.9 CdI2 726 2641 31.1
KCl 1154 622 12.2 SnCl2 572 2316 40.7
KBr 1108 594 10.2 PbCl2 851 2291 39.8
KI 1049 558 7.9 PbBr2 711 2229 34.1
KSCN 495 583 10.7 PbI2 751 2182 26.4
KNO2 761 711a 14.1b GaI3 512 4628 36.6
KNO3 668 617 11.1 InCl3 945 4764 42.3
KClO3 705 724a 11.3b InBr3 780 4560 38.7
KBF4 927 609 8.2 InI3 531 4260 32.2
(continued)

1.1Tm/ ced/ 1.1Tm/ ced/
Salt K ce/kJ mol1 MPa Salt K ce/kJ mol1 MPa
KCH3CO2 635 684 9.3 YCl3 1048 4541 57.7
K2CO3 1289 2045 27.3 LaF3 1943 4747 108.4
K2SO4 1476 1635 17.0 LaCl3 1260 4305 54.6
K2MoO4 1319 1941 20.5b CeCl3 1205 4434 56.5
K2WO4 1323 1908 18.1 PrCl3 1165 4357 56.9
K2Cr2O7 738 1748 13.3b NdCl3 1134 4381 56.1
RbOH 722 715 17.8 SmCl3 1051 4411 57.2
RbF 1217 707 18.6 EuCl3 986 4426
RbCl 1087 614 11.0 GdCl3 970 4438 58.9
RbBr 1051 589 9.3 DyCl3 1048 4516 59.7
RbI 1012 560 7.4 HoCl3 1090 4534c 61.4
RbNO3 641 613 10.1 ErCl3 1154 4565 61.2
RbBF4 941 593 7.2 YbCl3 1263 4693 63.1
RbCH3CO2 571 724 9.9 LuCl3 1318 4609c 55.0
Rb2CO3 1221 2030 24.3 BiCl3 556 4707 57.4
Rb2SO4 1456 1576 14.5 BiBr3 540 3311 34.1
CsF 1074 674 15.6 UCl3 1221 4204c 48.3
CsCl 1011 590 9.4
CsBr 1000 563 8.0
CsI 989 531 6.3
CsNO3 756 661 7.9
CsBF4 911 574 6.2
CsCH3CO2 514 691 8.6
Cs2CO3 1173 1949 20.1b
Cs2SO4 1406 1537 9.7
CuCl 765 1005 36.8
AgCl 801 917 27.2
AgBr 778 904 23.7
AgI 912 890 18.7
AgNO3 534 829 16.2
Ag2SO4 1031 2130 32.3
TlCl 773 748 14.1
TlBr 806 732 15.6
TlI 715 699 13.0
TlNO3 531 680 12.3b
a
[198], bEvaluated in [199] from estimated lattice energies and molar volumes, c[200], d[199]
For ions with univalent cations and polyatomic anions CP is very roughly (3 1)νbR,
where ν is the number of ions per formula unit of the salt and b is the number of
bonds in the anion. Much fewer data are available for the CP of molten salts with
multivalent cations, practically limited to those with divalent cations and lantha-
nides, shown in Table 3.12. Correlation expressions similar to Eq. (3.30) were
presented in [202] for molten salts with polyvalent cations.
Table 3.11 The molar heat capacities, CP/J K1 mol1, of molten univalent metal salts, from
Barin and Knacke [2] (Roman font) and from Marcus [202] (italics font), unless otherwise
annotated

F 64.2 70.6 66.9 58.8 74.1 67.3
Cl 64.2a 68.9a 73.6 64.0 77.4a 66.9 66.9 59.4
Br 65.3 62.3 69.9 66.9 77.4 66.9 62.3 75.1a
I 63.2 64.9 72.4 67 67.4a 70.8 58.6 72.0
OH 86.8 85.7a 83.1 83.7 81.6
CN 79.5 75.3
BO2 144.6 146.4c 126d
NO3 152.7 155.6 123.4 136.0 128.0 130.3
ClO3 122.2 133.9
ClO4 161.1
BF4 165.4 167.2
HCO2 137.2b 142.3
CH3CO2 187.9b 226.4 181.3e
O2 97.1c 104.6 95.8c 100.4c 95.0c
S2 77.9 101.0 89.1c 93.1 99.6c
CO32 185.4 185.9 209.2c
SiO32 167.4 179.1 167.4c 194.6c
SO42 207.9 197.4 200.0 207.9 207.1 205.0 205.0
CrO42 200.0 204.6 209.2 210.9
MoO42 215.1 213.0 210.0
WO42 205.0 209.2 213.4 213 214.2
S2O72 244.8 267 272.2 222
Cr2O72 415.9
B4O72 453.6 444.9 464.6
a
When so marked the heat capacity is temperature dependent and the entry pertains to T ¼ 1.1Tm, b
From [168], c[175], dFrom [167], eFrom [203]
3.3.3 Volumetric Properties
A great deal of experimental information on the densities of molten salts as

functions of the temperature is available in the Molten Salts Handbook by Janz
[3] and subsequent compilations by Janz and coworkers [211–214] and recently by
Marcus [215]. A discussion of the molar volumes of the various salts should be
based on the concept of corresponding states, and in view of the large range of
melting points of the salts, a corresponding temperature should be selected. As in
other sections of this Chapter, 1.1Tm, where Tm/K is the melting point of the salt, is
used as the corresponding temperature.
The densities of molten salts [3, 211–215] can be measured accurately as
functions of the temperature (and pressure) by a variety of methods [215]. At the
elevated temperatures needed the archimedean sinker method is widely used and
Table 3.12 The molar heat F Cl Br I O2 Other

capacities, CP/K K1 mol1, 2+
Be 88 121.4 113.0 113.0 64.9i
of multivalent metal salts,
from [2] and [197] and as Mg2+ 94.4 92.5 97.3 100.4 60.7 159.0m
noted Ca+ 100.0 103.3 114.6 117.2 83.7i 444.8n
Sr2+ 100.4 104.6 108.8 110.0
Ba2+ 99.8 104.4 104.9 113.0 66.9i
Mn2+ 98.3 94.6a 100 109 60.7 71o
Fe2+ 98.3 102.1 106.7 108.8 68.2 72.8p
Co2+ 100.4
Ni2+ 100.6b 76.8q
Zn2+ 94.1 100.8 113.8 62.0q
Cu2+ 100.4 100c
Cd2+ 110.0d 101.7d 102.1d
Sn2+ 92.0 99.6 94.6 59.3q
Pb2+ 109.2 104.2 115.5 135.6 64.3 70.1q
Fe3+ 133.9
Sc3+ 88.9 143.4
Y3+ 133.7 177.6
La3+ 152.7 157.7e 151.1j 151.8
Ce3+ 125.0 145.2 152.7 152.7e
Pr3+ 130.8 155.3f 154.8 143.1e
Nd3+ 133.9 148.1e 148.5 151.9e
Sm3+ 145.3g
Eu3+ 156.0g
Gd3+ 127.8 139.9f 139.3 155.9
Tb3+ 139.3h 145.0k
Dy3+ 156.9 159.4f
Ho3+ 147.7
Er3+ 139.1 148.5
Tm3+ 140.3 148.5g
Yb3+ 121.3i
Bi3+ 184.6 143.5 157.7d 157.7 152.7i 188.3q
U3+ 129.7i
Zr4+ 87.9i
Th4+ 152.7 163.2 171.5 177.4
U4+ 165.3 162.5 163.2 165.7 136.0l
a
[201], [204], [202], [205], [206], [207], g[208], h[209],
b c d e f
i
[175], j[211], k[210], l[212], mMgSO4, nFor CaB4O7 near Tm,
o
MnS, pFeS, qFor the sulfides at 1.1Tm from [203]
the densities are known to better than 0.1 %. They are generally measured at
ambient pressures and are linear with the temperature over a wide temperature
range above the melting point, up to and much beyond 1.1Tm. This is expressed by
Eq. (3.31):

ρ= g cm3 ¼ a 103 bðT=KÞ ð3:31Þ
Given this dependence and the coefficients a and b, the following quantities for a
large number of molten salts at 1.1Tm are then readily calculated: the densities,
ρ ¼ a 1:1 103 bðT m =KÞ, the isobaric expansibilities, 103αP/K1 ¼ b/ρ, and the

molar volumes, V= cm3 mol1 ¼ M=ρ, where the M/(g∙mol1) are the molar
masses. These quantities are shown in Tables 3.13 and 3.14. The densities and
molar volumes at other temperatures are obtained from the values listed in
Tables 3.13 and 3.14 as: ρðT Þ ¼ ρ1:1Tm ½1 αP ðT 1:1T m Þ and
V ðT Þ ¼ V 1:1Tm ½1 þ αP ðT 1:1T m Þ.
The molar volumes at 1.1Tm of uni-univalent molten salts are related to the radii
of the ions as
h i
V 1:1Tm =cm3 mol1 ¼ ð4πN A =3Þ 3:3ðr þ =nmÞ3 þ 1:78ðr =nmÞ3 ð3:32Þ
within 3 cm3 mol1 [216]. Salts with considerable covalent bonding, such as
CuCl, have molar volumes smaller than those corresponding to Eq. (3.32). For
nonsymmetrical salts the correlations take into account the presence of vacancies in
the quasi-lattice of the melts and other expressions have been obtained [215, 216].
The expansibilities of molten salts at 1.1Tm correlate well with the inverse of
their cohesive energies ce (listed in Table 3.10):
103 αP =K1 ¼ ð245 35Þzþ z ce1 ð3:33Þ
where the z are the numerical charge numbers of the ions. This relationship is
rationalized by noting that the larger the cohesive energy, the more difficult is for
thermal agitation to expand the volume of the molten salt. Silver halides and salts of
divalent post-transition-metals do not conform to this relationship.
The adiabatic compressibilities of molten salts are obtained from measurements
of the ultrasound velocities in them, u, with a probable uncertainty of 1 %, and of
their densities, ρ: κ S ¼ u2ρ1. The isothermal compressibilities can be obtained
from measured thermal pressure coefficients ð∂P=∂T ÞV as κT ¼ αP =ð∂P=∂T ÞV
(with a probable uncertainty of 1.5 %). Otherwise the isothermal compressibilities
are obtained from the adiabatic ones as κ T ¼ κS + TVαP2/CP. The available values of
κT and κS are shown in Tables 3.15 and 3.16, as listed also in [215].
The isothermal compressibilities of halides of the alkali metals, alkaline earth
metals, and divalent transition- and post-transition-metals are inversely correlated
with their cohesive energies [221] in analogy with the expansibilities with a similar
rationalization:
κT =GPa1 ¼ ð4:37 0:80Þzþ 2 ce1 ð3:34Þ

Table 3.13 The densities, ρ/g∙cm3, the expansibilities, αP/K1, and the molar volumes, V/cm3
∙mol1, of molten univalent metal salts at the corresponding temperatures 1.1(Tm/K) from [214]
and [216] or as noted
Salt 1.1Tm ρ 103αP V
LiF 1233 1.7536 0.278 14.8
LiCl 971 1.4706 0.287 28.8
LiBr 905 2.4759 0.264 35.1
LiI 816 3.0415 0.303 44.6
LiOH 820 1.3429 0.339 17.8
LiNO3 578 1.7410 0.236 39.6
LiBF4 635 1.8392 0.249 50.9
LiClO3a 441 2.0545 0.087 44.0
LiClO4 560 1.9944 0.307 53.3
Li2CO3 980 1.8372 0.203 40.2
Li2SO4 1245 1.9573 0.208 56.2
Li2MoO4 1071 2.804 0.181 61 0.7
Li2WO4b 1114 4.0084 0.805 65.3
NaF 1395 1.8731 0.302 22.4
NaCl 1181 1.4977 0.362 39.0
NaBr 1122 2.2582 0.361 45.6
NaI 1026 2.6544 0.356 56.5
NaOH 650 1.7570 0.273 22.8
NaNO2 613 1.7684 0.422 39.0
NaNO3 637 1.9070 0.324 44.6
NaClO3 537 2.0718 0.466 51.4
NaPO3 991 2.2101 0.164 46.1
NaBF4 749 1.9055 0.394 57.6
NaCH3CO2 662 1.2363 0.487 66.4
Na2CO3 1244 1.9213 0.234 55.2
Na2SO4 1273 2.0128 0.241 70.6
Na2CrO4b 1177 2.193 0.221 73.8
Na2MoO4 1056 2.7427 0.230 75.1
Na2WO4b 1068 3.5515 0.907 82.8
Na2S2O7 781 1.7329 0.328 128.2
Na3AlF6 1407 1.9834 0.495 105.8
KF 1238 1.8399 0.353 31.6
KCl 1147 1.4670 0.395 50.8
KBr 1108 2.0440 0.403 58.3
KI 1049 2.3571 0.407 70.4
KOH 696 1.7069 0.258 32.9
KSCN 495 1.5623 0.512 54.5
KNO2 781 1.6419 0.425 51.8
KNO3 672 1.8235 0.400 55.4
KHF2 563 1.9213 0.296 40.7
KBF4 927 1.6950 0.481 74.3
(continued)

KCH3CO2 635 1.3357 0.480 72.7
K2CO3 1289 1.8456 0.238 74.9
K2SO4 1484 1.8121 0.267 96.2
K2MoO4 1319 2.5147 0.113 94.7
K2WO4b 1323 2.8825 0.727 105.6
K2S2O7 795 1.5633 0.410 160.4
K2Cr2O7 738 2.2395 0.313 131.4
RbF 1217 2.7526 0.371 38.0
RbCl 1095 2.1537 0.410 56.1
RbBr 1062 2.6008 0.412 63.6
RbI 1012 2.7927 0.408 76.1
RbOH 722 2.5476 0.306 40.2
RbNO3 641 2.4261 0.400 60.8
RbBF4 941 2.1003 0.495 82.0
RbCH3CO2 571 1.9460 0.494 73.4
Rb2CO3 1221 2.7689 0.245 83.4
Rb2SO4 1481 2.4571 0.271 108.7
Rb2S2O7 814 2.1132 0.400 164.2
CsF 1074 3.5227 0.363 43.1
CsCl 1010 2.6932 0.396 62.5
CsBr 1000 3.0216 0.406 70.4
CsI 989 3.0709 0.386 84.8
CsNO3 756 2.3415 0.500 83.2
CsBF4 911 2.3928 0.497 91.8
CsCH3CO2 514 2.3723 0.414 80.5
Cs2CO3 1172 3.3734 0.254 96.6
Cs2SO4 1421 2.2833 0.257 158.5
Cs2S2O7 850 2.1513 0.422 205.4
CuCl 765 3.6215 0.218 27.3
AgCl 801 4.2525 0.221 33.7
AgBr 778 4.9330 0.211 38.1
AgI 912 4.9424 0.204 47.5
AgNO3 534 3.3185 0.325 51.2
Ag2SO4 1031 4.734 0.156 65.9
InCl 548 2.8755 0.505 52.2
TlCl 773 4.5192 0.398 53.1
TlBr 806 5.8840 0.326 48.3
TlI 715 6.1421 0.304 53.9
TlNO2 505 4.8238 0.325 51.9
TlNO3 531 4.8158 0.363 55.3
Tl2SO4 996 5.5029 0.237 91.7
a
[217], b[218]
Table 3.14 The densities, ρ/g∙cm3, the expansibilities, αP/K1, and the molar volumes, V/cm3
∙mol1, of molten multivalent metal salts at the corresponding temperatures 1.1(Tm/K) from Janz
[214] or as noted
BeF2 908 1.9899 0.26 23.6
BeCl2 784 1.4139 0.778 56.5
MgF2 1690 2.3494 0.223 26.5
MgCl2 1079 1.6601 0.193 57.4
MgBr2 1086 2.5689 0.186 71.7
MgI2 1015 2.9808 0.218 93.3
CaF2 1860 2.4517 0.160 31.8
CaCl2 1161 2.0357 0.209 54.5
CaBr2 1103 3.0660 0.163 65.2
CaI2 1163 3.3598 0.223 87.5
SrF2 1840 3.4022 0.221 36.9
SrCl2 1263 2.6598 0.218 59.6
SrBr2 1008 3.6393 0.205 68.0
SrI2 867 4.0351 0.219 84.6
BaF2 1752 4.0405 0.247 43.4
BaCl2 1359 3.0895 0.220 67.4
BaBr2 1235 3.8567 0.223 77.1
BaI2 1114 4.1338 0.236 94.6
MnCl2 1015 2.3128 0.438 54.4
FeCl2a 1045 2.282 0.288 55.5
CoCl2b 1114 2.3251 0.335 55.8
NiCl2 1309 2.6349 0.251 49.2
ZnCl2 650 2.4917 0.186 54.7
ZnBr2 738 3.4091 0.280 66.1
ZnI2 791 3.7805 0.360 84.4
CdCl2 925 3.3221 0.250 55.2
CdBr2 924 3.9849 0.271 68.3
CdI2 726 4.3221 0.258 84.7
SnCl2 571 3.3301 0.360 56.9
PbCl2 851 4.8350 0.310 57.5
PbBr2 711 5.6159 0.296 65.4
PbI2 751 5.5827 0.285 82.6
GaI3 512 3.5610 0.668 126.5
InCl3 945 1.9600 1.059 112.5
InBr3 780 3.0128 0.498 117.7
InI3 531 3.7455 0.398 132.3
YCl3 1048 2.4800 0.209 78.7
LaF3 1943 4.4679 0.153 43.8
LaCl3 1260 3.1101 0.251 78.9
LaBr3 1167 4.1180 0.243 91.9
LaI3 1156 4.1739 0.266 124.5
(continued)

CeF3 1906 4.4690 0.209 44.7
CeCl3 1205 3.1396 0.293 78.5
PrCl3 1059 3.266 0.230 76.6
NdCl3 1134 3.2094 0.290 78.1
NdI3 1156 4.1699 0.257 125.9
SmCl3a 1051 3.352 0.218 76.6
EuCl3a 986 3.495 0.237 73.9
GdCl3 970 3.4978 0.192 75.4
DyCl3 1048 3.5520 0.192 75.7
HoCl3a 1090 3.523 0.176 77.0
ErCl3a 1154 3.521 0.145 77.7
YbCl3a 1263 3.573 0.186 78.2
LuCl3a 1318 3.541 0.193 79.4
BiCl3 553 3.8453 0.598 82.0
BiBr3 540 4.6205 0.523 97.1
BiI3 750 4.5500 0.484 129.6
UCl3 1221 3.9536 0.508 87.1
ThF4 1521 5.3595 0.127 51.7
ThCl4 1147 3.2172 0.435 116.2
UF4 1440 6.3555 0.156 49.4
UCl4 949 3.454 0.663 110.0
a
[220], b[219]
Other molten salts have somewhat different correlation expressions [221]. Isother-
mal compressibilities of molten salts may be estimated from the scaled particle
theory if no experimental data are available [222]:
κ T ¼ ðV=RT Þð1 yÞ4 =ð1 þ 2yÞ2 ð3:35Þ
where, as defined above, y ¼ πNAd3/V is the packing fraction and d ¼ r+ + r is the

sum of the cation and anion radii.
Densities of molten salts at high pressures P are expressed by means of the Tait
equation:
ρðP; T Þ ¼ ρðP0 ; T Þ=½1 0:1lnf1 þ P=BðT Þg ð3:36Þ
where P0 ¼ 0.1 MPa, i.e., ambient pressure to which the data in Tables 3.13, 3.14,
3.15, and 3.16 pertain, and BðT Þ=MPa ¼ 400 þ 8:9ðκT =MPaÞ1 and the coefficient
0.1 of the logarithmic term are assumed to be universal [223].
A quantity that is closely related to the volumetric properties of molten salts is
their internal pressure:
Pint ¼ ð∂U=∂V ÞT ¼ T ð∂P=∂T ÞV P ¼ TαP =κT P ð3:37Þ
For internal pressures at ambient conditions and saturation vapor pressures the last
term in the third equality is negligible (P ¼ 0.1 MPa and Pint >500 MPa). The
internal pressures of the molten salts, Pint,, are included in Tables 3.15 and 3.16.
These internal pressures are manifold larger than those for molecular liquids at
ambient conditions. However, whereas for molecular liquids the Pint values are
commensurate with their cohesive energy densities ced, this is not the case for the
molten salts, for which ced >10Pint [155, 227], due to the strong coulombic forces
holding the ions together.
3.3.4 Surface Tension
The surface tensions σ of many molten salts have been compiled by Janz and
coworkers [3, 214, 236] as functions of the temperature and the data have been
supplemented subsequently in several other publications [138, 237–242]. The
values diminish linearly with increasing temperatures and are compared in
Table 3.17 at a suitable corresponding temperature, 1.1Tm according to Reiss
et al. [138]. For alkali metal halides, excepting the lithium salts, the surface tension
at that temperature was correlated with the cube of the melting point [138].
The surface tensions σ at 1.1Tm of a large number of highly ionic molten salts of
different types, 1:1, 1:2, 2:1, correlate well with the cohesive energy densities ced
of the salts, Table 3.12, as shown by Marcus in Fig. 3.4 [156]. One line pertains to
45 salts with univalent anions:
σ=mJ m2 ¼ ð58:0 3:1Þ þ ð2:90 0:11Þðced=GPaÞ ð3:38Þ
with a correlation coefficient of 0.9693. A second line pertains to 16 alkali metal

salts with divalent anions, with practically the same slope, though with worse
scatter, rcorr ¼ 0.8683:
σ=mJ m2 ¼ ð95:3 12:4ÞÞ þ ð2:88 0:42Þðced=GPaÞ ð3:39Þ
The outliers from the correlation (3.38) have considerably smaller values of the
surface tension than expected from the correlation: MgF2, MgCl2, CaCl2, CaI2, and
Ca(NO3)2, and no apparent explanation is found for these discrepancies. The 1:3
molten lanthanide chlorides are excluded from correlation (3.38), Fig. 3.4. They
have quite small surface tension values, in view of their moderately large cohesive
energy densities. These salts may not be so highly ionic, i.e., they possibly are
somewhat associated at the surface. The post-transition-metal halides are also
excluded from the correlation (3.38), although AgBr and PbCl2 are rather near
this line as is TlNO3 that does conform well. However, AgNO3 does not conform,
Table 3.15 The adiabatic compressibility, κ S/GPa1, isothermal compressibility, κ T/GPa1, and
internal pressure Pint/MPa of molten univalent metal salts at the corresponding temperatures
T ¼ 1.1(Tm/K)
Salt 1.1Tm κS κT Pint
LiF 1233 0.093j 3690
LiCl 971 0.176a 0.216a 1290
LiBr 905 0.198a 0.235a 1020
LiNO3 578 0.178a 0.197a 690
LiClO4 560 0.230e 750
Li2CO3 980 0.075b 0.091h 2190
Li2SO4 1245 0.099i 2620
Li2MoO4 1071 0.105i 1850
Li2WO4 1114 0.122i 1720
NaF 1395 0.133j 2960
NaCl 1181 0.247a 0.343a 1250
NaBr 1122 0.280a 0.361a 1120
NaI 1026 0.313a 0.436a 840
NaNO2 613 0.180e 1440
NaNO3 637 0.173a 0.198a 1040
NaClO3 537 0.29e 860
Na2CO3 1244 0.102b 0.118h 2430
Na2SO4 1273 0.132i 2320
Na2CrO4 1177 0.138i 1890
Na2MoO4 1056 0.121i 2010
Na2WO4 1068 0.133i 1900
Na3AlF6 1407 0.718j 970
KF 1238 0.186j 2350
KCl 1147 0.308a 0.442a 1030
KBr 1108 0.330a 0.465a 960
KI 1049 0.380a 0.572a 750
KSCN 495 0.265e 960
KNO3 672 0.193a 0.234a 1150
KCH3CO2 635 0.466c
K2CO3 1289 0.146b 0.178h 1720
K2SO4 1484 0.207i 1910
K2WO4 1323 0.228i 2560
K2Cr2O7 738 0.187e 1240
RbF 1217 0.176k 2570
RbCl 1095 0.429l 1050
RbBr 1062 0.499l 880
RbNO3 641 0.179d 0.208m 1230
Rb2CO3 1221 0.158b 0.209h 1430
Rb2SO4 1481 0.251i 1600
CsF 1074 0.228k 1710
CsCl 1010 0.306a 0.461a 870
(continued)

Salt 1.1Tm κS κT Pint
CsBr 1000 0.362a 0.584a 700
CsI 989 0.51e 0.69e 550
CsNO3 756 0.268d 0.308m 1230
Cs2CO3 1172 0.170b 0.229h 1300
Cs2SO4 1421 0.275i 1330
AgCl 801 0.071f 0.101e 1750
AgBr 778 0.083f 0.108e 1520
AgI 912 0.139f 0.141h 1320
AgNO3 534 0.113d 1540
Ag2SO4 1031 0.072i 2280
a
[137], b[226], c[235], d[231], e[225], f[233], g[224], h[221], i[88], j[228], k[229], l[230], m[232], n
[234]
its σ value being considerably larger than expected in view of its modest ced value.
The σ values of AgCl and of the zinc, cadmium, and bismuth halides, and SnCl2 and
GaCl3 are well below the correlation line. In the cases of these salts it is surmised
that their partial covalent natures increases the ced values appreciably compared
with molten salts with alkali metal or alkaline earth metal cations. Therefore, for
given σ values, these salts fall below the correlation line in Fig. 3.4.
Although empirical, correlation (3.38) has some theoretical basis as shown for
organic liquids and molten metals [242]. For a definite proportionality between σ
and ced to hold, a dimensionally correct relationship requires the former to be
divided by a length, e.g., V1/3. Essentially a similar linear dependence of σ/V1/3 and
ced was found as (3.38) (rcorr ¼ 0.9443), due to the limited variability of V1/3, which
is 3.7 0.5 cm∙mol1/3 for the salts under consideration.
Many models have been proposed in the literature, but most of them pertain only
to the alkali metal halides. A “simplified corresponding states” correlation for the
alkali metal halides (except RbI) was suggested by Harada et al. [141], rewritten as:
h i
σ=mJ m2 ¼ 3:52 1:55 1:1T m =T * = N A 2=3 kB V *2=3 =T * ð3:40Þ
with averaged values of V* 0.957 V(1.1Tm) and T* 0.972Tm except for the
lithium salts, for which T* 1.051Tm. Reasonable values of the calculated σ result
from this expression.
A model by Yajima et al. [224] for the molten alkali metal halides that involves
charge electroneutrality near the surface was also capable of the prediction of the
surface tensions, and these were deemed to be nearer the experimental values than
those according to the corresponding states model values in [138] and [141].
A model due to Aqra [243, 246] traceable to the significant structure theory
[142, 147] yielded the expression:
Table 3.16 The adiabatic Salt T κS κT Pint

compressibility, κ S/GPa1,
MgF2 1690 0.123c 3060
isothermal compressibility,
κ T/GPa1, and internal MgCl2 1079 0.550a 0.769d 270
pressure Pint/MPa of molten MgBr2 1086 0.448a 0.717d 280
multivalent metal salts at the MgI2 1015 0.391a 0.839d 260
corresponding temperatures CaF2 1860 0.064c 4650
T ¼ 1.1(Tm/K)
CaCl2 1161 0.124a 0.384d 480
CaBr2 1103 0.161a 0.528d 340
CaI2 1163 0.263a 0.718d 360
SrF2 1840 0.068c 5980
SrCl2 1263 0.116a 0.434d 630
SrBr2 1008 0.116a 0.403d 510
SrI2 867 0.151a 0.453d 420
BaF2 1752 0.089c 4860
BaCl2 1359 0.130a 0.547d 550
BaBr2 1235 0.163a 0.679d 410
BaI2 1114 0.157a 0.635d 410
ZnCl2 650 0.434a 0.547d 220
ZnBr2 738 0.513a 0.679d 300
ZnI2 791 0.576a 0.635d 450
CdCl2 925 0.285a 0.448d 520
CdBr2 924 0.405a 0.563d 450
CdI2 726 0.424a 0.668d 280
PbCl2 851 0.537e 970
PbBr2 711 0.623e 340
GaI3 512 0.663b 0.793b 430
InI3 531 0.547b 0.596b 360
ThF4 1521 0.088c 2200
UF4 1440 0.13c 1730
a
[225], b[221], c[229], d[232], e[234]
σ ¼ φ1 ðV sd =V Þ2 kB T m ½0:0481Es =RT ð3:41Þ
applicable to molten metal halides at their melting points. The numerical constant
0.0481 pertains to σ /mN m1, Vsd and V are the molar volume of the solid and
molten salt at Tm, Es is the enthalpy of sublimation of the salt, and φ ¼ 1:091
ðV sd =N A Þ2=3 . A simplified expression: σ ¼ 0.0481Esd/V was subsequently applied
to molten rare earth trihalides [247], where d was the internuclear distance between
cation and anion. Agreement for this model was achieved with the not very many
experimental data with which these expressions were tested, and values for many
divalent metal and rare-earth halides for which no experimental data were available
to the author were predicted.
Table 3.17 The surface tensions, σ/mJ∙m2, of molten salts at T ¼ 1.1(Tm/K) from [3, 214, 236]
unless otherwise noted
Salt 1.1Tm σ Salt 1.1Tm σ
LiF 1232 241 MgF2 1690 223k
LiCl 971 131b MgCl2 1057 67
LiBr 902 123c CaF2 1860 284k
LiI 816 91c CaCl2 1151 140
LiBO2 1234 257d CaBr2 1103 115
LiNO2 542 114e CaI2 1163 83
LiNO3 578 113 Ca(NO3)2 906 102
LiClO3 441 85 SrF2 1925 268k
Li2CO3 1109 245 SrCl2 1261 161
Li2SO4 1245 225 SrBr2 1008 146
Li2MoO4 1076 214f SrI2 867 143
Li2WO4 1117 217f Sr(NO3)2 966 128
NaOH 656 151g BaF2 1805 221k
NaF 1395 189 BaCl2 1359 156
NaCl 1181 106 BaBr2 1265 144
NaBr 1122 93 BaI2 1114 130
NaI 1026 80 Ba(NO3)2 955 134
NaOH 656 151h ZnCl2 650 54
NaBO2 1363 182d ZnBr2 734 50
NaNO2 599 118 CdCl2 925 84
NaNO3 638 116 CdBr2 924 64
NaClO3 573 87i SnCl2 572 110
NaBF4 749 84 PbCl2 851 138
Na2CO3 1244 206 GaCl3 386 24
Na2SO4 1273 185 LaCl3 1260 105
Na2MoO4 1058 189f PrCl3 1165 104
Na2WO4 1064 193f SmCl3 1051 93
Na3AlF6 1407 118 ErCl3 1154 80
KOH 696 151c YbCl3 1263 81
KF 1244 135 BiCl3 556 65
KCl 1154 91 BiBr3 540 69l
KBr 1108 82 ThF4 1521 238m
KI 1049 71 ThCl4 1440 110m
KSCN 495 95 UF4 1070 195m
KBO2 1342 108d UCl4 949 75m
KNO2 761 103
KNO3 668 106
KClO3 643a 80
KBF4 927 73j
K2CO3 1289 159
K2SO4 1476 143c
K2MoO4 1311 142
(continued)

Salt 1.1Tm σ Salt 1.1Tm σ
K2WO4 1314 148
K2Cr2O7 738 139
RbF 1217 118
RbCl 1087 91
RbBr 1051 84
RbI 1012 75
RbNO2 761 99e
RbNO3 641 105
Rb2SO4 1456 125
CsF 1074 100
CsCl 1011 85
CsBr 1000 77
CsI 989 69
CsNO2 746 94e
CsNO3 756 87
Cs2CO3 1173 128c
Cs2SO4 1406 112c
AgCl 801 176
AgBr 778 152
AgNO3 534 146
TlNO2 505 108e
TlNO3 531 90
a
At Tm + 2 ¼ 643 K, b[138], c[237], d[245], e[12], f[239], g[240], h[244], i[238], j[241], k[242],
estimated at Tm from the scaled particle theory, lThe temperature coefficient 0.872 given in [236]
is obviously a misprint, leading to negative values of σ; instead, 0.072 yields a reasonable value
commensurate with that of BiCl3, m[243] at Tm
The products of the surface tensions of molten salts and their isothermal com-
pressibilities, σκT, show interesting regularities. These products for liquids in
general follow the expression:

σκ T ¼ a 1 3y þ y3 =4ð1 þ 2yÞ2 ð3:42Þ
according to Mayer [248] and the scaled particle theory (SPT) [249], where
d represents the diameter of the hard spheres to which the SPT pertains and y
¼ ðN A π=6Þd 3 =V is their packing fraction (cf. Eqs. 3.29 and 3.35). With appropriate
selection of the mean diameter of the ions, d, the compressibility can be obtained
with good accuracy from the experimental surface tension and vice versa. The
product σκT has the dimension of a length and is approximately 0.07 L [250], where
exp(r/L) is the damping factor of the pair correlation function (cf. Eq. 3.1). Only
very few molten salts were considered in these studies. Marcus [251] has assembled
the products σκ T of many ionic molten salts that present a considerable span of
Fig. 3.4 The surface tension, σ, of molten salts plotted against their cohesive energy density, ced.
Equation (3.3) pertains to the red symbols: alkali metal halides (●), alkaline earth metal halides
(▲), other alkali metal salts with univalent anions (▼); Eq. (3.4) pertains to the alkali metal salts
with divalent anions (●); outliers from Eq. (3.3) (○), also post-transition metal halides and
AgNO3 [■], and lanthanide chlorides (▼) (From Marcus [156] by permission of the publisher
(Elsevier))
values, from 16 to 98 pm. They depend solely on the charges of the ions z+ and z,
the number nO of oxygen atoms in oxy-anions, and independent values of the
cohesive energy density, ced, for a reasonable fit. For 42 alkali metal and alkaline
earth metal halides, Fig. 3.5:
h i
σκ T =pm ¼ zþ ðzþ þ 1Þ 7 þ 138ðced=GPaÞ1 ð3:43Þ
and for 15 alkali metal nitrates, carbonates, sulfates, molybdates, and tungstates:
h i
σκ T =pm ¼ zþ z ðzþ þ z Þð0:5z nO Þ 7 þ 237ðced=GpaÞ1 ð3:44Þ
The larger the ced, the smaller is this product due to the inverse dependence on it of
the compressibility that is not completely compensated by the direct dependence of
the surface tension.
Fig. 3.5 The calculated κ Tσ/pm products according to Eqs. (3.43) and (3.44) plotted against the
experimental values: alkali metal halides (●), alkali metal salts with oxy-anions (▲), and
alkaline earth halides (▼). Outliers are marked as empty symbols (From Chhabra and Hunter
[251] by permission of the publisher (Am. Inst. Phys.))
3.4 Transport Properties
3.4.1 Viscosity
The viscosity of molten salts determines their applications in many areas, and their
conductivity depends reciprocally on it. Therefore the viscosity of many molten
salts has been measured in the range of their thermal stability, mostly at ambient
pressures. Two methods have been mainly employed: the capillary flow method and
the oscillation method. The latter comprises an oscillating disk or sphere, and in
recent years the oscillating cup has found many supporters [252]. These methods
are generally adequate up to 1400 K.
The dynamic viscosity of high temperature molten salts diminishes with increas-
ing temperatures and generally follows the Arrhenius expression, where Bη is the
activation energy:
3.4 Transport Properties 69

η ¼ Aη exp Bη =RT ð3:45Þ
A comprehensive list of values of the parameters Aη and Eη from [214], with a few
more recent data, is shown in Table 3.18, the numerical data of these parameters
pertain to η and Aη in mPa∙s and to Bη in J∙mol1.
The fluidity is the reciprocal of the viscosity, Φ ¼ η1, and for molten salts has
been related by Marcus [256] to their molar volume V, as both vary with the
temperature according to the Hildebrand and Lamoreaux [257] relationship,
Fig. 3.6:
Φ ¼ B þ ðB=V 0 ÞV ð3:46Þ
The parameters B and V0 resulting from linear plots of Φ of molten salts against
V are shown in Table 3.18 too. These parameters are independent of the temperature
and the V0 values are in good agreement with those derived by Chhabra and Hunter
[253] as seen in the Table. They correspond to the volume of the virtual molten salt
that has no free volume, but in which the ions are free to rotate. Such a volume
should be close to that of the crystalline salt at the melting point, but there are no
accurate data for this quantity for comparison. Bockris and Richards [137] reported
values of v01/3 for alkali metal halides and nitrates, where v0 is the incompressible
volume per ion. These values for the salts, shown in italics in Table 3.18 are
comparable with the V0 values reported there. The V0 values of molten salts are
on the average 87 6 % of the molar volumes of the liquid salts at the
corresponding temperature of 1.1Tm (Tables 3.13 and 3.14).
The meaning of the B parameters is rather obscure. It is expected that the larger
the attractive forces between the ions, the less ready would they be to move in an
external force gradient, hence the smaller the fluidity. This expectation is borne out
only for the alkali metal fluorides, for which B decreases linearly with their
cohesive energy densities. For 51 other molten salts of the 1:1, 1:2, and 1:3 types
the B parameters increase linearly with the cohesive energy (that is, with ce/z+2z2),
but with considerable scatter [256].
Young and O’Connell [140] presented a corresponding states correlation of
alkali metal salt viscosities, from which a relationship with the molar volumes
may be derived, which is, however, very much more complicated than Eq. (3.46).
Janz et al. [258] subsequently extended this treatment to 1:2 and 2:1 molten salts.
The resulting expressions are:
lnðΦ=Φ*Þ ¼ a bðT*=T Þ þ cðT=T*Þ8

1=2
Φ* ¼ dV*
h ð2 T*μÞ
2=3
i ð3:47Þ
V* ¼ V= e þ f T=T* þ gðT=T*Þ2
with 7 substance-independent parameters (a . . . g), and where T* ¼ 0.4/αP (propor-

tional to the reciprocal of the isobaric expansibility) and μ ¼ M+M/(M+ + M) is
the reduced mass. The salts are then characterized by the ionic masses and
Table 3.18 The viscosity of molten salts expressed by the Aη and Bη parameters of η ¼ Aηexp(Bη/
RT) [214], and their fluidity expressed by the B and V0 parameters of Φ ¼ η1¼ B + (B/V0)V
[256]. The V0 values in parentheses are from Potapov et al. [253], those in italics are the sum of the
incompressible ionic volumes from Bockris and Richards [137]
Salt Aη/mPa∙s Bη/J∙mol1 B/s∙mPa1 V0/cm3∙mol1
LiF 0.18359 21,832 3.36 12.4
LiCl 0.10852 19,111 6.52 25.4 (26.7) 22.4
LiBr 0.14030 17,246 6.24 31.8 (32.3) 28.0
LiI 0.12650 17,386 5.96 40.5 (40.0)
LiNO2 0.00297 34,342
LiNO3 0.08237 18,575 7.21 38.2 (38.0) 40.3
LiClO3 0.00198 32,690 2.65 44.2
LiClO4 0.09436 19,523 4.60 51.5
Li2CO3 0.08660 36,863 3.65 39.0
Li2SO4 0.02412 53,768 3.86 53.0
Li2MoO4 0.21989 29,457 2.86 58.2
Li2WO4 0.02244 55,019 3.90 60.4
NaOH 0.07211 20,657 7.37 21.9
NaF 0.1197 26,468 3.68 18.2
NaCl 0.08927 21,960 5.00 31.5 (34.5) 34.2
NaBr 0.10340 20,478 4.73 37.1 (37.4) 36.8
NaI 0.09940 19,095 5.49 47.2 (49.0) 53.0
NaNO2 0.04875 19,095 5.83 36.0
NaNO3 0.1041 16,259 6.50 41.7 54.6
NaSCN 0.04935 19,397 3.78 42.1
NaClO3 0.02439 25,110 3.48 49.3
NaBF4 0.0832 19,620 4.98 52.2
Na2CO3 0.18937 28,834 2.65 49.3
Na2SO4 0.148 41,799 1.73 65.7
Na2MoO4 0.15264 29,570 3.10 70.0
Na2WO4 0.07974 36,683 3.73 73.4
Na3AlF6 0.01792 51,780 3.08 87.1
KOH 0.02295 25,845 6.75 30.6
KF 0.1068 23,779 3.96 26.6
KCl 0.06166 25,047 5.56 41.5 (42.6) 46.2
KBr 0.07370 23,543 4.93 48.0 (47.0) 53.0
KI 0.10230 20,521 4.22 57.7 (58.6) 66.8
KNO2 0.1645 14,326 2.73 42.1
KNO3 0.07737 18,469 5.22 50.9 (50.9) 69.2
KSCN 0.00858 27,004 3.95 46.2
KBF4 0.0946 4530
K2CO3 0.18751 27,038 2.96 65.5
K2MoO4 0.28952 21,360 5.94 87.5
K2WO4 0.07656 36,065 2.09 95.0
K2Cr2O7 0.08051 28,782 2.05 124.3
(continued)

RbF 0.09711 24,325 3.87 30.7
RbCl 0.06783 24,805 4.91 46.9 (51.4)
RbBr 0.08060 23,550 4.42 53.2 (51.4)
RbI 0.07640 23,081 4.97 65.0 (63.6)
RbNO2 0.08754 18,807
RbNO3 0.1296 16,636 3.85 55.8
Rb2CO3 0.15847 28,318 3.17 74.2
CsF 0.10164 22,177 4.34 35.2
CsCl 0.07148 23,619 5.00 53.5 (57.7) 63.0
CsBr 0.08470 22,920 4.48 60.3 68.6
CsI 0.07720 22,701 5.35 73.5 (73.4)
CsNO2 0.1058 17,628
CsNO3 0.03936 23,193 4.89 73.6
Cs2CO3 0.11478 29,468 3.74 86.6
CuCl 0.1042 21,234 7.51 26.1
AgCl 0.3098 12,197 4.74 30.4
AgBr 0.3806 12,920 3.97 35.0
AgI 0.1418 22,004 5.77 44.6
AgNO3 0.1159 15,145 5.66 48.7
TlCl 0.173 14,226 3.00 40.9
TlBr 0.3157 11,772 3.93 45.7
TlI 0.2284 14,523 4.06 49.3
TlNO3 0.0843 15,301 6.17 52.2
MgCl2 0.17939 20,559 5.64 52.2
MgBr2 0.00341 60,213 14.44c 69.9
CaCl2 0.10215 30,351 4.62 50.0
SrCl2 0.09638 34,918 3.92 54.2
BaCl2 0.07993 39,522 3.49 61.0
Ba(NO2)2 0.00129 47,347
ZnCl2 2.89 104 75,136 2.38 55.1
ZnBr2 7.79 105 82,481 3.47 66.1
CdCl2 0.2405 16,368 4.04 49.3
CdBr2 0.1893 19,063 3.87 61.3
CdI2 0.05208 29,473 3.01 82.1
PbCl2 0.05619 28,293 4.81 53.8
PbBr2 0.08165 24,573 4.03 62.5
BiCl3 0.3787 19,636 0.47d 76.0
LaCl3 0.02061 54,598 3.88 73.8
CeCl3a 0.09084 34,837 2.83 70.1
PrCl3a 0.09421 31,429 4.85 72.3
NdCl3a 0.08114 36,123 2.93 70.6
SmCl3a 0.04999 40,688 3.43 70.8
(continued)

EuCl3b 0.06752 36,792
DyCl3a 0.05984 42,109 2.90 72.0
ErCl3a 0.02503 52,252 2.97 73.5
a
[254], b[255], cThis value is apparently too large, dThis value is apparently too small
Fig. 3.6 The fluidities Φ of some molten salts plotted against their molar volumes over a suitable
temperature range, limited to that where the viscosity data are available: LiF (♦), KF (●), CaCl2
(~), Na2SO4 (▼), and CsNO3 (■) (From Marcus [256] by permission of the publisher (Elsevier))
expansibilities, and the viscosities could be predicted by this set of expressions to

within 3 %.
Another application of the corresponding states approach is that of Abe and
Nagashima [259], who used the Tosi-Fumi [112] potential function to obtain the
two parameters d ¼ r+ + r for the distance and ε for the potential energy. The
resulting expression for the fluidity of a molten salts is:
h i
Φ ¼ dðMεÞ1=2 a þ bV=N A d3 ðkB T=εÞ1=2 ð3:48Þ
with 2 substance-independent parameters (a and b). A variant of this approach is

that of Tada et al. [260], based on listed values of the characteristic temperature T*
and volume V* of the alkali metal halides and two functions of the ionic masses, mS
and μS:
Φ ¼ ðV*=N A Þ2=3 ðkB T*mS Þ1=2 ½aexpðbT*=T Þ þ fcðT*=T Þ dgμS ð3:49Þ

where mS ¼ 2 Mþ 1=2 M 1=2 = Mþ 1=2 þ M 1=2 and μS ¼ Mþ 1=2 M 1=2 =
1=2
Mþ þ M 1=2 with four substance-independent parameters (a . . . d ). Other
theoretical expressions and empirical representations of the viscosities or the
fluidities of molten salts have also been reported, but they are less able to predict
these values.
3.4.2 Electrical Conductivity
The electrical conductivity of molten salts is again an important feature and has
been reported for many salts. The methodology has been described many years ago
by Tomlinson [261] and by Sundheim [262] and much more recently by Nunes
et al. [263]. The critically compiled conductance data in [214] and many of the
subsequently reported data are in terms of the specific conductance κ, which like the
viscosity follows an Arrhenius-type expression:
κ ¼ Aκ expðBκ =RT Þ ð3:50Þ
The conductance increases with the temperature, so that the minus sign before the
activation energy Bκ for the conductance should be noted, contrary to the positive
values of numerator of the exponent for the viscosity. The equivalent conductance
of the molten salt, which is the product of the specific conductance with the molar
volume of the molten salt, also follows an Arrhenius-type expression:
Λ ¼ Vκ ¼ AΛ expðBΛ =RT Þ ð3:51Þ
Values of AΛ and BΛ are listed in Table 3.19 as far as they are known or could be
derived from reported specific conductance data [214] by means of the molar
volumes and their temperature dependence in Tables 3.13 and 3.14. The derived
equivalent conductivities at the corresponding temperature of 1.1Tm are also
recorded in this Table as far as the relevant data are known. Else, the values of Aκ
and Bκ are shown in Table 3.19 in parentheses. Some of the values recorded in
Table 3.19 appear to be unreliable: for instance the low values of the equivalent
conductivities of the lanthanide chlorides from samarium onwards contrast with the
much larger values of the lighter salts, and the fluctuations within the series with the
atomic number are also suspect.
Table 3.19 The conductivity of molten salts from data in [214] or as noted: the AΛ and BΛ
parameters of the equivalent conductivity Λ/ohm1 cm2 equiv.1 ¼ AΛexp(BΛ/RT). Values in
parenthesis are the corresponding parameters for the specific conductivity κ/ohm1 cm1 ¼ Aκexp
(Bκ/RT)
Salt AΛ BΛ/J mol1 Λ at 1.1Tm
LiF 320.7 2143 260.2
LiCl 508.2 2015 396.0
LiBr 585.3 2117 441.8
LiI 569.5 1810 436.0
LiNO2 (44.82) (17,426.7)
LiNO3 967.8 3589 458.6
LiClO3 (186.87) (24,476.4)
LiClO4 (14.831) (13,016.6)
Li2CO3 754.5 4438 473.6
Li2SO4 394.8 2932 297.4
Li2MoO4 (22.493) (20,736.3) 405.6
Li2WO4 (16.969) (18,768.4) 409.2
NaOH 668.2 3120 375.1
NaF 344.7 2964 267.0
NaCl 544.6 2990 401.6
NaBr 622.7 3228 440.6
NaI 694.5 3221 476.1
NaNO2 685.7 2949 384.5
NaNO3 705.6 3215 384.5
NaSCN (43.) (19,832.5)
NaClO3 (48.3) (22,348.8)
NaBF4 (5.2325) (6447.7) 214.0
Na2CO3 550.2 4199 366.6
Na2SO4 550.2 4507 359.4
Na2MoO4 779.9 5713 406.9
Na2WO4 381.7 4491 260.0
Na3AlF6 (9.267) (12,694.5) 331.2
KOH 520.2 2467 339.6
KF 480.3 3355 346.6
KCl 548.0 3415 383.1
KBr 591.1 3747 393.6
KI 541.2 3442 364.7
KNO2 777.0 3267
KNO3 657.4 3577 346.6
KSCN 787.4 6082 179.6
KBF4 125.6 4068 74.1
K2CO3 544.6 4650 352.9
K2SO4 815.0 4722 555.8
K2MoO4 (4.72) (13,549.7) 389.7
K2WO4 (8.141) (19,518.7) 484.5
(continued)

K2Cr2O7 605.2 8141 160.6
RbF (9.486) (10,736) 249.5
RbCl 754.1 4401 465.0
RbBr 611.1 4171 381.0
RbI 568.1 3999 353.2
RbNO2 (10.66) (14,377.3)
RbNO3 515.7 3496 267.6
Rb2CO3a (11.31) (19,630)
Rb2SO4 471.7 4957 315.4
CsF (12.89) (13,577) 242.9
CsCl 1102 5110 599.7
CsBr 1169 5533 600.9
CsI 1125 5450 579.8
CsNO2 (6.905) (12,866.4)
CsNO3 552.4 3688 307.2
Cs2CO3a (9.38) (18,800)
Cs2SO4 387.5 4529 264.1
CuCl 153.6 650 138.7
CuBr (6.342) (5925)
AgCl 268.2 1252 222.2
AgBr 210.2 1104 177.2
AgI 239.9 1475 197.5
AgNO3 587.9 2898 306.1
TlCl 546.0 3421 320.6
TlBr 425.8 3511 252.2
TlI 614.5 9163 131.6
TlNO2 393.9 10,057 35.9
TlNO3 633.3 3348 296.7
Tl2SO4 760.5 16,979 97.9
MgCl2 263.7 4363 162.1
MgBr2 385.5 5404 211.9
MgI2 (13.07) (26,498)
CaF2 798.7 21,163 203.3
CaCl2 675.3 5285 390.6
CaBr2 506.7 4901 296.9
CaI2 440.3 4617 273.1
SrCl2 689.6 5646 402.8
SrBr2 806.5 6183 412.2
SrI2 610.1 5409 288.1
BaCl2 772.5 6004 454.1
BaBr2 2652 10,296 418.8
BaI2 831.2 6367 418.0
(continued)

Ba(NO3)2 10,217 8104
MnF2 (16.903) (12,561)
MnCl2 169.5 2694
FeCl2 490.8 8813 178.0
CoCl2b 480.6 6276
CoBr2c (1790.7) (30,900)
NiCl2b 1166.8 8861
CuF2 (4.031) (6397)
ZnCl2 6097 11,785
ZnBr2 35,684 14,604
ZnI2 17,880 12,636
CdCl2 24.1 2499 174
CdBr2 243.4 3226 159.9
CdI2 1109.0 6365 386.4
SnCl2 361.8 2727 203.7
PbF2 (13.041) (8607)
PbCl2 588.1 4093 329.8
PbBr2 660.8 4559 305.6
PbI2 601.8 18,547 30.9
UO2Cl2 (15.733) (41,649)
ScCl3 (218.4) (61,225)
YCl3 959.2 8827 348.3
LaCl3 469.4 5678 273.0
LaBr3 2652 10,296
LaI3 1614.9 29,903 71.4
CeCl3 1030 25,360 81.9
CeI3 (7.746) (26,335)
PrCl3d 1430 28,320 77.0
NdCl3d 2040 28,050 104.2
NdBr3 3973 11,749
SmCl3e 2799 31,860 73.0
EuCl3e 1620 28,734 48.7
GdCl3e 575 16,404 75.2
TbCl3e 2047 33,032 32.0
DyCl3e 2014 34,513 38.4
DyI3 (7.792) (31,665)
HoCl3e 652 18,865 81.3
ErCl3e 2076 36,425 46.6
TmCl3e 748 21,368 89.0
YbCl3e 2269 38,464 57.0
LuCl3e 2178 38,961 62.2
BiCl3 32.36 981.3 26.1
(continued)

BiBr3 16.67 535.6 14.8
BiI3 78.5 7815 22.4
ThCl4 395.0 676.4 194.3
UCl4e 1162 23,684 57.8
a
[265], b[219], c[264], d[266], e[220]
The conductivity of molten salts depends on the short-range forces much more
than on the long-range coulombic ones, as suggested by Sundheim [262], according
to Rice [267], because the relaxation times for the latter are so much longer than
those for the former. However, the expected reciprocal dependence of the equiva-
lent conductivity
on the viscosity according to the Stokes’ law,
Λ ¼ F =6π ½zþ =r þ þ z =r η1 , is not realized quantitatively. A relationship
2
does exist between the apparent activation energies for viscosity and equivalent
conductivity for salts of uni- and divalent cations, on comparison of the entries in
Tables 3.18 and 3.19:
1
Bη =kJ mol1 ¼ 5:4 1:8 þ ð4:9 0:4Þ BΛ =kJ mol1 ð3:52Þ
Whereas Bη generally diminishes as the size of the ions increases, BΛ increases in

this direction, Fig. 3.7.
The conductivity of molten salts has been related to the existence of ‘free
volume’ in the melt [268] and it was argued that the Arrhenius activation energy
BΛ should be lower than the corresponding one for ion diffusion in the melt (see
below), BD as was in fact found. This would explain why the conductivity does not
adhere to the Nernst-Einstein relation Λ ¼ F2 ðDþ þ D Þ=RT for the diffusion or to
Stokes’ law as mentioned above. The significant structure theory in this case [160]
specifies that only the solid-like particles contribute to the conductivity. Their
number per unit volume is NAVsdV2, where Vsd is the molar volume of the solid
salt at the melting point. This number of solid-like particles, when multiplied by the
sum of cation and anion mobilities that depend reciprocally on the viscosity of the
molten salt, yields κ, the specific conductivity. However, the calculated conductiv-
ities of the five alkali metal halides tested were some 30 % lower than the exper-
imental values.
The corresponding states approach of Tada et al. [260] uses listed substance-
dependent characteristic volumes V* and temperatures T* (see above) and two
numerical parameters to correlate the specific conductivities of alkali metal halides
as:
κ ¼ 0:129Cexpð1:03 T=T*ÞV*2=3 T*1=2 ½ðMþ þ M Þ=Mþ M 1=2 ð3:53Þ
where C ¼ e2 N A 2=3 kB 1=2 .

Fig. 3.7 The activation energy for viscous flow, Bη, plotted against the activation energy for their
electrical conductance, BΛ, of uni-univalent molten salts (●) and di-univalent ones (~)
There has been a long-standing debate regarding the significance of transport

numbers in pure single-component molten salts. External transport numbers deal
with the mobilities of individual ions with regard to an inert wall of an electro-
chemical cell. These may be measured in a diaphragm cell by means of isotopic
tracers as discussed by Klemm [269]. Internal transport numbers refer to the
difference in the mobilities of the cation and the anion of the molten salt, but in a
pure salt with only two ionic species this cannot be measured and has no meaning.
(Where there are three ionic species, in common-ion salt mixtures, e.g., MX + MY,
such measurements are possible as shown by Haase [270] and are meaningful). A
way around this problem is the measurement of the self-diffusion of the ions in a
single molten salt by means of isotopic tracers. The ion mobilities u are then
directly proportional to the self-diffusion coefficients D and internal transport
numbers may then be defined as: t+ ¼ D+/(D+ + D) for the cation. However, these
defined internal transport numbers are meaningless, as discussed many years ago
and pointed out again recently by Harris [271].
3.4.3 Self Diffusion
Self-diffusion coefficients of ions in pure molten salts are measured by the use of
suitable isotopically labeled ions either by diffusion out of capillaries (more rarely
into them) into the bulk molten salt (more rarely out of it) that has the same overall
chemical nature or, as more recently introduced, by nuclear magnetic resonance
(NMR). They can also be determined by molecular dynamics computer simula-
tions, where the velocity self-correlation of an ion is computed. Many of the
available data were reported in the compilations by Klemm [269] and by Sj€oblom
[272] and these and more recent ones are shown in Table 3.20. For each molten salt
the self-diffusion coefficient for the cation and the anion are shown separately, and
where available its temperature dependence is reported in terms of the parameters
AD and ED of the Arrhenius-type expression D ¼ AD expðBD =RT Þ. Also shown in
this Table are the ionic self-diffusion coefficient at the corresponding temperature
of 1.1Tm, or, if the temperature dependence is unknown, at some specified temper-
ature. The values of the ionic self-diffusion coefficients are in the range 1 D/109
m2 s1 10, and within a given salt are generally larger for the smaller one of the
cation and the anion. Only for the zinc salts that are network forming (Chap. 4) are
the self-diffusion coefficients much smaller than this range.
Sj€
oblom [273] discussed several models for the self-diffusion in molten salts: the
hole model, the free volume model, the local density fluctuation model, and the
cubic cell model. The hole model of Fürth [275], adopted by Bockris and coworkers
(e.g. [137]), considers the diffusion of an ion as its jump into an available neigh-
boring hole of suitable size in the melt. The activation energy BD is the sum of the
energy required for the creation of such a hole and that needed for the ion to jump
into it, and is dominated by the former energy. The free volume model concentrates
on the low temperature (supercooled) region and modifies the denominator of the
Arrhenius-type expression to R(T – T0) where T0 is the temperature at which the
configurational entropy vanishes (the glass transition temperature) [268, 276]. The
local density fluctuation model turned out to be unable to describe properly the
temperature dependence of the self-diffusion of ions in molten salts. The cubic cell
model stipulates that D/T should be inversely proportional to the kinematic viscos-
ity, (η/ρ)1, with the proportionality constant being Rd2/24 M, where d is the linear
dimension of the cubic cell and M is the molar mass of the ion. This approach does
describe the temperature dependence of the self-diffusion adequately, as does the
simple Arrhenius-type expression shown in Table 3.20.
Much more recently Harris [271] examined the applicability of the
Nernst-Einstein relationship between the molar conductivity Λ and the ionic
diffusivities D:

Λ ¼ F2 =RT νþ zþ 2 Dþ þ ν z 2 D ð1 ΔÞ ð3:54Þ
to single binary molten salts in which the electroneutrality ν+z+¼ νz prevails.
Contrary to dilute aqueous electrolyte solutions, where Δ ¼ 0, in molten salts
Table 3.20 The AD and BD parameters of the self-diffusion coefficient D/109 m2 s1 ¼ ADexp
(BD/RT) of molten salts (According to Klemm [265] and Sj€oblom [267] or as noted
Salt Ion AD/109 m2 s1 BD/kJ mol1 D at 1.1Tm or As noted
LiFa F 7.2 (at 1125 K)
LiClb Li+ 125 18.11 13.26
LiClb Cl 36 13.51 6.85
LiBrc Li+ 11.25 (1000 K)
LiBrc Br 5.52 (1000 K)
LiNO3 Li+ 247 22.97 2.07
LiNO3 NO3 195 26.53 0.78
Li2CO3 CO32 1.4 40.75 0.016
NaFd Na+ 9.80 (1275 K)
NaFd F 9.67 (1275 K)
NaCl Na+ 336 32.89 11.65
NaCl Cl 302 35.10 8.46
NaI Na+ 63 16.87 8.72
NaI I 43 18.49 4.92
NaNO3 Na+ 129 20.80 2.54
NaNO3 NO3 90 21.25 1.63
Na3AlF6d Na+ 9.28 (1325 K)
Na3AlF6d F 5.81 (1325 K)
Na2CO3 Na+ 1000 58.92 3.24
Na2CO3 CO32 286 44.43 3.80
KF F 9.5 (at 1125 K)
KCl K+ 180 28.79 8.95
KCl Cl 180 29.83 8.03
KNO3 K+ 132 23.14 2.10
KNO3 NO3 142 24.11 1.90
RbCl Rb+ 251 33.52 6.32
RbCl Cl 167 31.04 5.52
RbBre Rb+ 5.0 (955 K)
RbBre Br 5.0 (955 K)
RbNO3f Rb+ 157 23.72 1.84
CsCl Cs+ 173 30.62 4.51
CsCl Cl 246 32.72 5.00
CsNO3 Cs+ 113 23.48 2.70
CsNO3 NO3 178 26.28 2.72
CuBre Cu+ 8.4 (810 K)
CuBre Br 4.5 (810 K)
CuIe Cu+ 7.4 (923 K)
CuIe I 3.9 (923 K)
AgBre Ag+ 5.7 (753 K)
AgBre Br 4.0 (753 K)
AgNO3 Ag+ 49 15.60 1.46
AgNO3 NO3 31 16.07 0.83
(continued)

Salt Ion AD/109 m2 s1 BD/kJ mol1 D at 1.1Tm or As noted
TlCl Tl+ 76 18.99 3.81
TlCl Cl 79 19.08 4.06
MgCl2g Mg2+ 130 (1573 K)
MgCl2g Cl 190 (1573 K)
CaCl2 Ca2+ 38 25.65 2.59
CaCl2 Cl 190 37.07 3.93
SrCl2 Sr+ 21 22.51 2.45
SrCl2 Cl 77 28.79 4.94
BaCl2 Ba2+ 64 37.49 2.32
BaCl2 Cl 200 38.41 6.69
ZnCl2 Zn2+ 5850 64.85 0.017
ZnCl2 Cl 13,700 68.20 0.021
ZnBr2 Zn2+ 8000 70.71 0.074
ZnBr2 Br 11,100 71.34 0.093
CdCl2 Cd2+ 110 28.52 2.69
CdCl2 Cl 110 28.45 2.72
PbCl2 Pb2+ 77 28.36 1.40
PbCl2 Cl 90 25.52 2.44
PbBr2 Pb2+ 74 27.20 0.74
PbBr2 Br 83 25.52 1.10
a
[274], b[268], c[272], d[269], e[270], f[271], g[273]
Δ 6¼ 0 and is related to the velocity cross-correlation coefficients of like and unlike

ions. The Nernst-Einstein expression therefore under-estimates the self-diffusion
coefficients because Δ is positive but <1.
3.4.4 Thermal Conductivity
Another transport property of molten salts for which there is a considerable amount
of data is their thermal conductivity λth. In earlier years the then available measur-
ing techniques led to the conclusion that λth increases mildly with increasing
temperatures. More modern techniques, such as transient hot wire measurements,
yield values of λth that diminish mildly and linearly with increasing temperatures.
The scatter of values reported in the literature is large, however, and they have not
been critically compiled so far. Gheribi et al. [277] provided an explicit model
expression for λth, the required inputs for their model being the ionic radii, and the
density, velocity of sound, heat capacity, and melting temperature of the salt.
Table 3.21 shows the ‘recommended’ predicted values in terms of the parameters
of the linear temperature dependence:
λth ðT Þ ¼ λth ðT m Þ Bth ðT T m Þ ð3:55Þ
The predicted values of λth agree as well as may be expected with modern
experimental values. The values of λth at the corresponding temperature of 1.1Tm
are also shown in Table 3.21, and those for the alkali metal halides depend
reciprocally on the molar mass of the salt: λth ð1:1T m Þ=W m1 K1
1

35= M=g mol , but this cannot be generalized to other salts. A reciprocal depen-
dence on the mass of the molten salts (a fractional power of it) was also noted by
Cornwell [278] for 13 salts other than alkali metal halides at temperatures near Tm.
DiGuilio and Teja [279] reviewed several models for the thermal conductivity of
molten salts, and later Hossain et al. [280] employed essentially the same model as
in [279] to obtain the reduced thermal conductivity λth*, but without a clear
definition how λth* is related to the measured thermal conductivity.
3.5 Solvent Properties
The properties of high temperature molten salts as solvents and reaction media need
to be discussed in connection with the behavior of the molten salts in mixtures, a
wide subject that is outside the scope of the present book. Here only the ability of
pure molten salts to dissolve non-reactive gases and some organic compounds,
which leads to no profound change of the structure of the melts, is dealt with.
Grimes et al. [283] asserted that previous to their work no solubility data of (noble)
gases in molten salts appeared to have been published. Tomkins and Bansal
compiled the data available at the time [284] and Tomkins later reviewed the
experimental methods for the determination of the solubilities in molten salts
[285]. Solubilities are available mainly for argon, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide,
with few data also for helium, and the salts studied are mainly the alkali metal
halides and nitrates. The solubilities of non-reactive gases in molten salts are quite
low, so that Henry’s law applies. Most of the data in the literature are in terms of KP,
the number of moles of gas dissolved per unit volume of the salt divided by the
saturation pressure, in units of 107 molgas cm3 atm1. They are transformed into
the mole fraction of the gas in the molten salt, xgas, at unit pressure by multiplication
with the molar volume of the latter, Vsalt, because Henry’s law constant, K H ¼
ðK P V salt Þ1 and xgas ¼ Pgas =K H . Table 3.22 summarizes the solubilities in terms
of –logxgas at ambient pressure and 1.1Tm (interpolated as necessary) with Vsalt from
Tables 3.13 and 3.14. Also included in the Table are the molar enthalpies of
solution, obtained as Δsolution H ¼ R ∂lnxgas =∂ð1=T Þ P .
Marcus [155] showed that the gas solubilities in molten salts can be expressed
according to a general solubility expression in terms of the cohesive energy density
of the salt (the square of its Hildebrand solubility parameter) as:
3.5 Solvent Properties 83
Table 3.21 The thermal conductivity of molten salts according to Eq. (3.55) from Gheribi
et al. [277] or as noted
λ(Tm) B λ at 1.1Tm
Salt W m1 K1 104 W m1 K2 W m1 K1
LiOH 1.2732 6.58 1.217
LiF 1.4360 3.99 1.387
LiCl 0.7265 2.33 0.704
LiBr 0.4748 1.31 0.463
LiI 0.3461 1.52 0.334
LiNO3 0.5856 1.47 0.577
Li2CO3 0.9348 1.87 0.916
Li2SO4 0.6392 1.26 0.624
NaOH 0.9802 3.68 0.956
NaF 0.9026 2.81 0.863
NaCl 0.4923 2.11 0.467
NaBr 0.3315 1.46 0.315
NaI 0.2392 1.21 0.227
NaNO2 0.5382 2.39 0.524
NaNO3 0.5277 1.99 0.515
NaHSO4 0.46a
Na2CO3 0.6176 1.44 0.600
Na2SO4 0.4482 1.08 0.434
KOH 0.6866 2.34 0.670
KF 0.5684 2.54 0.537
KCl 0.3974 2.00 0.374
KBr 0.2707 1.49 0.254
KI 0.2105 1.27 0.197
KSCN 0.27a
KNO2 0.4028 2.39 0.384
KNO3 0.4047 1.88 0.392
KHSO4 0.34a
K2CO3 0.4691 1.06 0.455
K2SO4 0.2739 0.856 0.261
RbF 0.4413 3.02 0.405
RbCl 0.2980 1.66 0.280
RbBr 0.2419 1.52 0.226
RbI 0.1526 0.608 0.146
RbNO3 0.3370 1.62 0.327
Rb2CO3 0.3482 0.776 0.339
Rb2SO4 0.2148 0.527 0.207
CsF 0.3169 2.46 0.290
CsCl 0.2689 1.66 0.252
CsBr 0.2088 1.20 0.197
CsI 0.1304 0.427 0.126
CsNO3 0.2456 1.14 0.237
(continued)

λ(Tm) B λ at 1.1Tm
Salt W m1 K1 104 W m1 K2 W m1 K1
Cs2CO3 0.3203 0.454 0.315
Cs2SO4 0.1285 0.307 0.124
NH4HSO4 0.39a
AgNO3 0.382b 1.84b 0.472b
MgF2 0.6501 1.41 0.626
MgCl2 0.2040c 0.20c
CaF2 0.5650 0.604 0.554
CaCl2 0.4468 1.15 0.433
CaBr2 0.3880 0.760 0.380
SrF2 0.3954 0.725 0.382
SrCl2 0.3802 1.18 0.365
SrBr2 0.3550 1.05 0.344
SrI2 0.2359 0.753 0.229
BaF2 0.2937 0.642 0.282
BaCl2 0.3279 1.09 0.313
BaBr2 0.2354 0.875 0.225
BaI2 0.2056 0.792 0.197
ZnCl2 0.30a
a
[281] near Tm, b[282], cThese entries in [277] appear to be misprinted, because they are much out
of line with those of the other alkaline earth halides
Table 3.22 The (negative logarithm of the) mole fraction solubility –logxgas of gases in molten
salts at 1.1Tm and unit pressure from Marcus and Tomkins [155, 285] or as noted and the molar
enthalpy of solution, ΔsolutionH/kJ mol1 in parenthesis
Salt He Ar N2 CO2
LiNO3 5.20 (33.5)b 5.13b (7.6)b 3.87d (2.0)d
NaCl 5.54 4.42d
NaNO3 5.32a (13.5)a 5.49a (14.7)a 5.00a (11.5)b 4.08d (2.2)d
KCl 4.69 4.41d (10.3)d
KBr 4.31 4.26e
KI 4.16 3.89e
KNO3 4.97 (10.6)b 4.80b (7.2)b 4.20d
RbCl 4.32 4.51 (12.2)d
RbNO3 5.10c (20.1)c 3.95d (2.3)d
CsCl 4.66 4.36
CsNO3 4.22d
AgNO3 6.09c
ZnCl2 4.04f
ZnBr2 3.93f
SnCl2 4.65f
a
[290], b[287], c[286], d[288], e[289], f[291]
3.5 Solvent Properties 85
logxgas ¼ ðln10Þ1 V gas ðRT Þ1 ced salt ð3:56Þ
within 0.3 units in logxgas, which is the uncertainty within the data reported for a
given salt and a given gas by different authors, Fig. 3.8. In this expression the molar
volumes, Vgas/cm3 mol1, of the gases were taken as 2.47, 1.46, and 2.09 for Ar, N2,
2
and CO2, as fitting parameters and ced salt δHsalt δHgas , because of the
negligible size of δHgas compared with δHsalt ¼ cedsalt1/2 (Table 3.12). Gas solubil-
ities in lithium nitrate do not conform to Eq. (3.56) for no apparent reason.
7.50
6.50
-logx2 calcd.
5.50
4.50
3.50
3.50 4.50 5.50 6.50
-logx2 exptI.
Fig. 3.8 The (negative logarithms of the mole fraction) solubilities of Ar (●) and CO2 (~) in
molten salts, calculated according to Eq. (3.56), plotted against the experimental values. The
empty symbols are the outlying LiNO3 data (From Marcus [155] by permission of the publisher
(Elsevier))
In earlier attempts of the rationalization of gas solubilities in molten salts

Blander et al. [292] used the Uhlig model, according to which the solubility
depends on the work required for the production of the cavity in the molten salt
in which the gas molecule is to reside. This, in turn, depends on the surface tension
of the salt melt and the van der Waals surface area of the gas molecules. This
approach, however, under-estimates the actual solubilities [289, 290].
Subsequently Fukase [293] employed a more complicated model to calculate the
Henry’s law constants KH, according to which lnKH is the sum of (RT/Vsalt) and a
positive hard sphere term (corresponding to the cavity formation work) and sub-
stantially two negative terms describing the Lennard-Jones and polarization terms
for the interaction of the dissolved gas with the ions of the molten salt. Fair
agreement with the experimental lnKH values was achieved, but considerably
worse agreement with the enthalpies of solution resulted. In a more recent paper
Simonin [294] dealt with the effects of polarization on the solubility of gases in
molten salts, again including the volume exclusion, dispersion forces, and polari-
zation of the gas molecules and of the ions of the molten salt. He applied the model
to the solubilities of noble gases in molten KCl and RbCl at one temperature,
1173 K, with good agreement and no adjustable parameters.
There are hardly any reports of the solubility of organic solutes in molten salts,
because these solutes are thermally unstable at the high temperatures involved.
Molten KSCN (Tm ¼ 446 K) appears to be the only inorganic pure salt in which
solutions of certain organic solutes are stable enough to be studied. The indicators
methyl red, m-cresol purple, and alizarin produce reversible color changes in
molten KSCN at 473 K [295]. The solubility of diethylene glycol, triethylene
glycol, urea, thiourea, nitrobenzene, anthracene, tribenzylamine, benzophenone,
polypropylene glycol, triethanolamine, phthalic anhydride, and glycerol in molten
KSCN at 483 K has been reported in [296].
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Chapter 4
Network Forming Ionic Liquids
4.1 Binary Network Forming Salts
Some inorganic salts associate in the molten state to large aggregates forming a
network of bonds. Such a molten salt on cooling form a glass rather than crystallize.
The glass is characterized by infinitely large viscosity and a loss of configurational
entropy [1]. Among inorganic salts the foremost examples are BeF2, ZnCl2, B2O3,
SiO2, and GeO2, the physicochemical data of which are shown in Table 4.1.
There is some information in the literature regarding these molten salts beyond
the data in Table 4.1. The structure of the network forming salts has been studied by
means of the methods already discussed in Sect. 3.2 for highly ionic high-melting
salts. A common feature is the existence in the MX2 melts of a close-packed anion
(X ¼ F, Cl, O2) structure with the multivalent cations (M ¼ Be2+, Zn2–, Si4+,
Ge4+) occupying tetrahedral sites in this structure. Thus networks of MX42 or 4
tetrahedra that share corners are the common structural feature of these salts. This
information resulted from the application of a variety of methods to the molten
MX2 salts: x-ray diffraction [22–24], neutron diffraction [24–27], XAFS [28, 29],
Raman spectroscopy [30, 31], and computer simulations [24, 32–36]. Most of these
reports dealt with ZnCl2 [22, 24–28, 30, 32, 35], some of them with ZnBr2 (a less
pronounced network former) [25, 29, 30], and only very few with BeF2 [33], SiO2
[31, 32, 36], and GeO2 [34]. (Studies of the structures of mixtures involving these
compounds, e.g. LiF + BeF2 and various non-stoichiometric silicates, are much
more prolific).
The structure of molten B2O3 differs, in that three-fold coordination of boron
atoms with oxygen atoms prevails in it [37–40]. The structure, obtained by x-ray
diffraction at 923 K [37, 39] and up to 1073 K by neutron diffraction [38], thus
involves hexagonal boroxol rings and independent BO3 triangles, the proportion of
the latter increasing with the temperature. Raman and luminescence studies of
molten B2O3 at higher temperatures (up to 1700 K) showed further fragmentation
to bent triatomic BO2 units [40].

100
Table 4.1 Properties of binary glass-forming molten salts

Property/units BeF2 ZnCl2 B2O3 SiO2 GeO2
Molar mass, M/kg mol1 0.04701 0.13632 0.06962 0.06008 0.10464
Melting point, Tm/Ka 825 591 723 1996 1389
Normal boiling point, Tb/Ka 1442 1005 2316 3070t
Glass transition temperature, Tg/K 523b 375c 545d 1261d 786d
Molar enthalpy of melting, ΔmH/kJ mol–1a 8.4 10.3 22.2 9.6 16.8
Molar heat capacity at 1.1Tm, CP/J K–1 mol–1a 87.9 100.8 127.6 85.8 80.1
Surface tension at 1.1Tm, σ/mJ m2 200e 54f 67q 319h 271h
Density at 1.1Tm, ρ/g cm3 1.990f 2.492f 1.630g 2.209o 3.488i
Molar volume at 1.1Tm, V/cm3 cm3mol– 1 23.6f 54.7f 42.7g 27.2o 30.0i
Isobaric expansibility at 1.1Tm, 106αP/K– 1 260f 186f 82.4g 37o 8.9i
Isothermal compressibility at 1.1Tm, κ T/GPa– 1 0.547l 0.05i 0.007i 0.121i
Internal pressure 1.1TmαP/κ T, Pint/MPa 221 1311 10,550 112
Viscosity coefficient, Aη 22.4f 8.15f 6.3k 16.7j 6.16m
Viscosity coefficient, Bη/kJ 244.1f 75.1f 89.2k 516.0j 186.3m
Viscosity at 1.1Tm, 10–3η/Pa s 20.62f 0.315f 1.67k 96.7j 44.4m
Equivalent conductivity coefficient, AΛ 44.37n 11.46p
Equivalent conductivity coefficient, BΛ/kJ 197n 0.92p
Equivalent conductivity at 1.1Tm, Λ/S Scm2 cm2mol– 1 0.0002n 9.67p 9.2 106s 7.5 104r

The viscosity entries pertain to lnðη=Pa sÞ ¼ Aη exp Bη =RT and the conductivity entries to ln Λ=S cm2 mol1 ¼ AΛ expðBΛ =RT Þ
a
[2], b[3], c[4], d[5], e[6] (assumed value), f[7], g[8], h[9], i[10], j[11], k[12], l[13], m[14] used (T/K – 199) instead of T/K in the denominator, n[15], o[16], p[17],
q
[18], r[19], with κ read from a curve, s[20], with κ read from a curve, t[21]
4 Network Forming Ionic Liquids
4.2 Molten Borates and Silicates 101
The glass transition temperature Tg (the temperature at which on cooling a liquid

the viscosity reaches the value of 1012 Pa s) recorded in Table 4.1 can be interpreted
in several manners. These include the temperature at which, on super-cooling of the
melt, the free volume Vf vanishes or the heat capacity undergoes a deep decline,
ΔCP, to below the crystal values. For glass forming substances the Arrhenius-type
dependence of transport properties, lnðη=Pa sÞ ¼ Aη exp Bη =RT for the viscosity,
may have to be changed to the Vogel- Fulcher-Tammann- (VFT) form:

η=Pa s ¼ Aη 0 exp Bη 0 =RðT T 0 Þ ð4:1Þ
where T0 < Tg. At temperatures not far from the melting point the transport
phenomena (viscosity, conductivity, self-diffusion of the ions) depend on the
temperature according to the Arrhenius expression with the coefficients Aη and Bη
for the viscosity (and corresponding ones for the conductivity) shown in Table 4.1.
However, deviations may occur at higher temperatures and definitely do so for the
super-cooled liquids. The apparent activation energy Bη declines at higher temper-
atures in the cases of B2O3 and SiO2 and appears to do so also in those of BeF2 and
GeO2 [41], a behavior attributed to the breakdown of the network to smaller
fragments. This finding was challenged in the case of B2O3 [12], where true
Arrhenius-type behavior of the viscosity was found above 1073 K, and in the
case of BeF2 [42] where such behavior was found all the way up to 1250 K. On
the other hand, the VFT expression was found to describe accurately the viscosity
of SiO2 and GeO2 over at least 12 orders of magnitude [14], with T0 ¼ 530 K and
199 K respectively. The original data were re-examined here and the VFT expres-
sion holds very well for ZnCl2 at 598 T/K 716 [43] or 600 T/K 893 [44] and
for ZnBr2 at 673 T/K 813 [44] with the same T0 ¼ 260 K (The T1/2factor used in
[43] is unnecessary, because it varies only by 9 % over the T-range studied). The
same VFT expression with T0 ¼ 260 K holds also for the viscosity, specific
conductance, and self-diffusion coefficients of zinc and chloride ions in molten
ZnCl2, albeit for much fewer data [17].
4.2 Molten Borates and Silicates
Physicochemical data of borate and silicate melts having stoichiometric composi-

tions are shown in Table 4.2. Although a large amount of information regarding
mixtures of molten oxides or molten silicates and borates can be found in the
literature, data regarding pure, stoichiometric single compounds is relatively scarce.
Some information beyond what is shown in Table 4.2 has been reported. The
adiabatic compressibility, obtained from sound velocity and density data (Sect.
3.3.3) was reported [55] as κ S/GPa1 at 1473 K for Na2SiO3 (0.588), Na2Si2O5
(0.643), K2SiO3 (1.27), K2Si2O5 (0.791), and at 1173 K for LiBO2 (1.205) and
Li2B4O7 (1.29). The isothermal compressibility κT/GPa1 (the reciprocal of the bulk
102 4 Network Forming Ionic Liquids
Table 4.2 The molar masses, M, melting points, Tm, molar enthalpies of melting, ΔmH, constant
pressure molar heat capacities, Cp, (from [2]), and the molar volumes, V, isobaric expansivities, αP,
and viscosities, η, at 1.1Tm of molten silicates and borates
Salt, M Tm ΔmH Cp V 103αP η
kg mol1 K kJ mol1 J K1 mol1 cm3 mol1 K1 Pa s
Li2SiO3 0.08997 1474 28.0 167.4 21.8f 0.107f
Li2Si2O5, 0.15005 1307 53.8 251 23.4v
LiBO2 0.04975 1117 33.9 144.6 26.5u 0.247u
Li2B4O7 0.16912 1190 120.5 470.6a 89.0i 0.218i
Na2SiO3 0.12206 1362 51.8 177.3 27.2f 0.128f 132w
Na2Si2O5 0.18215 1147 35.6 261.2 79.4u 0.096u
NaBO2 0.06580 1239 36.2 146 35.5y 0.359y
Na2B4O7 0.20122 1016 81.2 444.9 99.8p 0.427p 7.0 103 n
K2SiO3 0.15428 1249b 50.2z 167.4z 35.3f 0.160f
K2Si2O5 0.21436 1318c 35.2z 275.3z 95.9u 0.125u
K2B4O7 0.23344 1088 104.2 473.2a 125m
MgSiO3 0.10039 1850 75.3 146.4z 39.3h 0.07h 0.164k
Mg2SiO4 0.14069 2171 71.1 205.0z
CaSiO3 0.11616 1813 56.1 151 44.7h 0.07h 0.120k
CaB2O4 0.12570 1433 74.1 258
CaB4O7 0.19532 1263 113.4 444.8
SrSiO3 0.16370 1851d 56e 0.139k
Sr2SiO4 0.26732 2598e
SrB4O7 0.24286 1267l 139.8l
BaSiO3 0.21341 1877d 139.8 0.117k
BaB4O7 0.29257 1182l
MnSiO3 0.13102 1543 66.9 153.8 0.043k
Mn2SiO4 0.20196 1613 94.6 230.1 180x
Fe2SiO4 0.20377 1493 92 240.6 18.3x 7.0x 520x
ZnSiO3 0.14149 1710d
Zn2SiO4 0.22290 1783d
CdSiO3 0.18849 1516d
Cd2SiO4 0.31691 1516d
PbSiO3 0.28328 1037 26.0 130.1
Pb2SiO4 0.50648 1016 51.0 189.1
At 1.1 Tm, b[45], c[46], d[47], e[49], f[48] (according to [53] V ¼ 69.0 cm3 mol–1 at 1.1Tm), g[8], h[50],
a
i
[51], j[11], k[12], l[52], m[53], n[54], o[16], p[18], u[55], v[56] at 1673 K, w[57], x[58] (at 1873 K for
Mn2SiO4), y[59], z[71]
modulus) is 0.050 for MgSiO3 at 1913 K and 0.040 for CaSiO3 at 1836 K [50, 60]. The
viscosity of Na2Si2O5 follows the VFT expression (4.1) with Aη0 ¼ 0.0611,
Bη0 ¼ 31.5 kJ mol1, and T0 ¼ 454.5 K [57]. The surface tension of calcium silicates,
σ/mN m1, hardly varies between 1780 and 1870 K: it is 530 for CaSiO3 and 450 for
CaSi2O5 (read from a curve [61]). The thermal conductivity of Na2SiO3 follows the
4.2 Molten Borates and Silicates 103

Arrhenius expression ln λth =W m1 K1 ¼ 14:5 þ 20319=T, i.e., with an activa-
tion energy Bλ ¼ 170 kJ mol1 [62].
Molecular dynamics simulation of Mg2SiO4 [63] yielded values for the isother-
mal compressibility κT ¼ 0.025 GPa1 at 2100 K, the density at 2110 K and at 2 GPa
ρ ¼ 2.75 g cm3 (read from a figure) and the molar volume V ¼ 51 cm3 mol1, and
an average molar isochoric heat capacity CV ¼ 200 J K1 mol1. The self-
diffusion coefficients for Mg2SiO4 at low pressures are D=m2 s1 ¼ 2:6 107

exp 66:4 kJ mol1 =RT for Mg and 1.7 10–7 exp(79.2 kJ mol1/RT) for Si, and

the dynamic viscosity is η=Pa s ¼ 4:5 104 exp 41:0kJ mol1 =RT .
The structures of only a few of the stoichiometric molten borates and silicates
(among those listed in Table 4.2) has been determined. The molecular dynamics
simulation of Mg2SiO4 [63]. at relatively low pressures showed that >75 % of the
silicon atoms are tetrahedrally surrounded by oxygen atoms, the rest mainly in
fivefold coordination defining distorted trigonal bipyramidal polyhedra. At low
pressure, the average coordination number of the Mg atoms is 5.5. As the pressure
increases the average coordination number increases (~7.5) near 100 GPa. Octahe-
drally coordinated Mg attains a maximum at about 20 GPa and decreases system-
atically as the pressure increases. X-ray absorption spectroscopy of liquid Fe2SiO4
at 1575 K and ambient pressure [64] showed ~11 % shortening of the Fe–O distance
in the melt compared with the crystal at the melting point, and a similar increase in
the volume, indicating a decrease of the average coordination number of the Fe
from 6 in the crystal to 4 in the melt, i.e., both Fe(II) and Si(IV) are tetrahedrally
coordinated. Neutron diffraction with isotope substitution (see Sect. 3.2) was
applied to molten Li2B4O7 [65] and to molten CaSiO3 [66]. For the former the
Li–O distance decreased somewhat and that of Li–B increased at 1073 K compared
to the glassy state, signifying an increase in the non-bridging oxygen content in the
lithium coordination in the melt. In the latter salt the melt comprises primarily six-
and sevenfold Ca–O coordination. Short chains of edge-shared Ca-octahedra fea-
ture in the structure of molten CaSiO3.
A molecular dynamics simulation [67] showed similarities between alkaline
earth silicates and alkali metal fluoroberyllates of the stoichiometries MSiO3 with
M0 BF3 and M2SiO4 with M0 2BeF4 at corresponding temperatures ~1.1Tm when
having cations of similar sizes (Li+ and Mg2+, Na+ and Ca2+, K+ and Ba2+).
The structures contain monomer, dimer, chain, and sheet units and experimental
determinations of properties of fluoroberyllates in the more readily accessible range
620–1070 K could replace those on silicates, pertinent to geological problems, at
the higher range of 1700–3000 K.
Another topic that pertains to the molten borate and silicate salts and to oxide
melts in general is their acid-base behavior, in which oxygen atoms take the place of
the hydrogen ions commonly encountered in aqueous solutions. Flood and F€orland
[68] established the concept of ‘oxoacidity’ and introduced the quantity pO ¼ –
logaO, the negative of the logarithm of the oxygen activity in the melt, analogous to
the pH. Dron [69] applied this framework to molten silicates, starting with equilib-
ria such as MSiO3 + MO ⇆ M2SiO4, involving free O2 ions and bridging and
non-bridging oxygen atoms. Konakov [70] reviewed the application of the acid-
base concept to oxide melts via the pO scale and discussed the use of the stabilized
zirconia electrode (ZrO2 stabilized by 5 % CaO or Y2O3) to its measurement. The
electrochemical cells to be used consist of molten silica, SiO2, as the standard, and
the pO of other oxide melts is measured relative to this standard, assigned pO ¼ 7. A
secondary standard of Na2SiO3 was established, with pO ¼ 5.88. Applications to
binary alkali metal borate, silicate, and germanate systems were reviewed.
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Chapter 5
Low-Melting Ionic Salts
5.1 Salts Melting Between 100 and 250 C
There are many salts that melt between 100 and 250 C that are highly ionic and are to
be discussed in this section, whereas room temperature ionic liquids (RTILs), melting
below 100 C, are discussed in Chap. 6, although this distinction is artificial. Such
highly ionic molten salts are to be contrasted with liquid compounds that are formally
classified as salts, but are highly covalent: mercury halides, tetravalent tin and lead
halides, etc., which are outside the scope of this book. Some salts that are on the
borderline between mainly covalent and mostly ionic are nevertheless included here,
e.g., gallium and bismuth trihalides. Some relevant salts that melt below 250 C
(523 K) have already been mentioned among the high-melting salts in Chap. 3,
including some of the thiocyanates, nitrates, chlorates, formates, and hydrogensulfates
of univalent metal cations and a few other salts. An important class of salts that belongs
to this category is the quaternary ammonium salts: mainly the symmetrical ones, the
unsymmetrical ones melt mostly at <100 C and are classified as RTILs.
Attention is here directed at the low-melting ionic salts: Table 5.1 shows the
available physicochemical data for the inorganic low-melting salts, gleaned from the
relevant tables in Chap. 3 with some additions, and Table 5.2 shows them for the
quaternary ammonium salts with a few quaternary phosphonium salts thrown in.
As the tables reveal, especially Table 5.1, there are large amounts of ‘unexplored
territory’ that ought to be filled with experimentally measured data. These would be
valuable for further discussion of the relation of the properties of these salts to those
of its constituent ions (mainly their sizes), and eventually to the use of such salts.
The melting points reported for the quaternary ammonium salts by diverse authors
general agree, noteworthy exceptions are the low values reported recently by Bhatt
and Gohil [39, 40], based on differential scanning calorimetric endothermic peaks,
which may pertain to solid-solid transitions rather than to melting.
Ammonium salts constitute a special category, because they are rather unstable in
the molten state. The following temperatures have been recorded [41] for the melting

110 5 Low-Melting Ionic Salts
Table 5.1 Temperature of melting, Tm/K, the molar heat of melting, ΔmH/kJ mol–1 and the molar
heat capacity CP/J K–1 mol–1, and the cohesive energy density, ced/MPa, density, ρ/g cm–3,
isobaric expansivity, αP/K–1, molar volume, V/cm3 mol–1, surface tension, σ/mN m–1, at 1.1 Tm
of highly ionic inorganic salts melting between ~100 and ~250 C (370–530 K), from tables in
Chap. 3 or as annotated
Salt Tma ΔmHd C Pm Ced n ρo 103αPo Vo σq
LiCN 433
LiNO2 473 17.1d 115r
LiNO3 525 26.7 152.7 20.1 1.7410 0.236 39.6 113
LiClO3 401 10.3e 122.2e 16.0 2.0545 0.087 44.0 85
LiClO4 509 17.0 161.1 13.1 1.9944 0.307 53.3
LiAlCl4 421b
NaClO3 488 21.7f 133.1 14.0 2.0718 0.466 51.4 87
NaHCO2 531 16.9g 142.3m
NaHSO4 455 17.3h 246h 2.196p 0.422p 54.6p 89s
NaAlCl4 426b
KSCN 446 12.8 10.7 1.5623 0.512 54.5 95
KHF2 512 6.6c 1.9213 0.296 40.7
KHCO2 440 11.9
KHSO4 488 16.6h 287h 2.115p 0.409p 64.3p 85s
KAlCl4 534b
RbSCN 457
RbHF2 483c 4.7c
RbHCO2 443 12.5i 9.9 1.9460 0.494 73.4
RbCH3CO2 519 8.9j
RbHSO4 479 12.8h
CsSCN 479 6.0
CsHF2 453 3.1c
CsHCO2 536
CsCH3CO2 464 11.0 8.6 2.3723 0.414 80.5
CsHSO4 491 9.6h
AgNO3 485 12.6 128.0 16.2 3.3125 0.325 51.2 146r
AgClO3 488
TlSCN 507
TlNO2 459 6.9 4.8238 0.325 51.9 108r
TlNO3 483 8.8k 130.0 k
12.3 4.8158 0.360 55.3 90
TlHCO2 395 10.9l
TlCH3CO2 401 17.6l
GaCl3 351 24
GaBr3 395
GaI3 465 36.6 3.5610 0.668 126.5
BiCl3 503 23.7 143.5 57.4 3.8453 0.598 82.0 65
BiBr3 491 21.7 157.7 34.1 4.6205 0.523 97.1 69
a
Tables 3.1 and 3.2, b[1], c[2], dTable 3.9, e[3], f[4], g[5], h[6], i[7], jTable 3.8, k[8], l[9]., mTable 3.11,
n
Table 3.10, oTable 3.11, p[10], qTable 3.17, r[11], s[12]
5.1 Salts Melting Between 100 and 250 C 111
Table 5.2 Temperature of melting, Tm, the molar heat of melting, ΔmH, and the density, ρ,
isobaric expansivity, αP, and molar volume, V, at 1.1 Tm (from [15]) of symmetrical tetraalkyl-
ammonium and tetraalkylphosphonium salts melting between ~100 and ~250 C (370–530 K)
Salt Tm/K ΔmH a/KJ mol–1 ρ/g cm–3 103αP/K–1 V/cm3 mol–1
Me4N NTF2 403w
Et4N NO3 553u dec., 388x 1.029x 0.62x
Et4N SCN 538v, 535x 1.157x 0.63x
Et4N BF4 364x 1.132x 0.71x
Et4N PF6 355x 1.074x 0.57x
Et4N NTF2 377g, 378w 9.0g
Pr4N SCN 432v
Pr4N ClO4 512o, 514s 14.2s
Pr4N BF4 511n, 521t 19.2n 0.8791 0.730 310.7
Pr4N PF6 510 1.0624 0.303 311.8
Pr4N BPh4 479 12.1 0.9065 1.592 557.7
Pr4N Pic 391f 1.1093f 0.863f 373.5f
Bu4N Br 395 15.5 0.9829 0.716 328.0
Bu4N I 419, 419s 9.3 1.0596 0.792 348.7
Bu4N SCN 399v, 383y
Bu4N NO3 392, 388u 14.6 0.9036i 0.665i 284.3i
Bu4N ClO4 483o, 488s 12.3s
Bu4N BF4 429n, 344y 12.1n 0.9122 0.637 361.0
Bu4N PF6 524m, 344y 16.4m 0.9501 0.690 407.8
Bu4N BBu4 384h 0.7734j 0.519j 499.8j
Bu4N BPh4 510 38.5 0.8576 0.577 654.9
Bu4N Pic 363k 1.0764l 0.653l 437.5l
Pe4N Br 376 41.4
Pe4N I 412, 407s 39.3
Pe4N NO3 387a, 384s 28.5a 402a
Pe4N NO2 370o
Pe4N SCN 323a 19.7a
Pe4N ClO4 383a, 389s 18.4a 0.9545c 0.617c 417.0c
Pe4N BF4 391b 0.9067 0.611 425.0
Pe4N Pic 347k 1.0128d 0.567d 727.1d
Hx4N Br 377a 15.9
Hx4N I 378e, 376s 17.7s 0.838e 0.730e 575.0e
Hx4N ClO4 383a, 377s 18.4 539a
Hx4N BF4 367a, 364t 19.2a 0.8964t 0.644t 492.4t
Hp4N I 396a 37.2a
Hp4N ClO4 399a 31.8a
Oc4N I 401s 48.7s
Oc4N NO3 381s 41.0s
Oc4N ClO4 407s 46.5s
Pr4P BF4 509p 12.1p
Pr4P PF6 504p 5.8p
(continued)

Salt Tm/K ΔmH a/KJ mol–1 ρ/g cm–3 103αP/K–1 V/cm3 mol–1
Bu4P Br 376q 0.9874q 0.826q 333q
Bu4P I 383q 1.3074q 0.795q 295q
Bu4P BF4 368p 6.4p
Bu4P PF6 499r, 490p 14.7r, 10.3p
a
[16], b[17], the density data at 1 MPa), c[18], the surface tension at 1.1Tm is 28.4 mN m–1, d[19],
e
[20], f[21], g[22], NTF2– ¼ (CF3SO2)2N–, h[23], i[24], j[25], k[26], l[27], m[28], n[29], o[30], p[31],
q
[32], r[33], s[34], t[35], u[36], v[37], w[38], x[39], y[40]
of ammonium salts without decomposition (although they may sublime before

melting), Tm/K: NH4SCN 422, NH4N3 433, NH4HF2 398, NH4NO3 442, NH4IO3
423, NH4HCO2 389, NH4CH3CO2 387, NH4HSO4 428, and NH4SO3F 518. These
salts still decompose readily slightly above their melting points. Hardly any addi-
tional physicochemical data are available for the melts of these ammonium salts. The
following salts melt at higher temperatures but decompose on melting: NH4Cl,
NH4Br, NH4I, NH4BF4, (NH4)2SO4, and (NH4)2CrO4 [41].
The transport properties of the inorganic low melting salts can be presented in
terms of the Arrhenius-type expressions:

η=mPa s ¼ Aη exp Bη =RT ð5:1Þ
for the viscosity and
Λ=S cm2 mol1 ¼ AΛ expðBΛ =RT Þ ð5:2Þ
for the molar conductivity, with the relevant coefficients A and B, the latter being
the activation energy for the transport process. The A and B coefficients of
Eqs. (5.1) and (5.2) of the inorganic and tetraalkylammonium salts, where
known, as well as the η and Λ at 1.1Tm are shown in Table 5.3. The viscosities
diminish with increasing temperatures whereas the conductivities augment, hence
the different signs of the B-coefficients.
Some structural information is obtained from models that relate bulk properties to
the structures. An early attempt to apply this approach was that of Lind et al. [35],
who dealt with the Walden product of the molar conductivity Λ and the viscosity η of
molten R4N+ BF4–, -PF6–, and -BPh4– (R ¼ C3 to C6). This product is rather
insensitive to the temperature and was applied to the melts at 250 C. The hard-
sphere model predicted the product Λη to be proportional to r2/V, where r is the radius
of the cation. However, only for the R ¼ C3 salts with BF4– and PF6– were the
predicted values commensurate with the experimental ones, for the other salts the
prediction overestimated the product. For such melts with small globular ions the
structure is determined mainly by the coulomb forces as for high-melting salts, but
with alkyl chains longer than propyl (C3) the thermal movements of these chains clog
the interstices in the liquid and obstruct the movement of the ions.
5.2 Molten Hydrated Salts 113
Table 5.3 Corresponding temperature, 1.1Tm, the viscosity, η, at 1.1 Tm and the coefficients of
η/mPa s ¼ Aηexp(Bη/RT), and the equivalent conductance, Λ, at 1.1 Tm and the coefficients of Λ/S
cm2mol–1 ¼ AΛexp(–BΛ/RT), of molten salts melting between ~100 and ~250 C (370–530 K)
1.1Tm/ η/ Aη Bη/ Λ/ AΛ –BΛ/
Salt K mPa s mPa s kJ mol–1 S cm2mol–1 S cm2mol–1 kJ mol–1
LiClO3 441 14.74 0.00198 32690 9.2g 7326 24476
LiClO4 560 6.25 0.09436 19523 56.2 921 13017
LiNO2 546 5.73 0.00297 34342 31.1b 1492b 17545b
LiAlCl4 463 40.5 567 10152
NaClO3 537 6.8
KSCN 501 5.61 0.00858 27004 17.1 6090 24477
KHCO2 486 1.06a, c
RbHCO2 503 0.206c
AgNO3 534 0.163 0.1159 15149 37.7 490 11385
TlNO2 505 36.1 319 9153
TlNO3 531 2.70 0.0843 15301 26.5 522 13150
BiCl3 553 31.2 296 9410
BiBr3 540 26.0 209 9356
Pr4NBF4 573 1.23 0.01309 22665 40.7 2974 20439
Pr4NPF6 561 1.81 0.02322 21436 32.9 7610 25397
Pr4NBPh4 527 4.56 0.00095 36735 13.87f 1068445f 10272f
Pr4NPic 430 7.47d 5.16e
Bu4NBr 432 2.12 817140 46195
Bu4NI 461 27.0f 3.95 136940 39305
Bu4NBF4 479 4.36 0.03439 19021 9.91f 4025 23834
Bu4NPF6 572 1.73 0.00317 29953 25.2 4744 24913
Bu4NBBu4 422 7.75j
Bu4NBPh4 561 2.57 0.00159 34455 14.1 6841 28840
Bu4NPic 399 16.74d 2.22e
Pe4NPic 382 26.52d 1.55e
Hx4NBF4 404 3.61f 0.000095f 43407f 0.706f 22952 34535
Inorganic salts from [42], tetraalkylammonium salts from [15] except where noted
a
[43], b[44], c[13] the value is the specific, not the molar, conductivity, d[19], e[26], f[35] (for
Bu4NI at 422 K), g[14]
5.2 Molten Hydrated Salts
Another category of low melting highly ionic salts are the salt hydrates,
CpAq∙nH2O, listed in Table 5.4. It should be noted that not in all the cases do the
hydrated salts melt congruently or that the melts with the stoichiometric composi-
tion crystallize on cooling to the same composition. It is also a moot question
whether these melts, which may be formed at quite low temperatures (e.g., 8 C
for LiClO3∙3H2O or “ZnCl2∙4H2O, particularly since this is a liquid at ambient
temperature” [58]) may not be better considered as concentrated aqueous solutions
of the salt.
Table 5.4 The melting points, Tm, type of melting: congruent c or non-congruent nc, the molar
enthalpies of melting, ΔmH, and the constant pressure molar heat capacities, Cp, and surface
tensions, σ, at the corresponding temperature T ¼ 1.1Tm of molten salt hydrates
Tm Type ΔmH Cp σ
Salt hydrate K kJ mol–1 J K–1 mol–1 mN m–1
LiClO3∙3H2O 281 c 36.4a 345h
LiClO4∙3H2O 368 40.6a
LiI∙3H2O 348
LiNO3∙3H2O 303 c 36.4a
NaOH∙H2O 337 c 15.8a
NaCH3CO2∙3 H2O 331 nc 39.3a 453e
Na2CO3∙10H2O 306 nc 72.0a ~980i
Na2SO4∙10H2O 305 nc 78.7a ~945k
Na2S2O3∙5H2O 322 nc 49.8a 950e
Na2HPO4∙12H2O 309 nc 119.9g 1249g
KF∙4H2O 292 c 43.1a 311f
K2HPO4∙6H2O 286 c 30.7b
MgCl2∙6H2O 390 nc 34.9a 410j
Mg(NO3)2∙6H2O 363 c 41.0a 644e
MgSO4∙7H2O 316 49.5c
CaCl2∙6H2O 304 nc 37.2a 494d 93.5m
CaBr2∙6H2O 306 35.6a 71.2m
CaI2∙6H2O 315 60.6m
Ca(NO3)2∙4H2O 315 c 29.7a 92.8l
Ba(OH)2∙8H2O 351 c 93.3a
Al(NO3)3∙9H2O 345 nc 66.2a
Al2(SO4)3∙18H2O 361 nc 145.6a 1786k
NH4Al(SO4)2∙12H2O 367 c 103.4a 1387k
Cr(NO3)3∙9H2O 339 77.8a 73.2l
Mn(NO3)2∙6H2O 306 cnc 40.2a 91.6l
FeCl3∙6H2O 310 c 50.2a 650d 67.3l
Fe(NO3)3∙9H2O 316 nc 36.0a 71.5l
Co(NO3)2∙6H2O 328 41.4a 87.3l
Ni(NO3)2∙6H2O 330 49.0a 86.7l
ZnCl2∙4H2O <298n
Zn(NO3)2∙6H2O 310 c 39.8a 88.0l
Cd(NO3)2∙4H2O 333 c 32.6a 88.7l
a
[45], b[46], c[47], d[48], e[49], f[50], g[51], h[52], i[53], j[54], k[55], l[56], m[57], n[58]
Nevertheless, a model of molten salt hydrates that is widely accepted considers

the hydrated cations to be single particles having a radius r ¼ rI + 2rH2O, of low
electrical field strength [59]. Thus, in molten Ca(NO3)2∙4H2O the cation [Ca
(H2O)4]2+ has a z/r value of 5.3 nm–1, comparable with that of Cs+, 5.9 nm–1.
Molten salt hydrates may, therefore, be treated in the same class of fluids as
anhydrous molten salts, albeit being low-melting, rather than be regarded as

concentrated aqueous solutions. This should particularly be valid for congruently
melting salt hydrates with hydrated multivalent cations.
Table 5.4 shows the melting points, Tm, and whether the melting/crystallization
is congruent or not, and the following thermodynamic data: the molar enthalpy of
fusion, ΔmH, the molar constant-pressure heat capacity, Cp, and the surface tension,
σ, as far as they are available.
Note that the molar enthalpies of melting of the salt hydrates are generally rather
larger than those of similar anhydrous salts melting at a much higher temperature.
Compare, for instance the ΔmH/kJ mol–1 of lithium salt trihydrates with the
anhydrous salts: nitrate 36.4 vs. 26.7 and perchlorate 40.6 vs. 17.0, the sodium
salt decahydrates with the anhydrous salts: carbonate 72.0 vs. 30.0, sulfate 78.7
vs. 23.0, and the calcium salt hexahydrates with the anhydrous salts: chloride 37.2
vs. 28.5, bromide 35.6 vs. 28.9.
The volumetric properties: density, ρ, isobaric expansibility, αP, and molar
volume, V, of molten hydrated salts at the corresponding temperature T ¼ 1.1Tm,
taken from [60], are shown in Table 5.5.
It should be noted that for several salts different entries are shown, derived from
data of different authors as noted. The discrepancies are <2 %, except in the case of
Al(NO3)3∙9H2O, where it is larger, probably due to differences in the water contents
of the melts.
Also shown in Table 5.5 are the molar electrostriction volumes, ΔelsV, of the
hydrated salt melts, which are negative quantities. These are the differences
between the molar volume of the salt hydrate melts V (at 1.1Tm) and the sum of
the intrinsic volume of the ions, Vintr, weighted by their stoichiometric coefficients
in CpAq∙nH2O, plus n times the molar volume of water VW*.

Δels V ¼ V pV intr ðCÞ þ qV intr ðAÞ þ nV W * ð5:3Þ
The intrinsic ionic volumes Vi intr are assumed to be independent of the temper-
ature. For monatomic ions they are given by the Mukerjee expression [74]:
V intr =cm3 mol1 ¼ 2522½1:213ðr i =nmÞ3 ð5:4Þ
where ri are the crystal ionic radii, and for some of the polyatomic ions they are
given in [75, 76]. The molar volume of water at the corresponding temperature
T ¼ 1.1Tm is calculated from its expansibility as:
V W * =cm3 mol1 ¼ 22:05 0:0318ðT=KÞ þ 6:2 105 ðT=KÞ2 ð5:5Þ
The electrostriction volumes have been found to be proportional to the number of

water molecules per formula unit: ΔelsV ¼ (3.3 0.3)n for the 21 molten salt
hydrates for which there are data, Fig. 5.1. Therefore, the molar volumes V and
the densities of molten salt hydrates CpAq∙nH2O at their corresponding
Table 5.5 The volumetric properties of molten salt hydrates at T ¼ 1.1Tm

T ρ 103αP V –ΔelsV
Salt K g∙cm–3 K–1 cm3∙mol–1
LiClO3∙3H2O 309 (1.689)c, d (0.654) (71.1) (21.9)
LiClO4∙3H2O 405 1.4927e 0.542 107.5 11.7
LiI∙3H2O 383 1.9903e 0.619 94.4 10.5
LiNO3∙3H2O 333 1.4012e 0.554 87.8 5.2
NaOH∙H2O 371 1.6228f 0.518 35.7 –0.7
NaCH3CO2∙3 H2O 364 1.2421f 0.715 90.3
Na2S2O5∙5H2O 354 1.6546f 0.453 150.0
354 1.6334g 0.472 151.9
KF∙4H2O 321 1.4346h, i 0.088 103.4 –7.0
Mg(NO3)2∙6H2O 399 1.5027j 0.638 170.6 14.1
399 1.4906k 0.644 172.0 12.7
CaCl2∙6H2O 334 1.4990l 0.437 146.1 22.8
CaBr2∙6H2O 337a 1.9082l 0.445 161.2 21.7
337a 1.9218m, n 0.459 160.1 22.8
CaI2∙6H2O 347b 2.2124l 0.426 181.7 29.6
Ca(NO3)2∙4H2O 347 1.7073o 0.471 138.7 11.8
1.7200p 0.417 137.3 13.3
Al(NO3)3∙9H2O 379 1.5120j 0.446 248.1 27.1
379 1.5613k 0.607 240.3 34.9
Al2(SO4)3∙16H2O 406 1.7153q 0.374 367.5 94.3
NH4Al(SO4)2∙12H2O 404 1.3510k 0.631 335.6 29.3
Cr(NO3)3∙9H2O 373 1.6329j 0.606 245.1 30.5
373 1.6341r 0.560 244.9 30.7
Mn(NO3)2∙6H2O 337 1.7782j 0.569 161.4 24.2
FeCl3∙6H2O 341 1.5823s 1.117 170.8 21.5
Fe(NO3)3∙9H2O 348 1.6653p 0.616 242.6 33.1
348 1.6384t 0.702 246.6 29.1
Co(NO3)2∙6H2O 361 1.7469j 0.570 166.6 18.3
Ni(NO3)2∙6H2O 363 1.7416j 0.562 167.0 17.5
Zn(NO3)2∙6H2O 341 1.7922r 0.644 166.0 18.9
341 1.8207p 0.587 163.4 21.5
Cd(NO3)2∙4H2O 366 2.2475o 0.481 137.3 12.3
2.2449p 0.485 137.4 12.2
a
The melting point, 33.5 C is from [61], bThe melting point, 42 C is from [41], cSee the
discussion, d[52], e[62], f[63], g[64], hExtrapolated from data for very concentrated aqueous
solutions, see the text, i[65], j[66], k[67], l[57], mExtrapolated from data for very concentrated
aqueous solutions, n[68], o[69], p[70], q[71], r[72], s[56], t[73]
Fig. 5.1 The electrostrictive volume decrease, ΔelsV, of hydrated molten salts plotted against n,
the number of water molecules in the hydrate, Eq. (5.3).
temperatures, 1.1Tm, can be estimated from the intrinsic volumes pVintr(C) +

qVintr(A) and the molar volume of the water VW* according to Eqs. (5.3), (5.4),
and (5.5).
The densities of molten salt hydrates at any temperature T can be estimated by
means of the expression proposed by Sharma et al. [77], recast in the following
form:
ρðT Þ ¼ ρð1:1T m Þf1:0184 0:18396½ðT=T m Þ 1g ð5:6Þ
This expression may then be employed for the calculation of the expansibility at
any temperature:
2
αP ¼ 1:0371 ρð1:1T m Þ=g cm3 T m 2 ð6:537T m T Þ ð5:7Þ
using the densities at the corresponding temperatures listed in Table 5.5.

Hardly any compressibility data for hydrated molten salts have been found. Still,
for calcium nitrate hexahydrate (more precisely, Ca(NO3)2∙5.98H2O) the isother-
mal compressibility κT at 0.1 MPa is 0.195 0.016 GPa–1 at 298 K diminishing to
0.188 0.015 GPa–1 at 423 K spanning the melting point, 315 K and the
corresponding temperature, 1.1Tm [78] (but note the wrong units in the publication).
For magnesium chloride hexahydrate at the melting point (390 K) the adiabatic
compressibility may be estimated as follows. The ultrasound speed above that of
water for concentrated aqueous solutions, up to 5.5 mol salt (kg water)–1 at 55, 75,
and 95 C [79] can be extrapolated to 9.26 mol salt (kg water)–1, corresponding to
6 mol water per mole MgCl2, and to 117 C to yield Δu ¼ 550 m s–1. Added to the
speed of sound in water (calculated for 117 C from data in [80]) 1,517 m s–1 yields
the (extrapolated) speed of sound in the molten hydrate at its melting point of
u ¼ 2,067 m s-1. The molar volume V of this salt is estimated from Eqs. (5.3), (5.4),
and (5.5) and ΔelV ¼ (3.3 0.5)n for n ¼ 6 as 150 cm3 mol–1, and with the molar
mass M ¼ 203.3 g mol–1 the density is ρ ¼ 1357 kg mol–1. Hence, the adiabatic
compressibility of MgCl2∙6H2O is κ S ¼ 0.173 GPa–1.
The adiabatic compressibilities of molten alkali metal acetate hydrates were
measured at 60 C; for NaCH3CO2∙3H2O this practically coincides with its melting
point: κS ¼ 0.250 GPa–1. Minima in κ S as a function of the water content were found
near this composition also for lithium and potassium acetate hydrates, with κS
slightly decreasing in the sequence Li > Na > K for the alkali metal cations
[81]. All these values of the compressibilities are commensurate with those of the
anhydrous molten salts in Tables 3.15 and 3.16.
The transport properties of molten salt hydrates are rather scarce too, and the
values that could be obtained for the dynamic viscosity, η, and the molar conduc-
tivity, Λ, at the corresponding temperature of T ¼ 1.1Tm are shown in Table. 5.6.
Table 5.6 Transport Salt hydrate T η Λ

properties of molten salt
K mPa s S cm2 mol –1
hydrates at T ¼ 1.1Tm
NaOH∙H2O 371 4.36a
NaCH3CO2∙3 H2O 364 2.06b
Na2S2O3∙5H2O 354 5.22b
Na2CO3∙10H2O 338 3.30b
Na2HPO4∙12H2O 340 1.79b
Mg(NO3)2∙6H2O 399 14.53c 7.30e
CaCl2∙6H2O 334 12.34d 7.79d
CaBr2∙6H2O 337 8.70d 14.28d
CaI2∙6H2O 347 8.31d 12.15d
Ca(NO3)2∙4H2O 347 6.55d 8.15d
Cr(NO3)3∙9H2O 373 20.93e
Mn(NO3)2∙6H2O 337 44.93e
FeCl3∙6H2O 341 12.45e
Fe(NO3)3∙9H2O 348 21.39e
Co(NO3)2∙6H2O 361 23.82e
Ni(NO3)2 6H2O 363 23.11a
Zn(NO3)2∙6H2O 341 21.63e
Cd(NO3)2∙4H2O 366 14.10a 23.75e
a b c d e
[82] [77], [67], [57], [83]
References 119
The relevant temperatures being much lower than for the anhydrous molten
salts, the viscosities of the molten salt hydrates are larger and the conductivities
considerably smaller than for the anhydrous salts. No details of the temperature
dependencies of η and Λ could be shown, however.
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Chapter 6
Room Temperature Ionic Liquids
Room temperature ionic liquids (RTILs) are salts that melt below 100 C, generally
but not necessarily above 0 C. They typically comprise a large organic cation,
having a basic cyclic structure (e.g., imidazolium, pyrrolidinium, or pyridinium) or
quaternized nitrogen or phosphorus atoms, all with attached alkyl chains, and any of
a varied list of anions. Before discussing such ionic liquids in the rest of this chapter
it is appropriate to mentions some other ionic liquids that do not belong to these
categories. Among these are protic ionic liquids that were reviewed by Greaves and
Drummond [1]. Some examples of such ionic liquids are the following.
The first known room temperature ionic liquid, ethylammonium nitrate,
C2H5NH3þ NO3, was described by Walden a hundred years ago [2] and has
since been widely studied. It is a representative of a good number of protic
alkylammonium RTILs [3–5]. Ethylammonium nitrate melts at 14 C [6] (lower
melting points, 12 C [7] and 9 C [3] are probably due to impurities, such as water).
The molar enthalpy of melting is 10.64 kJ mol1 [8] (but a ten times larger value
was reported in [3] that appears to be unreasonable). In the molten state at 25 C it
has a very low vapor pressure, ~5.3 Pa [9]. The molar enthalpy of vaporization
(at 25 C) is 105.3 kJ mol1, the vaporization being to ion pairs below 146 C and to
dissociated EtNH2 þ HNO3 above this temperature [10]. Physicochemical proper-
ties of this RTIL at several temperatures are shown in Table 6.1. Evans et al. [7]
were among the first to point out the similarity of this molten salt to water, in terms
of the thermodynamics of solubilities of inert gases (Kr, CH4, C2H6, and C4H10) and
the ability of surfactants to form micelles in them. These authors suggested that
molten ethylammonium nitrate forms a three-dimensional hydrogen bonded net-
work, since the number of donor hydrogen atoms and acceptor sites on the oxygen
atoms are well matched.
Another unconventional RTIL, trifluoromethanesulfonic acid monohydrate
H3Oþ CF3SO3 (hydronium trufluoromethane sulfonate), was first characterized
by Gramstad and Haszeldine [16] as a white stable solid with a melting point of
34 C. Some of its properties as an ionic liquid were subsequently reported by
Corkum and Milne [17], who refined its freezing point to 36 C (whereas the

Table 6.1 Properties of two protic RTILs
124
Property C2H5NH3þ NO3 H3Oþ CF3SO3

c
Melting point, tm/ C 14 36k
Heat of melting, molar, ΔmH /kJ mol1 10.64d
Boiling point, tb/ C 240e 220l
Heat of vaporization, molar, ΔvH /kJ mol1 105.3e
Temperature 15 C 25 C 45 C 25 C
Density, ρ/g cm3 1.2156a 1.2091a 1.1966a 1.713k
Expansibility, 103αP/K–1 0.522a 0.715m
Molar volume, V/cm3 mol–1 88.9a 89.4a 90.3a 98.1k
Vapor pressure, p/Pa 5.3f
Heat capacity, CP/J K1 mol1 206a, 209g
Surface tension, σ/mN m1 47.3h, 49.2i 46.6j
b
Refractive index, nD 1.453 1.4524c 1.444b
Molar refractivity, RD/cm3 mol1 31.72h
Permittivity, static, εs 27.1b 26.2e 23.6b 15.1n
Viscosity, dynamic, η/mPa s 50.0b 34.9b 19.3b 17.4m
Conductivity, specific, κ/S cm–1 0.024b 0.0269b 0.039h 0.64k
Conductivity, molar, Λ/S cm2 mol1 2.12b 2.52b 3.51b 62.8m
Coefficients X ¼ AX exp½BX =R=ðT T 0 Þ
X ¼ viscosity, Aη/mPa s 0.0018h 0.0102m
Bη/kJ mol1 24.5h 16.18m
T0/K 0 79m
X ¼ electrical conductivity, AΛ/S cm2 mol1 366h 1126m
BΛ/kJ mol1 –12.4h –13.47c
T0/K 0 79c
a
[12], b[11], c[6], d[8], e[1, 10], f[9], g[13], h[3], the σ at 27 ºC, i[15], j[14], the σ at 50 ºC, k[17], l[18], m[20] at 65 ºC ¼ 1.1(Tm/K), n[19]
6 Room Temperature Ionic Liquids
6.1 Structural Aspects of RTILs 125
anhydrous acid, HþF3CSO3 melts already at 45.5 C). The density of the
undercooled molten salt at 25 C, read from a curve, is 1.713 g cm3, slightly
above that of the anhydrous acid, ρ ¼ 1.696 g cm3. The viscosity of the molten salt
was not measured, that of the undercooled melt is >40 mPa s1. The vapor pressure
of the molten salt was compared isopiestically by Sarada et al. [18] with that of
phosphoric acid, and the results were reported in a figure as a function of the
temperature. The static permittivity of the molten salt was measured by Barthel
et al. [19], yielding εs ¼ 15.1 for the undercooled salt at 25 C, diminishing to
11.8 at the corresponding temperature of 1.1Tm, 338 K. These and other properties
of trifluoromethanesulfonic acid monohydrate are shown in Table 6.1, placing it as
a (rather unconventional) protic RTIL.
The RTILs dealt with in the rest of this chapter have cations from a large list, but
the most popular cations include 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium (abbreviated as
Cnmim, where n refers to the number of carbon atoms in the 1-alkyl substituent),
N-alkylpyridinium (abbreviated as CnPy), and quaternary ammonium or – phos-
phonium. Among the latter cations with open alkyl chains the most widely studied
are of the form RR0 3Nþ or RR0 3Pþ, and those with rings are mainly 1-methyl-1-
alkylpyrrolidinium (abbreviated as CnMPyrr). Such RTILs are dealt with here in
some detail, whereas those based on other cations are mentioned only cursorily.
Similarly, the anions of RTILs dealt with here in detail include tetrafluoroborate,
hexafluorophosphate, bis(trifluorosulphonyl)imide (abbreviated as NTF2),
trifluoromethylsulfonate, dicyanamide, alkylsulfate, small inorganic anions, and
carboxylate anions among a few others.
6.1 Structural Aspects of RTILs
6.1.1 Diffraction Studies and Computer Simulations
The structures of RTILs have been determined by x-ray and neutron diffraction or
EXAFS and supported by computer simulations. Such structures may have, but
need not have, a bearing on the structures of their liquid melts. Certain RTILs, such
as 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium salts with a range of anions: chloride, bromide,
trifluoromethanesulfonate, and bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide were studied by
Hardacre et al. using SAXS and x-ray reflectivity, but they form liquid crystals
[21]. Relatively few structures of isotropic liquid RTILs have been reported, as
reviewed by Adya [22], who pointed out that the main problem encountered in such
structural studies is that the multi-atomic cations and anions are not rigid and have
internal vibrations. The assumption of rigid structures, based on ab initio compu-
tations on single molecules, does not solve this problem for the larger ions.
Furthermore, the largest intramolecular distances within the ions of the RTILs are
larger than the shortest intermolecular distances, so that it is impossible to distin-
guish between them. Therefore, with existing techniques the information on molten
126 6 Room Temperature Ionic Liquids
RTILs from neutron and x-ray scattering and EXAFS is at best semi-quantitative.
On the whole, what distinguishes RTILs from high-melting salts is that the asym-
metry of the ions of the former precludes the coulombic forces between them from
ordering the salt in a manner leading to stable crystalline forms at room temperature
characterizing the latter. On the other hand, hydrogen bonding, π-stacking, and
dispersive forces between alkyl chains dominate in RTILs over the coulombic
forces between the large ions, giving rise to special structures of the melts.
In two cases, at least, no abrupt change in structure was observed on heating
beyond the melting point: the EXAFS structure of bis(tetrabutylammonium)
tetrabromomanganate showed the same Mn–Br distances and angles at 362 K for
the solid and at 388 K for the melt according to Crozier et al. [23]. Another EXAFS
study by Carmichael et al. dealt with bis(C2mim) and bis(C14mim) tetrachloro-
nickolates at 404 and 408 K respectively, compared with the solids at 298 K
[24]. No significant changes in the Ni–Cl distance were observed on going from
the crystal to the melt. The structures of mixtures of molten 1-ethyl-3-methyl-
imidazolium chloride with AlCl3 in the concentration range of 46–67 mol% AlCl3
(where the anions are AlCl4 and Al2Cl7) were measured by Takahashi et al. using
neutron diffraction techniques [25]. Unlike the tetrahedral AlCl4 anion, the geom-
etry of the Al2Cl7 one changes considerably in the melt compared with the isolated
anion, implying cation-anion direct association. Neutron diffraction was also
applied by Hardacre et al. to molten 1,3-dimethylimidazolium chloride and
hexafluorophosphate, and significant charge ordering was found, as in the crystal-
line salt [26, 27]. Similar structures were observed, but that of the PF6 salt was
expanded relative to that of the salt with the smaller Cl anion.
High energy synchrotron x-ray diffraction was applied by Hagiwara et al. to the
highly conducting RTILs C2mimþ-, C4mimþ-, and C6mimþH2.3F3.3 with the
unusual fluoride anion coordinated with 2.3 HF molecules [28]. Most of the
information obtained pertained to internal structures of the cations, but an indica-
tion of a layered intermolecular structure of the melt was obtained. Small angle
x-ray scattering was applied by Bradley et al. to molten CnmimþNTF2
(n ¼ 12–18) salts, but no layered structures were found, contrary to salts of these
cations with anions such as Cl, Br, and CF3SO3, which formed layered liquid-
crytal mesophases [29]. Layered structures of melts of NTF2 salts with a variety of
cations were, however, found by Mizuhata et al. in small angle as well as wide angle
x-ray diffraction [30]. The cations included CnMe3Nþ (n ¼ 5–16), (Cn)4Nþ (n ¼ 5
or 6), C3MPyrrþ and the corresponding piperidinium one. The layer spacing of the
CnMe3NþNTF2 salts increased linearly with the alkyl chain length (at 30 C) the
slope being <2. A more diffuse structural term: ‘nanoscale structural heterogene-
ities’, rather than layering, was applied by Triolo et al. to molten 1-alkyl-1-
methylpiperidinium NTF2 salts (alkyl Cn, n ¼ 3–7) studied by small- and wide-
angle x-ray scattering [31].
Computer simulation studies of the structure of molten RTILs require suitable
force fields of the constituent ions. Such a force field was supplied in the case of
1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrachloroaluminate by Andrade et al. [32] and the
molecular dynamics simulation was tested against the structure determined by
neutron diffraction. One result from this study is that for this RTIL the coulombic
interaction energy, 211 kJ mol1, dominates over the dispersive interactions,
42 kJ mol1. A subsequent molecular dynamics study by Salane et al. of this
RTIL, with polarized chlorine atoms, showed the similarity in the structure of the
melt with tetrachloroaluminate salts with alkali metal cations, determined almost
wholly by the electrostatic interactions (see Sect. 3.2) [33]. Molecular dynamics
simulations on series of 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium PF6 and NTF2 RTILs by
Lopes and Padua [34] showed that with alkyl chains of butyl or larger aggregation
of these chains into non-polar domains occurs. These nanostructural domains
permeate a tridimensional network of ionic channels formed by the anions and by
the imidazolium rings of the cations. The length scale of these polar/non-polar
domains increase about linearly for CnmimþPF6 with the alkyl chain lengths:
0.84 þ 0.091n nm. Such nanostructures were described by Dupont as consisting of
[CnmimpXp_q]pþ[Cnmimp_qXr]p– species, where X is the anion and p 3 [35].
6.1.2 Modeling of RTIL Properties
Here only some examples of the modeling of the properties of RTILs are described.
Further models are dealt with in the following sections, pertaining to the properties
themselves.
Some structural information on molten RTILs is obtained from models that
relate bulk properties to the structures. An early attempt to apply this approach
was that of Lind et al. [36], who dealt with the Walden product of the molar
conductivity Λ and the viscosity η of low-melting quaternary ammonium salts.
The Walden product was more recently used by Ueno et al. to probe the ionicity of
RTILs [37]: plots of logΛ against log(η1) yield a straight line with unit slope for a
completely ionic electrolyte, such as 0.01 mol dm3 aqueous KCl. Small deviations
from such a line occur for highly ionic aprotic RTILs, increasing to somewhat
larger deviations for protic RTILs in which more hydrogen bonding prevails, to still
increasing deviations for RTILs in which either cation or anion are strong Lewis
bases (electron pair donors) or Lewis acids (electron pair acceptors). Typical
cations of RTILs have increased Lewis acid characters in the order CnMPyrr <
RR0 3Nþ < CnPy < Cnmim and typical anions have increasing Lewis base character
in the order PF6< BF4– < NTF2 < CF3SO3 < CF3CO2 < halide. The
deviations also increase (ionicity diminishes) for increasing alkyl chain lengths in
a given family of RTILs.
A quantitative measure of the iconicity of RTILs is the effective concentration of
ions according to Ueno et al. [37]:
1
ceff ¼ cΛ=ΛNMR ¼ cΛ N A e2 =kB T ðDþ þ D Þ1 ð6:1Þ
where c ¼ V–1 is the molar concentration, i.e., the reciprocal of the molar volume,
and the ΛNMR is obtained from the NMR-derived diffusion coefficients of the cation
Fig. 6.1 The effective ionic concentration of molten RTILs, ceff, Eq. (6.1), plotted against their
molar volumes, V, from data at 30 C of Ueno et al. [37]
and anion, Dþ and D, via the Nernst-Einstein relationship. The iconicity is ceff/c
and it takes into account not only the interactions between cations and anions but
also their sizes, Fig. 6.1. For C4mim salts 0.52 ceff/c 0.68, diminishing in the
anion order BF4 > PF6 > CF3SO3 > CF3CO2 > NTF2 and for CnmimþNTF
salts the ionicity is 0.54 ceff/c 0.76 diminishing with increasing n from 1 to 8.
The estimation of the melting points of RTILs (in conjunction with the permit-
tivities of the melts) was reported by Krossing et al. [38] as an answer to the
question “why are ionic liquids liquid?”. The melting point Tm is that temperature,
where for an RTIL:
Δm GðT m Þ ¼ Δm HðT m Þ TΔm SðT m Þ ¼ 0 ð6:2Þ
The Gibbs energy at any temperature may be calculated from the Born-Fajans-
Haber cycle as the sum of the lattice and the (negative) solvation Gibbs energies:
ΔGðT Þ ¼ Δlatt GðT Þ þ Δsolv GðT Þ.
The lattice Gibbs energy, in turn, is Δlatt GðT Þ ¼ U pot ðT Þ þ 2RT TΔlatt SðT Þ,
where the lattice potential energy Upot(T ) is transformed to the enthalpy by addition
of 2RT (for the common uni-univalent RTILs). The lattice potential energy is
obtained from the volume-based thermodynamics expression of Jenkins et al. [39]:

Upot =kJ mol1 ¼ 103 8 þ ð234:6=nmÞ= v1=3
m =nm ð6:3Þ
where vm is the microscopic volume of the RTIL, the sum of its cation and anion
volumes (Tables 2.4 and 6.9). No temperature dependence of Upot was considered.
The lattice entropy is the difference between the sum of the entropies of the
constituting ions in the isolated gas phase (calculated quantum-mechanically) and
that of the solid according to Jenkins and Glasser [40]:

SðRTIL, cr, 298KÞ=J K1 mol1 ¼ 15 þ 1360 vm =nm3 ð6:4Þ
The solvation Gibbs energy ΔsolvG(T ) is calculated for the cation and anion
separately as being the quantity pertaining to the condensation of the gaseous
ions into the liquid RTIL, which is their solvent, with a Born-type expression
according to the COSMO model of Klamt and Schürmann [41]. This depends on
the sizes of the ions and on the static permittivity of the liquid RTIL. Very few
experimental values of the latter quantity are available, obtainable from dielectric
spectroscopy, because of the high conductivity of the RTILs, but the values for
14 RTILs of various compositions are in the narrow range 10.0 εs 15.1. The
resulting ΔsolvG(298 K) values are negative and numerically larger than the ΔlattG
(298 K) values, i.e., ΔmeltG(298 K) <0, so that the melting point Tm <298 K, as
observed by Krossing et al. [38] for 11 out of the 14 RTILs for which melting points
are available. Because of the approximations in the method, the predicted melting
points are within 10 K of the experimental values for 9 RTILs of those studied, but
in two cases (C4mimþCF3SO3and C4PyþNTF2) they are up to 30 K too low. The
method may be inverted for the estimation of the static permittivity εs of the RTILs,
given their melting points, the results being within five units of the experimental
values.
The statistical associated fluid theory (SAFT) combined with the mean spherical
approximation (MSA), the latter for the calculation of the electrostatic interactions,
permitted the estimation of liquid-vapor equilibria of RTILs as well as some other
thermodynamic properties according to Guzman et al. [42]. For an amount of RTIL
involving N particles the Helmholz energy per particle, a ¼ A/N, is obtained as
follows (with β ¼ 1/kBT ):
βa ¼ βaId þ βaref þ βachain þ βaMSA ð6:5Þ
The first three terms pertain to the ideal-, reference-, and chain-contributions of the
SAFT model and the fourth to the electrostatic interactions from the MSA model.
The cations have mþ segments and the anions have only one, m– ¼ 1 segment. The
ideal term is:

βaId ¼ ln ρseg T 3=2 1 ð6:6Þ
where ρseg ¼ 0.5(mþ þ m)ρ and ρ ¼ N/V ¼ (Nþ þ N)/V is the number density of
the RTIL. The reference term is proportional to the sum of the Lennard-Jones
interactions, aLJ(T,ρseg), of the segments:

βaref ¼ 0:5T 1 ðmþ þ m ÞaLJ T; ρseg ð6:7Þ
All segments are assumed to be Lennard-Jones particles with assigned length

parameter σ and energy parameter ε. The chain term is:

βachain ¼ ½1 0:5ðmþ þ m ÞlngLJ σ T; ρseg ð6:8Þ
where the contact value gLJσ is calculated according to Johnson et al. [43]. The
electrostatic term from the MSA theory is:
h i
βaMSA ¼ Γ ðΓ þ 2=3ÞðΓ þ 1Þ2 T 1 εion ð6:9Þ
h i
where Γ ¼ 0:5 ð1 þ 2κ Þ1=2 1 , κ ¼ ð4πρεion =T Þ1=2 is the reciprocal of the Debye
length, and εion is the electrostatic energy of two like-charged ions separated by a
distance σ.
The SAFT-MSA method was applied by Guzman et al. [42] to CnmimþX
RTILs, where n ¼ 1, 2, 4, 6 and 8 for X ¼ BF4, n ¼ 4, 6 and 8 for X ¼ PF6, and
n ¼ 4 and 6 for X ¼ NTF2, with the Lennard-Jones parameters σ and ε and the
number mþ of cation segments supplied for each RTIL. From the Helmholz energy
per particle and its temperature dependence, βa, Eq. (6.5), the vapor pressure was
calculated as p ¼ ρ2 T ð∂βa=∂ρÞT and the entropy per particle as s ¼ βa T
ð∂βa=∂T Þρ and the heat of vaporization at the boiling point as

ΔhðT b Þ ¼ T b s T b ; ρvap s T b ; ρliq as well as the critical parameters, Tc, ρc,
and Pc.
The soft SAFT model and EoS were applied by Oliveira et al. to a series of
pyridinium RTILs with the NTF2 anion [44], with the assumption of a constant
cation–anion interaction term and alkyl-chain-dependent interactions transferred
from the analogous imidazolium series of RTILs. Once fitting parameters for the
volumes of the RTILs were established, other quantities, such as the compressibil-
ities and surface tensions were predicted. A soft SAFT model was also applied by
MacDowell et al. [45] to imidazolium RTILs with Cl, MeSO4, and Me2PO4
anions, fitting their temperature dependent densities and then applying the param-
eters to calculate the viscosity and surface tension. Another modified SAFT model
(electrolyte perturbed chain statistical associated fluid theory, ePC-SAFT) was
applied by Ji et al. [46] to imidazolium-based RTILs, fitting the densities up to
100 MPa. The solubility of CO2 in the RTILs could be well predicted by this model,
as well as the much lower solubility of CH4.
The density of RTILs, and more generally their P-V-T properties have been
described by several models. The COSMO-RS model was applied by Palomar
et al. [47] for the prediction of the densities and molar volumes of 40 -
imidazolium-based RTILs. The predicted densities had a small positive bias
(2.5 %) relative to the experimental values. The Sanchez-Lascombe equation of
state (SL-EoS) was applied by Machida et al. [48] to the P-V-T properties of C4mimþ
6.2 Thermochemical Data 131
RTILs with BF4, PF6, and OcSO4 anions up to 373 K and 200 MPa. The
resulting isothermal compressibilities κT increased in this order of salts from 0.4 to
0.5 GPa1 at ambient pressure and diminished at increasing pressures. The free,
compressible, volumes at 313 K and ambient pressure were 7.4 %, 6.7 %, and 7.6 %
respectively.
Microscopic ionic volumes of RTILs, the sums of the constituent 20 cations and
20 anions: vm ¼ vþ þ v, were calculated by several theoretical methods according
to Preiss et al. [49] and compared with the crystal volumes obtained from x-ray
diffraction (Table 2.4). It was then shown that several physical properties were
linear with these microscopic volumes: the molar volume V, the isobaric expansi-
bility αP, the molar heat capacity CP, the (logarithm of) the viscosity lnη, and the
(logarithm of) the molar conductivity lnΛ: all these obey the relation a þ bvm.
A perturbed hard sphere equation of state (PHS-EoS) was used by Hosseini
et al. [50, 51] to model the volumetric properties of RTILs. This EoS has the form:

P=ρkB T ¼ 1 þ η þ η2 η3 ð1 ηÞ3 aðT Þρ=kB T ð6:10Þ
where η ¼ b(T )ρ/4 is the packing fraction, and involves the two substance-
dependent parameters a(T) and b(T ). These, in turn, depend on the critical proper-
ties of the RTILs [50] (not shown! the latter being problematic as discussed below,
Sect. 6.2), or on the reduced temperature kBT/ε, the ε being the listed [51]
non-bonded interaction energy between two hard spheres. The Peng-Robinson
cubic EoS plus association (PR-EoS-SSM) method was used to model the P-V-T
properties of 25 RTILs by Ma et al. [52], employing four substance-dependent
parameters as well as the critical temperature. A perturbed hard-dimer-chain EoS
was applied by Hosseini et al. [53] to obtain the densities and isothermal compress-
ibilities of RTILs. Hard dimers associate with hard spheres to form tetramers as the
basis for this model.
High pressure densities of imidazolium-based RTILs were modeled by Machida
et al. [54] up to 200 MPa by means of the Sanchez-Lascombe SL-EoS (modified by
allowance for the temperature dependence of the interaction energy) with six
substance-dependent parameters. High pressure densities of phosphonium RTILs
were modeled by Tome et al. [55] up to 45 MPa.
6.2 Thermochemical Data
6.2.1 Melting and Decomposition Temperatures
In the following the molar masses and the fundamental thermochemical data for the
more commonly applied RTILs are presented. The data pertain, as far as could be
ascertained, to carefully dried RTILs, with residual water contents below 0.01 mass
%. The thermochemical data include the melting point, Tm, the onset of
decomposition temperature, Tdec, the molar enthalpy of melting, ΔmH, the molar
heat capacity, CP, and the surface tension, σ, the latter two quantities at 25 C.
Table 6.2 shows these data for the 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium salts, Table 6.3
does it for the 1-alkylpyridinium salts, and Table 6.4 does it for the quaternary
ammonium (aliphatic and cyclic) and phosphonium salts. Many such data are
available in the recently published IL thermo database [56].
It should be realized that not all RTILs have definite melting points: some form
liquid crystals that may transform gradually into isotropic liquids on heating
whereas others on cooling do not crystallize but form a glass. In this book only
isotropic liquid phases are dealt with so that the lack of a definite Tm should not
deter from dealing with the RTIL when it is indeed liquid. Many crystalline RTILs
undergo phase transitions somewhat below their melting points, so that the molar
enthalpy of melting may be quite small, most of the endothermic enthalpy change
having already occurred in the phase transition.
The melting points of RTILs are readily determined experimentally by standard
methods, including differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), if they occur at all, i.e.,
melting and freezing take place at the same temperature within 1 K. Although
values are reported in the literature to 0.1 K, these accuracies are not generally
realistic. An attempt at the prediction of the melting points of crystalline RTILs
from other properties, mainly the microscopic ionic volumes of the cation and
anion, has already been described in Sect. 6.1.2. Quantitative structure/activity
relationships (QSAR) were applied to the 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluor-
oborates and hexafluoro-phosphates by Sun et al. [172], their chlorides and bro-
mides by Yan et al. [108], and to pyridinium bromides by Bini et al. [173] in order
to estimate their melting points. Structural parameters were generated by molecular
mechanics computations and multiple linear regressions were employed in order to
select the statistically best training set that was then employed to obtain the melting
points of a test set. Absolute differences between calculated and experimental
melting points were <20 K in most cases. The melting points and enthalpies of
fusion of 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphates were estimated by
molecular dynamics computer simulations by Zhang and Maginn [85] who con-
firmed the trends that Tm diminishes with increasing alkyl chain lengths for short
chains (up to C4) and increases again for long chains (C10), but generally no clear
melting points were obtained for RTILs with chain lengths between these values.
The onset of decomposition of RTILs on heating is generally determined by
DSC measurements, and is an indication of the liquid range expected for the RTIL
between its melting and decomposition. RTILs do not generally have a normal
boiling point, their vapor pressures remain low, and on heating the RTILs generally
decompose much before the vapor pressure attains atmospheric pressure. The
question whether we understand the volatility of RTILs was raised by Ludwig
and Kragl [174] and the relevant data could be obtained mainly for the Cnmimþ
NTF2 series of RTILs that remain stable to decomposition up to ~600 K. At this
temperature or somewhat below it they do have readily measurable vapor pressures
and the vaporization takes place to the gaseous ion pairs.
Table 6.2 The molar mass, M, the melting point, Tm, and the temperature of start of decompo-
sition, Tdec, the molar enthalpy of melting, and the heat capacity and surface tension at 25 C of
1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium (Cnmim) salts
Salt M/g mol1 Tm/K Tdec/K ΔmH/kJ mol1 Cp/J K1 mol1 σ/mN m1
C1mim BF4 184.0 373k
C1mim PF6 243.1 403k
C1mim NTF2 377.3 295c 717ff 24.5ff 474nn 36.3bbb
C1mim Cl 146.6 398k 21.5qqq
C1mim Br 177.1 449k 20.7qqq 215dd
C1mim NO3 159.2 367k
C1mim CH3SO4 208.2 309nnn 16.6qqq 65.1xx
C1mim C2H5SO4 222.3 58.3xx
C2mim BF4 198.0 288a 556a 9.5gg 305ee 54.4ccc
C2mim PF6 256.1 333i 648n 18.0gg 258ee 54.0qqq
C2mim NTF2 391.3 270a 664a 24.8ff 505ee 36.1aaa
C2mim CH3SO4 222.4 62.9xx
C2mim C2H5SO4 236.4 213p 21.4ii 394x 48.8pp
C2mim Cl 160.6 358i 558 n
21.4ii 253dd
C2mim Br 191.1 352k 560w 15.7gg 247dd
C2mim I 238.1 352k 576n 16.5gg
C2mim SCN 169.2 267c 281qqq 53.1ddd
C2mim NO3 173.2 304a 557 a
19.6 hh
C2mim AlCl4 283.0 282c 13.8qqq 52.4uu

C2mim FeCl4 311.8 291l 550l
C2mim C2F5BF3 254.0 272m 571m
C2mim C3F7BF3 304.0 281m 565m
C2mim C4F9BF3 354.1 253m 553m
C2mim N(CN)2 177.3 252c 21.4ii 315bb 44.1ss
C2mim CH3SO3 206.3 278c 345bb 45.1hhh
C2mim 282.4 323nnn 27.8nnn
CH3C6H4SO3
C2mim CF3SO3 260.3 264c ~713 363bb 40.4ww
C2mim CH3CO2 170.2 253c 413jjj 21.4 ii
322qqq 38.1eee
C3mim BF4 212.0 275a 577a 51.1ccc
C3mim PF6 270.1 313i 608n 21.4ii 47.7vv
C3mim NTF2 405.3 672a 536nn 35.9ccc
qqq qqq
C3mim Cl 160.6 325.2 10.1
C3mim Br 205.1 314.7qqq 13.5qqq 281qqq
a
C3mim NO3 187.2 539 21.4ii 54.6ccc
C3mim CH3SO4 236.2 52.3xx
C3mim C2H5SO4 250.2 48.6xx
C3mim CH3CO2 184.1 36.8eee
C4mim BF4 226.0 191c 566a 21.4ii 366ee 46.9ccc
C4mim PF6 284.2 284b 696j 19.9s 410ee 47.5tt
(continued)

C4mim NTF2 419.3 269a 676a 20.9ff 565ee 34.9ccc
C4mim CH3SO4 250.3 253p 416x
43.3rr
C4mim C2H5SO4 264.3 41.7xx
C4mim 348.6 307o 614 o
12.7 qqq
635qqq
25.2xx
C8H17SO4
C4mim Cl 174.6 314b 423b 10.3gg 317dd 48.2tt
C4mim Br 219.2 350k 552w 16.3gg 311dd
C4mim I 266.2 201n 538n 19hh 310z 54.7pp
C4mim SCN 197.3 244kkk 0.28kkk 385qqq 47.5zz
C4mim NO3 201.2 296a 553a 18.0gg 354jj 50.5ccc
C4mim AlCl4 311.1 263c
C4mim FeCl4 339.9 550l 46.5pp
c ii jj
C4mim N(CN)2 205.3 267 21.4 375 45.8ff
C4mim CH3SO3 234.3 253c 625e 28.1ggg
C4mim 310.4 330ppp 16.4ppp
CH3C6H4SO3
C4mim CH3SO3 250.3 253lll 43.7iii
C4mim CF3SO3 288.3 286b 613b
19.4 qqq
424x
35.1ww
C4mim CH3CO2 198.3 253c 415d 19 hh 322bb 35.2eee
C4mim CF3CO2 252.2 19.1qqq 408qqq
C5mim BF4 240.1 185k 601a 42.8ccc
C5mim NTF2 433.3 267a 670a 598nn 35.9qq
C5mim Cl 188.7 350qqq 18.9qqq
C5mim NO3 201.2 42.8ccc
C5mim CH3CO2 212.3 34.1eee
C6mim BF4 254.1 191c 577a 429ee 39.2tt
C6mim PF6 312.2 212c 634j 420ee 43.4tt
C6mim 612.3 730qqq 31.6qqq
PF3(C2F5)3
C6mim NTF2 447.4 266a 635a 28.3gg 645ee 33.8ccc
C6mim Cl 202.6 198c 526n 10.2qqq 381dd 41.8tt
C6mim Br 247.3 221k 540w 376dd
C6mim I 294.2 43.5tt
C6mim NO3 229.3 196k 556a 16.6hh 39.9ccc
C6mim N(CN)2 233.3
C6mim AlCl4 336.1 534qqq 39.6uu
l
C6mim FeCl4 367.9 590
C6mim CF3SO3 316.4 498qqq 32.4ww
jjj
C6mim CH3CO2 226.3 409 33.0eee
C7mim Cl 216.8 190qqq 10.2qqq
C8mim BF4 282.1 194c 555d
21.4ii 498ee 30.7tt
C8mim PF6 340.3 233c 572j 21.4ii 33.9vv
C8mim NTF2 475.5 187ll 618d 25.2gg 692nn 27.8ss
C8mim Cl 230.6 273c 516n 10.3qqq 445dd 31.9tt
(continued)

mmm
C8mim Br 275.2 285 440qqq 31.6bbb
C8mim I 322.2 32.7bbb
i
C8mim NO3 243.3 221 33.3bbb
qqq
C8mim N(CN)2 261.4 268.1 36.9qqq
qqq
C8mim CF3SO3 344.4 278.1 30.1bbb
l
C8mim FeCl4 396.0 550 28.5bbb
h jjj
C10mim BF4 296.1 269 617
C10mim PF6 354.3 305h 30.7pp
qqq qqq
C10mim NTF2 503.5 244 754 29.5bbb
h gg
C10mim Cl 244.6 311 30.9
C12mim BF4 310.2 292k 25.2oo
k mm
C12mim PF6 382.3 328 27.3 23.6oo
jjj qqq
C12mim NTF2 532.4 596 820 32.3bbb
a
[57], b[58],c[59], d[60], e[61], f[62], g[63], h[64], i[65], j[66], k[67], l[68], m [69], n[70], o[71], p[72],
q
[58], s[73], w[66], x[74], z[75], bb[76], cc[77], dd[78], ee[79], ff[80], gg[81], hh[75], ii[82], jj[83], ll[84],
mm
[85], nn[86], oo[87] values at 63 C, pp[88] values at 25–30 C from various sources, qq[89], rr[90],
ss
[91] values at 20 C, tt[92], uu[93], vv[94], ww[95], xx[96], zz[97], aaa[98], bbb[99], ccc[57], ddd[100],
eee
[101], fff[102], ggg[103], hhh[104], iii[105], jjj[106], kkk[107], lll [72], mmm[108], nnn[109], ppp[110],
qqq
[56]
6.2.2 Vaporization
Experimental values of the vapor pressures (indeed very small: mPa to fractions of
a Pa) of Cnmimþ NTF2 (n ¼ 2, 4, 6, 8) RTILs were obtained by Zaitsau et al. from
Knudsen effusion cells [175]. The resulting molar enthalpies of vaporization
(at 298 K) are respectively 135, 136, 140, and 150 kJ mol1 for these four RTILs.
The enthalpies of vaporization were then estimated for a variety of 1-alkyl-3-
methylimidazolium RTILs with Cl, BF4, PF6, and NTF2 anions from the surface
1=3
tensions σ and molar volumes V by the expression ΔV H ¼ AN A σV 2=3 þ B, Fig. 6.2,
1
yielding values 112 ΔV Hð298 KÞ=kJ mol 169. Further estimates along
these lines were reported for other imidazolium RTILs by Esperança et al. [176]
with similar results. For the series of Cnmimþ NTF2 (n ¼ 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8) RTILs the
values of ΔVH(298 K)/kJ mol– 1 were found by Santos et al. [177] from high-accuracy
vapor pressure measurements to increase linearly with increasing alkyl chain length
as 118 6 þ 9n. For the same series with n ¼ 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10 and 12 the values
of ΔVH(298 K)/kJ mol– 1 were found by Rocha et al. [178] to increase systematically
but non-linearly with increasing alkyl chain lengths from 133 to 171, there being
a break in the ΔVH(n) curve at n ¼ 6, attributed to structural modifications of the
liquid [178] (this non-linearity was later challenged by Verevkin et al. [86]).
Table 6.3 The molar mass, M, the melting point, Tm, and the temperature of start of decompo-
sition, Tdec, the molar enthalpy of melting, and the heat capacity and surface tension at 25 C of
1-alkylpyridinium salts
C2Py Br 188.2 383b 12.8o
C2Py NTF2 388.3 304g 18.9dd 35.5y
C2Py EtSO4 233.4 289t 483 d
389w
C2(3 M)Py NTF2 402.3 288c 491w

C2(4 M)Py NTF2 402.3 291i 11.0o
C3Py Cl 156.8 365.1dd

C3Py Br 202.2 342o 11dd
C3Py BF4 208.8 363p 50.9z
C3Py NTF2 402.3 318f
C3(3 M)Py Cl 171.7 365v 473v
C3(3 M)Py NTF2 416.4 296c 517t 34.7aa
C4Py Br 216.2 378d 480 bb
20.4 dd
C4Py NO3 198.4 508bb 51.5cc

C4Py BF4 223.0 280a 562bb 383q
50.9z
C4Py NTF2 416.4 299g 609bb 27.9dd 395p 34.8y
C4Py CF3SO3 285.4 301k 575bb 470p 36.5p
C4(2 M)Py BF4 237.1 301p 47.1y
C4(3 M)Py Cl 185.3 385n 515n 28n
C4(3 M)Py BF4 223.0 590d 388s 44.8z
C4(3 M)Py 299.4 307e 516e 38.2y
CF3SO3
C4(3 M)Py NTF2 430.4 506d 548s 35.5y
k
C4(3 M)Py N 216.4 278
(CN)2
C4(4 M)Py BF4 223.0 45.8z
i
C4(4 M)Py NTF2 430.3 292 35.0y
C4(4 M)Py 321.4 325l
MePhSO3
C5Py NTF2 430.4 273g 22.8dd 32.5dd
C5Py Cl 174.8 365.1dd
C6Py Br 244.2 309q
C6Py NTF2 444.4 273f 605d 612w
C6(3 M)Py Cl 213.9 355n 511n 20n
C6(3 M)Py Br 258.2 343u
x x
C6(3 M)Py 327.4 338 42.0
CF3SO3
C6(3 M)Py NTF2 458.5 276dd 603d 624u
C8Py Br 272.3 292q
C8Py CF3SO3 341.5 322m 553m
C8Py C4F9SO3 491.5 346m 567m
(continued)

C8Py NTF2 472.5 261m 593m
C8(2 M)Py 355.5 313m 448m
CF3SO3
C8(2 M)Py 505.5 351m 565m
C4F9SO3
C8(3 M)Py Cl 241.9 353n 505n
C8(3 M)Py BF4 293.2 446w
C8(3 M)Py NTF2 486.5 669u
C8(4 M)Py 505.5 34m 571m
C4F9SO3
C8(4 M)Py NTF2 486.6 280m 573m
C10Py NTF2 500.5 617j
C12Py Br 328.4 329q
C12Py NTF2 528.6 610j
n
C12(3 M)Py Cl 262.5 361 500n 37n
a
[111], b[112], c[113], d[60], e[114], f[62], g[63], h[115], i[116], j[117], k[118], l[119], m[120], n [121],
o
[122], p[123], q[124], r[125], s[126], t[127], u[128], v[129], w[130], x[131], y[132], z[133], aa[134],
bb
[106], cc[135], dd[56]
On the whole, then, the molar enthalpy of vaporization of the RTILs for which
data are available are above 100 kJ mol1 and even above 200 kJ mol1 for NTF2
salts with the longer alkyl chain cations, which is a large endothermic value,
considerably larger than that of common molecular solvents. This is, of course,
directly related to the small vapor pressures of the RTILs.
Theoretical calculations and computer simulations of the enthalpy of vaporiza-
tion and the normal boiling points again dealt with the 1-alkyl-3-methylimi-
dazolium salts, yielding similar results pertaining to the measured enthalpies
[78, 82, 179, 180]. Normal boiling points Tb > 530 C were obtained according to
Rane and Errington [179] from three different simulation methods for the Cnmimþ
NTF2 RTILs, but the more likely values were >700 C, well above the decom-
position temperatures.
6.2.3 Cohesive Energies and Solubility Parameters
Once reliable estimates of the molar enthalpies of vaporization of RTILs are

available, their cohesive energies, ce ¼ ΔVH – RT, are readily obtained. Note that
no ionic dissociation of the vapor is used in this derivation (otherwise, 2RT had to
be employed). Hence, the cohesive energy densities, ced ¼ ðΔV H RT Þ=V, shown
in Table 6.5, and the Hildebrand solubility parameters, δH ¼ ced1/2 are obtained on
Table 6.4 The molar mass, M, the melting point, Tm, and the temperature of decomposition, Tdec,
and the surface tension and heat capacity at 25 C of RTIL quaternary ammonium and phospho-
nium salts
Salt M/g mol1 Tm/K Tdec/K CP/J K1 mol1 σ/mN m1
MeEt3N CH3SO4 213.7 306hhh
MeEt3N ClCH2CO2 195.7 403w
MeBu3N CH3SO4 297.9 335hhh
MeBu3N ClCH2CO2 279.8 328w
MeBu3N CF3SO3 335.4 356v
MeOc3N Br 434.4 330v
MeOc3N NTF2 648.9 27.8vv
nn
EtMe3N CF3SO2NCOCF3 334.2 288
PrMe3N NTF2 368.3 292mm
BuMe3N NTF2 382.3 292q 673ff 559hhh 38.1rr
BuEt3N BF4 231.0 435l 645l
BuEt3N PF6 289.0 452l 627l
HxMe3N NTF2 426.8 298tt 36.0rr
HxEt3N BF4 259.1 361l 640 l
HxEt3N PF6 317.1 435l 603l

HxEt3N N(CN)2 238.3 503kk
HxEt3 NTF2 468.9 219uu 35.2bbb
HxBu3 NTF2 536.5 297ll
HxBu3 N(CN)2 322.4 230kk
OcEt3N BF4 287.1 375l 635l
OcEt3N NTF2 495.0 33.1ss
l l
OcEt3N PF6 345.1 362 523
DcMe3N NTF2 480.9 35.5bbb
DcEt3N NTF2 523.0 32.4ss
DcEt3N Br 308.3 388m
DcBu3N Br 420.4 295m
DcHx3N BF4 511.4 332m
DcHx3N C12H25SO4 690.0 292m
DoMe3N Br 308.7 519u
u
DoEt3N Br 336.3 405
DoEt3N NTF2 551.0 405u 31.8ss
TdEt3N Br 364.3 371m
TdBu3N Br 448.5 294m
TdHx3N BF4 539.6 330m
TdHx3N C12H25SO4 718.1 295m
Me2PyrrCF3SO3NCOCF2 360.5 297nn
Me2Pyrr C4F9SO3 399.5 471jj
EtMePyrr CF3SO3 263.5 379ii
EtMePyrr NTF2 394.4 364bb
EtMePyrr C4F9SO3 413.5 449jj
EtMePyrr N(CN)2 180.5 263kk
(continued)

PrMePyrr BF4 214.5 337nn
PrMePyrr PF6 273.2 386z
PrMePyrr CF3SO3 277.5 351ii 435hhh
PrMePyrr C4F9SO3 427.5 382jj
PrMePyrr N(CN)2 194.5 238kk 502hhh
PrMePyrr N(FSO3)2 340.6 263hh
PrMePyrr NTF2 408.6 285mm 501hhh 35.4zz
PrMePyrr TFESI 468.6 281ee 576 ee
BuMePyrr I 269.2 426gg 529gg

BuMePyrr SCN 200.4 295qq 49.7rr
BuMePyrr BF4 229.3 411nn
BuMePyrr C4F9SO3 441.6 367jj
BuMePyrr N(FSO3)2 354.6 255hh
BuMePyrr NTF2 422.6 255dd 590qq 33.1xx
BuMePyrr N(CN)2 208.5 218kk 502oo 56.1rr
BuMePyrr FeCl4 343.1 354aa
PeMePyrr NTF2 426.7 281hhh
PeMePyrr C4F9SO3 455.6 391jj
HxMePyrr NTF2 440.7 276hhh
HxMePyrr N(CN)2 237.0 262kk
HxMePyrr C4F9SO3 470.1 393jj
EtMePip NTF2 408.6 358cc
PrMePip NTF2 422.6 288ff 691ff 35.3ww
PrMePip TFESY 482.6 299ee 575ee
PrEtPip I 283.2 340gg 565gg
BuMePip I 283.2 457gg 534gg
BuMePip NTF2 436.6 34.2ww
gg gg
BuEtPip I 297.2 401 533
HxMePip NTF2 464.7 278hh
PrMeMor I 285.2 360gg 545gg
BuMeMor I 285.2 398gg 514gg
BuEtMor I 299.4 376gg 511gg
MeBu3P NTF2 497.5 289aaa 652aaa
MeBu3P N(CN)2 283.4 279ddd 660ddd
MeBu3P MeSO4 328.5 618fff
ddd ddd
BuEt3P N(CN)2 241.3 278 667
BuEt3P N(SO2F)2 355.4 257eee 586eee
BuEt3P NTF2 455.4 328eee
PeEt3P N(SO2F)2 369.4 238eee 582eee
PeEt3P NTF2 469.4 290eee 653eee
PeEt3P N(CN)2 255.3 261ddd 666ddd
HxBu3P PF6 432.4 414ggg
(continued)

OcBu3P BF4 402.3 672aaa
OcBu3P PF6 460.5 293aaa 636aaa
OcBu3P NTF2 595.7 646aaa
OcBu3P SCN 373.6 651aaa
OcBu3P CF3SO3 464.7 681aaa
OcBu3P MePhSO3 486.7 617aaa
DoBu3P BF4 458.5 298aaa 664aaa
DoBu3P NTF2 651.8 289aaa 656aaa
TdHx3P Cl 519.3 223fff 772fff 33.4bbb
TdHx3P NTF2 764.0 201fff 1293ccc 30.1yy
TdHx3P N(CN)2 550.0 1024fff 31.7yy
l
[136], m[137], q[138], u[139], v[140], w[141], z[142], aa[143], bb[144], cc[145], dd[146], ee[147],
ff
[148], gg[149], hh[150], ii[151], jj[152], kk[153], ll[154], mm[155], nn [156], oo[157], pp[158]
also ΔmH ¼ 21.9 kJ mol1, qq[159] also ΔmH ¼ 2.1 kJ mol1, rr[160], ss[161], tt[162], uu[163],
vv
[91], ww[134], xx[164], yy[165], zz[166], aaa[167], bbb[89], ccc[168], ddd[169], eee[170], fff[171],
ggg
[106], hhh[56]
Fig. 6.2 The molar enthalpy of vaporization, ΔvH, of imidazolium RTILs as a function of the
factor σV2/3 of these salts: ● are the data from which Zaitsu et al. [175] constructed their
predictive line (- - - -) and their predicted ΔvH values (o). However, for some imidazolium
RTILs the predictions are lower than the experimental values (~)
Table 6.5 The cohesive energies, ce, their densities, ced, and the Gordon parameters, GP [181],
of RTILs at 25 C. Values calculated with the use of molar volume data from Tables 6.6 and 6.8
and surface tension data from Tables 6.2 and 6.4 (without references) are in italics
Salt ce/kJ mol1 Refs. ced/MPa Refs. GP/J m3
C1mim PF6 140 [182]
C1mim NTF2 128, 131 [178, 183] 530 0.583
C1mim CH3SO4 104 [184] 1,016,695 [184, 185] 1.207
C1mim (CH3)2PO4 142 [186] 801 [186] 0.862a
C2mim BF4 171 [187] 782,682 [184, 185] 1.004
C2mim PF6 139 [188] 1,038,774 [185, 189]
C2mim NTF2 121,157 [177, 182] 503 [185] 0.613
C2mim CH3SO4 145 [188] 786 1.105
C2mim C2H5SO4 151,161 [188, 190] 728 [185] 0.846
C2mim (CH3)2PO4 137 [186] 708 [186] 0.764a
C2mim CH3SO3 95 [184] 633 [184] 0.820
C2mim CF3SO3 158,146 [188, 191] 656 [185] 0.705
C2mim Cl 137 [192] 1457 [193]
C2mim Br 151 [182]
C2mim SCN 149 [188] 635 [194] 0.996
C2mim NO3 161 [182]
C2mim N(CN)2 151 [188] 938 0.811
C2mim B(CN)4 147 [195]
C2mim CH3CO2 165 [82]
C2mim EtCO2 116 [196]
C2mim CF3CO2 653, 1331 [194, 197]
C3mim BF4 0.920
C3mim PF6 152 [82]
C3mim NTF2 169,129 [177, 178] 811 [197] 0.552
C3mim Cl 163 [82] 1248 [193]
C3mim NO3 1.008
C3mim EtCO2 121 [196]
C4mim BF4 125,174 [175, 187] 655 [185] 0.818
C4mim PF6 146,184 [182, 198] 667 [185] 0.824
C4mim NTF2 128,208 [182, 198] 472 [185] 0.463
C4mim CH3SO4 151 [182] 674 [185] 0.731
C4mim C8H17SO4 176 [188] 357 [185] 0.366
C4mim (CH3)2PO4 131 [186] 576 [186] 0.624a
C4mim CF3SO3 139,149 [198, 199] 598 [185] 0.580
C4mim Cl 148,91 [184, 192] 748,582 [184, 185] 0.885
C4mim Br 149 [182]
C4mim I 153 [200]
C4mim SCN 112 607 [194] 0.835
C4mim NO3 163 [82] 0.904
C4mim CH3CO2 183,119 [201, 202] 645 [202] 0.598
C4mim EtCO2 124 [196]
(continued)

C4mim CF3CO2 230 1109 [197]
C4mim N(CN)2 152 [188] 784 0.791
C5mim BF4 0.726
C5mim NTF2 133,140 [78, 178] 427 [185] 0.503
C5mim NO3 0.743
C5mim EtCO2 127 [196]
C6mim BF4 122 548 [185] 0.654
C6mim PF6 166,194 [187, 190] 554 [185] 0.626
C6mim NTF2 137,214 [182, 198] 410 [185] 0.438
C6mim MeSO4 137 [182]
C6mim Cl 158 [192] 0.722
C6mim SCN 112 [194] 559 [194]
C6mim NO3 0.674
C6mim EtCO2 134 [196]
C6mim CF3CO2 980 [197]
C6mim CF3SO3 148 [192]
C7mim NTF2 139,149 [78, 178] 435
C8mim BF4 159,194 [187, 190] 456 [185] 0.480
C8mim PF6 166,213 [190, 198] 499 [185] 0.499
C8mim NTF2 143,226 [78, 198] 400 [185] 0.414
C8mim MeSO4 0.462
C8mim CF3SO3 146 [188] 484 0.425
C8mim Cl 163 [192] 509 [185] 0.505
C8mim Br 0.512
C8mim I 164 [192] 0.521
C8mim NO3 0.535
C8mim N(CN)2 157 [188] 609
C8mim CF3CO2 882 [197]
C10mim PF6 133 [175]
C10mim NTF2 149,147 [78, 178] 372 0.402
C10mim B(CN)4 203 [195]
C12mim NTF2 155,169 [78, 178] 451 0.396
C2Py NTF2 137,139 [188, 200] 546 [188] 0.592
C2(2Et)Py NTF2 143,138 [188, 203] 485 [188]
C2Py C2H5SO4 168 [188] 918 [188]
C2(3 M)Py C2H5SO4 161 [188] 807 [188]
C3(3Me)Py NTF2 134 [188] 464 [188]
C3(4Me)Py NTF2 138 [188] 483 [188]
C3Py NTF2 142,138 [188, 200] 514 [188] 0.507
C4Py NTF2 140,141 [188, 200] 494 [188] 0.507
C4Py CH3CO2 175 [201] 928
C4Py CH3SO4 168 [188] 827 [188]
(continued)

C4(3 M)Py BF4 142 706 [185] 0.765
C4(3 M)Py CF3SO3 117 505 [194] 0.623
C4(4 M)Py BF4 154 [188] 716,759 [185, 188] 0.784
C4(4 M)Py NTF2 129 425 [194] 0.521
C4(4 M)Py SCN 118 602 [194]
C4(4 M)Py MePhSO3 532 [194]
C5Py NTF2 0.484
C6Py NTF2 143 [182]
MeOc3N NTF2 186 [188] 454,319 [188, 191] 0.330
BuMe3N NTF2 209 734 [191] 0.579
BuPrMe2N NTF2 225 713 [191]
HxMe3N NTF2 222 686 [191] 0.524
HxEt3N NTF2 241 660 [191] 0.493
HxPrMe2N NTF2 228 666 [191]
DcMe3N NTF2 258 605 [191] 0.472
DcPrMe2N NTF2 253 581 [191]
EtMePyrr NTF2 136 [188] 488 [188]
EtMePyrr N(CN)2 149 [188] 857 [188]
PrMePyrr NTF2 137 [188] 475,496 [185, 204]
PrMePyrr N(CN)2 152 [188] 801 [188]
BuMePyrr CF3SO3 121 521 [194]
BuMePyrr NTF2 141,147 [188, 205] 445,388 [185, 204]
BuMePyrr N(CN)2 154 [188] 742 [188] 0.963
BuMePyrr SCN 121 623 [194] 0.858
PeMePyrr NTF2 142 [205]
HxMePyrr NTF2 146 [205] 416 [204]
HpMePyrr NTF2 151 [205]
OcMePyrr NTF2 155 [205]
DcMePyrr NTF2 162 [205] 392 [204]
EtMePip NTF2 135 [188] 476 [188]
PrMePip NTF2 134 [188] 448 [188]
BuMePip NTF2 135 [188] 432 [188]
BuMePip SCN 942 [195]
PeMePip NTF2 529 [206]
HxMePip NTF2 515 [206]
MeiBu3P MePhSO3 215 [194]
MeOc3P NTF2 187 [188] 315 [188]
TdHx3P Cl 201 [200] 396 [191] 0.400
TdHx3P NTF2 214 [188] 350,303 [188, 191] 0.337
TdHx3P N(CN)2 209 342 [191] 0.374
a
From Ref. [186]
using the molar volumes V dealt with in Sect. 6.3. These solubility parameters are in
the range 18 δH =MPa1=2 38,
An indirect method was applied to obtain Hildebrand solubility parameters δH of
6 imidazolium RTILs from a linear solvation energy relationship (LSER) correla-
tion of the solvent dependency of a rate constant for a certain reaction by Swiderski
et al. [199]. Another indirect method was based by Lee and Lee [198] on the
comparison of the viscosity of eight imidazolium RTILs with those of organic
solvents. The resulting values of δH/MPa1/2 were in the range 24–32. These values
are less reliable than those obtained from ced ¼ ðΔV H RT Þ=V.
Molecular simulation was applied by Derecskei and Derecskei-Kovacs [208] to
nine imidazolium RTILs with resulting δH/MPa1/2 values in the range 25–35.
Molecular dynamic simulations of four mixtures of imidazolium RTILs with
methanol also yielded ced ¼ δH2 values for the RTILs according to Jahangiri
et al. [189]. Molecular dynamic simulations were applied by Sistla et al. [197] to
yield solubility parameters for use in the evaluation of their capabilities to absorb
CO2. The simulations were first applied to 16 RTILs involving 4 key cations
(C2mimþ, C4mimþ, C6mimþ, and C8mimþ) and 4 key anions (NTF2, PF6,
CH3CO2, and (C2F5)3PF3), and the 16 expressions were solved simultaneously
to yield the following relationship:
2
δH =MPa1=2 ¼ 0:6084ðδHþ δH Þ 0:1958 δHþ 2 0:1958 δH 2 ð6:11Þ
Individual ionic values of δHþ and δH were thus obtained for the key ions, and
Eq. (6.11) were then used to obtain δH values for altogether 210 RTILs involving
also 17 other cations of various types and 6 other anions. The δH values diminish as
the chain lengths of the alkyl substituents or the size of the anion increases.
An indirect method for arriving at the ced was from the corresponding enthalpies
of vaporization ΔVH and surface tensions σ of 6 imidazolium RTILs, according to
Jin et al. [204], noting the proportionality between ced and σV1/3, and then
calculating ced for 12 pyrrolidinium and other quaternary ammonium RTILs. The
thus estimated δH/MPa1/2 values are on the low side, ranging from 20 to 27. The
Hildebrand solubility parameters of seven imidazolium, eight quaternary ammo-
nium, and nine quaternary phosphonium RTILs were estimated by Kilaru and
Scovazzo [191] from their dynamic viscosities η (Sect. 6.5) as
δH ¼ K ðT=V Þ1=2 ðlnηV Þ1=2 . The resulting δH/MPa1/2 values increased with the
alkyl chain lengths from 25 to 30 for the imidazolium salts to 21–27 for the
ammonium salts to 18–23 for the phosphonium salts. The viscosity was also used
by Weerachanchai et al. [184] for obtaining the Hildebrand solubility parameters of
11 RTILs with various cations and anions.
The Hildebrand solubility parameters of 18 RTILs were calculated from the
inverse gas chromatography derived infinite dilution activity coefficients by
Marciniak [194] who later added values for eight additional RTILs [195], and
compared the values with those obtained by other methods. Gas chromatography
was also used by Paduszynski and Domanska [206] to obtain infinite dilution
activity coefficients that were then used for the estimation of the δH values of
four piperidinium-based RTILs.
The enthalpies of vaporization ΔVH of aprotic RTILs were estimated by
Schr€ oder and Coutinho [188] by means of the COSMO-RS method and compared
with results from other methods. The uncertainty from using this method was
estimated as 10 kJ mol1. Values of the ced and of δH were then derived for
102 RTILs with a variety of cations and anions.
The enthalpy of vaporization, estimated according to Zaitsau et al. [175] as
shown above yielded the ce ¼ ΔVH – RT and the ced, which were then used for
other purposes by Singh and Kumar [185]. This approach was also used by Xu
et al. [202] to obtain the ΔVH and δH values of four imidazolium carboxylate RTILs
and by Ren et al. [207] to obtain the ΔVH and δH values of seven imidazolium
dialkylphosphate RTILs.
The linear dependence of ΔVH on σV2/3 noted above gives rise to another
characterization of liquids used as solvents, namely the Gordon Parameter
GP ¼ σV 1=3 , which is valuable for the use of RTILs for the self-assembly of
amphiphiles according to Greaves and Drummond [209, 210]. These authors
reported values for protic RTILs, but later Greaves and Drummond [181] added
the GP values of aprotic RTILs shown in Table 6.5. Some additional GP values
were calculated by the author of this book from the surface tensions and molar
volumes and are also shown there.
6.2.4 Critical Properties
Critical temperatures Tc have been reported for many RTILs, but have been based on
unreliable long extrapolations of experimental data. Although C10/12mimþNTF2
could be distilled without decomposition at reduced pressures, the estimated
normal boiling points, Tb 0.6 Tc of 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium salts (with the
anions Cl, BF4, PF6, and NTF2) according to Rebelo et al. [211] are much
higher than the onsets of the decomposition temperatures, Tdec (Table 6.2). The
critical temperatures, Tc, in turn, were estimated from the E€otvos expression:
σV 2=3 ¼ a þ bT ð6:12Þ
yielding Tc ¼ a/b as the temperature at which the surface tension, σ, vanishes, and
from the Guggenheim expression:
σ ¼ σ 0 ð1 T=T c Þ11=9 ð6:13Þ

yielding Tc again for the temperature at which the surface tension, σ, vanishes.
These two approaches were used also in several publications for the estimation of
the critical temperature of RTILs. Application to CnmimþNTF2 (n ¼ 1, 2, 4, 6, 8)
RTILs [212–214], C4mimþPF6 [215] and C2mimþAn (An being one of
eight anions) [216] and CatþCH3CO2 [Catþ being one of four cations) [217],
and R3R0 NþAn or R3R0 PþAn (An being one of several anions) [218, 219]
generally yielded values of Tc 1000 K and Tb 900 K from surface tension and
density data at 350 K. The values of Tc obtained from these two approaches in
many cases differed by >100 K, even up to 200 K. The experimental σ(T ) data do
vary linearly within the range of measurement (see below), but very long extrap-
olations of them are thus required to obtain σ ¼ 0. Therefore, the reliability of these
critical temperature estimates is questionable, and estimation methods of physical
quantities of RTILs based on reduced temperatures with respect to the critical
temperature should be dealt with cautiously.
Critical temperatures were also obtained on the basis computer simulations
(Monte Carlo) of the coexistence of liquid and vapor (assumes to be a single ion
pair) as applied by Rai and Maginn [213] to CnmimþNTF2 (n ¼ 1, 2, 4, 6) RTILs.
These Tc values were larger than those estimated from the surface tensions and in
better accord with estimates from group contributions by Valderrama and Robles
[220], available for 50 diverse RTILs and by Valderrama et al. [221] available for
200 RTILs. Estimated normal boiling points, Tb, and critical pressures, volumes,
and acentric factors were also provided in the latter report. The ratios of Tb/Tc
ranged between 0.634 and 0.794. The estimates by Valderrama and Robles from
group contributions were updated by Valderrama et al. [222], including the critical
compressibility facto r and extended to nearly 300 RTILs and further updated by
them [223] and extended by them [224], and appear to yield reliable values.
6.2.5 Heat Capacities
The isobaric molar heat capacities, CP, of RTILs (shown for 25 C in Tables 6.2,
6.3, and 6.4), have been recently reviewed and critically compiled by Paulechka
[83], dealing with values available to that time, and a few more recent CP data of
RTILs are included in these tables. The temperature dependence of the values is
described in [83] by empirical third degree power series, although linear depen-
dencies are adequate for many RTILs [58, 225]. The CP of the RTILs studied
increases slowly with the temperature, up to 0.2 % per K, the more, the longer the
alkyl chain(s) of the RTILs. This contrasts with the substantially temperature-
invariance of the CP values of the high-melting salts shown in Tables 3.3.3 and
3.3.4. The pressure (up to 60 MPa) and temperature (up to 50 C) dependencies of
the CP of four imidazolium tetrafluoroborates was reported by Sanmamed
et al. [226]. Within these ranges the pressure dependencies were very small,
~0.3 % at the maximal pressure studied at ambient temperatures.
Volume-based thermodynamics was applied by Glasser [227] to model the heat

capacities, based on the microscopic ionic volumes V/NA at an unspecified temper-
ature. It was applied to 11 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium RTILs (C2, C4, and C6)
with a variety of anions and to C14mimþNTF2 and C4-2,3-dimethylimidazoliumþ
PF6 with a linear correlation coefficient squared of 0.980 when forced through the
origin. When data for 28 further imidazolium salts were added and the microscopic
volumes from Tables 2.4 and 6.9 (rather than V/NA) were employed, the slope was
slightly larger than in [227] and the data followed the expression:
CP =J K1 mol1 ¼ ð9 5Þ þ ð1343 16Þðvþ þ v Þ=nm3 ð6:14Þ
Figure 6.3 a second degree power series in the temperature was modeled by
Galinski et al. [156] for 19 imidazolium, pyridinium, and pyrrolidinium RTILs
with a variety of anions by group contribution methods with three ion-specific
parameters. When the CP(298 K) values were plotted against the microscopic ionic
volumes the slope was 1174 54, in fair agreement with that of Eq. (6.14). Two
further group contribution methods for obtaining the CP of RTILs were published
Fig. 6.3 The molar constant pressure heat capacity, CP, of RTILs plotted against their micro-
scopic molar volumes, (vþ þ v), cf. Eq. (6.11): (●) according to Glasser and Jenkins [227], where
(vþ þ v) ¼ V/NA, and (o) for many other imidazolium RTILs where vþ and v– are from Table 6.9
in the present book
recently by Farahani et al. [228] and by Sattari et al. [130], only the second one of
these specifying the characteristics of the groups used.
6.2.6 Surface Tension
The surface tension, σ, at 25 C of common RTILs is shown in Tables 6.2, 6.3, and
6.4. The surface tension has generally been measured over a temperature span of
~60 K and was invariably found to diminish linearly with increasing temperatures:
σ ¼ a bT ð6:15Þ
The values do decrease linearly with the temperature, within the temperature range
of measurement (up to 120 C according to Ghatee and Zolghadr [92]), notwith-
standing the theoretical dependencies of the E€otvos and Guggenheim expressions,
Eqs. (6.12) and (6.13) for fluids in general.
Values of σ of RTILs with less usual anions, such as FeCl4, GaCl4, Au(CN)3,
ICl2, and Br3 were reported by Martino et al. [88] and with other inorganic anions
by Larriba et al. [229]. The surface tensions of RTILs diminish as their
molar volumes increase according to Jin et al. [204], and for 12 imidazolium and
pyrrolidinium NTF3 RTILs the expression for 25
C is:
1
1

1 2
σ=mN m ¼ 22:77 þ 3820= V=cm mol 3
1090= V=cm mol
3
. In fact,
linear dependencies: σ ¼ a –bV can be derived from the data in Table 6.2 for
imidazolium RTILs with anions such as BF4, PF6, NO3, and CH3CO2 with
individual slopes b, but not, for instance for the anion NTF2. Similarly, for
1-alkyl-3-methyl-imidazolium alkylsulfates σ diminishes monotonously (in most
cases linearly) with the number of carbon atoms in the alkyl chains, both the cation
and the anion being present at the surface, as found by Santos and Baldelli [96].
The old concept of the parachor introduced by Sugden [230], which is nowadays
seldom invoked, has nevertheless found use for the prediction of the surface tension
of RTILs. The parachor is defined as:
Pσ ¼ Mσ 1=4 ρ1 ð6:16Þ
and is only slightly temperature dependent, <0.03 % per K. The parachor is

additive with respect to the constituent atoms and structural features (rings, etc.)
[230] and should be additive with respect to the cation and anion of RTILs. For the
division of experimental values of Pσ into the contributions of the individual ions
the extra-thermodynamic assumption that Pσ =Pσþ ¼ vcr =vcrþ was made by Ma
et al. [231], where vcr is the microscopic volume of the subscripted ion in crystals.
For a family of RTILs with a common anion Pσ increases linearly with the number
of carbon atoms in the alkyl chains. However, the increment in Pσ /[(mN m– 1)1/4
mol cm– 3] per methylene group has been reported variously by different authors:
32.8 [232], 37.4 [231, 233], and 39.9 [234, 235]. Values of Pσ of various cations and
anions have been reported in the two most recent references by Ma et al. and
Soukova et al. [231, 232]. These supersede previous estimates by Gardas
et al. [234], based on the proportionality of the parachor to the 5/6th power of the
molar volume of the RTIL: Pσ ¼ 6:2V 5=6 (with the commonly used units for these
quantities).
In principle, therefore, Eq. (6.16) may be inverted to predict the surface tension
of RTILs: σ ¼ ðPσ =V Þ4 , but this procedure makes the predicted σ very sensitive to
the values of the parachor (see the discrepancies in reported values mentioned
above) and the molar volume, because of the fourth power dependence. Therefore
this apparently simple method according to Lemraski and Zobeydi [236] is not
recommended for the estimation of the unknown surface tension of RTILs.
Another predictive method, according to Shang et al. [237], uses the QSAR
employing the topological index of the RTILs, the distance matrix between
non-hydrogen atoms in the salt. Using a training set of 715 temperature dependent
data points (for σ ¼ a – bT) and 215 test data points the average deviation was ~4 %
for the predicted values. However, the number of required structural parameters
was very large (>30 numerical values are listed for various types of RTILs).
According to the hole theory of liquids (Sect. 3.3.1) the surface tension should be
inversely proportional to the 2/3 power of the void volume. As applied by Larriba
et al. to ionic liquids [229]:
σ ¼ ξ*kB Tv2=3
v ð6:17Þ
where vv ¼ V=N A ðvþ þ v Þ is the microscopic void volume, and ξ* ¼ 0.674.

However, the theoretical coefficient had to be replaced by an empirical one for the
20 salts of imidazolium cations with inorganic anions considered [229]. This was
also necessary for the purpose of this book for 50 RTILs with imidazolium and
pyridinium cations and various anions for which surface tension data could be
found, using the molar void volume V v ¼ V N A ðvþ þ v Þ (Sect. 6.3):
2=3
σ calc =mN m1 ¼ 4:9 V v =cm3 mol1 ¼ ð1:005 0:036Þσ exp =mN m1 ð6:18Þ
with a correlation coefficient rcorr ¼ 0.9590, Fig. 6.4. The scatter arises from the
definition of the void volume, Vv, which is a rather small difference between
much larger values. Still, the inverse proportionality of the surface tension to the
2/3 power of the void volume that was found, that is, to the mean surface
areas of the cavities, indicates that cavities of sizes commensurate with the
ions of the RTILs do exist in them. Due to the appreciable scatter noted for
Eq. (6.18), care should be used for the prediction of unknown surface tensions of
RTILs from it.
Fig. 6.4 The surface tension, σ, of RTILs plotted against the reciprocal of the surface area of the
voids in them, [V – NA(vþ þ v)]2/3, cf. Eq. (6.18)
6.3 Volumetric Data
6.3.1 Densities and Molar Volumes
The densities of RTILs and their temperature dependences are readily measured
with good accuracy by a variety of methods with results that have recently been
compiled by Marcus [238] and in the NIST database [56]. The densities are
generally reported as ρ/g cm3 to four decimals and the isobaric expansibilities
as 103αP/K1 to three decimals. Values of ρ and 103αP at 25 C for the common
1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium RTILs with a large variety of anions are shown in
Table 6.6, those for 1-alkylpyridinium RTILs in Table 6.7, and of quaternary
ammonium and phosphonium ones in Table 6.8. Also shown in these three
Tables are the molar volumes, V/cm3 mol1 ¼ M/ρ at 25 C, with the molar masses
from Tables 6.2, 6.3, and 6.4.
The modeling of the (temperature dependent) densities is described briefly in
Sect. 6.1.2, using equations of state (EoS) derived from various modifications of the
statistical associated fluid theory (SAFT), the COSMO-RS model, the Sanchez-
Lascomb lattice fluid model (SL), or the perturbed hard sphere model (PHS). Each
6.3 Volumetric Data 151
Table 6.6 The density, isobaric expansibility, molar volume, isothermal compressibility, and
internal pressure at 25 C of 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium (Cnmim) salts, from Farahani
et al. [238] unless otherwise noted
Salt ρ/g cm3 103αP/K1 V/cm3 mol1 κ T/GPa1 Pint/MPay
C1mim BF4 1.306 140.9
C1mim PF6 1.478 164.5
C1mim NTF2 1.5620 0.743l 241.5
C1mim Cl 1.1399a 116.3
C1mim SCN 1.1574 0.572 134.1
C1mim CH3SO4 1.3273 0.454 156.9 573
C2mim BF4 1.2803 0.639 154.7 0.337 496
C2mim PF6 1.413 0.784n 181.2 492
C2mim NTF2 1.5183 0.662 257.7 0.380 366
C2mim CH3SO4 1.2058 0.537 184.4 0.336r
C2mim C2H5SO4 1.2390 0.541 190.8 0.262s 487
C2mim C8H17SO4 1.0948 292.7
C2mim CH3SO3 1.2409 0.532 166.3
C2mim CH3C6H4SO3 1.2253 230.5q
C2mim CF3SO3 1.3836 0.611 188.1 0.435t 397
C2mim Cl 1.186a 123.6
C2mim Br 1.48b 129
C2mim I 1.69b 140
C2mim SCN 1.1162 0.545 151.6 0.299u
C2mim NO3 1.2085c 143.3
C2mim HSO4 1.3674 0.453 152.3
C2mim AlCl4 1.2947 0.595 218.6
C2mim N(CN)2 1.1016 0.608 160.9
C2mim B(CN)4 1.0363d 0.764d 218.2
C2mim CH3CO2 1.1437 148.8
C3mim BF4 1.237 171.4
C3mim PF6 1.333a 202.5
C3mim NTF2 1.4757 0.685 274.6 0.482 355
C3mim NO3 1.184 158.2
C3mim CH3SO4 1.2031 0.533 196.3
C3mim CH3CO2 1.1190 164.5
C4mim BF4 1.2015 0.631 188.1 0.360 448
C4mim PF6 1.3647 0.611 208.3 0.412 439
C4mim NTF2 1.4371 0.660 291.8 0.498 351
C4mim CH3SO4 1.2058 0.547 207.6 375j 427
C4mim C2H5SO4 1.2323e 0.629e 214.5
C4mim C8H17SO4 1.0668 0.579 326.8 0.492 373
C4mim CF3SO3 1.3006 0.730 221.7 0.432 401
C4mim CH3SO3 1.2437a 188.4
C4mim Cl 1.0800 0.491o 161.7 470
C4mim Br 1.2909f 0.511 169.7
C4mim I 1.4842g 0.234g 179.3
(continued)

Salt ρ/g cm3 103αP/K1 V/cm3 mol1 κ T/GPa1 Pint/MPay
C4mim SCN 1.0695 0.539 184.5
C4mim NO3 1.1565h 0.553h 174.5
C4mim CH3CO2 1.0665 0.577 185.9
C4mim FeCl4 1.3658i 0.605i 246.6
C4mim N(CN)2 1.0588 0.433 193.9 0.415
C5mim BF4 1.173 204.7
C5mim NTF2 1.4045 0.676 308.5 0.471v 354
C5mim NO3 1.127 178.5
C5mim CH3CO2 1.0773 197.1
C6mim BF4 1.1453 0.600p 221.9 402
C6mim PF6 1.2928 0.669 241.5 0.400w 420
C6mim NTF2 1.3708 0.671 326.4 0.560x 351
C6mim CH3SO4 1.2149e 0.611 229.4
C6mim C2H5SO4 1.2014e 0.614e 243.4
C6mim C8H17SO4 1.0676j 0.604j 352.7 481j 365j
C6mim CH3SO3 1.1183 0.558 235.5
C6mim Cl 1.0393 0.546 194.9
C6mim Br 1.2292g 0.551g 201.1
C6mim I 1.3402g 0.552g 219.5
C6mim NO3 1.1165k 0.614k 193.7
C6mim B(CN)4 0.9906d 0.729d 284.8
C6mim AlCl4 1.1953 0.786 281.2
C6mim FeCl4 1.333 276.0
C6mim CH3CO2 1.0606 213.4
C7mim NTF2 1.3471 0.764 342.6 0.543
C8mim BF4 1.1100 0.676 254.2 0.417 384
C8mim PF6 1.1191 0.666 304.1 0.458 387
C8mim NTF2 1.3203 0.675 360.1 0.540 348
C8mim MeSO4 1.110l 0.588l 276.1
C8mim CH3SO3 1.0818 0.569 268.4
C8mim CF3SO3 1.142l 301.6
C8mim Cl 1.0096j 0.579j 228.4 389j 433j
C8mim Br 1.169l 0.585l 235.4
C8mim I 1.2336g 0.666g 255.3
C8mim NO3 1.065l 0.588l 241.3
C8mim N(CN)2 1.013m 258.0 0.415
C8mim FeCl4 1.280 309.4
C10mim BF4 1.0697k 0.660k 289.3
C10mim NTF2 1.274 0.691 395.2 0.334r
C12mim NTF2 1.2447 0.699 339.4
C14mim NTF2 1.1882 0.696 379.1
a
[221], b[239], c[246], d[256], e[249], f[251], g[245], h[242], i[248], j[243], k[252], l[99], m[244],
n
[250], o[54], p[247], q[253], r[255], s[257] κS rather than κ T, t[234], u[258] κ S rather than κ T, v[240],
w
[241], x[254], y[185]
internal pressure at 25 C of 1-alkylpyridinium salts
Salt ρ/g cm3 103αP/K1 V/cm3 mol–1 κ T/GPa1 Pint/MPad
C1Py CH3SO4 1.3448k 0.504k 152.7
C2Py BF4 1.3020b 149.8
C2Py N(SO2F)2 1.4587n 0.60n 219.7
C2Py NTF2 1.5368f 0.632f 252.7
C2Py CH3SO4 1.2847k 0.545k 170.7
C2Py C2H5SO4 1.2223i 0.530i 190.9
C2Py CF3CO2 1.273s 173.8
C2(3 M)Py NTF2 1.4885u 250.8
C2(4 M)Py NTF2 1.4920i 0.563i 250.2
C3Py BF4 1.2529t 0.575t 166.9 0.333t
C3Py NTF2 1.4935h 0.601h 269.5
C3(3 M)Py BF4 1.3412a 166.4
C3(3 M)Py NTF2 1.4475o 0.71o 287.7
C4Py NO3 1.1861p 0.707p 167.2
C4Py BF4 1.2144e 0.543e 183.7 0.250e
C4Py PF6 1.2144b 231.5
C4Py N(SO2F)2 1.3694n 0.61n 254.5
C4Py NTF2 1.4476g 0.663g 287.7
C4Py CF3SO3 1.3113t 0.587t 217.6 0.410t
C4(2 M)Py NTF2 1.476r 1.08r 291.7
C4(3 M)Py BF4 1.1824q 0.584q 200.6 0.369 443a
C4(3 M)Py CF3SO3 1.297r 1.16r 230.9
C4(3 M)Py NTF2 1.4226d 0.639d 302.6
C4(3 M)Py N(CN)2 1.0493t 0.581t 206.2 0.354t
C4(4 M)Py BF4 1.189c 199.4
C4(4 M)Py NTF2 1.4187i 0.633i 303.4
C4(4 M)Py CF3CO2 1.1700b 225.1
C5Py NTF2 1.4214l 0.591l 302.9
C6Py BF4 1.161c 216.3
C6Py N(SO2F)2 1.3019n 0.61n 289.2
C6Py NTF2 1.3942h 0.645h 318.8
C6(3 M)Py NTF2 1.3516m 339.3
C8Py BF4 1.1127f 0.629f 250.9
C8Py NTF2 1.3268g 0.663g 357.2
C8(3 M)Py BF4 1.0952t 0.603t 267.4 0.430t
C10Py NTF2 1.2835g 0.670g 390.0
C12Py NTF2 1.2488g 0.681g 423.3
a
[263], b[220], c[266], d[242], e[116], f[269], g[270], h[118], i[62], j[185], k[267], l[135], m[261],
n
[117], o[132], p[268], q[260], r[259], s[264], t[265], j[262]
internal pressure at 25 C of quaternary ammonium and phosphonium salts
Salt ρ/g cm3 103αP/K1 V/cm3 mol1 κ T/GPa1 Pint/MPa
MeEt3N CH3SO4 1.1725o 0.519o 194.1
MeBu3N NTF2 1.266h 379.9
MeOc3N Cl 0.891k 454.1
MeOc3N N(CN)2 0.891k 488.4
MeOc3N CF3CO2 0.961e 501.3
MeOc3N NTF2 1.0823c 0.462c 599.5
PrMe3N NTF2 1.44h 265
BuMe3N NTF2 1.3922b 0.641b 285.0 0.389bb
BuEt3N BF4 1.1397y 215.4
BuEt3N PF6 1.3662y 222.1
BuPrMe2N NTF2 1.3483c 0.460c 315.1
HxMe3N NTF2 1.3106c 0.458c 324.1
HxEt3N BF4 1.0935y 250.2
HxEt3N PF6 1.3513y 245.3
HxEt3N NTF2 1.2793c 0.578c 364.7
HxPrMe2N NTF2 1.2846c 0.553c 341.6
HxBu3N NTF2 1.15h 479
HpEt3N NTF2 1.2710u 0.702u 378.1
OcEt3N BF4 1.0653y 283.1
OcEt3N PF6 1.1902y 302.1
OcEt3N NTF2 1.2498u 0.660u 396.0
DcMe3N NTF2 1.2263c 0.628c 426.5
DcEt3N NTF2 1.2162u 0.651u 406.6
DcPrMe2N NTF2 1.2007c 0.541c 435.2
DoEt3N NTF2 1.1882u 0.655u 463.4
TdEt3N NTF2 1.1650u 0.661u 496.7
EtMePyrr C2H5SO4 1.1960o 0.525o 200.3
PrMePyrr N(FSO2)2 1.3069v 0.60v 236.1
PrMePyrr NTF2 1.4274z 0.638z 286.2 0.516cc 395g
BuMePyrr CF3SO3 1.2527w 232.6
BuMePyrr CH3SO4 1.1667o 0.534o 217.3
BuMePyrr N(FSO3)2 1.3069v 0.601v 246.9
BuMePyrr NTF2 1.3946i 0.696i 302.7 0.447bb 388g
BuMePyrr N(CN)2 1.020e 204.2
BuMePyrr CH3CO2 1.0212t 0.588t 197.3
BuMePyrr PF3(C2F5)3 1.5832n 1.001n 371.1
BuEtPyrr C2H5SO4 1.1187o 0.510o 239.2
HxMePyrr NTF2 1.32aa 342
HxHxPyrr NTF2 1.240e 419.8
OcMePyrr NTF2 1.296e 369.2
DcMePyrr NTF2 1.25aa 406
PrMePip NTF2 1.4121f 1.376f 299.3 0.485f
(continued)

Salt ρ/g cm3 103αP/K1 V/cm3 mol1 κ T/GPa1 Pint/MPa
MeBu3P NTF2 1.28d 388.7
MeBu3P N(CN)2 0.96l 295
PrOc3P Cl 0.8941m 0.638m 499.2
BuEt3P N(CN)2 1.00l 241
BuEt3P N(SO2F)2 1.26s 282
BuOc3P Cl 0.8969m 0.645m 516.5
PeEt3P N(SO2F)2 1.24s 298
PeEt3P NTF2 1.32h 355
PeEt3P N(CN)2 0.99l 258
HxOc3P Cl 0.8921m 0.661m 550.7
OcEt3P NTF2 1.26h 406
OcBu3P BF4 1.02d 395
OcBu3P PF6 1.12d 411
OcBu3P NTF2 1.18d 505
OcBu3P SCN 0.95d 373
OcBu3P N(CN)2 0.97l 307
OcBu3P CF3SO3 1.08d 430
OcBu3P MePhSO3 1.02d 477
DoEt3P NTF2 1.21h 469
DoBu3P BF4 0.97d 473
DoBu3P NTF2 1.13d 577
TdBu3P DoPhSO3 0.9384c 0.501c 773.1
TdHx3P Cl 0.8916a 0.670a 582.4 0.586a
TdHx3P Br 0.9552q 0.639q 590.5 0.561r
TdHx3P BF4 0.929e 614.3
TdHx3P NTF2 1.0666a 0.727a 716.3 0.612a
TdHx3P N(CN)2 0.8995p 0.669p 611.4 0.492p
TdHx3P CH3CO2 0.8906a 0.662a 609.9 0.585a
TdHx3P CH3SO3 0.9281q 0.657q 624.1 0.573cc
TdHx3P CF3SO3 0.9824j 0.668j 644.6
TdHx3P PF3(C2F5)3 1.1817n 0.997n 786.3
TdHx3P FeCl4 0.9888x 0.638x 689.6
a
[271], b[272], c[89], d [167], e[259], f[267], g[185], h[221], i[273], j[274], k[244] at 293 K, l[169], m[275],
n
[276], o[277] for MeEt3NCH3SO4 extrapolated to 298 K, for BuEtPyrr C2H5SO4 at 328 K, p[278],
q
[279], r[55], s[170], t[216], u[280], v[281], w[282], x[248], y[283], z[284], aa[204], bb[189], cc[235]
of these models involves several substance-specific parameters obtained by fitting

the (temperature-dependent) densities and can be used to extend the range of values
to temperatures and pressures outside the range of measurement or to calculate
other properties of the RTILs, such as viscosities or surface tensions.
Several authors, on the other hand, established schemes for the estimation of the
densities, molar volumes, and expansibilities of RTILs from independent data
concerning the ion constituents of the RTILs. Two kinds of approaches have been
used for this purpose: group contributions and microscopic ionic volumes. Gardas
and Coutinho [285] reviewed group contribution methods for the prediction of
thermophysical properties of RTILs, including the isobaric thermal expansibility αP
and the isothermal compressibility κT, but not the density itself. Consideration of
109 RTILs with various cations and anions showed little variation of the 104αP/K1
values among them, ranging from 4.48 to 7.44, but being mostly within 6.5 0.5.
Much fewer κT/GPa1 values were considered ranging from 0.33 to 0.73.
Valderrama et al. [221] used group contributions to calculate primarily the critical
temperature Tc and critical molar volume Vc and the normal boiling points Tb of
RTILs. However, there being no experimental values for these quantities, they
checked their calculations by the round-about estimation of the densities of
200 RTILs from the following relationship:
ψ
ρ=g cm3 ðT Þ ¼ ð0:01256 þ 0:9533M=V c Þ ð0:0039=M þ 0:2987=V c ÞV 1:033
c
ð6:19Þ
where ψ ¼ ½ð1 T=T c Þ=ð1 T b =T c Þ2=7 with an overall absolute deviation of

5.9 %. The use of the not readily available nor accurately known critical properties
for the estimation of room temperature quantities such as the density appears to be
unprofitable.
The use of the microscopic ionic volumes vþ and v of the constituents of
RTILs, as described in Sect. 2.2 with values listed in Table 6.9, produced much
better justifiable results. (Table 2.4 shows ionic volumes pertinent to high-
temperature melting salts, most of which are not relevant for the RTILs.) The
molar volume of the RTILs at 298 K, V(298 K) ¼ M/ρ(298), might be expected to
be represented by N AØ ðvþ þ v Þ : V=cm3 mol1 ¼ 602:2ðvþ þ v Þ=nm3 . Ye and
Schreve [259] noted that too low values of V(298 K) are thereby obtained and
proposed to add 0.025 nm3 to the vþ of the cations of imidazolium, pyridinium,
pyrrolidinium, and quaternary ammonium and phosphonium RTILs and to v– of one
anion, NTF2 (but not to others) to correct for this. Slattery et al. [286] proposed
instead for the densities of RTILs with BF4, PF6, N(CN)2, and NTF2– anions the
expression:
1:0026
ρ=g cm3 ¼ 1:4684 M g mol1 = ðvþ þ v Þ=nm3 ð6:20Þ
valid at 295–297 K. Preiss et al. [49] improved on this approach by allowing for the
temperature dependence of the density, albeit by a logarithmic expression lnρ ¼
αPT þ β (contrary to the empirical linear dependence of ρ on T ), where αP and β
are substance-dependent parameters. This was subsequently adopted by Beichel
et al. [287] with the same two universal parameters (1.4684, 1.0026) and three
substance-dependent ones: αP, and β, and the zero-point vibrational energy of
the RTIL.
When the microscopic ionic volumes are not available in Table 6.9 they may
be substituted by the corresponding van der Waals volumes divided by the factor 0.6785
according to Beichel et al. [287]: ðvþ þ v Þ ¼ ðvþvdW þ v vdW Þ=ð0:6785 0:0055Þ.
Table 6.9 Ionic volumes of the ionic constituents of RTILs in the first column: from Marcus [288] (2nd column) and as noted and their polarizabilities from
Bica et al. [289]
Ion v/nm3 αpol/nm3i
a i
Cnmimþ 0.106 þ 0.0230n 0.111 þ 0.024n 0.103 þ 0.027n 0.00920 þ 0.00178n
C4mmim 0.220 0.275b
CnPyþ 0.096 þ 0.0239n 0.102 þ 0.024na 0.198 (n ¼ 4)a 0.00915 þ 0.00182nn
6.3 Volumetric Data
C4(4 M)Pyþ 0.221 0.221a

Cn(Cm)3Nþ 0.034 þ 0.024(n þ 3 m) 0.00080 þ 0.00186(n þ 3 m)n
CnMePyrrþ 0.119 þ 0.0234n 0.00962 þ 0.00181nn
BuMePyrrþ 0.238c 0.221a, 0.253h 0.01684n
EtMePipþ 0.192d
Cn(Cm)3Pþ 0.133 þ 0.021(n þ 3 m)
Bu4Pþ 0.499e
TdHx3Pþ 0.835a 0.06225n
i
Cl 0.047 0.047f, g 0.033 0.00345
Br 0.056 0.056f, g 0.00442n
I 0.072 0.072g 0.00673n
NO3 0.064 0.064f, g
SCN 0.071 0.071g 0.00632n
i
CH3CO2 0.078 0.086h 0.071 0.00465
CF3CO2 0.103 0.108f 0.103i 0.00523
BF4 0.079 0.073f 0.078i 0.00280
PF6 0.111 0.105a,j 0.00418
AlCl4 0.156 0.156j
FeCl4 0.155 0.155j
N(FSO2)2 0.139 0.139k
NTF2 0.230 0.232a 0.246i 0.01359
(continued)
157
158
Ion v/nm3 αpol/nm3i

a i
N(CN)2 0.089 0.089 0.069 0.00611
B(CN)4 0.156 0.141l 0.01013n
CH3SO3 0.099 0.099f 0.096i 0.00630
CF3SO3 0.126 0.130a,f 0.128i 0.00688
MePhSO3 0.196 0.208i 0.01555
CnSO4 0.080 þ 0.027n 0.080 þ 0.027ni 0.00515 þ 0.00179n
PF3(C2F5)3 0.334 0.383m
a
[286] (2 n 8, m ¼ 1 or 2), b[296], c[292], d[295], e[290] (but MeBu3Nþ has v ¼ 0.388 nm3), f[259], g[291], h[216], i[289] (for Cnmim 2 n 10 and for
CnSO4 n ¼ 1,2,8), j[39], k[293], l[294], m[264], nFrom Eq. (6.31) and the listed RD values in Table 6.10
The estimation of the molar volumes and densities of RTILs can be considerably
simplified, requiring only two parameters valid for all the RTILs considered in this
book [288]. A proportionality was found, shown for 162 RTILs with a large variety
of anions in Fig. 6.5, between NA(vþ þ v) and the experimental V(298 K), with a
squared correlation coefficient of rcorr2 ¼ 0.9895. Therefore, a good estimation of V
(298 K) is:

V est =cm3 mol1 ¼ 689:5 ðvþ þ v Þ=nm3 ð6:21Þ
with a standard deviation of 3.8 % for the resulting densities ρ(T ) ¼ M/V(T ).
Equation 6.21 was used as a training set and densities of a test set of 20 RTILs
with anions having v obtained from crystal unit cell data and not from density
fitting, namely AlCl4, FeCl4, B(CN)4, and N(FSO2)2, were estimated,
resulting in an average deviation of only 1.2 % with regard to the experimental
values [288].
Fig. 6.5 A plot of the experimental molar volumes, Vexp, of 174 RTILs at 298.15 K against those
calculated according to V ¼ NA(vþ þ v) from the ionic volumes listed in Table 6.9: ● Cnmimþ
salts, ▲ CnPyþ salts, ▼ R4Nþ salts, ♦ CnMePyrrþ salts, ■ R4Pþ salts, and o are outliers (From
Marcus [288] with permission from the publisher (Elsevier))
Following Gardas and Coutinho [297], the temperature dependence of the ionic
volumes of RTILs at ambient pressures is estimated, as:

ðvþ þ v ÞðT Þ ¼ ðvþ þ v Þ0 1 þ 0:666 103 fðT=KÞ 298:15g ð6:22Þ
where (vþ þ v)0 represents the ionic values at the reference temperature
T ¼ 298.15 K listed in Table 6.9. Thus, with only two universal parameters,
689.5 cm3 mol1 nm3 and 0.666 103, the molar volumes V(T ) and densities
ρ(T ) ¼ M/V(T ) can be well estimated up to at least 400 K at ambient pressures.
The discrepancy between NA(vþ þ v) and the experimental V(298 K) should be
ascribed to the expansion of the RTIL on melting. The vþ and v values in Table 6.9
were reported for unspecified temperatures, but should be construed as applying
nominally for 298 K. There are only few data for the experimental densities of
crystalline RTILs as functions of the temperature up to the melting point, hence the
expansion on melting could be obtained for only 25 RTILs. The relative expansion
data averaged as 9.9 3.3 %, going a long way to explain [288] the discrepancy
noted above. This expansion on melting results in the formation of cavities in the
liquid salt, nominally represented by the void volume, Vv:
V v ð298 KÞ=cm3 mol1 ¼ ð689:5 602:2Þðvþ þ v Þ=nm3

¼ 87:3ðvþ þ v Þ=nm3 ð6:23Þ
The relationship between the surface tension σ of the RTIL (Tables 6.2, 6.3, and
6.4) and the average surface area of these cavities is dealt with in Sect. 6.2.
Several methods have been applied to calculate the void volume of RTILs (the
fractional free volume, FFV), outstanding among these is the application of the
COSMO-RS methodology by Palomar et al. and Shannon et al. [47, 298]. For
23 imidazolium RTILs (C1mim to C8mim) with a variety of anions a negative bias
of 1.6 % was found [47] between the COSMO-RS-calculated densities and the
experimental ones, and a standard deviation of 2.6 % also resulted.
6.3.2 Compressibilities and Internal Pressures
The compressibilities of RTILs are available via two routes: high pressure density
measurements, leading to the isothermal compressibilities κT and ultrasound speed
measurements with ambient pressure densities, leading to the adiabatic compress-
ibilities κ S, which with some further data lead to the isothermal ones. The first route
yields:
κ T ¼ ρ1 ð∂ρ=∂PÞT ¼ V 1 ð∂V=∂PÞT ð6:24Þ

In many cases the Tait expression is invoked for the pressure-dependence of the
density:
ρ ¼ ρ* þ Cln½ðBðT Þ þ 0:1Þ=ðBðT Þ þ PÞ ð6:25ÞÞ
where ρ* ¼ ρ(298.15 K, 0.1 MPa), C is a substance-dependent but temperature

independent parameter, and BðT Þ ¼ B0 þ B1 T þ B2 T 2 þ... . Since B(T) is of the
order of several hundred MPa for RTILs, the derivative in Eq. (6.24) yields κ T(T )
¼ C/B(T ). The second route yields:
κ S ¼ ρ1 u2 ð6:26Þ
where u is the speed of ultrasound in the liquid RTIL. The conversion of κS values
to κT ones:
κT ¼ κS þ Vα2p T=CP ð6:27Þ
requires the molar volume V, the isobaric expansibility αP (from Tables 6.6, 6.7,
and 6.8) and the isobaric molar heat capacity (from Tables 6.2, 6.3, and 6.4).
Perusal of Tables 6.6, 6.7, and 6.8 shows the available κ T values to be of the
order of 0.5 GPa1, with relatively little variation around this mean value. Grossly
deviating values (by >0.2 GPa1 on either side) are suspect as not being valid. In
fact, considerable differences between values reported by various authors are
common: for example, the values of κ T/GPa1 reported or deduced from the data
for C2mimþ PF6 at 298.15 K are 0.378 [261], 0.394 [48], 0.418 [254], and
0.450 [299].
The product of the isothermal compressibility and the surface tension of RTILs
has the dimension of length. When both quantities are available in Tables 6.2, 6.3,
and 6.4 and Tables 6.6, 6.7, and 6.8 it is remarkably constant, namely
κTσ ¼ 17.0 1.5 nm for 29 items. Values that grossly depart from this product,
say by >3 nm on either side, are suspected to have one of the factors wrong,
probably the compressibility that is more difficult to measure. Thus, the value
κT ¼ 0.733 GPa1 for C2mimþ C2H5SO4 reported in [300] is excessively large.
The constancy of the product κTσ of RTILs contrasts with its clear dependence
on the cohesive energy density, ced, of high-melting salts, for which κTσ/nm ¼
14 þ 0.276(ced/GPa) as reported by Marcus [301].
The isothermal compressibility increases moderately with the chain-length of
the alkyl groups for RTILs with a given anion, i. e., with the molar volumes. It
increases in the series of anions BF4 < PF6 < NTF2, but there are insufficient
data to discern further trends.
A quantity closely related to the compressibility is the internal pressure as
reviewed recently by Marcus [302]:
Pint ¼ ð∂U=∂V ÞT ¼ T ð∂P=∂V ÞT P TαP =κ T ð6:28Þ

where U is the internal energy and the approximation is justified when the pressure
(ambient or of the vapor) is small compared with the internal pressure. The values
available for RTILs at ambient conditions (298.15 K and 0.1 MPa) are listed in
Tables 6.6, 6.7, and 6.8. In view of the rather narrow ranges of the data for αP and κT
it is expected that also Pint values of RTILs have a narrow range, and indeed the
available values for 48 RTILs are within 100 MPa of the mean value of 430 MPa.
Values that are grossly outside this range, such as for C4PyþBF4 (648 MPa), due
to a small value of κT (250 GPa1), and for PrMePipþNTF2 (846 MPa), due to a
large αP (1.376 103 K1), suggests that these outlying values are incorrect.
The internal pressures of RTILs are commensurate with those of liquid organic
substances on the one hand and are considerable smaller than those of high-
temperature molten salts, the lowest value for such salts is 770 MPa at the melting
point for KI [302].
6.4 Optical and Electric Properties
6.4.1 Refractive Index and Molar Refractivity
The refractive index of RTILs at the sodium D-line (589 nm), nD, is available for a
large number of the RTILs dealt with in this book. The data for 298.15 K are show
in Table 6.10, rounded if necessary to four decimals, the variation between the
reported data of diverse authors being often as large as 0.0005. The values are
within a narrow range: 1.37 nD 1.57, while RTILs with cyano-groups in the
anion have nD > 1.5 values. Special efforts are needed to obtain transparent and
colorless RTILs with nD > 1.6, using aromatic substituents, such as 1-benzyl-3-
methylimidazolium bromide or triphenylhexylphosphonium dicyanamide,
nD ¼ 1.61 according to Kayama et al. [303]. The refractive index of RTILs dimin-
ishes mildly and linearly with increasing temperatures:
nD ¼ aðnD Þ bðnD ÞT ð6:29Þ
a typical slope being bðnD Þ

2 104 K1 .
Group contribution schemes have been proposed for the estimation of the
refractive index of RTILs. Sattari et al. proposed for Eq. (6.29) that aðnD Þ ¼ 1:5082
þΣnj aj and bðnD Þ ¼ 1:4207 104 þ Σnj bj [330], where nj is the number of
functional groups of the j-th kind and aj and bj are their listed values.
The molar refractions of RTILs are given by the Lorentz-Lorenz expression:

RD ¼ V n2D 1 = n2D þ 2 ð6:30Þ
and have the dimension of a molar volume. If not reported by the authors that
supplied the nD data, then the RD was calculated with the molar volume V data in
6.4 Optical and Electric Properties 163
Table 6.10 The refractive index, the derived molar refractivity, and the static permittivity at
25 C of RTILs
Salt nD RD/cm3 mol1 εs
C1mim NTF2 1.422a 61.4
C1mim CH3SO4 1.4827b 44.8 17.2hh
C2mim BF4 1.4142c 38.7 14.5ff
C2mim NTF2 1.4225d 65.7 12.0ee
C2mim (SO2F)2N 1.4475pp
C2mim CH3SO4 1.4813tt 52.5
C2mim C2H5SO4 1.4794e 54.1 35.0ee
C2mim C4H9SO4 30.0ii
C2mim C8H17SO4 1.3869f 68.9
C2mim CH3C6H4SO3 1.5380jj 72.1
C2mim CH3SO3 1.4985c 48.8
C2mim CF3SO3 1.4332a 48.9 16.5ee
C2mim SCN 1.5545c 48.6
C2mim HSO4 1.4993c 44.7 18.4
C2mim N(CN)2 1.5160c 48.6 11.0
C2mim B(CN)4 1.4482jj 58.4
C2mim CH3CO2 1.5009g 43.8
C2mim CF3CO2 1.4405a 46.0
C2mim PF3(C2F5)3 1.3692pp
C3mim BF4 1.4165jj 4301
C3mim NTF2 1.3890h 47.9 13.3ee
C3mim CH3SO4 1.4761jj 55.4
C3mim CH3CO3 1.4902yy 47.8
C4mim BF4 1.4219i 47.8 13.9ee
C4mim PF6 1.4084d 51.5 14.0ee
C4mim NTF2 1.4265d 74.9 14.0ee
C4mim CH3SO4 1.4771j 58.5 14.8hh
C4mim C8H17SO4 1.3973k 78.8
C4mim CH3SO3 1.4792jj 53.4
C4mim CF3SO3 1.4376c 58.1 12.9ee
C4mim Cl 15.0hh
C4mim Br 1.5353l 52.9
C4mim I 1.5695m 58.8
C4mim SCN 1.5392i 57.8 13.7ee
C4mim CH3CO2 1.4938d 54.1
C4mim N(CN)2 1.5089c 57.9 11.3ff
C5mim BF4 1.4238jj 52.2
C5mim PF6 1.4152n 55.4
C5mim NTF2 1.4289o 79.5 15.0ee
C5mim CH3CO2 1.4845yy 56.4
C6mim BF4 1.4279i 57.1 12.0ff
C6mim PF6 1.4176i 60.8 10.1gg
(continued)

C6mim NTF2 1.4302c 84.2 12.7ff
C6mim C8H17SO4 1.4700xx 98.4
C6mim CF3SO3 1.4393c 46.2
C6mim Cl 1.5095p 58.2
C6mim N(CN)2 1.5042c 67.2
C6mim B(CN)4 1.4531qq 77.0
C6mim CH3CO2 1.4829yy 60.9
C7mim PF6 1.4203rr
C7mim NTF2 1.4317o 88.8
C8mim BF4 1.4319k 65.9 7.5hh
C8mim PF6 1.4235d 70.3 8.8gg
C8mim NTF2 1.4326d 93.6 6.5hh
C8mim Cl 1.5062jj 67.9 7.0hh
C9mim PF6 1.4254rr
C10mim NTF2 1.4356d 102.9
C12mim NTF2 1.4376d 112.0
C1Py CH3SO4 1.5130q 45.9
C1(2 M)Py CH3SO4 1.5133q
C2Py C2H5SO4 1.5053jj 56.7
C2Py NTF2 1.4411ss 66.7
C2Py N(SO2F)2 1.4704c 61.3
C2Py N(CN)2 1.5463ww
C2(2 M)Py NTF2 1.4480oo
C2(3 M)Py NTF2 1.4438c 66.6
C2(3 M)Py C2H5SO4 1.5067jj
C2(3 M)Py NTF2 1.4449c 66.7
C3Py BF4 1.4445s 44.4
C3(2 M)Py NTF2 1.4492oo
C3(3 M)Py NTF2 1.4449c 76.6
C4Py BF4 1.4457t 49.0
C4Py N(SO2F)2 1.4712c 71.2
C4Py NTF2 1.4438u 76.4 15.3ee
C4Py CF3SO3 1.4583v 59.4
C4(2 M)Py BF4 1.4577 53.8mm 15.0hh
C4(3 M)Py BF4 1.4511kk 54.0 15.0hh
C4(3 M)Py NTF2 1.4460c 80.7
C4(3 M)Py CF3SO3 1.4616jj 63.4
C4(4 M)Py BF4 1.4525kk 53.8 15.3hh
C4(4 M)Py NTF2 1.4465jj 81.0
(continued)
6.4 Optical and Electric Properties 165

C6Py N(SO2F)2 1.4710c 80.8
C8(3 M)Py BF4 1.4555ll 72.7ll
C8Py NTF2 1.4472u 95.5
C10Py NTF2 1.4486u 104.5
C12Py NTF2 1.4497u 113.7
MeEt3N CH3SO4 1.4644nn 53.6
MeBu3N NTF2 1.4264w 97.4
MeOc3N NTF2 1.4379x 157.3
PrMe3N NTF2 1.4049uu 64.9
BuMe3N NTF2 1.4082w 70.3 15.7ee
PeMe3N NTF2 1.4108uu
PeEt3N NTF2 12.5ii
uu
HxMe3N NTF2 1.4131 80.8
HxEt3N NTF2 1.4260y 93.4
HxBu3N NTF2 1.4338x 124.5
HpEt3N NTF2 1.4271y 97.1
OcMe3N NTF2 1.4174uu
OcEt3N NTF2 1.4287y 102.0
DcEt3N NTF2 1.4317y 105.4
DoEt3N NTF2 1.4341y 120.7
TdEt3N NTF2 1.4359y 129.8
EtMePyrr N(CN)2 14.0ff
nn
EtMePyrr C2H5SO4 1.4728 56.2
PrMePyrr N(FSO2)2 1.4452c 62.9
PrMePyrr NTF2 1.4233c 72.9 9.1hh
BuMePyrr CF3SO3 1.4329c 60.4
BuMePyrr NTF2 1.4457v 80.7 14.7ee
BuMePyrr N(CN)2 1.4469z 54.5 18.0ee
BuMePyrr CH3SO4 1.4667nn 60.3
PeMePyrr NTF2 12.5ii
dd dd
HxMePyrr NTF2 1.425 87.4
DcMePyrr NTF2 1.431dd 105.1dd
PrMePip NTF2 1.4274v 76.9
BuMePip NTF2 1.4293v 81.6
MeBu3P CH3SO4 1.4763vv
MeiBu3P CH3PhSO3 1.5203vv
EtBu3P (C2H5)2PO4 1.4662vv
OcBu3P Cl 1.4939jj
TdHx3P Cl 1.4831aa 166.4
TdHx3P Br 1.4898aa 170.7
TdHx3P NTF2 1.4496d 192.6
(continued)

TdHx3P N(CN)2 1.4834bb 174.7
TdHx3P CH3CO2 1.4818d 173.6
TdHx3P CH3SO3 1.4735aa 175.2
TdHx3P CF3SO3 1.4577d 175.7
a
[59], b[304], c[284], d[274], e[305], f[306], g[76], h[307], i[308], j[105], k[309], l [251], m[310], n[311],
o
[312], p[313], q[263], r[314], s[315], t[316], u[117], v[134], w[218], x[312], y[280], z[77], aa[317], bb[273],
dd
[204], ee[318], ff[319], gg[320], hh[185], ii[321], jj[56], kk[322], ll[323], mm[115], nn[277], extrapolated
to 298.15 K, oo[113], pp[266], qq[256], rr[324], ss[325], tt[186], uu[326] suppl. Information, vv[327],
ww
[231], xx[328], yy[329]
Tables 6.6, 6.7, and 6.8. The polarizability of an RTIL is proportional to its molar
refraction:

α ¼ ð3=4πN A ÞR1 3:92 1031 RD =cm3 mol1 ð6:31Þ
The approximation is due to the use of RD instead of the infinite frequency value,
R1. The polarizabilities of imidazolium-based RTILs are additive in terms of the
constituting ions, according to Bica et al. [289] and their values are shown in
Table 6.9. The list provided by these authors is supplemented in the latter Table by
the values obtained from Eq. (6.31) and the listed RD values in Table 6.10. The
cation polarizabilities increase with the lengths of the alkyl chains for imidazolium,
pyridinium, 1-methylpyrrolidinium, and quaternary ammonium (RR’3Nþ) RTILs
with a variety of anions rather uniformly by 0.0018 nm3 per methylene group, but in
the case of the imidazolium RTILs some anions (dicyanamide and alkylsulfates)
were said by Bica et al. [289] to exhibit diminishing cation polarizabilities with
increasing alkyl chain length, for no obvious reason.
6.4.2 Static Permittivity
The static permittivity (dielectric constant), εs, of RTILs cannot be measured

directly, because these substances are highly conducting (Sect. 6.5). Therefore,
the dielectric response is measured as a function of the frequency, and from these
data the static permittivity is then derived. This path is not quite straight-forward,
and therefore there are large discrepancies between the values reported by diverse
authors. The values shown in Table 6.10 may, therefore be incorrect by as much as
two units on either side. Even the trends with increasing lengths of the alkyl chains,
whether εs increases or diminishes, are not clear, because authors differ on this
point. For example, the εs of CnmimþNTF2 RTILs show the following changes
with the number of methylene groups in the 1-alkyl chain, Δn, from the value for
the C2mimþNTF2 salt: 12.25–0.27Δn [331], 11.5–.83Δn [185], 12.3 þ 0.75Δn

[332], 12.0 þ 1.00Δn [318], 12.0 þ 1.5Δn [321]. On the whole, values of the static
permittivity in the range 9 εs 16 are to be expected for RTILs at ambient
conditions. Values grossly outside this range (e.g., the values for C2mimþ
ethylsulfate, 35.0, and butylsulfate, 30.0 reported by Weingärtner [321] without
comment on their large sizes) are unlikely to be valid.
6.5 Transport Properties
6.5.1 Viscosity
The viscosity of RTILs, which is in general considerably larger than that of ordinary
organic solvents, is an important property that needs to be known for the many
applications foreseen for these substances as ‘green’ solvents. The viscosity of
RTILs diminishes rapidly with increasing temperatures. The temperature depen-
dence of the dynamic viscosity, η, of RTILs generally does not follow the simple
Arrhenius dependence but rather the Vogel-Fulcher-Tammann (VFT) one:

η ¼ Aη exp Bη = T T 0η ð6:32Þ
The values of the coefficients Aη and Bη and of the temperature T0η of RTILs are
shown in Tables 6.11, 6.12, and 6.13. Also shown in these Tables is the viscosity at
298.15 K, if the RTIL is liquid at this temperature. In those cases where the authors
did not report the values of these parameters, they were calculated from the reported
η(T ) data on the basis of arbitrarily setting T0η ¼ 180 K. This value is a fair average
representative of the actually reported values, but the fitting is not very sensitive to
its actual size. When the temperature of an RTIL is decreased below its melting
temperature Tm to form a super-cooled liquid the viscosity increases up to near
infinite values as T approaches T0η, which may be construed as the glass transition
temperature.
The viscosity is very sensitive to the presence of water in the RTILs, which
diminishes it, and discrepancies between the reported values by diverse authors
may be due to this factor. For example, the values of η(298 K)/(mPa s) for the dry
and water-equilibrated PF6 salt of C4mimþ are 267 [252], 450 [70] or 397 [70], of
C6mimþ they are 479 [252] or 585 [70] and 472 [70], and of C8mimþ they are
597 [252], 682 [70] or [357] or 506 [70]. Similar observations of the different
viscosities of various dry and water-saturated salts of the TdHx3Pþ cation were
made by Neves et al. [279]. Many other cases of large discrepancies in the reported
data are shown in Tables 6.11, 6.12, and 6.13.
Several expressions have been proposed for the temperature dependence of the
viscosity of RTILs alternative to Eq. (6.32). The Litovitz expression, η ¼ Aη exp

Bη =T 3 is empirical, and the third power of T does not have a physical significance.
Table 6.11 The viscosity at 25 C and the VFT parameters of the viscosity of 1-alkyl-3-
methylimidazolium (Cnmim) salts
Salt η/mPa s Aη/mPa s Bη/K T0η/K
C1mim NTF2 32.9a, 34b 0.215 709.7 157.1
C1mim CH3SO4 72.6c 0.2746 659.2 180
C1mim (CH3)2PO4 290.8d 0.1104 929.4 180
C2mim BF4 52.3e, 61.7f 0.3185 602.6 180
C2mim PF6 15g
C2mim NTF2 34.0h 0.4397 513.7 180
C2mim CH3SO4 78.8i 0.1917 801.2 165.1
C2mim C2H5SO4 101.3h 0.2547 707.2 180
C2mim C8H17SO4 601.6i 0.0933 1301.2 165.1
C2mim CH3SO3 166.6j 0.0901 890.7 180
C2mim CF3SO3 40.5e, 30.7f 0.6122 595.4 180
C2mim Cl 3530k 0.0124 1482 180
C2mim SCN 22.2d 0.3490 490.4 180
C2mim NO3 60.7e, 95.3f 0.3804 599.3 180
C2mim HSO4 1628.4i 0.0726 1200.5 165.1
C2mim N(CN)2 16.1j, 21b 0.4712 416.4 180
C2mim CH3CO2 143.6j 0.0624 916.4 180
C2mim FeCl4 18l
C3mim BF4 74.0m 0.2223 686.3 180
C3mim NTF2 43.7n 0.2701 601.3 180
C4mim BF4 114.9e, 105.1o 0.2533 722.8 180
C4mim PF6 267.8e 0.2769 812.2 180
C4mim NTF2 49.0h 0.3309 590.4 180
C4mim CH3SO4 216.1c 0.1847 834.0 180
C4mim C8H17SO4 643.4c 0.2431 929.2 180
C4mim CF3SO3 77.3e 0.4081 619.5 180
C4mim Cl 18920e 0.0110 1696.4 180
C4mim Br 1486.5p
C4mim I 647.4q 0.1115 946 189
C4mim SCN 51.7r
C4mim NO3 190.0e, 166.4f 0.1430 849.7 180
C4mim HSO4 439.4s 0.1713 927.4 180
C4mim CH3CO2 433.2c 0.0654 1040.6 180
C4mim CF3CO2 68.6c 0.2065 684.8 180
C4mim FeCl4 41.0t 0.2315 682.1 166.3
C4mim N(CN)2 28.8u 0.0488k 935 180
C5mim BF4 158.1f
C5mim NTF2 62.3a 0.156 790.6 166.2
C5mim NO3 257.6f
C6mim BF4 227.2e, 257.2f 0.2117 824.5 180
C6mim PF6 478.5e 0.2190 908.5 180
C6mim NTF2 69.3f, w 0.2298 674.6 180
(continued)

C6mim CF3SO3 153.7w 0.1741 800.4 180
C6mim Cl 10160e 0.0353 1485.2 180
C6mim Br 3650w 0.0574 1306.7 180
C6mim I 1432.4q 0.1117 1023 190
C6mim NO3 512.5e, 363.8f 0.0745 1044.0 180
C6mim FeCl4 45l
C7mim NTF2 81.2a 0.119 883.5 162.8
C8mim BF4 313.7e 0.2141 861.7 180
C8mim PF6 596.8e 0.2188 934.7 180
C8mim NTF2 90.2c, 95.0u 0.2098 716.0 180
C8mim CF3SO3 349.4e 0.2969 835.4 180
C8mim Cl 18070e 0.0464 1520.9 180
C8mim I 1423.4q 0.0320 1500 158
C8mim NO3 789.2e 0.0831 1082.1 180
C8mim N(CN)2 34x
C8mim FeCl4 77l
C10mim BF4 623.5e 0.1527 982.4 180
C10mim PF6 1303e 0.1000 1119.5 180
C10mim NTF2 119.2a 0.096 978.1 160.9
C10mim CF3SO3 675.8e 0.2673 925.7 180
C10mim SCN 683.7u
C10mim CH3SO4 71.7s 0.2999 646.5 180
C12mim NTF2 155.0a 0.087 1034.5 160.0
C14mim NTF2 206.3a 0.092 1040 163.4
a
[344], b[153], c[138], d]266], e[252], f[57] at 297 K, g[338] at 353 K, the salt melts at 335 K, h[272],
i
[335], j[76], k[341] based on only three data at T 353 K), l[68], m[345], n[343], o[336], p[282],
q
[334], r[342], s[346], t[248], u[333], v[266], w[340], x[339], y[337]
The expression Φ0:3 ¼ a þ bT, where Φ ¼ (1/η) is the fluidity of the RTIL, was
suggested by Ghatee et al. [334, 358] with two substance-related parameters, and
fits the data well. A mode coupling theory power law, η ¼ η0 ½ðT T x Þ=T x γ with
three substance-related parameters has subsequently been proposed by Ghatee and
Zare [138]. Here Tx is the crossover temperature at which the behavior of the fluid
changes from fragile, according to Xu et al. [357], above it to strong, i.e.,
Arrhenius-type, below it. In fact, the later power law expression of the viscosity
is readily transformed into the linear expression for the 0.3 power of the fluidity,
Φ0.3, noted above [138]. The crossover temperatures Tx obtained from the viscos-
ities of 43 RTILs of various kinds cover a narrow range: 223 Tx/K 252 (two
1-benzyl-3-imidazolium salts being outliers) and are between the glass-transition
and melting temperatures of the RTILs.
Table 6.12 The viscosity at 25 C and the VTF parameters of 1-alkylpyridinium salts
C1Py CH3SO4 116.2a 0.2072 771.0 175.8
C2Py NTF2 39.8b 0.010 1935 64.9
C2Py C2H5SO4 126.3c 0.1579 785.8 180
C2(3 M)Py NTF2 54.9d 0.000143 782.0 165.1
C2(3 M)Py C2H5SO4 150e 0.1538 807.1 180
C2(4 M)Py NTF2 32.8f 0.1768 721.8 160.2
C3Py BF4 119.5g 0.1409 804.2 178.8
C3(3 M)Py NTF2 55.8h 0.206 689 175
C4Py BF4 163.3i, 160.3j 0.00253i 1086 166.2
C4Py NTF2 60.6b 0.137 808.2 165.2
C4Py CF3SO3 126.0j 0.1358 867.8 171.2
C4(2 M)Py BF4 389.4k 0.0822 999.1 180
C4(2 M)Py NTF2 95.7b 0.594 412.9 217.6
C4(3 M)Py BF4 169.5b, 63.2l 0.3033l 628.7 180
C4(3 M)Py CF3SO3 126.6b 0.001 3542 16.4
C4(3 M)Py NTF2 64.3b 0.446 528.7 191.7
C4(3 M)Py N(CN)2 35.6z 0.1881 619.6 180
C4(4 M)Py BF4 201.2m, 237.0n 0.0971 901.1 180
C4(4 M)Py NTF2 55.1f, 54.4b 0.0859 915.6 156.6
C6Py NTF2 96.2o, 245.3b 0.264r 1098 136.1
C6(3 M)Py NTF2 853z, 85e 0.3962 686.7 180
C8Py BF4 233.5i 0.00630i 949.7 174.2
C8Py NTF2 77.1p, 114.3q 0.1478 747 180
C8(3 M)Py BF4 332 , 505.5r
p
0.0892 970 180
C8(4 M)Py BF4 460p 0.0472 1092 180
C8(4 M)Py NTF2 105 , 115.6d
p
0.1947 746 180
C8(4 M)Py CF3SO3 365p 0.1289 939 180
C10Py NTF2 151.9q
C12Py NTF2 200.5q
a
[263], b[132], c[350], d[348], e[60], f[116], g[125], h[134], i[242], j[123], k[115], l[347], m[349],
n
[351], o[62], p[120], q[117], r[323], e[261]
A different approach relates the fluidity of RTILs to their molar volumes over a
large temperature range, based on the Hildebrand-Lamoreaux expression [359], in
analogy with its use for molten salts (Sect. 3.4) and many other fluids:
ΦðT Þ ¼ B½V ðT Þ V 0 =V 0 ¼ B þ ðB=V 0 ÞV ðT Þ ð6:33Þ
This expression is applicable to RTILs according to Marcus [360], provided the

temperature is sufficient for the viscosity to be below 50 mPa s, because when the
viscosity is larger (the fluidity is smaller than 0.02 s mPa1) the linearity of Φ(T )
Table 6.13 The viscosity at 25 C and the VTF parameters of the viscosity of quaternary
ammonium and phosphonium salts
MeEt3N CH3SO4 409.3a 0.1309 949.6 180
MeBu3N NTF2 544.5b
MeBu3N N(CN)2 410c
MeOc3N CF3CO2 1708d
PrMe3N NTF2 77.7hh 0.2989 657.0 180
BuMe3N NTF2 99.0e, 110.9 0.45 534 199
PeEt3N NTF2 161.6f 0.1308 839.9 180
PeEt3N N(CN)2 121c
HxMe3N NTF2 192g 0.2777 771.2 180
HxEt3N NTF2 186.6f 0.1294 857.9 180
OcEt3N NTF2 221.4f 0.1375 871.5 180
OcEt3N N(CN)2 241c
DcEt3N NTF2 281.9f 0.1031 934.1 180
DoEt3N NTF2 311.8f 0.1244 924.3 180
EtMePyrr C2H5SO4 301.4a 0.2420 841.0 180
PrMePyrr NTF2 54h 0.1991 785.7 158.1
PrMePyrr N(CN)2 45
BuMePyrr CF3SO3 30.0i 1.3810 407.9 165.6
BuMePyrr CH3SO4 467.5a 0.1083 988.3 180
BuMePyrr N(FSO2)2 53.2j 0.1823 905.2 138.7
BuMePyrr NTF2 75.7e, 110.9k 0.29 651 181
BuMePyrr N(CN)2 34.7l, 50m 0.232 737.6 150.9
BuMePyrr PF3(C2F5)3 33.3i 1.3765 388.6 176.2
BuEtPyrr C2H5SO4 611.6a 0.1012 1027.4 180
HxMePyrr NTF2 96h 0.1503 873.8 163.0
HxMePyrr N(CN)2 45m
DcMePyrr NTF2 150h 0.1038 1010.6 159.3
MeBu3P NTF2 207n
MeBu3P N(CN)2 167c
MeBu3P CH3SO4 509o 0.00779 1862.6 130
EtBu3P (C2H5)2PO4 306o 0.00388 1894.8 130
PrOc3P Cl 2499p 0.00646 2095.6 135.1
BuEt3P N(CN)2 60c
BuEt3P N(SO2F)2 62q
BuOc3P Cl 2494p 0.00652 2095.6 135.1
PeEt3P N(SO2F)2 70q
PeEt3P NTF2 88q
PeEt3P N(CN)2 72c
HxOc3P Cl 2164p 0.00781 2095.4 131.0
OcEt3P N(CN)2 104c
OcBu3P BF4 1240n
OcBu3P PF6 1720n
(continued)

OcBu3P NTF2 250n
OcBu3P Cl 4670o 0.00050 2697.9 130
OcBu3P SCN 450n
OcBu3P N(CN)2 245c
OcBu3P CF3CO2 453n
OcBu3P CF3SO3 778n
OcBu3P MePhSO3 2435n
DoBu3P BF4 1310n
DoBu3P NTF2 303n
TdHx3P Cl 2729r 0.00121 1999.8 135.9
TdHx3P Br 2988r 0.00125 1999.8 136.6
TdHx3P NTF2 336.7r 0.0304 1498.6 137.2
TdHx3P N(CN)2 438.6r 0.0249 1624.8 131.9
TdHx3P CH3SO3 1379r 0.0133 1800.2 142.2
TdHx3P PF3(C2F5)3 8.23i, 336s 1.0869 616.9 143.1
TdHx3P FeCl4 1349t 0.0208 1786.1 136.5
a
[277] (for MeEt3N CH3SO4 and BuEtPyrr C2H5SO4 extrapolated to 298 K), b[164], c[169], d[333],
e
[352], f[161], g[354], h[209], i[276], j[280], k[272], l[353], m[153] at 293 K, n[167], o[356], p[275],
q
[170], r[279], s[355], t[248]
with V(T ) breaks down, Fig. 6.6. The volume V0 is construed to mean that molar
volume, at which the particles are so closely crowded together as to prevent viscous
flow while maintaining rotational freedom [359]. The dangling alkyl chains of the
RTIL cations prevent their free rotation at relatively low temperatures, hence the
need for the sufficiently high temperature for Eq. (6.33) to be valid. The values of
B and V0 for some 120 RTILs of all kinds have been reported by Marcus [360], the
V0 being ~99 % of the molar volume at 298 K. The products BV0 for series of
imidazolium RTILs with given anions are approximately constant: 350 for BF4,
250 for PF6, and 670 for the NTF2 salts. The B coefficients tend to increase with
increasing cohesive energies of the RTILs (as they do for molten salts), i. e., with
the tightness of the electrostatic binding of the ions.
The pressure dependence of the viscosity of RTILs was studied by Harris
et al. [361–363]. They applied the VFT expression (6.32) and reported the pressure
dependences of the coefficients: Aη ¼ expða0 þ b0 PÞ and Bη ¼ c0 þ d0 P þ e0 P2 ,
leaving T0 to remain pressure-independent. The viscosity increases quadratically
with increasing pressures: for C8mimþBF4, for example,
η=ðmPa sÞ ¼ 344 þ 3:77ðP=MPaÞ þ 0:0403ðP=MPaÞ2 . Harris et al. reported values
of the coefficients a0 , b0 , c0 , d0 , and e0 and of T0 for several imidazolium salts: C4mim
þ
PF6, C8mimþBF4, and C8mimþPF6 [361], C4mimþBF4 [362], and C6mimþ
PF6 and C4mimþNTF2 [363].
Fig. 6.6 Plots of the fluidity, Φ, against the molar volume, V, at a range of temperatures for Etmim
þ
B(CN)4 (~), Bumimþ NTF2 (▼), and Et(3Me)Py (●). Filled symbols conform to a straight
line with a linear correlation coefficient 0.995, empty symbols do not, the viscosity being too
large (From Marcus [360] by permission of the publisher (Elsevier))
Self-diffusion coefficients could be determined separately for cations and anions

of some RTILs by the pulsed-gradient spin-echo NMR signals of 1H and 19F
according to Noda et al. [364]. The authors applied this method to RTILs with
the C2mimþ and C4Pyþ cations and the BF4 and NTF2 anions, the
self-diffusion

coefficients obeying a VFT-type expression D ¼ AD exp BD = T T 0η . The
Stokes-Einstein relationship:
D ¼ kB T=cπηr hd ð6:34Þ
is obeyed by the individual ionic self-diffusion coefficients, but the constant

c (between four for slip- and six for stick-conditions) and the hydrodynamic radii
rhd have not been specified. Individual self-diffusion coefficients for cations and
anions can, of course, be obtained from computer simulations as carried out by
Tsuzuki et al. [365]. The calculations for RTILs at 353 K did not agree with the
experimental values at this temperature, but those calculated at 453 K did agree for
Cnmimþ NTF2 (n ¼ 1, 2. 4. 6, 8) and C4mimþ with the anions CF3SO3–, CF3CO2–,
BF4–, and PF6–.
6.5.2 Electrical Conductivity
The values of the molar electrical conductivity Λ of RTILs result from the direct
determination of the specific conductivity κ and its multiplication by the molar
volume V as Λ ¼ κV. On the whole, the specific conductivities of imidazolium
RTILs are larger than those based on pyridinium, pyrrolidinium, and acyclic
quaternary ammonium cations, but all are considerably lower than those of con-
centrated aqueous electrolytes used in batteries, as shown by Galinski
et al. [156]. The values of Λ at 298 K are shown in Table 6.14 as are the parameters
AΛ, BΛ, and T0Λ of the VFT expression:
Λ ¼ AΛ exp½BΛ =ðT T 0Λ Þ ð6:35Þ
It should be noted that contrary to the positive values of Bη for the viscosity
(resulting from viscosities diminishing with increasing temperatures) the BΛ values
are negative, i.e., the conductivity increases with increasing temperatures. In those
cases where the authors did not report the values of these parameters, they were
calculated from the reported Λ(T ) data on the basis of arbitrarily setting
T0Λ ¼ 180 K. This value is a fair average representative of the actually reported
values, but the fitting is not very sensitive to its actual size. Insufficient Λ(T ) data
for quaternary phosphonium RTILs were available for showing their VFT
parameters.
The molar conductivity may be determined, in addition to its direct determina-
tion from the specific conductivity κ and the molar volume V (as Λ ¼ κV), also from
the ionic self-diffusion coefficients, obtained from NMR measurements as men-
tioned above, according to the Nernst-Einstein equation Λ ¼ F2 ðDþ þ D Þ=RT,
with results in fair agreement with the directly determined values according to
Tokuda et al. [80, 352, 374]. Ionic self-diffusion coefficients can be estimated from
molecular dynamics simulations and can then be transformed into the molar
conductivity, as applied in [365, 387, 388], showing fair agreement with experi-
mental values..
The pressure dependence of the molar conductivity can be expressed in a manner
similar to that proposed for the viscosity, namely, allowing for the pressure
dependence of the coefficients of the VFT expression: AΛ ¼ expða0 þ b0 PÞ and
BΛ ¼ c0 þ d0 P þ e0 P2 , leaving T0Λ unchanged [371, 386, 389, 390]. The pressure
and temperature dependences can also be expressed according to Lopez et al. [391]
by a density-scaling equation:
h 0 φ
ΛðT; V Þ ¼ Λ0 exp AΛ =TV γ ð6:36Þ
with four substance-specific parameters: Λ0, AΛ0 , γ, and φ, the latter two being
similar to those for the corresponding equation for the viscosities, being generally
between 2 and 3.
Table 6.14 The molar conductivity, Λ, at 25 C and the VFT parameters of the molar conduc-
tivities of RTILs
Salt Λ/S cm2 mol1 AΛ/S cm2 mol1 BΛ/K T0Λ/K
C1mim NTF2 0.79w, 0.212gg 12.50 481.1 180
C1mim I 0.532j
C2mim BF4 2.00n, 2.430p 95.4 431.4 180
C2mim PF6 0.91n 97.2p 569.3 180
C2mim NTF2 2.15n, 2.347c 190jj 604 161
C2mim C2H5SO4 0.729p 194.1 657.8 180
C2mim CF3SO3 1.451q, 0.167ff 9.78 480.0 180
C2mim Br 0.180p 380.4 903.8 180
C2mim I 0.678j
C2mim SCN 1.03bb
C2mim N(CN)2 4.72x 213.4 523.6 160.8
C2mim FeCl4 4.4pp
C3mim BF4 1.06 hh
C3mim NTF2 1.459dd
C3mim I 0.471j
C4mim BF4 0.824p 144.7 615.0 180
C4mim PF6 0.31u, 0.308y 380 897 172
C4mim NTF2 1.178c, 1.096l 150 605 175
C4mim CF3SO3 0.82u, 0.636y 270 841 159
C4mim I 0.472j
C4mim CF3CO2 0.37w, 0.631y 230 761 169
C4mim Al2Cl7 3.012k 352.7 807.3 128.4
C4mim FeCl4 2.2pp
C4mim N(CN)2 0.221v 166.5mm 517.4mm 180
C4mim CF3CO2 0.692mm 153.9mm 636.7mm 180
C5mim NTF2 0.917aa 6.83 167.2 214.9
C6mim BF4 0.398p, 0.267ee 270.5 816.8 180
C6mim PF6 0.131ee, 0.129u 548.9 1086.9 168.0
C6mim PF3(C2H5)3 0.518q 31.13ll 666.8ll 180
C6mim NTF2 0.40w,0.072gg 13.93 621.0 180
C6mim Cl 0.0035ee 3675.4 1635.1 180
C6mim Al2Cl7 1.893k 180.0 581.2 170.6
C6mim FeCl4 1.3pp
C7mim NTF2 0.558dd
C8mim BF4 0.276p, 0.155ee 246.9 869.7 180
C8mim PF6 0.150r 444.0 1072.7 163.8
C8mim NTF2 0.29w, 0.039gg 11.16 668.7 180
C8mim Cl 0.0028ee 2062.2 1593.1 180
C8mim FeCl4 0.69pp
C2(4 M)Py NTF2 2.06h 131.5 490.2 180
C3Py BF4 0.676i 126.4 505.1 201.6
C3Py NTF2 1.147o 123.6 552.2 180
(continued)

C4Py BF4 0.442kk 392.7 799.7 180
C4Py NTF2 0.933c, 0.943l 200 675 172
C4(3 M)Py BF4 0.418kk 459.1 824.6 180
C4(3 M)Py NTF2 0.823g, 1.127z 227.5 694.1 167.4
C4(4 M)Py BF4 0.365kk
C4(4 M)Py NTF2 0.97h 152.6 597.0 180
C6Py NTF2 0.532o 160.5 672.9 180
C6(3 M)Py NTF2 0.498z 192.4 686.2 178.4
C6(4 M)Py NTF2 0.628z 192.7 721.4 176.9
MeBu3N NTF2 0.1103c
MeBu3N N(CN)2 1.55e
BuMe3N NTF2 0.586c, 0.605l 220 731 174
PeEt3N N(CN)2 0.67e
HxMe3N NTF2 0.14ii
HxEt3N NTF2 0.26u, 0.321nn 138.0nn 551.6nn 207.2nn
HxBu3N NTF2 0.08ii
HpMe3N NTF2 0.14ii
HpEt3N NTF2 0.292nn 90.6nn 470.8nn 216.1nn
HpBu3N NTF2 0.08ii
OcMe3N NTF2 0.13ii
OcEt3N NTF2 0.245nn 230.1nn 537.4nn 209.6nn
OcEt3N N(CN)2 0.28e
OcBu3N NTF2 0.07ii
OcBu3N CF3SO3 0.007ii
DcEt3N NTF2 0.198nn 104.1nn 624.8nn 199.2nn
PrMePyrr NTF2 0.392m 83.3oo 443.2oo 170oo
PrMePyrr N(FSO2)2 0.800oo 36.6oo 432.0oo 186oo
BuMePyrr N(FSO2)2 1.527a 202.7 730.8 148.6
BuMePyrr NTF2 0.660m, 0.835d 213.5 716.5 168.9
BuMePyrr N(CN)2 2.43cc 50.1 357.0 180
MeBu3P NTF2 0.161f
MeBu3P N(CN)2 0.35e
BuEt3P N(CN)2 1.37e
BuEt3P N(SO2F)2 1.27b
PeEt3P N(SO2F)2 0.89b
PeEt3P NTF2 0.60b
PeEt3P N(CN)2 1.03e
OcEt3P N(CN)2 0.61e
OcBu3P BF4 0.0271f
OcBu3P PF6 0.0191f
OcBu3P NTF2 0.134f
OcBu3P SCN 0.0694f
(continued)

OcBu3P N(CN)2 0.18e
OcBu3P CF3CO2 0.0548f
OcBu3P CF3SO3 0.0375f
OcBu3P MePhSO3 0.0101f
DoBu3P BF4 0.0221f
DoBu3P NTF2 0.101f
TdHx3P NTF2 0.081s
a
[281], b[170], c [164], d[366], e[169], f[167], g[347], h[116], i[125], j[367], k[260], l[352], m[368],
n
[338], o[62], p[369], q[370], r[371], s[137], u[163], v[372], w[365] at 353 K and the experimental
values reported are too large by a factor of 10, x[373], y[374], z[283], aa[375], bb[376], cc[377],
dd
[312], ee[378], ff[379], gg[380], hh[381], ii[382], jj[80], kk[383], ll[384], mm[385], nn[280], oo[386], pp[68]
The product of the molar conductivity and the viscosity, the so-called Walden
product, is generally expressed in terms of plots of ln Λ against ln(1/η) for varying
temperatures. For RTILs the fractional Walden product expression applies in the
form:
Ληα ¼ const: ð6:37Þ
with α values somewhat smaller than unity. This results in the linear ln Λ against ln
(1/η) plots to be somewhat below, but parallel to, the so-called ideal Walden curve
obtained for dilute aqueous KCl, where the electrolyte is completely dissociated to
ions and α ¼ 1. The distance of the plotted line from the ideal line is construed as the
fractional degree of ionic dissociation of the RTIL [164, 280, 373, 385, 392]. Values
of α ¼ 0.90 0.04 are typical for RTILs, but it is difficult to discern clear trends
with the natures of the cations and the anions.
6.5.3 Thermal Conductivity
A transport property of RTILs that is of consequence for several of their application

is their thermal conductivity, i.e., the rate at which heat is dissipated from them. The
thermal conductivity, λth, in units of W m1 K1, decreases mildly and linearly with
increasing temperatures:
λth ¼ ath þ bth T ð6:38Þ
The values of λt at 298 K and the coefficients ath and (the negative) bth are shown in
Table 6.15. The thermal conductivity increases significantly when the RTIL con-
tains water [393, 394] but only slightly when the pressure is increased, 0.1 % per
MPa [395–397]. Molecular dynamics simulations by Liu et al. [398] under-estimate

considerably the thermal conductivity of RTILs relative to the experimental values,
but when the ionic charges were reduced to 80 % in the force field used for the
computation slight over-estimation resulted according to Theodorescu [251].
A simple correlation of the thermal conductivity of RTILs and their densities has
been proposed by Fr€oba et al. [400], rewritten as:

λth ρ= W m1 K1 g cm3 ¼ 0:1130 þ 0:02265= M=kg mol1 ð6:39Þ
However, the data in [400] yielded a different slope, 0.0321 rather than 0.02265, for
this plot, Fig. 6.7.
A more complicated correlation, involving five universal coefficients, was
proposed by Shojaee et al. [406]:
λth T ¼ a þ bðM=T Þc þ dðT m =PÞe ð6:40Þ
This expression considered both the temperature and the pressure dependences and
was applied to 143 data points for the determination of the coefficients a ¼ 26.365,
b ¼ 7.233, c ¼ 2.376, d ¼ 11.040, and e ¼ 0.019 as a training set and was then
applied to 66 data points as a test set.
The thermal conductivity can be estimated from the speed of sound, u, which can
be measured accurately, and for which a database of 96 RTILs and its estimation
from group contributions were established by Wu et al. [407], according to the
following expression:

λt ¼ ρ2=3 M1=2 k0 Mα1 =ρα þ k1 T þ k2 u ð6:41Þ
requiring also the density ρ and the molar mass M and the universal coefficients (for
RTILs) k0 ¼ 1.1407 104, k1 ¼ 5.3458 109, k2 ¼ –9.7345 106, and
α ¼ 0.7380. A group contribution method for the estimation of the thermal conduc-
tivities of RTILs was proposed earlier by Wu et al. from the same laboratory [408].
6.6 Chemical Properties
6.6.1 Solvatochromic Parameters
The use of solvents for chemical reactions and separations depends on their abilities
to solvate solutes and reaction intermediates to different extents, and these abilities
concern RTILs too. Such abilities are commonly expressed in terms of linear
solvation energy relationships (LSERs) in which a property of a solute in a solvent
is expressed as the sum of terms that are products of suitable solute and solvent
parameters and a coefficient. Properties such as solubility, toxicity, activity
6.6 Chemical Properties 179
Table 6.15 The thermal conductivity, λth, at 25 C and the coefficients of its linear temperature
dependence of RTILs
Salt λth /W m1 K1 aλth/W m1 K1 103bλth/W m1 K2
C2mim BF4 0.200a 0.235 0.121
C2mim NTF2 0.121b, 0.130c 0.138 0.029
C2mim C2H5SO4 0.186d, 0.181c 0.207, 0.206 0.069, 0.082
C2mim C8H17SO4 0.167d 0.205 0.125
C2mim CH3SO3 0.178e
C2mim CF3SO3 0.16f
C2mim SCN 0.21f
C2mim N(CN)2 0.194e, 0.202d 0.257 0.187
C2mim CH3CO2 0.212d 0.290 0.272
C2mim CF3CO2 0.17f
C4mim BF4 0.163g, 0.186h, a 0.204 0.061
C4mim PF6 0.137b, 0.145i 0.158 0.043
C4mim NTF2 0.121g, 0.127c 0.149 0.071
C4mim CF3SO3 0.141i, 0.146c 0.161, 0.170 0.068,0.079
C6mim BF4 0.165j, 0.157i 0.194 0.012
C6mim PF6 0.129b, 0.141i 0.163 0.071
C6mim PF3(C2H5)3 0.107k
C6mim NTF2 0.122d, g, 0.127c 0.132, 0.140 0.035, 0.043
C8mim BF4 0.163j
C8mim PF6 0.123b, 0.147k 0.152 0.024
C8mim NTF2 0.121g, 0.128c 0.143 0.050
C10mim NTF2 0.131c 0.152 0.071
C4Py BF4 0.170l 0.185 0.049
C6Py BF4 0.163l 0.178 0.049
C8Py BF4 0.159l 0.174 0.049
MeOc3N NTF2 0.129d 0.156 0.093
Et4N BF4 0.70m
Et4N PF6 0.74m
Et4N SCN 0.75m
Et4N NO3 0.97m
BuMe3N NTF2 0.115n 0.144 0.100
BuMePyrr NTF2 0.125c, 0.118k 0.133 0.029
BuMePyrr PF3(C2F5)3 0.106c 0.116 0.032
MeBu3P CH3SO4 0.155o 0.172 0.056
TdHx3P Cl 0.160c 0.190 0.100
TdHx3P NTF2 0.135o, 0.143c 0.166, 0.167 0.096, 0.079
TdHx3P PF3(C2F5)3 0.125k
[393], b[395], c[394], d[400], e[404], f[405] mean for 300 T/K 375, g[402], h[399], i[401], j[396],
a
k
[56], l[397], m[403], n[398], o[168]
Fig. 6.7 The product of the thermal conductivity of RTILs, λ, and their densities, ρ, plotted
against the reciprocal of their molar masses, Eq. (6.39), with data at 298 K from Fr€
oba [400]
supplemented with densities from Table 6.6
coefficient, etc. are thus expressed by means of LSERs. The relevant solvent
properties in this respect are its polarity, Lewis acidity (or hydrogen bond donation
(HBD) ability), Lewis basicity (or hydrogen bond acceptance (HBA) ability), and
polarizability.
The general concept of solvent polarity is expressed by means of the normalized
Reichardt polarity index ETN [409]:
ETN ¼ ½28591=ðλmax =nmÞ 30:7=32:4 ð6:42Þ
where λmax is the wavelength of maximum light absorption of the betaine dye
2,6-diphenyl-4-(2,4,6-triphenylpyridinium-1-yl)phenolate in the solvent (RTIL),
30.7 is the value for tetramethylsilane with minimal polarity, and 32.4 is the
normalizing factor to make ETN ¼ 1.000 for water. Jessop et al. [410] compiled
data from the literature for a large number of RTILs, many of which are shown in
Table 6.16. It should be noted, however, that the ETN values do not pertain to just
the polarity of the solvent, but has a considerable contribution from its HBD ability
and also of its polarizability as shown by Marcus [411] for molecular solvents.
The Lewis acidity or HBD ability of solvents is described by the Kamlet-Taft α

parameter, measured by means of 13C NMR signals from pyridine-N-oxide [417] or
N,N-dimethylbenzamide [418] as the probes suggested by Schneider et al. or
according to the original Kamlet-Taft method, but then it includes contributions
also from other properties. Values of the Kamlet-Taft α parameter, from the
compilation by Jessop et al. [410] and from Kochly et al. [414] and Spange
et al. [416], are shown in Table 6.16. An alternative measure of this property that
has been applied by Schade et al. [413] to RTILs is Catalan’s [412] SA parameter,
using the solvatochromic probe bis(1,10-phenantrolino)dicyanoFe(II), and the
resulting values are shown in Table 6.16. The SA values are linear with the α
values: SA ¼ 0.032 þ 0.612α. The Lewis acidity increases in a series of RTILs
with a common anion: phosphonium < ammonium < pyrrolidinium < pyridinium
< imidazolium, the latter having the largest α due to the hydrogen atom at the two-
position of the imidazole ring according to Spange et al. [416].
The Lewis basicity or HBA ability of solvents is described by the Kamlet-Taft β
parameter, measured by means of the couples of solvatochromic probes
4-nitrophenol compared to 4-nitroanisole or 4-nitroaniline compared to 4-nitro-N,
N-diethyaniline, the second probe of the couple serving to eliminate the effects of
the solvent polarity and polarizability on its first probe. The resulting values of β
from the compilation of Jessop et al. [410], supplemented with data from Spange
et al. [416] are shown in Table 6.16. An alternative measure of this property that has
been applied by Schade et al. [413] to RTILs is Catalan’s SB parameter, using the
solvatochromic probe N.N-dimethyl-4-aminobenzodifuranone, and the resulting
values are shown in Table 6.16. The SB values are linear with the β values:
SB ¼ 0.126 þ 1.056β. The basicity decreases in a series of RTILs with a common
anion: phosphonium > ammonium > pyrrolidinium > pyridinium > imidazolium,
but more moderately than the acidity increases in the opposite direction shown
above as shown by Spange et al. [416].
The polarizability of solvents, combined with their polarity, are measured by the
Kamlet-Taft π* values, obtained most profitably with the solvatochromic probe
4-nitroanisole and shown, as compiled by Jessop et al. [410] and supplemented with
values from Kochly et al. [414] and Spange et al. [416] in Table 6.16. The π* values
are in a narrow range, 0.95 0.15, i.e., the RTILs are all very polar as expected for
ionic liquids. The disadvantage of having both these properties in one parameter is
removed by the separate Catalan parameters SP for polarizability and SdP for
dipolarity. These use results from two solvatochromic probes: a thiazoline one
and 2-(4-(N,N-dimethylamino)benzylidene)malononitrile according to Schade
et al. [413], and the values of SP and SdP are also shown in Table 6.16. The
polarizability of RTILs is not affected much by the acidity or basicity of its
constituent ions, but their polarity does depend on these properties.
Table 6.16 Solvatochromic parametersa and Catalan parametersb of RTILs
182
Salt ETNa αa SAd βa SBd π*a SPd SdPd

C1mim NTF2 0.670 0.66, 0.60c 0.36c 0.99, 0.80c
C2mim BF4 0.71
C2mim PF6 0.676 0.66 0.20 0.99
C2mim PF3(C2F5)3 0.83c 0.476 0.20c 0.191 0.71c 0.755 0.756
C2mim NTF2 0.685 0.66 0.28 0.90
C2mim C2H5SO4 0.71
C2mim C8H17SO4 0.63 0.65 0.77 0.93
C2mim MePhSO3 0.43c 0.78c 1.13c
C2mim NO3 0.642 0.48 0.66 1.13
C2mim N(CN)2 0.648 0.53, 0.51c 0.35, 0.61c 1.08, 0.98c
C3mim NTF2 0.654
C4mim BF4 0.664 0.63, 0.52c 0.288 0.38, 0.55c 0.466 1.05, 0.96c 0.800 1.003
C4mim PF6 0.669 0.63, 0.63d 0.296 0.19, 0.21d 0.364 1.04, 1.03d 0.808 0.934
C4mim PF3(C2F5)3 0.59c 0.329 0.25c 0.233 0.78c 0.747 0.829
C4mim NTF2 0.645 0.62, 0.61d 0.304 0.25, 0.24d 0.372 0.90, 0.98d 0.793 0.867
C4mim CH3SO4 0.53 0.191 0.66 0.799 1.06 0.837 1.062
C4mim C8H17SO4 0.64 0.69, 0.41c 0.223 0.79, 0.77c 0.691 0.89, 0.96c 0.769 1.032
C4mim CF3SO3 0.667 0.63, 0.50c 0.271 0.46, 0.57c 0.482 1.00, 0.90c 0.808 0.934
C4mim CH3SO3 0.44, 0.36c 0.77, 0.85c 1.02, 1.04c
C4mim Cl 0.47, 0.32c 0.167 0.87, 0.95c 0.869 1.10, 1.13c 0.833 1.172
C4mim Br 0.36c 0.191 0.87c 0.774 1.14c 0.873 1.120
C4mim I 0.41c 0.75c 1.13c
C4mim SCN 0.43c 0.71c 1.06c
C4mim NO3 0.38c 0.215 0.81c 0.664 1.05c 0.868 1.034
C4mim CH3CO2 0.611 0.43, 0.36c 1.05, 0.85c 0.96, 1.06
(continued)
C4mim CF3CO2 0.623 0.56, 0.43c 0.74c 0.56, 0.90c
C4mim N(CN)2 0.639 0.54, 0.44c 0.71, 0.64c 1.05, 0.98c
C5mim NTF2 0.63, 0.51c 0.26, 0.44c 0.97, 0.86c
C6mim BF4 0.44c 0.239 0.60c 0.495 0.96c 0.800 1.003
C6mim PF6 0.66 0.57, 0.51c 0.279 0.58, 0.50c 0.463 1.02, 0.93c 0.820 0.954
C6mim PF3(C2F5)3 0.55c 0.304 0.27c 0.206 0.80c 0.717 0.906

C6mim NTF2 0.651 0.65 0.25 0.98
C6mim CF3SO3 0.673 0.67, 0.47c 0.255 0.52, 0.61c 0.515 0.98, 0.92c 0.798 0.959
C6mim Cl 0.59 0.48, 0.31c 0.159 0.94, 0.97c 0.996 1.02, 1.06c 0.787 1.139
C6mim Br 0.61 0.45, 0.36c 0.191 0.74, 0.88c 0.786 1.09, 1.09c 0.861 1.101
C6mim NO3 0.40c 0.76c 1.01c
C6mim N(CN)2 0.630 0.51, 0.44c 0.239 0.69c 0.596 1.05, 1.00c 0.866 0.990
C8mim BF4 0.65 0.62, 0.45c 0.247 0.41, 0.63c 0.525 0.98, 0.93c 0.788 0.983
C8mim PF6 0.633 0.58, 0.52c 0.288 0.46, 0.53c 0.392 0.88, 0.92c 0.798 0.959
C8mim PF3(C2F5)3 1.03c 0.31c
C8mim NTF2 0.627 0.60, 0.48c 0.263 0.28, 0.47c 0.373 0.97, 0.86c 0.774 0.918
C8mim CF3SO3 0.48c 0.263 0.64c 0.590 0.90c 0.744 0.992
C8mim Cl 0.31c 0.159 0.98c 1.001 1.03c 0.784 1.096
C8mim Br 0.35c 0.183 0.89c 0.810 1.04c 0.806 1.091
C8mim I 0.39c 0.81c 1.07c
C8mim NO3 0.36c 0.80c 0.98c
C8mim N(CN)2 0.43c 0.231 0.71c 0.592 0.97c 0.822 0.999
C10mim Cl 0.31c 0.159 0.98c 0.932 0.97c 0.696 1.115
C10mim Br 0.34c 0.175 0.91c 0.883 1.00c 0.740 1.105
C10mim NO3 0.36c 0.81c 0.96c
(continued)
183
184
C10mim BF4 0.47c 0.255 0.65c 0.560 0.90c 0.744 0.992

C10mim PF6 0.48c 0.263 0.55c 0.408 0.89c 0.754 0.968
C10mim NTF2 0.627 0.48c 0.263 0.49c 0.396 0.86c 0.774 0.918
C10mim CF3SO3 0.48c 0.263 0.65c 0.565 0.87c 0.764 0.943
C10mim N(CN)2 0.44c 0.239 0.71c 0.605 0.96c 0.800 1.003
C2(3 M)Py BF4 0.670
C3Py BF4 0.661
C4Py BF4 0.639 0.53 0.21 1.08
C4Py PF6 0.231 0.310 0.818 0.909
C4Py NTF2 0.593 0.48, 0.51d 0.279 0.12, 0.28d 0.339 1.01, 0.98d 0.815 0.863
C4Py CF3SO3 0.41c 0.215 0.57c 0.477 0.92c 0.830 0.930
C4Py N(CN)2 0.43c 0.231 0.65c 0.534 1.01c 0.918 0.957
C4Py NO3 0.44c 0.239 0.73c 0.613 1.05c 0.920 1.001
C4(3 M)Py NTF2 0.602 0.54 0.28 0.97
C4(4 M)Py BF4 0.630
C4(4 M)Py NTF2 0.588 0.51 0.29 0.98
C6Py CF3SO3 0.41c 0.57c 0.90c
C6Py NTF2 0.593 0.50, 0.50c 0.271 0.07, 0.44c 0.379 0.98, 0.86c 0.805 0.888
C6Py N(CN)2 0.41c 0.215 0.69c 0.571 1.03c 0.878 1.010
C6Py NO3 0.39c 0.207 0.78c 0.654 1.04c 0.868 1.034
C6(3 M)Py NTF2 0.608 0.54 0.31 0.98
C8Py BF4 0.606 0.54 0.34 0.97
C8Py NTF2 0.588 0.51 0.28 0.99
C8(2 M)Py NTF2 0.554 0.48 0.35 0.95
C8(3 M)Py BF4 0.60 0.51 0.44 1.02
C8(3 M)Py NTF2 0.565 0.46 0.28 0.97
MeBu3N NTF2 0.774b 0.85b, 0.41c 0.215 0.33b, 0.46c 0.350 0.92b, 0.89c 0.786 0.938
(continued)
MeBu3N N(CN)2 0.25c 0.121 0.73c 0.644 1.03 0.815 1.067
MeHx3N NTF2 0.70c 0.51c 0.90c
MeHx3N N(CN)2 0.24c 0.8c 1.00c
MeOc3N N(CN)2 0.25c 0.121 0.80c 0.687 0.94c 0.863 0.946
MeOc3N NTF2 0.469 0.33, 0.39c 0.207 0.23, 0.55c 0.396 0.87, 0.87c 0.827 0.884
BuMe3N NTF2 0.574a, 0.968b 1.27b 0.26b 0.97a, 0.90b

EtMePyrr N(CN)2 0.556 0.38 1.03
PrMePyrr NTF2 0.669 0.74 0.34 0.91
BuMePyrr NTF2 0.540 0.41 0.23 0.95
HxMePyrr NTF2 0.657 0.76 0.06 0.81
OcMePyrr NTF2 0.651 0.80 0.08 0.73
PrMePip NTF2 0.564 0.52 0.35 0.93
BuMePip NTF2 0.553 0.50, 0.43c 0.36, 0.42c 0.92, 0.82c
BuMePip N(CN)2 0.552 0.31 0.49 1.13
OcMePip NTF2 0.539 0.48 0.37 0.91
MeBu3P NTF2 0.51c 0.279 0.48c 0.362 0.87c 0.827 0.884
MeBu3P N(CN)2 0.25c 0.121 0.75c 0.659 1.03c 0.878 1.010
MeBu3P Cl 0.19c 0.083 1.11c 1.009 1.10c 0.664 1.297
TdHx3P Cl 0.09c 0.023 1.14c 1.096 0.93c 0.664 1.145
TdHx3P NO3 0.89c 0.93c
TdHx3P PF6 0.060 0.400 0.798 0.959
TdHx3P PF3(C2F5)3 0.64c 0.45c 0.87c
TdHx3P NTF2 0.475 0.37, 0.36c 0.191 0.27, 0.58c 0.447 0.83, 0.87c 0.827 0.884
TdHx3P N(CN)2 0.19c 0.083 0.85c 0.731 0.93c 0.800 1.003
TdHx3P PF3(C2F5)3 0.64e 0.363 0.45c 0.264 0.87c 0.827 0.884
a
185
[410], b[415], c[416], d[414], e[413]

6.6.2 Mutual Solubility with Water
The hydrophilic character due to the iconicity of RTILs with not too long alkyl
chains is expected to promote their solubility in water and of water in them. Still,
even relatively hydrophobic RTILs that have small water solubilities are hygro-
scopic and absorb water from the atmosphere. For example, according to Seddon
et al. [419] C4mimþ PF6 reached a mole fraction of 0.16 of water when exposed to
the laboratory atmosphere.
These mutual solubilities at ambient conditions are reported in Table 6.17, in
terms of mass fractions, w(W in RTIL) and w(RTIL in W), and mole fractions x
(W in RTIL) and x(RTIL in W). RTILs with short alkyl chains and small anions are
miscible with water, for example C1mimþ CF3CO2, C4mimþ BF4, C2(2E)Pyþ
C2H5SO4, BuMePyrrþ N(CN)2, and even C8mimþ Cl, so it is difficult to predict
how short the alkyl chain of the RTIL should be for complete miscibility with
water. Certain anions, such as BF4, CF3SO3 and N(CN)2 seem to confer
hydrophilicity (water miscibility) on RTILs whereas PF6– and NTF2– confer hydro-
phobicity according to Chapeaux et al. [420]. However, conflicting results have
been reported: C4mimþ N(CN)2– and C6mimþ N(CN)2– are water-miscible
according to Gomez et al. [343], but C2mimþ N(CN)2– with a shorter alkyl chain
has only a limited solubility in water according to Cho et al. [421].
The mutual solubility of water and RTILs increases with the temperature
[423, 430, 434] and a consolute temperature might eventually be reached, and
indeed has been reached already at ambient temperatures for those RTILs that are
miscible with water. For the solution of RTILs in water the molar heats of solution
range from 6.5 to 12.6 kJ mol–1 according to Freire et al. [430].
The solubilities of RTILs in water (in terms of g L–1) were predicted by Cho
et al. [421] by means of linear solvation energy relationships with three to eight
parameters in several alternative equations (the parameters were, but the equations
were not provided in the paper) with a standard deviation of 0.14.
When the alkyl chains are long, then these mutual solubilities of RTILs and
water diminish and a two-liquid-phases system results at equilibrium that can be
utilized for solvent extraction processes. Only a few examples can be shown here,
one being the extraction from water of the long-lived, hence hazardous, strontium
and cesium fission products, the RTIL employed being methyl-tributylammoniumþ
NTF2–. Suitable ionophores, a crown ether and a calixarene, were used to carry the
metal ions from the aqueous to the RTIL phase according to Chen [429]. A series of
imidazolium RTILs: Cnmimþ PF6– (4 n 9) was used by Chun et al. [443] with a
crown ether ionophore to extract alkali metal ions from aqueous solutions. The
applicability of RTILs as the solvents or diluents of active extractants for the
extraction of actinide and lanthanide elements from aqueous solutions was inves-
tigated by Kolarik [445]. The extraction of polar organic solutes that are typical
water contaminants (hexanoic acid, toluene, 1-nonanol, for example) into Cnmimþ
NTF2– (n ¼ 4, 6, and 8), C4mimþ PF6–, C4MPyrrþ NTF2–, TdHx3Pþ CH3SO3–,
TdBu3Pþ DoPhSO3–, and TdHx3Pþ DoPhSO3– was studied by McFarlane
Table 6.17 Mass fraction (w) and mole fraction (x) solubilities of water in RTILs and of RTILs in water and their n-octanol/water partition constants logPow at
ambient temperatures (specified in the references)
Salt wW in RTIL wRTILin W xW in RTIL 103xRTILin W logPow
C1mim CF3SO3 Misciblea
C1mim NTF2 0.025a 0.0194f 1.35t
C1mim CF3CO2 Misciblea
C2mim BF4 2.66t, 2.57x
e e
C2mim PF6 0.051 0.055 2.36t, 1.82y

C2mim CF3SO3 Misciblea 2.75x
C2mim NTF2 0.020i 0.017i 1.05v, 1.18x
C2mim CH3CO2 2.53w
C2mim CF3CO2 Misciblea 2.3w
t
C2mim N(CN)2 0.035
C2mim B(CN)4 0.77i
C3mim BF4 1.74y
C3mim NTF2 0.0078j 0.0051t 0.88t
C4mim BF4 Miscibled 2.52v, 1.44y
b b,k
C4mim PF6 0.023b 0.020 0.26 1.29b, 1.32g 1.72t, 1.66x,2.39s
C4mim NTF2 0.014a 0.0207f 0.288h, 1.21k 0.50t, þ0.11x
C4mim Cl Miscibled 2.40w,2.77t
C4mim Br 2.48v, 2.65z
C4mim I Miscibled
C4mim NO3 2.42w,2.90s
C4mim CH3CO2 2.77s
C4mim CF3CO2 Misciblea
C4mim CF3SO3 Misciblea,q 1.61t
C4mim N(CN)2 Miscibleq 2.32w
(continued)
187
188

C5mim NTF2 0.00019t 0.11t
C5mim BF4 1.09y
C5mim PF6 0.0125c 0.0123bb
C5mim NTF2 0.34cc 0.11w
C6mim BF4 1.58t, 0.71y
C6mim PF6 0.0075c 0.0075bb 0.229k 0.444g 1.20t
C6mim CF3CO2 2.3w
C6mim N(CN)2 Miscibleq
C6mim NTF2 0.0034f 0.0109f 0.137h,0.434k þ0.19v,þ0.64x
C6mim Cl Miscibled 1.71t
C7mim NTF2 þ0.57t
c bb
C7mim PF6 0.0037 0.0037
C8mim BF4 0.108b 0.018b 0.63b 1.17b 0.68t, 1.34x
C8mim PF6 0.013b 0.007b 0.20b,k 0.350b,0.135g 0.35t
C8mim NTF2 0.0021f 0.0082f 0.085h,0.127k þ0.92v,þ1.05w,þ0.79t
C8mim Cl Miscibled 0.60t, 0.27aa
C8mim Br 1.95z
C8mim SCN Misciblel
C8mim N(CN)2 Misciblel
C9mim PF6 0.0015bb
C9mim Cl 0.13w
cc
C10mim NTF2 0.0047
C10mim N(CN)2 Misciblel
C10mim CF3SO3 Misciblel
C10mim CF3CO2 Misciblel
(continued)
C10mim Cl þ0.31t, 0.29aa
C10mim SCN Misciblel
C12mim Cl 0.14dd
C12mim Br 1.26z
C1Py CH3SO4 Miscibleq
C2Py Cl 3.55t
r
C2Py NTF2 0.311 0.9w
C2Py CF3CO2 2.57x
C2Py Cl 3.55w
C2(2 M)Py NTF2 0.255r
C2(3 M)Py NTF2 0.279r
C2(3 M)Py NTF2 0.308r
C2(2E)Py C2H5SO4 Miscibleq
C3Py NTF2 0.236k 0.57p 1.40p
C3(4 M)Py NTF2 0.236k 0.375p
C4Py Cl 2.82t
C4Py Br 2.43z
C4Py NTF2 0.255r 0.26w
C4(2 M)Py Cl 2.78t
C4(3 M)Py Cl 2.62t
C4(3 M)Py NTF2 0.0020t 0.222r þ0.21i
C4(4 M)Py Cl 2.57t
C4(4 M)Py CF3SO3 Miscibleq
C4(4 M)Py NTF2 0.011i 0.0047i 0.249r þ0.21i
C6Py NTF2 0.010i 0.0028i þ0.77i
(continued)
189
190

C5(3 M)Py NTF2 þ1.07i
C5(3 M)Py Cl þ1.58i
C5(4 M)Py Cl 1.65w
C6(4 M)Py NTF2 0.0088i 0.0017i 0.064p 1.07i, 0.14p
C6(4 M)Py CF3SO3 0.64w
C8Py Cl 0.72t,0.82w
C8Py Br 1.74z
C8Py NTF2 0.0086m
C8(3 M)Py NTF2 þ1.38i
m t
C8(4 M)Py BF4 0.113 0.0104
C8(4 M)Py CF3SO3 0.172m 0.0081t
C8(4 M)Py N(CN)2 0.549m
C8(4 M)Py NTF2 0.0074i 0.0015i þ1.38i
MeBu3N NTF2 0.0027j
BuMe3N NTF2 0.45p
Me2Pyrr NTF2 0.84p
PrMePyrr NTF2 0.0132n 0.0099n 0.233k
BuMePyrr NTF2 0.0068j 0.0061n 0.211k 0.27p
BuMePyrr CF3SO3 Miscibleq
BuMePyrr N(CN)2 Miscibleq
BuMePyrr PF3(C2F5)3 0.00004t
BuMePyrr Br 2.92z
n n
OcMePyrr NTF2 0.0084 0.00054
OcMePyrr Br 2.26z
n n k k
PrMePip NTF2 0.0117 0.0080 0.212 0.375
(continued)
TdHx3P Cl 0.1334o
TdHx3P Br 0.0665o
TdHx3P NTF2 0.0023o
TdHx3P CH3SO3 0.1181o
TdHx3P N(CN)2 0.0309o
a
[422] at 20 C, b[423] at 22 C, c[424], d[70], e[425] at 45 C, f[426], g[427], h[428], i[420] at 23.5 C, j[429], k[430] at 25 and data also at 15, 20, 30, 35, 40 and
45 C, l[339], m[120], n[431], o[317], p[432] at 22 C, q[433], r[434] at 24 C, also data at 20–70 C, s[435], t[421], u[436], v[437], w[438], x[439], y[440], z[441],
aa
[442], bb[443], cc[444] in 0.1 M HNO3
191
et al. [428]. The partitioning of compounds of biological significance (such as

caffeine, Thymine, and amine-, hydroxide- and carboxylate-substituted aromatic
compounds) from aqueous solutions into C4mimþ PF6–, C6mimþ PF6–, and C8mimþ
BF4– was studied by Padro et al. [446], having been measured and predicted by means
of linear solvation energy relationships.
6.6.3 Hydrophilic/Hydrophobic Balance
The hydrophilic/hydrophobic balance of RTILs is of importance in the evaluation

of their impact on the environment and their toxicity. The ionic character of RTILs
makes them considerably hydrophilic, unless they carry long alkyl chains that turn
them to be hydrophobic. The common measure of this hydrophilic/hydrophobic
balance is the logarithm of the 1-octanol/water partition coefficient, logPOW, for
dilute solutions of the substance in question in the mutually saturated 1-octanol/
water system. The values for RTILs are shown in Table 6.18. The values of logPOW
are concentration dependent, and this explains to some extent the discrepancies
noted in Table 6.18 between the values reported by different authors: ideally the
values should pertain to infinite dilution in both phases.
The effect of the length of the alkyl chain of the RTIL is clear: the longer it is the
less hydrophilic is the salt and the less negative is logPOW. The effect of the anion is
more subtle, and in the study by Cho et al. [421] a list of the additive anion
contribution to logPOW is reported: NTF2– 1.50, CF3SO3– 0.53, PF6– 0.19, BF4– –
0.20, Br– –0.34, Cl– –0.44, NO3–- –0.52, and CH3CO2– –0.63. A six-parameter
expression is reported in [421] for the prediction of the logPOW values of RTILs
from independent descriptors of these salts with moderate success (a standard
deviation of 0.18).
6.6.4 Carbon Dioxide Solubility
RTILs have been suggested as effective media for the absorption of carbon dioxide
from fuel combustion or other processes and its separation from mixtures of gases.
The mole fraction solubility of CO2 in RTILs at 1 MPa pressure and at two
operation temperatures, 303 and 333 K, was measured in a variety of imizazolium,
pyridinium, and pyrrolidinium RTILs by Galan-Sanches [447] as quoted by
Torralba-Calleja et al. [448]. Similar data for 2 MPa pressure and 298 K were
supplied by Yokozeki et al. [449]. The CO2 contents at saturation under these
conditions are shown in Table 6.19 and are appreciable, xCO2 ranging from ~0.1 to
~0.2 at 1 MPa pressure, increasing with the pressure as a second power expression,
and diminishing with increasing temperatures.
A different manner for expressing the solubility of CO2 in RTILs is by means of
the Henry law constant KH. One definition of it is the ratio of pressure of the solute
Table 6.18 The logarithm of the 1-octanol/water partition coefficients of RTILs at ambient
conditions from Lee and Lin [438] unless otherwise noted
Salt logPOW
C1mim NTF2 1.35
C2mim BF4 2.66, 2.57a
C2mim PF6 2.36, 1.82b
C2mim NTF2 1.0, 1.18a
C2mim B(CN)4 0.77c
C2mim CF3SO3 2.75a
C2mim CH3CO2 2.53
C3mim BF4 1.74b
C3mim NTF2 0.88
C4mim BF4 2.52, 1.44b
C4mim PF6 1.72, 2.39d, 1.66a
C4mim NTF2 0.5, þ0.11a
C4mim Cl 2.40, 2.77e
C4mim Br 2.48, 2.65f
C4mim NO3 2.42, 2.90d
C4mim N(CN)2 2.32
C4mim CF3SO3 1.61
C4mim CH3CO2 2.77
C5mim BF4 1.09b
C5mim NTF2 0.11
C6mim BF4 1.58, 0.71b
C6mim PF6 1.2
C6mim NTF2 þ0.16, þ0.64a
C6mim Cl 1.73
C6mim CF3CO2 2.30a
C7mim NTF2 þ0.57
C8mim BF4 0.68, 1.34a
C8mim PF6 0.35
C8mim NTF2 þ1.05, 0.79e
C8mim Cl 0.6, 0.27g
C8mim Br 1.95f
C9mim Cl 0.13
C10mim Cl 0.29g
C10mim Cl þ0.31
C12mim Cl 0.14g
C12mim Br 1.26f
C2Py Cl 3.55
C2Py NTF2 0.90
C2Py CF3CO2 2.57a
C4Py Cl 2.82
C4Py Br 2.43f
C4Py NTF2 0.26a
(continued)

Salt logPOW
C4(3 M)Py NTF2 þ0.21c
C4(2 M)Py Cl 2.78e
C4(3 M)Py Cl 2.62e
C4(4 M)Py Cl 2.57
C6Py NTF2 þ0.77c
C6(3 M)Py NTF2 þ1.07c
C6(3 M)Py Cl 1.58e
C6(4 M)Py Cl 1.65
C8Py Cl 0.82, 0.72e
C8Py Br 1.74f
C8(3 M) NTF2 þ1.38c
C4MPyrr Br 2.92f
C8MPyrr Br 2.26f
a
[439], b[440], c[420], d[435], e[421], f[441], g[442], b[437]
in the gas phase to its mole fraction in the solution K H ¼ pCO2ðgÞ =xCO2ðRTILÞ . Such
KH values at 298 K, obtained by the application of the COSMO-RS method and
from experiments by Zhang et al. [450] are shown in Table 6.19, supplemented by
values obtained by other authors. The mole fractions of CO2 in the RTIL at
saturation can be readily calculated from the ratio of its (partial) pressure to the
Henry constant: xCO2ðRTILÞ ¼ pCO2 =K H . Thus, the larger KH is, the smaller the
saturation mole fraction of CO2 at a given pressure.
Imidazolium-based RTILs with a given anion show increasing absorption
(smaller KH values) as the 1-alkyl chain length increases. For a given cation the
KH values diminish in the series PF6 > CH3SO4 > CF3SO3 > BF4 > NTF2.
The question ‘why is CO2 soluble in imidazolium-based RTILs’ was raised by
Cadena et al. [457] and further discussed by Huang and Rüther [462]. Strategies for
improving the sorption of CO2 by RTILs (consisting mainly of TdHx3Pþ cations
with a variety of anions) were dealt with by Wang et al. [463]. The use of aprotic
heterocyclic anions (such as 1,2,4-triazolide) in the imidazolium-based RTILs for
maximizing CO2 absorption was recently suggested by Seo et al. [464]. A partial
answer to these questions and suggestions is the interaction of the CO2 with the
anion of the RTIL, the cation playing a minor role. Still, a comparison by Cadena
et al. [457] of 1-alkyl-3-methylimidaolium with 1-alkyl-2,3-dimethylimidazolium
cations, in which the hydrogen in the two-position of the former is replaced by the
methyl group, shows that since the former cation is capable of hydrogen bonding to
the CO2, it is a somewhat better CO2 absorber.
The solubility of CO2 in RTILs was estimated by Sistla et al. [197] by means of
their Hildebrand solubility parameters, δH, that ought to match as closely as
possible that of CO2 (δH ¼ 17.85 MPa1/2) for maximizing the solubility and sepa-
rating it from CH4, for example (δH ¼ 14.0 MPa1/2). Such a close matching is
achieved by TdHx3Pþ PF3(C2F5)3 from among the RTILs dealt with here
(δH ¼ 19.8 MPa1/2).
Table 6.19 Mole fraction solubilities of CO2 in RTILs at 1.0 MPa and at 303 K and 333 Ka and at
2.0 MPa at 298 K,b estimated by means of the COSMO –RS program in the second and third
columns, experimental in the fourth, and the Henry’s law constants KH at 298 K in the fifth and
sixth columns
xCO2 xCO2 xCO2 KH/MPa KH/MPa
303 K 333 K 298 K
Salt 1 MPaa 1 MPaa 2 MPae 298 Kg 298 K
C1mim BF4 6.4
C1mim PF6 8.6
C1mim CF3SO3 7.0
C1mim CH3SO4 7.2
C1mim NTF2 4.9
C1mim PF3(C2F5)3 2.3
C2mim BF4 0.202f 5.9 8.0h
C2mim PF6 6.0
C2mim CH3SO3 0.198c
b
C2mim CF3SO3 0.187 5.8 7.3h
c c
C2mim CH3SO4 0.060 0.242
C2mim C2H5SO4 0.074d 5.9 1.50i, 8.82j
C2mim PF3(C2F5)3 0.079c 0.340 c
2.2
C2mim NTF2 0.2257 0.1446 0.3900 4.2 3.56h, k
C2mim SCN 0.182c
C2mim HSO4 0.133c
C2mim CH3CO2 0.4280
C2mim CF3CO2 0.2820
C2mim N(CN)2 7.8h, 0.99i
C3mim NTF2 3.7l
C3mim PF6 5.2l
C4mim BF4 0.1461 0.0895 5.4 5.90h, 5.65k
C4mim PF6 0.1662 0.1012, 0.140d 0.264f 4.4 5.34h, k
C4mim NTF2 3.7 3.30h, 3.7l
C4mim CH3SO4 0.1190 0.0733 5.0
C4mim SCN 0.0978 0.0664
C4mim NO3 0.097d
C4mim CH3CO2 0.4550
C4mim CF3CO2 0.3010
C4mim CF3SO3 0.228b 0.424c 5.0 1.21i
C4mim C2H5CO2 0.3900
C4mim (CH3)3C CO2 0.4310
C4mim N(CN)2 0.1434 0.0997
C6mim BF4 0.304f 4.8
C6mim PF6 0.222f 3.7
C6mim CF3SO3 0.230b 4.5
C6mim PF3(C2F5)3 0.4930, 0.4559g 2.0 2.52h, 2.37g
C6mim NTF2 0.4330 3.4 3.16h, 3.5l
(continued)

xCO2 xCO2 xCO2 KH/MPa KH/MPa
303 K 333 K 298 K
Salt 1 MPaa 1 MPaa 2 MPae 298 Kg 298 K
C8mim BF4 0.1873 0.1213, 0.110d
C8mim PF6 0.139k
C8mim NTF2 3.0h, l
d
C4Py BF4 0.089
C4(3 M)Py NTF2 3.3h
C4(3 M)Py N(CN)2 0.1436 0.0683
C4(4 M)Py BF4 0.1443 0.0961 4.2
C4(4 M)Py PF6 3.6
C4(4 M)Py CF3SO3 4.1
C4(4 M)Py NTF2 3.3
C6Py CF3SO3 0.0962 0.0652
C6(3 M)Py NTF2 3.28d
BuMePyrr SCN 0.0971 0.0608
BuMePyrr BF4 3.9
BuMePyrr PF6 3.6
BuMePyrr NTF2 3.1
BuMePyrr CF3SO3 3.7
BuMePyrr N(CN)2 0.1204 0.0613
BuMePyrr CF3CO2 0.1674 0.1030
BuMePyrr PF3(C2F5)3 0.436g 1.9 2.85l
Bu4P HCO2 0.3480
TdHx3P Cl 1.38m
TdHx3P NTF2 2.14m
TdHx3P CH3SO3 1.61n
TdHx3P DoPhSO3 1.86n
a
[447, 448], b[461] interpolated, c[459] interpolated, d[458], e[449], f[460] extrapolated, g[450],
h
[451], i[455], j[456], k[457], l[452], m[453], n[454]
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Author Index
A Alloin, F., 140

Abdel-Rehim, H.A.A., 112, 113, 127 Almeida, H.F.D., 146, 155, 158, 166, 191
Abdoun, F., 46 Altar, W., 41
Abdouss, M., 135, 166 AlTuwaim, M.S., 169
Abdul Mutalib, M.I., 137, 153, 166, 170 Alvarez, V.H., 196
Abe, Y., 72 Alves, O.L., 40
Adam, G., 79 Amberchan, G., 181, 185
Adamova, G., 155, 172 Ambrose, J., 112
Adams, D.J., 38, 39 Anantharaj, R., 135
Adams, L.H., 102 Anderson, J.L., 135, 137, 170
Adya, A.K., 19, 32, 36, 37, 125 Angell, C.A., 77, 79, 81, 99, 101, 114, 167, 169
Afonso, C.A.M., 152, 155, 169, 191 Animoto, K., 77, 80
Agron, P.A., 34, 35 Anouti, M., 155, 166, 172, 177
Agudelo Mesa, L.B., 192 Ansel, S., 19, 32
Ahmadi, A.N., 196 Anthony, J.L., 186, 191, 194, 196
Ahmadi, S., 141, 144, 155 Antonov, B.D., 34, 35
Akagi, Y., 112 Anzai, Y., 102
Akatsuka, H., 38 Aparicio, S., 196
Akbar, M.M., 152 Appetecchi, G.B., 126, 140
Akhmalov, I.R., 28 Aqra, F., 63, 64, 66
Aki, S.N.V.K., 135, 146, 191, 194 Arancibia, E.L., 123, 124
Alavianmehr, M.M., 131 Arce, A., 137, 166
Alberding, N., 126 Aristov, Y.I., 114
Albinsson, I., 140 Armstrong, J.P., 141, 142
Alcock, C.B., 28, 46, 48, 49, 54, 102 Arnett, E.M., 123
Aldous, L., 140, 177 Arning, J., 186, 191, 192, 194
Aleixo, A.I., 46 Artigas, H., 166, 170
Alejandre, J., 42 Arzhantzev, S., 143, 144, 148, 155, 166
Aliev, A.R., 28 Asano, M., 28
Al-Jimz, A.S., 169 Asghari, M., 166
Alkhaldi, K.H.A.E., 169 Ashour, I., 166
Allen, C.B., 1, 54, 55 Assenbaum, D., 178–180
Allen, D.A., 37, 99 Atilhan, M., 196
Allen, M., 124 Atkin, R., 123
Allen, R.W.K., 169, 172 Aune, R.E., 102

Y. Marcus, Ionic Liquid Properties, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-30313-0
222 Author Index
Ayatollahi, S., 135, 178 Bendova, M., 155, 166, 172, 177
Aznar, M., 196 Benerjee, T., 135
Benesi, A.J., 143, 144, 148, 155, 166
Beniko, H., 84
B Benito, J., 166
Baddelli, S., 135, 148 Benmore, C.J., 103
Badrieh, Y., 181 Bennion, D.N., 110
Baev, A.K., 48 Berberich, J.A., 191, 194
Bahadur, I., 152 Berchiesi, G., 46, 110, 113
Bahrami, M., 140, 172 Berdzinski, S., 143
Bahri, H., 124 Bergeron, R.M., 191
Bailey, S.M., 12, 48, 55 Bernard, J.C.S., 155
Baker, G.A., 135, 143, 144, 148, 155, 166, 191, Bertagnolli, H., 40, 41, 99
194 Berthod, A., 135, 166
Balasubramanian, S., 174 Bessada, C., 81
Baldwin, C.M., 100 Besse-Hogan, P., 191, 194
Ballantyne, A.D., 140, 177 Bess-Hoggan, P., 153
Baltus, R.E., 196 Beuneu, B., 103
Bandres, I., 137, 153, 166, 170, 177 Bhatia, K., 118
Banerjee, T., 135 Bhatt, V.D., 109, 112, 179
Bansal, N., 82 Bhatta, D., 28
Bansal, N.P., 1 Bhattacharjee, A., 137, 146, 166, 170
Bao, Q., 178, 179 Bhattacharjee, C., 116
Bara, J.E., 160 Bica, K., 157, 158, 166
Baranskaya, E.V., 46 Bidikoudi, M., 177
Baranyai, A., 41 Biefeld, R.M., 28
Barbera, J., 137, 170, 177 Biggin, S., 36, 37
Barin, I., 26, 27, 31, 45–49, 54, 55, 100, 102 Bijvoet, J.M., 28
Baron, N.M., 116 Binder, K., 99
Barreira, F., 112, 113 Binford, J.S., 48
Barreira, M.L., 112, 113 Bini, R., 132
Barreto, L.S., 40 Biquard, M., 123, 124
Barthel, J., 124, 125 Bishop, A.G., 152
Barton, A.F.M., 112 Bissky, G., 177
Barton, A.L., 100 Bittner, B., 137, 153, 170
Barton, J.L., 63, 64 Blanch, H.W., 169
Bartsch, R.A., 186, 191 Blanchard, L.A., 196
Bassen, A., 40, 41, 99 Blander, M., 1, 41, 86
Batista, M.L.S., 112, 140 Blesic, M., 135, 137, 155
Bau, L., 135 Block-Bolten, A., 55
Bauer, S.H., 46 Blokhin, A.V., 135
Bayer, L., 48 Bloom, H., 1, 84
Bayley, P.M., 177 Blum, H., 45
Behme, N., 181, 185 Bnos, F.G.D., 166
Behnejad, H., 141, 144, 155 Bochenska, P., 137
Beichel, W., 141–143, 156 Bockris, J.O’.M., 41, 63, 64, 69, 70, 79, 100–102
Beigi, A.A.M., 166 Boeck, G., 123, 124
Beigi, A.A.N., 135, 166 B€oes, E.S., 126
Belashchenko, D.K., 41 Bogacz, A., 48, 55, 77
Belhocine, T., 135 Bogel-Lukasik, E., 191, 194
Belveze, L., 191, 194 Bogel-Lukasik, R., 191, 194
Ben Martin, G., 103 Boisset, A., 155, 166, 172, 177
Ben-Dor, L., 116, 118 Bolivar, C.L., 166
Author Index 223
Bonhote, P., 191 Campbell, S.M., 191, 194

Bonnesen, P.V., 191 Canales, R., 196
Borges, R.P., 155, 172 Canongia, J.N., 169, 170
Borodin, O., 174 Canongia Lopes, J.N., 135
Boryta, D.A., 28 Canongia Lopes, J.N.A.C., 127
Bosmann, A., 135 Cantor, S., 45, 100, 101
Bottinga, Y., 100–102 Cao, Y., 135, 137, 140
Bown, M.R., 169, 172 Capps, W., 66, 100, 102
Bowron, D.T., 126 Carda-Broch, S., 135, 166
Boyd, L.E., 140, 172, 177 Carewska, M., 126
BPatrov, B.V., 63, 66 Carlson, C.M., 26, 44
Bradley, A.E., 126 Carmichael, A.J., 126
Branco, L.C., 152, 155, 169, 191 Carmichael, I.S.E., 102, 103
Bratland, D., 84, 86 Carre, B., 140
Braunstein, J., 1 Carrera, G.V.S.M., 152, 155
Bräutigam, G., 48 Carvalho, P.J., 112, 131, 135, 137, 140, 144,
Bravo, J.L., 135 146, 152, 153, 155, 166, 167, 169, 170,
Bredig, M., 34, 35 172, 186, 191, 196
Bredig, M.A., 48, 55 Casassa, E.Z., 124
Breil, G., 48 Castells, R.C., 123, 124
Bremse, F., 42 Castner, E.W. Jr., 140
Brennecke, J., 186, 191, 194 Castro, M., 137, 166, 170, 177
Brennecke, J.F., 135, 137, 146, 153, 161, 170, Catalan, J., 181
179, 186, 191, 194, 196 Cea, P., 137
Bridges, N.J., 178, 179 Cerdeirina, C.A., 135
Brisdon, A.K., 140, 177 Chandran, A., 141, 142
Brockner, W., 158 Chang, J.M., 191
Broker, G.A., 135, 167, 191 Chang, M.W., 141, 144
Brooker, M.H., 110 Chapeaux, A., 186, 191, 194
Brookes, R., 99 Chartrand, P., 81, 83, 84
Brough, B.J., 86 Chasanov, M.G., 55
Brown, G.E. Jr., 103 Chaturvedi, B.R., 42
Brunetti, B., 46 Chaumat, H., 137
Buchner, R., 124, 125, 166, 177 Chen, B., 135
Bui, H.L., 28 Chen, B.-K., 146, 166
Bulut, S., 135 Chen, J., 137, 153, 169, 170, 177
Burello, E., 135 Chen, J.P., 191
Burnasheva, I.A., 86 Chen, L., 155, 177
Bustam, M.A., 137, 153, 166, 170 Chen, P.-R., 140, 177
Chen, P.-Y., 186, 191
Chen, Q., 141, 145
C Chen, Q.-L., 178
Cabeza, O., 140, 177 Chen, S.-H., 123
Cadena, C., 194, 196 Chen, Y., 196
Caesa, N., 141–143 Chen, Z., 141, 144
Caetano, F.J.P., 177 Chen, Z.J., 3, 166
Cahill, J.A., 31, 32 Cheng, D.-W., 41, 44
Calado, M.S., 177 Chervonnaya, N.A., 31
Calas, G., 103 Chervonnyi, A.D., 48
Calvar, N., 135, 137, 153, 155, 166, 169, Chervonnyl, A.D., 31
170, 186 Chervonova, U.V., 135
Caminiti, R., 166 Chhabra, R.P., 69, 70
Campbell, A.N., 58, 61, 66, 110 Chi, Y., 177
224 Author Index
Chieux, P., 37 Cubicciotti, D., 48

Chirawatkul, P., 99 Cui, G., 194
Chirina, N.A., 31 Culbertson, B.H., 196
Cho, C.-W., 186, 191, 192, 194 Curtiss, L.A., 126
Cho, Y.-H., 140
Choi, W.T., 196
Chou C.H., 191 D
Chun, S., 186, 191 Daane, A.H., 31
Churney, K.L., 48, 55 Daguenet, C., 128, 129, 156, 158, 167
Churney, L., 12 Dai, S., 135, 191, 194, 196
Ciappe, C., 132 Dampier, F.W., 111, 113
Cibulka, I., 161 Danek, V., 61, 66
Cingolani, A., 110, 113 Danford, M.D., 19, 32, 34, 35
Ciocirlan, O., 169 Danielsen, S.P.O., 160
Citrak, S., 181, 185 Davey, P.N., 135
Clark, R.P., 28 Davey, T.W., 140
Cleaver, B., 63, 64, 84 Davis, H.T., 41, 45
Clegg, S.L., 61, 66, 110 Davis, L.J., 112
Cleland, W.E. Jr., 140, 172, 177 de Andrade, J., 126
Clusius, K., 44 de Azevedo, R., 152, 161
Coddens, M.E., 112 de Haan, A.B., 140, 169
Cohen, L.H., 102 de Klerk, A., 28
Cointeaux, L., 140 de la Mora, J.F., 135, 148, 149
Coker, T.G., 112 De Long, H.C., 123, 124, 140, 158
Collins, M.F., 100 Deacon, G.B., 140, 169, 172
Combes, J.-M., 103 Dedyukhin, A.E., 60, 77
Compton, R.G., 140, 172, 177 Deetlefs, M., 157, 158, 166
Comunas, M.J.P., 155, 172, 174 Deive, F.J., 172
Conradson, S.D., 103 Deki, S., 118, 126
Conway, B.E., 124, 125 del Rio, F., 129, 130
Cooper, E.I., 167, 169 del Valle, C.P., 140
Corderi, S., 153, 155, 166 Delort, A.-M., 191, 194
Cordfunke, E.H.P., 31, 46, 48, 102 Delort, V., 153
Corkum, R., 123, 124 Deng, D., 194
Cormier, L., 103 Deng, Y., 153, 191, 194
Cornwell, K., 82 Denielou, L., 58
Correia da Mata, J.L., 177 Denisovets, V.P., 63
Costa, A.J.L., 169 Dennis, L.M., 31
Costa, C.S.M.F., 155 Dennison, D.H., 31
Costa Gomes, M.F., 135, 153, 191, 194 DePaoli, D.W., 191, 192, 196
Costa, H.F., 153, 155 Derecskei, B., 144
Costa-Cabral, B.J., 39 Derecskei-Kovacs, A., 144
Coughlin, J.P., 48 Derrien, J.Y., 37, 63
Coutinho, J.A.P., 112, 130, 131, 135, 137, DeSilva, M.A., 194
140–146, 149, 152, 154–156, 158, Desnoyers, J.E., 124
160, 166, 167, 169, 170, 172, 186, D’Eye, R.W.M., 31
191, 196 Di Cicco, A., 32, 38, 40
Crespo, J.G., 169, 191 Di Cicco, A.J., 38
Crissanthopoulos, A., 99 Di Ciccon, A., 41
Croitoru, O., 169 Dias, A.-P., 191
Crosthwaite, J.M., 135, 137, 146, 170 Diaw, M., 140
Crozier, E.D., 126 Diebold, G.J., 179
Cruz, M.M., 155, 172 Dietz, M.L., 191
Author Index 225
DiGuilio, R.M., 82 Eisenberg, S., 37

Dincer, I., 55 Ejima, A., 102
Dingwell, D.B., 100 Ejima, T., 63
Diogo, H., 46 El-Awady, W.A., 153, 170
Diogo, J.C.F., 177 Eliseeva, A.F., 28, 66, 110
Dixon, J.K., 135, 137, 170 Emel’yanenko, V.N., 123, 124, 135, 137, 142
Dixon, M., 40 Emel’yanko, V.N., 112, 143
Doan, M., 31 Emge, T.J., 140
Dobroszkowski, A., 84 Emons, H.-H., 48
Doi, H., 166 Enderby, J.E., 36, 37
Doma, B.T. Jr., 196 Enomoto, R., 140, 155, 172, 177
Domalski, E.S., 110 Eriksen, K.M., 28, 46, 110
Domanska, U., 135, 137, 140, 143, 145, 152, Errington, J.R., 137
169, 191, 194 Espel, J.R., 140
Dominguez, A., 135, 137, 145, 153, 155, 166, Esperança, J., 112, 140
169, 170, 172, 186, 191 Esperança, J.M.S.S., 32, 112, 135, 141, 142,
Dominguez, I., 170 144, 145, 152, 155, 161, 166, 169
Dominguez-Perez, M., 140 Etzel, K., 48
Dong, J., 38, 99, 143, 144, 148, 155, 166 Evans, D.F., 124
Dong, K., 132, 153, 177 Evans, F.D., 123
Downey, J.R., 54, 55 Evans, W.H., 12, 48, 55
Doy, N., 169, 172 Every, H.A., 152
Draucker, L., 140 Evtuguin, D.V., 135, 166, 169
Driver, G.W., 166, 167 Eyring, H., 26, 32, 41, 44, 63
Dron, R., 103
Drover, K., 110
Drummond, C.J. Jr., 123, 124, 141, 145, 172 F
Dryfe, R.A., 140, 177 Faber, M., 46
Du, J., 103 Falaras, P., 177
Duan, W.-B., 149 Fan. D., 131
Ducasse, L., 112 Fang, D.-W., 135
Duce, C., 132 Fang, F.-W., 135
Ducker, W.A., 140 Farahani, N., 148
Duclaux, L., 191, 194 Farber, M., 28
Duffy, J.A., 113 Fareleira, J.M.N.A., 177
Dupont, J., 127 Farhani, N., 137
Dupuy, J., 37, 63 Farooq, A., 191, 194
Duraiswamy, S., 45 Farzam, S., 178
Dutcher, C.S., 61, 66, 110 Fateminassab, F., 196
Dutierrez-Tauste, D., 192, 196 Fazio, B., 126, 166
Dworkin, A.S., 46, 48, 55 Fehmann, R., 110
Dy, E., 140 Fehrmann, R., 28, 46
Dyson, P.J., 128, 129, 156, 158, 167 Fei, W., 135
Dzyuba, S.V., 186, 191 Fei, Z., 158
Feilchenfeld, H., 116
Fendt, S., 169
E Feng Nie, J., 140
Easteal, A.J., 101 Feng, Y.-Y., 166
Ebenso, E.E., 152 Ferloni, P., 46, 54
Eckert, C.A., 140 Fernandes, A.M., 146, 186, 191
Ecomonou, I.G., 152, 166 Fernandez, J., 155, 172, 174
Edwards, F.G., 36, 37 Fernandez, M., 118
Eggelstaff, P.A., 66 Fernandez, R., 63
226 Author Index
Ferreira, A.F., 140, 179 Galan-Sanchez, M., 192, 196

Ferreira, A.G.M., 140, 144, 152, 153, 155, 179 Galinski, M., 140, 147, 174
Ferreira, A.I.M.C.L., 166 Gao, Y., 135
Ferreira, C.E., 155, 172 Gao, Y.-A., 170, 177
Ferro, V.R., 130, 160 Garcia, J., 166
Field, P.E., 84, 86 Garcia, S., 166
Filipe, E., 32, 145 Garcia-Mardones, M., 137, 166, 170, 177
Filiponi, A., 38, 40 Garcia-Miaja, G., 137
Fischer, D.F., 55 Gardas, R.L., 131, 135, 144, 149, 152, 153,
Fischer, H., 99 155, 156, 158, 160, 172, 186, 191
Flesch, R.M., 48 Gardon, J.L., 61, 63, 66
Flood, H., 103 Garner, G.L., 54, 55
Foley, R.T., 124, 125 Gascon, I., 137, 166, 170, 177
Fong, C., 123, 124 Gathondu, N., 181, 185
Fonseca, I.M., 144 Gaune, P., 77
Fonseca, I.M.A., 152, 153, 155, 172 Gaune-Escard, M., 2, 28, 31, 37, 46, 48, 55, 77,
Fonseca, M.A., 140, 179 110
Foo, T., 192, 196 Gaune-Escarde, M., 28, 35, 38
Forero, L.A., 146 Gaur, H.C., 116, 118
F€
orland, T., 103 Gawron, K., 114, 116
Forsyth, M., 140, 152, 177 Gay, M., 37
Forsyth, S.A., 140, 169, 172 Ge, R., 146, 158, 169, 172, 177, 179
Forte, P.A.S., 155, 166 George, A., 130
Fox, E.B., 178, 179 Gerrard, V.G., 41, 44, 63
França, J.M.P., 179 G-h, S., 177
Franzosini, P., 46, 110, 113 Gharagheizi, F., 137, 148
Fraser, K.J., 140 Gharagherzi, F., 148
Fredlake, C.P., 135, 146 Ghatee, M.H., 135, 140, 148, 169, 172
Freire, M.G., 112, 135, 140, 144, 146, 152, Gheribi, A.E., 81, 83, 84
153, 155, 158, 166, 167, 169, 170, Ghiorso, M.S., 100, 102, 103
172, 186, 191 Gibbs, J.H., 79
Frez, C., 179 Gier, E.J., 103
Frisch, H.L., 66 Gill, A.C., 31
Fr€
oba, A.P., 135, 140, 152, 166, 178–180 Gillan, M., 41
Fromon, M., 123, 124 Gilpatrick, L.O., 45
Fu, D., 180, 181, 185 Giner, B., 166, 170
Fu, S., 140 Gjikaj, M., 158
Fuchs, J., 116 Glasser, L., 16, 20, 22, 23, 48, 55, 128, 129,
Fujii, K., 174, 177 147, 158
Fukase, S., 86 Godinho, M., 155, 172
Fukazawa, H., 135, 169 Gohil, K., 109, 112, 179
Fukushima, K., 35, 38, 99, 110 Golding, J., 140, 169, 172, 177
Fumi, F.G., 39, 72 Goldman, G., 60
Furakawa, Y., 31 Goldman, J.I., 169, 177
Furlani, M., 140 Goldmann, J., 44
F€
urth, R., 41, 79 Gołebiowski, M., 191
Furton, K.G., 112 Gomes, L.R., 135, 141, 142
Furukawa, K., 32, 34, 35, 103 Gomes, M.F.C., 141, 155, 166, 191
Fylstra, P., 123, 124 Gomez, E., 135, 137, 153, 155, 166, 169, 170,
172, 186
Gonçalves, F., 112, 140
G Gonçalvez, F.A.M.M., 155
Gacino, F.M., 155, 172 Gong, S., 140
Gadzuric, S., 48 Gong, W., 28, 31
Gafurov, M.M., 28 Gong, Y.-h., 141, 143, 166
Author Index 227
Gontrani, L., 166 Hannebohn, O., 31

Gonzales, B., 153 Hansen, M.D., 69
Gonzalez, B., 140, 153, 155, 166, 170, 172 Hao, L., 146, 166, 177
Gonzalez, E.J., 140, 145, 155, 166, 172, Hara, S., 63, 64
186, 191 Harada, M., 39, 41, 43–45, 63, 73, 77
Gonzalez-Salgado, D., 146 Harada, S., 63
Goodrich, P., 158 Harada, T., 28
Goodwin, H.M., 31 Hardacre, C., 37, 125, 126, 140, 141, 146, 149,
Gordienko, A.A., 86 155, 158, 169, 172, 177, 179
Gordon, C.M., 141, 144 Hardy, A., 124
Gordon, J.E., 112 Haridasan, T.M., 45
Gores, H.J., 177 Harinaga, U., 112
Gossink, R.G., 61, 66 Harris, K.R., 78, 79, 81, 172, 174, 177
Goto, M., 191 Harti, R., 177
Gramstad, T., 123 Hassan, S., 191, 194
Granata, R.D., 124, 125 Hassel, E., 153, 161, 170
Grande, T., 31 Haszeldine, R.N., 123
Grätzel, M., 158, 191 Hatem, G., 28, 46, 77, 110
Greaves, T.L., 123, 124, 141, 145, 172 Hawkins, E.G., 100–102
Green, W.G., 84, 86 Hawlitzky, H., 99
Griffiths, T.R., 112 Hayamizu, K., 135, 153, 166, 169, 172–174,
Grimes, W.R., 82, 86 177
Grjotheim, K., 84, 86 Hayashi, M., 102
Grønvold, F., 114 Hayes, R., 123
Grosse, A.V., 31, 32 Hayman, A.R., 140
Gruzdev, M.S., 135 He, C.-H., 178
Gu, Z., 153, 161, 170, 196 He, H., 132
Guan, G., 132, 135 He, M., 48
Guan, W., 135, 148, 149, 166 He, X., 132
Gubbins, K.E., 130 Hearing, E.D., 110
Guedes, H.J.R., 144, 152, 155, 161 Heaton, R.J., 99
Guerrero, H., 137, 153 Hebert, T.H., 48
Guillen, F., 137 Hefter, G., 166
Guillot, B., 32, 39 Heggen, B., 146
Guion, J., 114 Heintz, A., 135, 140, 141, 143, 145
Guissani, Y., 32, 39 Heinze, T., 140
G€unther, E., 114 Held, C., 130
Gupta, S., 116 Henderson, D.C., 48
Gurkan, T., 116 Henderson, W.A., 112, 123, 124, 140, 158
Guzman, O., 129, 130 Hengge, A.C., 112
Herie, L., 63
Herms, G.J., 99
H Hershey, J.P., 118
Haarberg, G.M., 2 Herstedt, M., 112
Haase, R., 78, 81 Hert, D.G., 135, 146
Hadded, M., 124 Heusel, G., 99
Haereid, S., 31 Hezave, A.Z., 178
Hagiwara, R., 112, 126, 158 Higelin, A., 141–143
Hallett, J., 140 Hildebrand, J.H., 69, 170, 172
Hallett, J.P., 130 Himmel, D., 141–143
Halow, I., 12, 48, 55 Hindman, M.S., 160
Han, B.-X., 177 Hirai, N., 44, 63
Han, M., 132, 135 Hiraoka, S., 73, 77
228 Author Index
Hoch, M., 32 Inoue, N., 46

Hoff, R.H., 112 Inui, M., 38
Hoffmann, M., 135 Ippolitov, E.G., 31
Hofman, T., 152 Irandousi, M., 166
Holbrey, J.D., 125, 126 Irvin, A.C., 160
H€olzl, C.G., 124, 125 Ishiguro, S.-I., 123
Honcova, P., 114 Ishii, K., 135, 172, 174, 177
Honda, H., 28 Ishimaru, S., 28
Horbach, J., 99 Ismail, K., 116
Hossain, M.Z., 82 Ismail, S., 116
Hosseine-Jenab, M., 196 Ito, Y., 126
Hosseini, S.M., 131 Iulian, O., 169
Hou, M.-Q., 177 Ivey, D.G., 140
Howe, M.A., 37 Iwabuki, H., 118
Howe, R.A., 36, 37, 99 Iwadate, Y., 35, 38, 99, 110
Howells, W.S., 99
Howlett, P.C., 140, 177
Hu, M.-C., 166 J
Hu, Y., 131 Jackson, R.A., 40
Hu, Y.-F., 169, 177 Jackson, W.E., 103
Hu, Y.Q., 152 Jacquemin, J., 146
Hu, Y.-q., 137, 153 Jaeger, F.M., 102
Huang, J., 194 Jahangiri, S., 141, 144, 155
Huang, J.-F., 135 Jain, L., 141, 142, 144, 194
Huang, M.-M., 166, 167 Jain, S.K., 114, 116, 118
Huang, X.-J., 172 Jakab, S., 191
Hudleston, J.G., 135, 167, 191 Jal, J.-F., 37
Hunger, J., 166, 177 Jalili, A.H., 196
Hunt, P.A., 130 Jang, J.H., 196
Hunt, R.D., 191, 192 Janowska, G., 137
Huntelaar, M.E., 102 Janz, G.J., 1, 26, 28, 54, 55, 57, 59, 61, 65, 66,
Hunter, R.J., 69, 70 69, 70, 73, 74, 100, 111–113
Huo, Y., 135 Jaquemin, J., 141, 155, 161, 166, 169, 172, 177
Hussain, A., 158 Jenkins, H.B.D., 14, 23, 147, 158
Hussey, C., 140, 172, 177 Jenkins, H.D.B., 20, 22, 23, 48, 53, 55, 128,
Husson, P., 141, 153, 155, 161, 169, 172, 129, 158
191, 194 Jensen, E., 31
Jesionowski, A.M., 191, 194
Jessop, D.A., 180, 181, 185
I Jessop, P.G., 180, 181, 185
Ibuki, K., 174, 177 Jeter, S., 82
Ichikawa, T., 162 Ji, X., 130, 135
Igarashi, K., 32, 35, 103, 110 Jiang, D., 194
Ignat’ev, N.V., 177 Jiang, Y., 166, 167
Iida, T., 35 Jiang, Y.-C., 166
Ikeda, M., 35 Jin, H., 143, 144, 148, 155, 166
Ikeda, R., 28 Johnson, I., 155
Iken, H., 137 Johnson, J.K., 130
Ilani-Kashkouli, P., 137, 148 Johnston, S., 126
Imberti, S., 123 Jones, G.P., 102
Ingier-Stocka, E., 48 Jones, R.G., 141, 142
Ingram, M.D., 113 Josiak, J., 77
Inman, D., 1 Jotshi, C.K., 116–118
Author Index 229
Julsrud, S., 31 Kingery, W.D., 100

Jungnickel, C., 186, 191, 192, 194 Kinoshita, M., 39, 41, 43
Junk, C.L.M., 192, 196 Kirchner, B., 127
Justice, J.-C., 124 Kirshenbaum, A.D., 31, 32
Klamt, A., 129, 186, 191, 192, 194
Klement, W. Jr., 31
K Klemm, A., 78, 79, 81
Kaar, J.L., 191, 194 Klemm, W., 31
Kaatze, U., 124 Kleppa, O.J., 46, 48
Kabo, A.G., 135 Klomfar, J., 135, 140, 149
Kabo, G.J., 135, 140, 141, 145 Knacke, O., 26, 27, 31, 45–49, 54, 55, 100, 102
Kageyama, H., 112 Knape, E.G., 63
Kajinami, A., 118 Knoche, R., 100
Kalanpounias, A.G., 99 Knocks, A., 124
Kalb, R., 112, 135 Knoll, W., 37
Kalia, R.K., 99 Kobayashi, K., 46
Kalyanasundaram, K., 191 Kochly, E.D., 181, 185
Kamari, A., 162 Kodama, S., 140, 155, 172, 177
Kanaji, Y., 118 Kohara, S., 99, 126
Kanakubo, M., 155, 172, 174, 177 K€ohler, S., 140
Kanzaki, R., 123 Kojima, T., 77, 80
Karadas, F., 196 Kojonen, E., 101, 102
Karataeva, I.M., 28 Kolarik, Z., 186
Karnowsky, M.M., 28 Kolbeck, C., 135, 152
Kartini, E., 100 Koller, T., 152, 166
Kashirskii, D.A., 137 Konakov, V.G., 104
Kassaee, M.H., 82 Kondo, Y., 28
Kato, Y., 28 Konings, R.J.M., 46
Katoh, S., 84 Korenev, Y.U.M., 31
Katz, J.L., 41, 42, 45, 61, 63, 66 Kosaka, M., 35
Kaur, G., 166 Koslowski, T., 135, 137, 141, 156
Kaur, M., 166 Koura, N., 126
Kawabara, A., 140, 155, 172, 177 Koyama, A., 112
Kayama, Y., 162 Kozlov, D.N., 152, 179
Kayano, M., 84 Kozlov, G.S., 31
Kazo, T., 135, 169 Kracek, F.C., 102
Kenesey, C., 46, 54 Krack, M., 99
Kenmochi, S., 178, 179 Kragl, U., 132
Kerr, J., 191 Krebs, U., 54, 55
Kerridge, D.H., 86 Krehl, K., 48
Ketelaar, J.A.A., 39 Kremer, H., 135, 140
Khanjari, N., 140, 172 Kress, V.C., 100, 102
Khanna, A., 141, 142, 144, 194 Krieger, B.M., 140
Khokhlov, V., 72 Krodkiewska, I., 123, 124, 145
Khokhlov, V.A., 60, 77 Krohn, C., 84, 86
Kiefer, J., 152, 179 Krolikowska, M., 135, 152, 169
Kilaru, P., 135, 155 Krolikowski, M., 135, 137, 152
Kilaru, P.K., 141, 143, 144 Krossing, I., 112, 128, 129, 131, 135, 137, 141,
Kim, K., 140 156, 158, 167, 186, 191, 192, 194
Kim, K.B., 100 Kruplak, J.F., 140, 172, 177
Kim, K.-S., 155, 166, 169 Krzeminski, K., 178–180
Kim, Y.S., 196 Krzyzak, E., 77
Kimura, S., 102 Kubaschewski, O., 28, 31, 46, 48, 49, 54, 102
230 Author Index
Kucheryna, A., 177 Leitner, W., 140

Kul, I., 153, 170 Lely, J.A., 28
Kulkarni, P.S., 169, 191 Lemke, A., 40, 41, 99
Kumar, A., 112, 141–143, 145, 152, 153, 155, Lemordant, D., 140
166, 167 Lemraski, E.G., 149
Kumar, H., 166 Lenke, A., 99
Kumar, R.A., 191 Lenke, R., 81
Kumeev, R.S., 135 Leonesi, D., 46, 110, 113
Kunugi, Y., 140, 155, 172, 177 Leong, S.S.J., 141, 144
Kunz, W., 177 Leont’ewa, A.A., 102
Kuo, C.-W., 140, 146 Lepretre, J.-C., 140
Kurina, K.A., 112 Letcher, T.M., 137
Kurnia, K.A., 152 Letellier, P., 123, 124
Kuwata, H., 112 Leu, A.-L., 32, 41, 44
K-x, L., 177 Leveque, J.-M., 191, 194
Levitskij, E.A., 114
Levy, H.A., 19, 32, 34, 35
L Lewandowski, A., 140, 147, 174
Ladd, M.F.C., 48, 53 Lewis, J.W.E., 40
Lafuente, C., 137, 153, 166, 170, 177 Li, C., 141, 142
Lago, S., 166 Li, C.-x., 141, 143, 166
Lakshminarayanan, G.R., 61, 65, 66, 100, 111, Li, H., 38, 99, 140, 194
113 Li, J., 131
Lamoreaux, R.H., 69, 170, 172 Li, J.-G., 169, 177
Lampreia, I.M.S., 185 Li, L., 135, 149
Lampreia, M.I., 112 Li, M.-H., 196
Langa, E., 179 Li, P.-P., 135, 137, 153, 155, 170, 177
Lara, J.E.R., 129, 130 Li, S.-N., 166
Larriba, C., 148, 149 Liang, L.Y., 152
Larriba, M., 166 Liang, L.-y., 137, 153
Larsen, B., 38, 43 Liao, J.-W., 177
Lashkarbolooki, M., 135, 178 Licence, P., 141, 142
Lassegues, J.C., 112 Lide, D., 26, 27, 29, 31, 48, 109, 112, 116
Laugt, M., 114 Liebert, T., 140
Law, G., 135 Lijbers, J.H., 169
Lazareva, L., 103 Lima, C.F.R.A.C., 135, 141, 142
Lazzus, J.A., 146, 152, 155, 156 Lin, K.-F., 166
Le, M.-L.-P., 140 Lin, S.-T., 191, 193
Lebowitz, J.L., 66 Lin, Y.-C., 140
LeCompte, K., 169, 177 Lind, J.E. Jr., 112, 113, 127
Lee, B.-S., 191, 193 Ling, S., 177
Lee, C.S., 196 Liotta, C.L., 140
Lee, H., 155, 166, 169 Litovitz, T.A., 100, 102
Lee, H.Y., 140 Liu, C., 140
Lee, J.-M., 3, 137, 141, 144, 166, 170, 191 Liu, H., 131, 135, 178, 179
Lee, R.-C., 196 Liu, Q.-S., 135, 137, 153, 155, 158, 170, 177
Lee, S.B., 141, 142, 144, 191 Liu, R.J., 141, 142
Lee, S.H., 141, 142, 144, 191 Liu, V., 137, 153, 170, 177
Lee, W.H., 48, 53 Liu, X.-M., 135, 137
Leeper, J.D., 28, 46 Liu, X.-X., 155, 177
Lehmann, J., 135, 152 Liu, Y.-H., 177
Leibowitz, L., 55 Liu, Y.-S., 169
Leipertz, A., 135, 140, 152, 178–180 Liu, Z., 141, 142, 194, 196
Author Index 231
Liu, Z.-C., 169 Mackenzie, J.D., 100, 101

Liu, Z.S., 140 Macwan, P.M., 152
Llovell, F., 130 Madded, P.A., 39
Locke, J., 37 Madden, P.A., 35, 38, 99, 127
Loewenschuss, A., 12 Madsen, L.A., 177
Lombardo, C., 166 Maekawa, M., 126
Lopes, J.N., 135, 141 Mafi, M., 152, 153, 170
Lopes, J.N.C., 32, 135, 137, 141, 142, 145, Magee, J.W., 135
155, 166 Maginn, E.J., 132, 135, 146, 179, 186, 191,
Lopes, M.L.M., 179 194, 196
Lopes, M.L.S.M., 73 Magino, E., 178, 179
Lopes-da-Silva, J.A., 140, 146, 155, 158, Maier, C.G., 31, 48
166, 191 Maier, R., 124
Lopez, E.R., 174 Mailey, R.D., 31
Lopez, M.C., 137, 166, 170, 177 Maindersma, G.W., 169
Lopez-Martin, I., 135 Majer, V., 141, 155, 169, 172
Lorenz, P.K., 111, 113 Majerus, O., 103
Lourenço, M.J.V., 73, 179 Makhlachko, A.G., 31
Lovelock, K.R.J., 135, 141, 142, 152 Makino, T., 155, 177
Lovering, D.G., 1 Malhorta, S.V., 153
Lrolikowska, M., 140 Malik, I., 54, 55
Lu, G., 40, 41 Mamantov, C.B., 1
Lu, K., 38, 99 Mamantov, G., 1
Lu, W.-C., 41, 44, 63 Man, Z., 137, 153, 166, 170
Lu, X., 132, 135, 153, 177 Mandai, T., 135, 169
Lu, X.C., 137 Manolatos, S., 46
Lu, Y.-z., 141, 143, 166 Manucho, I.M., 135, 141
Lubova, Z., 61, 66 March, N.H., 28, 31
Ludwig, R., 123, 124, 132 Marchidan, D.I., 46
Lugo, L., 155, 172 Marciniak, A., 141–144
Luis, A., 146, 166 Marcus, Y., 12–18, 23, 45, 49, 51, 53–57,
Luks, K.D., 41, 45 60, 61, 63, 64, 66–70, 72, 82, 84, 85,
Lumry, R., 124 115, 116, 118, 157–162, 170, 172, 173,
Lungwitz, R., 181, 185 180, 181
Luo, H., 135, 191, 192, 196 Margheritis, C., 39, 40
Luo, R.G., 153 Margrave, J.L., 46, 54
Luo, X., 194 Markowitz, M.M., 28
Luty, F., 28 Maroncelli, M., 143, 144, 148, 155, 166
Marques, C.S., 155, 172
Marrucho, I.M., 135, 141, 142, 144, 152, 153,
M 155, 169, 186, 191, 196
Ma, J., 131 Marszalek, M., 158
Ma, P., 135, 149 Martin, F.S., 31
Ma, S.-M., 32, 41, 44 Martin, S., 137, 153, 166, 170
Ma, X.-X., 135, 148, 149, 166 Martino, W., 135, 148
Mac Dowell, N., 130 Maruyama, K., 38
Macedo, E.A., 135, 137, 140, 153, 155, 166, Masataka, T., 41, 43–45, 63
169, 170, 186, 191 Mashovets, V.P., 116
Macedo, P.B., 100–102 Massel, M., 179
MacFarlane, D.R., 140, 152, 169, 172, 177 Masuda, Y., 110
Machanova, K., 155, 166, 172, 177 Mather, D.E., 84
Machida, H., 130, 131, 152, 161 Matkowsaka, D., 152
MacInnes, M., 169, 172 Matsui, H., 112
232 Author Index
Matsui, M., 102 Mitchell, E.W.J., 37

Matsumiya, M., 140, 155, 172, 177 Miyake, M., 99
Matsumoto, H., 112, 126, 140 Miyashiro, H., 153, 166, 169
Matsumoto, K., 112, 126, 158 Miyazaki, Y., 77, 80, 112, 126
Matsuo, T., 31, 46, 110 Mizoguchi, Y., 166
Matsuura, H., 38 Mizoshiri, M., 166
Mayer, J.M., 179 Mizuhata, M., 126
Mayer, S.W., 41, 42, 45, 48, 61, 63, 66 Mizutani, Y., 28
Mayer, V., 161 Mochinaga, J., 35, 110
Mazieres, M.-R., 137 Moghadasi, J., 131
McDermott, D.P., 45 Mohammad, A.A., 169
McDonald, I.R., 38, 39 Mohammadi, A.H., 137, 148, 162
McEwen, A.B., 169, 177 Mohandas, K.S., 110
McFarlane, D.R., 177 Moita, M.-L.C.J., 185
McFarlane, J., 191, 192 Mokhtarani, B., 152, 153, 170
McGonical, P.J., 31, 32 Mondal, A., 174
McGreevy, R.L., 37, 41 Montalban, M.G., 166
McHale, G., 169, 172 Moosavi, F., 169
McLean, A., 141, 144 Morawski, P., 135
McMath, S.E.J., 125, 126 Morita, W., 110
McQuarrie, D.A., 26 Moriya, K., 31, 46, 110
Meakin, P., 177 Moriyama, H., 63
Mecedo, E.A., 145, 172 Morris, D.F.C., 48, 53
Mehdizadeh, A., 196 Morrison, G., 112
Mehling, H., 114 Morrow, T.I., 194, 196
Mei, Q.-Q., 177 Mort, K.A., 40
Meindersma, G.W., 140 Mortaheb, H.R., 152, 153, 170
Meisingset, K.K., 114 Mosley, M., 86
Mejia, I., 196 Motzfeld, K., 84, 86
Mellander, B.-E., 140 Moulton, R., 191, 194
Meng, H., 141, 143, 166 Moyer, J.W., 28, 46
Mentus, S., 101 Moynihan, C.T., 100, 101
Merz, K., 141–143 Mu, T., 135, 137, 140, 177
Meschel, S.V., 46 Mukerjee, P., 20–23, 115
Messoloras, S., 37 Muldoon, M.J., 135, 137, 170
Mezei, F., 100 Muller, E.A., 130
Micheli, A., 132 Muller-Plathe, F., 146
Michielsen, J., 39 M€unstermann, E., 48
Migron, Y., 181 Murofushi, M., 35, 110
Mika, K., 36, 37 Murphy, R.M., 1
Mikami, M., 173, 174, 177 Murshed, S.M.S., 179
Milchert, E., 137, 153, 170 Murugesan, T., 137, 152, 153, 166, 170
Miller, M., 31 Mustre de Leon, J., 103
Millero, F.J., 118 Mutelet, F., 112, 140
Milne, J., 123, 124
Minas de Piedale, M.E., 46
Minato, K., 35, 38 N
Minevich, A., 116, 118 Nagao, T., 166
Minicucci, M., 38, 41 Nagarajan, M.K., 110
Mirkhani, S.A., 137, 148 Nagashima, A., 68, 72
Mirzaei, M., 152, 153, 170 Nakamura, D., 28, 31
Misawa, M., 99 Nakamura, K., 167
Miscdolea, C., 41, 44 Nakamura, T., 44
Author Index 233
Nakayama, H., 112 Oki, M., 110

Nakazawa, T., 35 Okunev, Y.A., 28
Nancarrow, P., 141, 146, 177, 179 Oleinikova, A., 128, 129, 167
Nanis, L., 100, 101 Oliveira, F.S., 169, 170
Napolitano, A., 100–102 Oliveira, M.B., 130
Narassi, R., 38, 40 Olivera, M.B., 140
Nardillo, A.G., 123, 124 Oliviera, M.S.A., 140, 179
Narita, H., 38 Oliviera, P.H., 46
Naterer, G.F., 55 Olubajo, C., 191, 194
Navarro, P., 166 O’Mahony, A.M., 140, 177
Navia, P., 146 Omote, K., 34
Neilson, G.W., 19, 32, 36 Onda, N., 35
Neuefeind, J., 99, 103 Onink, F., 140
Neves, C.M.S.S., 112, 135, 152, 155, 166, 167, Ono, S., 166
169, 172, 186, 191 Orädd, G., 152
Nevins, D., 103 Oravova, L., 114
Newman, J., 191 Ornek, D., 116
Newport, R.J., 37 Osorio, H.M., 177
Newton, E., 140 Ostrovski, O.I., 41
Newton, M.I., 169, 172 Østvold, T., 63
Ngeyi, S.P., 54, 55 Owens, B.B., 45, 50
Ngo, H.L., 169, 177 Ozhovan, M.I., 100
Nguyen, D.K., 61, 66 Oztin, C., 116
Nieto de Castro, C.A., 73, 179
Nieuwenhuyzen, M., 125, 126
Nikolaeva, E.V., 60, 77 P
Nimal Guanarantew, H.Q., 135 Pacholec, F., 137
Ning, H., 177 Padmanabhan, S., 169
Nishida, T., 155, 177 Padro, J.M., 192
Nobandegani, F.F., 131 Padua, A.A.H., 127, 135, 141, 155, 169, 172,
Nocke, J., 170 174
Noda, A., 173 Paduszynski, K., 137, 143, 145
Nohira, T., 158 Page, D.I., 36, 37
Nomura, K., 77, 80 Palomar, J., 130, 160
Novikov, G.I., 48 Pan, Y., 140, 148, 149, 166, 172, 177
Novoselova, A.V., 31 Pandey, J.D., 42
Novotny, P., 116 Pandey, R.P., 42
Nunes, M.C., 169, 191 Panish, M., 100
Nunes, V.M.B., 73 Papageorgiou, N., 191
Nuttal, R.L., 48, 55 Papaiconomou, N., 137, 170, 191
Nuttall, R.L., 12 Papari, M.M., 131
Papatheodorou, G.N., 99
Parise, J.B., 103
O Park, C., 34
O’Connell, J.P., 41, 43, 69 Parker, V.B., 12, 48, 55
Ogino, K., 63, 64 Parmon, V.N., 114
O’Hare, B., 143, 144, 148, 155, 166 Parsons, S., 123, 124
Ohno, H., 32, 34, 35, 103, 162 Pas, S.J., 140
Ohte, Y., 140 Passerini, S., 126, 140, 158
Oishi, J., 63 Passmore, J., 20, 22, 23, 48, 55, 128, 158
Oka, T., 28, 158 Passos, H., 146
Okamoto, Y., 35, 38, 99 Pastoriza-Gallego, M.J., 131, 155
Okazaki, N., 118 Paszkiewicz, M., 191
234 Author Index
Patek, J., 135, 140, 149 Q

Patrov, B.V., 61, 66 Qi, G.-d., 137, 153
Paulechka, Y.U., 135, 140, 141, 145, 146 Qiao, K., 178, 179
Pearson, W., 158 Qiao, Z.Y., 48
Peng, C., 131 Qiu, S., 31
Peng, Y.-C., 146 Qu, W., 140
Pensado, A.S., 174 Quijada-Maldonado, E., 169
Pera, G., 137, 166, 170
Pereiro, A.B., 135, 137, 155, 166
Perez-Gregorio, V., 137, 153, 166 R
Perlick, A., 44 Rai, N., 146
Perloni, P., 112 Ralys, R.V., 135, 137, 142
Perron, G., 124 Ram, K.D., 28
Petitet, J.P., 58 Ramana, K.V., 116
Phan, L., 180, 181, 185 Ramenskaya, I.M., 135
Piacente, V., 46 Ramjugemath, D., 152
Piantoni, G., 46, 110 Ramjugernath, D., 162
Pickston, L., 117 Ramjugernath, D.J., 137, 148
Pilar, R., 114 Ramos, J., 152, 166
Pilla, A., 63, 64, 100 Rane, K.S., 137
Pineiro, M.M., 131, 155 Ranida, H., 38
Pinto, A.M., 137 Ranke, J., 186, 191, 192, 194
Pires, P.F., 152, 161 Ransom, L.D., 48
Pitzer, K.S., 32, 41 Rausch, D.J., 191
Plaquevent, J.-C., 137 Rausch, M.H., 152, 166, 178–180
Plechkova, N.V., 2, 144 Raymundo, A., 169, 191
Plinska, S., 77 Rebelo, L.P.N., 32, 135, 137, 141, 142, 145,
Plyushchev, V.E., 28 152, 155, 161, 166, 169, 172
Pobudkowska, A., 137 Rebelo, L.P.N.J., 135, 141, 144
Pomaville, R.M., 112 Redhi, G.G., 152
Poncet, P.F.J., 37 Red’kin, A.A., 60, 77
Ponzinibbio, A., 192 Ree, T., 26, 41, 44, 63
Poole, C.F., 112, 137 Reguiera, T., 155, 172
Poole, S.K., 112 Reichardt, C., 180
Popovskaya, N.P., 28, 66, 110 Reichert, W.M., 135, 167, 191
Porter, R.F., 46 Reinert, L., 191, 194
Portugal, T.C., 172 Reiss, H., 41, 42, 44, 61, 63, 66
Post, B., 46 Rekstad, J., 114
Potapov, A., 72 Ren, E.X., 191, 192
Poulsen, F.W., 28 Ren, N.-n., 141, 143, 166
Pourmortazavi, A.M., 135, 166 Ren, R.X.-F., 196
Pourmortazavi, S.M., 166 Requejo, P.F., 145
Prashar, S., 114, 116, 118 Reshetnikov, N.A., 46
Prausnitz, J.M., 137, 169, 170, 191 Reta, M., 192
Preiss, U., 135, 137, 141–143, 186, 191, 192, Ribeiro, A.P.C., 179
194 Ribeiro, F.M.S., 141, 166
Preiss, U.P., 156 Ribeiro, M.C.C., 40
Preiss, U.P.R.M., 131, 156 Riccardi, R., 46, 110
Prerkash, K., 141, 142 Rice, S.A., 77, 80
Prewitt, C.T., 19, 22 Richards, N.E., 41, 63, 69, 70, 79
Pringle, J.M., 140 Richards, S.R., 100, 101
Prisyazhii, V.F.D., 63 Richet, P., 100–102
Protsenko, A.V., 113 Rickert, P.G., 191
Protsenko, P.I., 28, 66, 110, 113 Ridenour, W.B., 191, 192
Author Index 235
Riebling, E.F., 102 Sakowski, J., 99

Rino, J.P., 99 Sakurai, H., 28
Rivas, M.A., 172 Sakurai, M., 37
Rivers, M.L., 102 Salanne, M., 99, 127
Robertson, A.J., 155, 172 Salminen, J., 137, 170, 191
Robles, P.A., 146, 153 Salmon, P.S., 99
Rocha, M., 169 Salyulev, A.B., 60, 77
Rocha, M.A.A., 135, 141–143, 166, 169 Samuseva, R.G., 28
Rodriguez, A., 135, 137, 155, 166, 172 Sancelme, M., 153, 191, 194
Rodriguez, A.R., 112 Sanchez, L.G., 140
Rodriguez, F., 130, 135, 160, 166 Sandnes, B., 114
Rodriguez, H., 137, 166 Sanesi, M., 112
Rodriguez, P., 110 Sanga, W.W., 146, 152, 155, 156
Rogers, E.L., 172 Sangster, M.J.L., 40
Rogers, R.D., 135, 167, 191 Sanil, N., 110
Rojas, R.E., 146 Sanmamed, Y.A., 146
Rolla, M., 110 Sanmaned, Y.A., 135
Rollet, A.-L., 81 Santamaria, A.G., 153
Roman, R., 124 Santamaria, F., 166
Romani, L., 135, 137 Santodonato, L., 103
Romani, L.J., 146 Santos, A.F.S., 185
Roobottom, H.K., 20–23, 48, 55, 128, 158 Santos, C.S., 135, 148
Rooney, D.W., 141, 146, 149, 155, 158, Santos, F.J.V., 73, 179
177, 179 Santos, J.H., 146, 166
Ropel, L., 191, 194 Santos, L.M.N.B.F., 135, 141–143, 166, 169,
Rosolen, M.J., 38, 40 186, 191
Rothenberg, G., 135 Sarada, T., 124, 125
Royo, F.M., 137, 166, 170 Sarig, S., 116
Rudich, S.W., 112, 113, 127 Sarou-Kanian, V., 81
Ruff, I., 41 Sashina, E.S., 137
Ruiz-Angel, M.J., 135, 166 Sasisanker, P., 166, 167
Ruso, J.W., 135 Sastry, N.V., 152
Russell, A.J., 191, 194 Sato, Y., 63, 72, 130, 131, 152, 161
Russina, O., 126, 166, 169 Sattari, M., 137, 148, 162
R€
uther, T., 177, 194 Sauzade, J.D., 114
Rybicki, J., 38, 40 Sawada, Y., 137
Rycerz, L., 28, 31, 48, 55, 77 Scardala, P., 46
Scatchard, G., 116
Schade, A., 181, 185
S Schäfer, H., 48
Saboungi, M.-L., 126 Scheele, A., 102
Sada, E., 84 Schick, C., 135, 137, 142, 143
Sadeghian, F., 152, 153, 170 Schick, H.L., 100
Sadoway, D.R., 100 Schneider, H., 181
Sadowski, G., 130 Schoemaker, D., 28
Safarov, J., 153, 161, 170 Schrader, W., 124
Sahoo, M.K., 28 Schreiner, C., 177
Saito, G., 135, 148, 169, 177 Schriver, G.W., 123
Saito, H., 173, 174, 177 Schr€oder, B., 112, 135, 140–143, 145, 166, 169
Saito, K., 140 Schr€oder, C., 157, 158, 166
Saito, M., 34 Schr€oder, J., 114, 116
Saito, T., 63 Schr€odle, S., 166
Sakaebe, H., 140 Schubert, T.J.S., 156, 158
236 Author Index
Schulz, P.S., 152, 166 Silva, J.F.C.C., 185

Schumm, R.H., 12, 48, 55 Silvester, D.S., 140, 177
Sch€urmann, G., 129 Simini, L.D., 186, 191, 194
Scopelliti, R., 158 Simmons, B.A., 130
Scovazzo, P., 135, 141, 143, 144, 155 Simmons, J.P., 28
Scurto, M.A., 140 Simoes, P.N., 140, 179
Seddon, K.R., 2, 126, 135, 144, 152, 155, 157, Simon, C., 99
158, 166, 167, 169, 172, 186 Simonin, J.P., 86
Sedlakova, Z., 155, 166, 172, 177 Simons, T.J., 177
Seeger, T., 152, 179 Simpson, J., 140
Seetharaman, S., 48 Singer, K., 39, 40
Seifert, H.J., 31 Singer, S.K., 54, 55
Seitsonen, A.P., 127 Singh, A., 116–118
Seki, S., 153, 166, 169, 174, 177 Singh, S., 152
Selwood, P.W., 16–18 Singh, T., 141–143, 145, 152, 153, 155,
Semenov, G.A., 48 166, 167
Sen, M., 179 Sinistri, C., 39, 40, 46
Senepati, S., 141, 142 Sipp, A., 100, 101
Seo, S., 194 Siqueira, L.J.A., 127
Seoane, R.G., 155, 166 Siquera, L.J.A., 40
Serizawa, N., 153, 166, 169 Sistla, Y.S., 141, 142, 144, 194
Servant, L., 112 Sjoblom, C.A., 79, 81
Shah, J.K., 194, 196 Skinner, J., 192, 196
Shahverdiyev, A., 153, 161, 170 Skinner, L.B., 103
Shamsipur, M., 166 Skudlarski, K., 31
Shang, Q., 149 Slattery, J., 167
Shannon, M.S., 160 Slattery, J.M., 128, 129, 131, 156, 158
Shannon, R.D., 17, 19, 22 Slough, W., 102
Shapter, J.G., 110 Smedley, S.I., 117
Sharifi, A., 152, 153, 170 Smirnov, M., 112
Sharma, R.C., 116, 118 Smirnov, M.V., 60, 77
Sharma, S.K., 116–118 Smith, G.P., 1
Shartsis, L., 66, 100, 102 Smith, N.V., 82, 86
Shiflett, M.B., 192, 196 Smith, R.L. Jr., 130, 131, 152, 161
Shikata, T., 167 Sobol, A.A., 99
Shimakage, K., 63 S€ohnel, O., 116
Shimizu, K., 135, 137, 141, 142, 152 Sokolov, N.M., 31
Shimizu, Y., 140 Solaro, R., 132
Shimoji, M., 102 Song, D., 169
Shimojo, K., 191 Song, X., 123
Shin, B.-K., 155, 166, 169 Song, Z., 191, 194
Shin, E.-K., 196 Soper, A.K., 99, 126
Shin, H.-C., 140 Soriano, A.N., 196
Shinoda, W., 173, 174, 177 Sorokin, I.D., 31
Shiomi, N., 84 Soto, A., 137, 166
Shirakawa, Y., 38 Souckova, M., 140, 149
Shirokov, A.V., 31 Součkova, M., 135
Shirota, H., 135, 169 Spange, S., 181, 185
Shiwaku, H., 35, 38 Spas, S., 99
Shojaee, S.A., 178 Spedding, F.H., 31, 48
Shokouhi, M., 196 Spedy, R.J., 112
Shreeve, J.M., 153, 155, 156, 158 Spencer, P.J., 28, 46, 48, 49, 54, 102
Shukshin, V.E., 99 Spencer, P.N., 63, 64
Author Index 237
Spera, S.P., 103 T

Sridhar, S., 102 Tada, Y., 41, 43–44, 63, 73, 77
Srivastava, R.D., 28, 46 Taggougui, M., 140
Stadtherr, M.A., 186, 191, 194 Taglienti, M., 41
Stanley, K., 196 Taguchi, R., 131, 152
Starita, A., 132 Takagi, R., 37
Stark, A., 152, 167, 169, 186 Takahashi, S., 126
Stassen, H., 126 Takano, J., 155, 177
Stepinski, D.C., 191 Takano, T., 46
Stepniak, I., 140, 147, 174 Takeda, M., 135
Stepnowski, P., 191 Takeda, S., 38, 63
Stevels, J.M., 61, 66 Takei, K., 153, 166, 169
Stewart, H. Jr., 28 Takemoto, I., 84
Stewart, R.J., 37 Takesawam, K.-I., 63
Stillinger, F.H. Jr., 41, 60 Talaga, D., 112
Stolte, S., 186, 191, 192, 194 Tamaki, S., 38, 63
Stolyarova, V.L., 48 Tan, Z.-C., 135, 137, 153, 158, 170, 177
Stoppa, A., 166, 177 Tanabe, T., 28
Strechan, A.A., 135, 140, 141, 145 Tanaka, R., 112
Strehmel, V., 143 Tanida, H., 35
Strobel, P., 140 Tanigaki, M., 39, 41, 43
Strohmenger, J.M., 48 Tariq, M., 135, 155, 166
Su, S.-G., 140 Tashiro, Y., 177
SubbaRao, G.N., 112 Taslavera-Prieto, N.M.C., 172
Suenaga, M., 174, 177 Tatsumi, K., 140
Suga, H., 31, 46, 110 Tedstone, J.M., 160
Sugden, S., 112, 148 Teja, A.S., 82
Sugiya, M., 140, 155, 172, 177 Tekin, A., 161
Sugiyama, K., 34 Telea, C., 46
Sun, C.-g., 177 Teles, A.R.R., 135, 146, 155, 158, 166, 169
Sun, I.-W., 140, 146 Teng, H., 140
Sun. I.-W., 166 Tenney, C.M., 179
Sun, J., 177 Teodorescu, M., 152, 166, 178
Sun, L.X., 137 Tequi, C., 58
Sun, N., 130, 132 Terashima, K., 102
Sun, S.-F., 169 Teymouri, M., 166
Sun, S.-S., 135, 137, 153, 170, 177 Thicklebank, S.B., 84
Sun, Y., 48 Thomas, R., 48
Sun, Z., 40, 41 Thoming, J., 186, 191, 192, 194
Sundheim, B.R., 1, 73, 77, 126 Tian, F., 166
Susan, M.A.B.H., 135, 172, 174, 177 Tillinger, M., 46
Šušić, M., 101 Tine, M.R., 132
Suzuki, A., 155, 177 T€odheide, K., 60, 99
Suzuki, K., 35 Toghikhani, M., 141, 144, 155
Suzuki, S., 35, 38 Tojo, E., 135, 155, 166, 172
Suzuki, T., 99 Tojo, J., 166
Suzuya, K., 126 Tokarev, M.M., 114
Svard, D., 48 Tokuda, H., 127, 128, 135, 172–174, 177
Svensson, E.C., 100 Tome, L.I.N., 131, 152, 155
Svoboda, L., 114 Tomida, D., 178, 179
Swadzba-Kwasny, M., 135 Tomkins, R.P.T., 1, 54, 55, 61, 65, 66, 82, 84,
Swiderski, K., 141, 144 100, 111, 113
Szczepaniak, W., 48, 55 Tomlinson, J.W., 73, 102
Szyslowski, J., 152, 161 Tong, B., 137
238 Author Index
Tong, J., 135, 141, 142, 153, 158 van der Boogaart, S., 169
Topol, L.E., 48 van der Kouwe, E.T., 61, 66
Torell, L.M., 63 van Hal, R., 135
Toropov, A.P., 86 Van Klooster, H.S., 102
Torralba-Calleja, E., 192, 196 Van Valkenburg, M.E., 177, 179
Torrecilla, J.S., 130, 135, 160 Varela, L.M., 177
Torres, J.A., 81, 83, 84 Vashishta, P., 99
Torres, M.-J., 152, 167, 169, 186 Vatani, M., 166
Tosi, M.P., 28, 31, 39, 72 Vaughan, D.H., 141, 144
Tossici, R., 38, 40 Vaughn, R.L., 177, 179
Tran, C.D., 179 Vega, L.F., 130
Trapananti, A., 38 Veiga, H.I.M., 155, 166
Trino, A.S.M., 140, 179 Ventura, S.P.M., 112, 140
Triolo, A., 126, 166, 169 Verdia, P., 135
Tripathi, R., 28 Verevkin, A.P., 135, 137, 141
Troncoso, J., 135, 137, 146 Verevkin, S.P., 112, 123, 124, 135, 137,
Trulova, P.C., 123, 124 140–143, 145, 156
Trulove, P.C., 140, 158 Vieira, S.I.C., 179
Tscherisch, A., 135, 140, 141, 145 Vila, J., 177
Tsuchihashi, N., 174, 177 Vilas, M., 155, 166, 172
Tsuda, T., 126 Vilcu, R., 41, 44
Tsukada, T., 178, 179 Villora, G., 166
Tsunashima, K., 112, 140, 155, 172, 177 Vinogradov, E.E., 28
Tsuzuki, S., 140, 153, 166, 169, 172–174, 177 Vinokurova, F., 118
Tumba, K., 137, 148 Visak, Z.P., 144, 152, 161, 177
Tumber, S., 103 Visser, A.E., 135, 167, 191
Turnbull, A.G., 84 Visser, A.V., 178, 179
Turq, P., 99 Voigt, W., 114
Tzedakis, T., 137 Volarovich, M.P., 102
Volarowich, M.P., 102
Voron’ko, Y.K., 99
U
Ue, M., 135
Uelenhack, W., 81 W
Uemura, T., 73, 77 Wagman, D.D., 12, 48, 55
Ueno, K., 127, 128 Wakai, C., 167
Ueno, M., 174, 177 Wakihara, M., 48
Umebayashi, Y., 123, 153, 166, 169, 174, 177 Waldeck, W.F., 28
Umecky, T., 155, 177 Walden, P., 123
Umesaki, N., 32, 103 Wan, H., 132, 135
Urahata, S.M., 40 Wang, C., 170, 177, 194
Urbain, G., 100, 102 Wang, H.P., 140
Usuki, T., 99 Wang, J., 40, 41, 141, 145
Wang, J.-Y., 137, 152, 153
Wang, Q., 149, 153, 177
V Wang, S.-C.S., 110
Vaga, L.F., 130 Wang, W., 194, 196
Vaghela, N.M., 152 Wang, W.A., 141, 142
Vahid, A., 135, 166 Wang, X., 110, 177
Vakili-Nezhaad, G., 166 Ward, W.T., 100
Valderrama, J.O., 146, 152, 153, 155, 156 Warnquist, B., 46
van de Graaf, F., 39 Warr, G.G., 123
Author Index 239
Waseda, Y., 34 X
Wasserscheid, P., 135, 152, 166, 178–180 Xia, L.X., 141, 142
Watanabe, M., 127, 128, 135, 172–174, 177 Xia, S., 135, 149
Watanabe, S., 38 Xiao, F.-S., 31
Watson, G.M., 82, 86 Xiao, J., 135
Watson, P.R., 135 Xie, G.J., 135
Waychunas, G.A., 103 Xie, T., 158
Webb, S.L., 100 Xie, Y., 135
Weber, J.K.P., 103 Xie, Z., 140
Weerachanchai, P., 141, 144 Xu, A., 141, 145
Weerawardena, A., 123, 124, 145 Xu, F., 137
Wei, J., 148, 149, 166 Xu, M., 140
Wei, Y., 170, 177 Xu, R., 31
Weikrl, R.R., 140 Xu, W., 31, 167, 169
Weill, D.F., 102 Xu, W.-G., 135, 149
Weingärtner, H., 124, 128, 129, 166, 167
Weiss, V.C., 32, 146
Weiz-Biermann, U., 135, 137, 153, 170, 177 Y
Welton, T., 130 Yaita, T., 35, 38
Welz-Biermann, U., 137, 153, 155, 158, 177 Yajima, K., 63
Werner, M., 114 Yamaguchi, A., 124
Westrum, E.F. Jr., 46, 54, 55 Yamamoto, M., 177
Wexler, A.S., 61, 66, 110 Yamamoto, N., 112
White, J.L., 102 Yamamura, T., 63, 69
White, K.A. III., 31 Yamamura, Y., 140
Widom, B., 66 Yamawaki, M., 28
Wilkes, J., 135, 148 Yan, C., 132, 135
Wilkes, J.S., 140, 172, 177, 179 Yan, F., 149
Wilkins, H., 112 Yan, P.-F., 135, 137
Willauer, H.D., 135, 167, 191 Yan, X.-J., 166
Williams, D.F., 58 Yang, D.-Z., 177
Williams, M., 177, 179 Yang, H.X., 141, 142
Willmann, P., 140 Yang, J.-Z., 135, 141, 142, 148, 149, 153,
Willner, H., 177 158, 166
Wilson, M., 39, 99 Yang, M., 170, 177
Winnik, J., 31 Yang, M.F., 135, 137, 153, 170, 177
Wishart, J.F., 140, 143, 144, 148, 155, 166 Yannopoulos, S.N., 99
Woerlee, P., 39 Yao, M., 39, 41, 43, 166
Wong, D.S.H., 191 Yasin, T., 191, 194
Wong, J., 61, 65, 66, 100 Yasumoto, M., 28
Wood, N.D., 37, 99 Ye, C., 153, 155, 156, 158
Woodcock, L.V., 39, 40, 51 Yermalayeu, A.V., 135, 137, 142, 143
Wooddall, G., 117 Yi, J., 114
Woolf, L.A., 172, 177 Yinping, Z., 114
Woyakowska, A., 77 Yokoyama, C., 178, 179
Wrobel, R.J., 137, 153, 170 Yokozeki, A., 192, 196
Wu, K.-J., 178 Yoo, K.-P., 196
Wu, T.-Y., 140, 146, 166, 177 Yoshida, Y., 135, 148, 149, 169, 177
Wu, X., 141, 142 Yoshii, H., 84
Wu, Y., 31, 148, 149, 166 Yosim, S.J., 45, 48, 50
Wu, Z., 38, 99 Young, R.E., 41, 43, 69
240 Author Index
Young, V.G. Jr., 140, 158 Zhang, Q.-G., 135, 137, 153, 170, 177
Yousefi, M., 135, 166 Zhang, R., 31
Yu, J., 40, 41 Zhang, S., 132, 196
Yu, S., 179 Zhang, X., 132, 194, 196
Yukawa, Y., 110 Zhang, X.-j., 137, 153
Yunus, N.M., 137, 153, 166, 170 Zhang, Y., 132, 135, 141, 145, 196
Yurkinskii, V.P., 61, 63, 66 Zhang, Z., 177
Zhang, Z.H., 137
Zhao, C.-X., 178
Z Zhao, F.Y., 152
Zabinska, G., 112 Zhao, G., 140
Zaborski, M., 137 Zhao, H., 153, 191, 194
Zaikov, Y.P., 60, 77 Zheng, D., 114
Zaitsau, D.H., 135, 137, 140–143, 145 Zheng, L., 140, 148, 149, 166
Zakeeruddin, S.M., 158 Zheng, Y., 153, 177
Zamfirescu, C., 55 Zhou, Z., 140
Zanders, L., 191, 194 Zhou, Z.-B., 135
Zani, P., 63, 64 Zhu, D.-K., 158
Zare, M., 140, 169 Zhu, H.M., 63
Zarzycki, G., 32, 34, 35 Zhu, J., 135
Zavodnaya, G.E., 116 Zhu, Q., 135
Zech, O., 177 Zhu, X., 194
Zeidler, A., 99 Ziolek, B., 48
Zeinolabedini, A., 135 Zmbov, K.F., 46, 54
Zeng, J.L., 137 Zobeydi, R., 149
Zhai, Q.-G., 166 Zolghadr, A.R., 135, 148, 169
Zhang, J., 153, 177, 196 Zubeir, L.F., 177
Zhang, J.-Z., 177 Zugmann, S., 177
Zhang, Q.-B., 166
Subject Index
B Expansibility, 2, 43, 56, 57, 59, 117, 124, 131,

Boiling point, 2, 26, 27, 29, 45, 124, 130, 132, 150, 151, 153–155, 161
137, 145, 146, 156 Extended x-ray absorption fine structure
(EXAFS), 2, 32, 38, 41, 125, 126
C
Cohesive energy, 2, 61, 110, 137–145, F
161, 172 Fluidity, 72, 169, 173
Compressibility, 2, 41, 44, 50, 56, 62, 64, 67, Formation
130, 131, 146, 151, 153, 154, 156, molar enthalpy of, 11–15
160–162 molar Gibbs energy of, 11–15
Conductivity
electrical, 2, 124, 174–177
thermal, 2, 83, 102, 177–180 H
Coordination Heat capacity, 1, 2, 11–15, 44–54, 100, 102,
number, 19, 34, 38, 50, 103 110, 114, 115, 124, 131–133, 136,
Critical 138, 146–148, 161
constants, 26, 31, 32
I
D Internal
Density, 2, 15, 23, 32, 49, 52, 54, 56, 57, 59–61, pressure, 64, 151, 153, 154, 160–162
67, 81, 110–112, 115, 117, 124, 125, Ions, 11, 15, 19, 22, 23
129–131, 137, 141, 146, 150–161, in condensed phases
178, 180 radius, 19, 22, 23
volume, 22
isolated
E molar enthalpy of formation, 11
Enthalpy molar entropy, 11
of fusion, 46, 115, 132 molar Gibbs energy of formation, 11–15
of vaporization, 45, 123, 137, 140, 145 molar heat capacity, 12–15
Entropy, 1, 11–15, 31, 32, 79, 99, molar magnetic susceptibility, 15
129, 130 molar mass, 7, 11, 15

Y. Marcus, Ionic Liquid Properties, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-30313-0
242 Subject Index
Ions (cont.) phosphonium salts

molar refractivity, 15 compressibility, 154
polarizability, 15, 19 density, 154
shape, 11 electrical conductivity, 73
softness/hardness, 15 expansibility, 41, 154
heat capacity, 138
melting point, 138
M molar volume, 154
Magnetic surface tension, 132, 138
susceptibility viscosity, 171
molar, 15–18 Molten salts
Mass boiling point, 25, 26
ionic, 69 cohesive energy, 45–53, 56, 61, 67,
molar, 7–9, 11, 15, 44, 56, 79, 82, 100, 102, 69, 82
118, 131, 133, 136, 138, 150, 178, compressibility, 41, 50, 56, 66, 117
180 tait expression, 60
Melting point, 2, 19, 25–27, 29, 43, 45, 51, 102, computer simulation, 32–41, 44, 51, 99
109, 112, 114, 118, 123, 124, 126, conductivity
128, 129, 131–133, 136, 138, 160, electrical, 73–78
162 thermal, 81–82
Molar volume, 11, 15, 23, 43, 44, 56, 73, 102, coordination number, 22, 33–36, 39, 41
110–112, 115, 118, 124, 127, 128, critical constants, 26
130, 135, 141, 144, 145, 147–162, density, 31, 34, 49, 67, 79, 82
170, 173, 174 enthalpy
Molten of fusion, 115
ammonium salts, 41, 44, 49, 56, 61, 64, of vaporization, 42, 46
66–68, 73, 109, 115, 127, 138, 150, EXAFS, 37–39
154, 156, 171 expansibility, 41, 50, 56, 69, 115
ammonium salts, quaternary fluidity, 69, 70, 72, 73
compressibility, 154 heat capacity, 44–55, 81
density, 150, 154, 156 internal pressure, 60, 62, 64
electrical conductivity, 73 melting point, 25, 26, 34, 42, 44–46, 54, 55,
enthalpy of fusion, 115 61, 64, 69, 77, 115, 117
expansibility, 41, 56 model
heat capacity, 49 polarizable ion, 39
melting point, 44, 109 primitive, 42
molar volume, 44, 64, 73 rigid ion, 39, 41
surface tension, 41, 61, 66, 67, 138 molar volume, 43–45, 49, 54, 56, 57, 59, 64,
viscosity, 68, 127, 171 69, 72, 73, 77, 82, 85, 115
hydrated salts, 7, 113, 115, 117, 118 network formers
compressibility, 60, 117 BeF2, 99–101
congruent melting, 113 binary borates, 101–103
density, 115 binary silicates, 101–103
electrical conductivity, 73 B2O3, 99–101
electrostrictive volume, 115, 117 boiling point, 100
enthalpy of fusion, 115 compressibility, 100, 101
expansibility, 41, 115 configurational entropy, 99
heat capacity, 49, 50 density, 100, 101
intrinsic volume, 115 electrical conductivity, 73
melting point, 44, 64, 118 enthalpy of fusion, 115
molar volume, 44, 64, 73, 115 expansibility, 100
viscosity, 68, 69, 77, 125, 171 fluidity, 69, 70, 72, 73
Subject Index 243
GeO2, 99–101 COSMO-RS model, 130, 145

glass formation, 100 critical constants, 131
glass transition temperature, 100, 101 decomposition
heat capacity, 100, 101, 103 temperature, 137
internal pressure, 100 density, 129, 130, 178
melting point, 100, 101, 103 electric conductivity, 174
molar volume, 100, 103 Vogel-Fulcher-Tammann (VFT)
SiO2, 99–101 parameters, 175
structure of B2O3, 99 enthalpy of vaporization
structure of MX2 salts, 99 molar, 137, 140
viscosity, 99–101 ethylammonium
Vogel-Fulcher-Tammann (VFT) nitrate, 123
expression, 101 expansibility, 155
ZnCl2, 99–101 fluidity, 169, 170
neutron diffraction, 32, 33, 36–39, 99 Gordon parameter, 141, 145
pair correlation function, 32–34, 36, heat capacity, 138, 146, 147
37, 39, 66 hydrophilic/hydrophobic
quasi lattice, 25, 32, 56 balance, 192
self-diffusion, 79–81 iconicity, 127, 186
solubility imidazolium, 130, 131, 135, 144, 147,
of gases, 86 148, 160, 166, 172, 174, 186
parameter, 82 internal pressure, 162
surface tension, 32, 41, 42, 44, 45, 61–67, lattice energy, 128
86, 100, 114 melting point, 123, 128, 129, 131, 132,
theory 138, 160
corresponding states, 41, 42, 45 molar mass, 131, 138, 178, 180
hole, 41 molar volume, 23, 147–149, 155, 159, 170
perturbation, 39 octanol/water
significant structures, 32, 41, 44, 63, 77 partition constant, 187
thermochemical parachor, 148, 149
properties, 41–45 perturbed hard sphere model (PHS), 150
transport number, 78 polarizability, 166, 181
viscosity, 68–73, 77, 113, 118 pyridinium, 130, 147, 149, 156, 174, 192
x-ray diffraction, 32–36, 99 pyrrolidinium, 144, 147, 156, 174, 181, 192
quaternary ammonium, 125, 138, 144, 150,
156, 166
N quaternary phosphonium, 125, 138, 144,
Neutron 156
diffraction, 15, 19, 41, 103, 125–127 refractive index, 124, 162, 163
self-diffusion, 173
solubility
P of carbon dioxide, 130, 192–194
Pair correlation function, 32, 34, 37, 39, 66 mutual with water, 186–192
Polarizability, 15–19, 157–158, 166, 180, 181 parameter, 137–145, 194
solvatochromic parameters, 178–182
static permittivity, 129, 163, 166–167
R statistical associated fluid theory (SAFT),
Room temperature ionic liquids (RTILs) 129, 130, 150
Catalan parameters, 181, 182 structure
cohesive energy, 161 computer simulation, 125–127
compressibility, 130, 131, 146, 156, EXAFS, 125
160, 161 x-ray diffraction, 131
244 Subject Index
Room temperature ionic liquids (RTILs) Surface tension, 2, 102, 110, 114, 115,
(cont.) 132, 133, 136, 141, 145, 146,
surface tension, 124, 130, 135, 138, 144, 148–149, 155
148–150, 160, 161
thermal conductivity, 177–180
transport number, 177 V
trifluoromethane Viscosity, 2, 68, 70, 72, 77, 79, 99–102,
sulfonic acid monohydrate, 125 112, 113, 118, 119, 124,
vapor pressure, 124, 132, 135, 137 125, 127, 130, 144, 155,
viscosity 167–174, 177
Vogel-Fulcher-Tammann (VFT)
parameters, 167
W
Walden product, 112, 127, 177
S
Self-diffusion, 2, 78–81, 101, 103, 173, 174
Solubility X
of gases, 82, 86, 123 X-ray diffraction (XRD), 19, 23, 32–37, 39,
parameter, 137–145, 194 99, 125, 126, 131

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Yizhak Marcus

Ionic Liquid Properties

ISBN 978-3-319-30311-6 ISBN 978-3-319-30313-0 (eBook)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016938795

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

4 Network Forming Ionic Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 1

Network-forming molten salts, described in Chap. 4, are based on relatively

1.1 List of Symbols

Principal Latin Characters

g(r) pair correlation function

Principal Greek Characters

δH Hildebrand solubility parameter (in MPa1/2)

A chemical substance or ion is generally referred to in the text by its name or

2.1 The Properties of Isolated Ions

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 7

Table 2.1 (continued)

Table 2.1 (continued)

Table 2.1 (continued)

multiplied by the appropriate stoichiometric coefficients vI, to make up the molar

Table 2.2 (continued)

Table 2.2 (continued)

Table 2.2 (continued)

Table 2.3 (continued)

Anion χ Im 1012 m3∙mol1 RD 106 m3∙mol1 α(Iz,ig) 103 nm3 σ

Table 2.3 (continued)

theoretically valid way to do this is known. Therefore, an empirical expedient has to

2.2 The Sizes of Ions in Condensed Phases

Table 2.4 (continued)

Table 2.4 (continued)

1. Marcus Y, Loewenschuss A (1985) Standard entropies of hydration of ions. Annu Rep

8. Marcus Y, Loewenschuss A (1996) Standard thermodynamic functions of some additional

Sodium chloride is often considered to be the prototype of the concept ‘salt’ in

3.1 The Liquid Range of High-Melting Salts

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 25

CN 433a 836 (835) 907 (895) 623 747s

Li+ Na+ K+ Rb+ Cs+ Cu+ Ag+ Tl+

Table 3.2 (continued)

Table 3.2 (continued)

3.2 Structural Aspects from Diffraction Measurements and

dnIJ ðr, dr Þ ¼ 4πr 2 gIJ ðr Þρbulk dr ð3:1Þ

A model of the molten salt obtained by computer simulations is nowadays generally

3.2.1 X-Ray Diffraction Studies of Molten Salts

SðqÞ ¼ ½I ðqÞ=I ð0ÞΣZ k 2 nk 1 αk ðqÞ2 ð3:5Þ

3.2.2 Neutron Diffraction Studies of Molten Salts

SðqÞ  ½I ðqÞ I ð0Þ=½I ð1Þ I ð0Þ ð3:6Þ

SðqÞ ¼ 2nI nJ bI bJ ðSIJ ðqÞ 1Þ þ nI 2 bI 2 ðSII ðqÞ 1Þ þ nJ 2 bJ 2 ðSJJ ðqÞ 1Þ ð3:7Þ

Variation of b in three different experiments by varying the isotopic composition

3.2.3 EXAFS Studies of Molten Salts

Table 3.6 Molten salt structural data from EXAFS measurements

3.2.4 Modeling of Molten Salts

uðr Þ ¼ zþ z e2 =4πε0 r for r > 2r I and uðr Þ ¼ 1 for r  2r I ð3:8Þ

A modification introduces a relative ‘dielectric constant’ ε replacing 4πε0 in the

uðr Þ ¼ zþ z e2 =4πε0 r þ b exp½ðr þ þ r r Þ=r 0  ð3:9Þ

Here b is a salt-dependent parameter and r0 denotes unit radius. To this expression

SðqÞ ¼ ½I ðqÞ=I ð0ÞΣZ k 2 nk 1 αk ðqÞ2 ð3:5Þ

SðqÞ ½I ðqÞ I ð0Þ=½I ð1Þ I ð0Þ ð3:6Þ

uðr Þ ¼ zþ z e2 =4πε0 r for r > 2r I and uðr Þ ¼ 1 for r 2r I ð3:8Þ

uðr Þ ¼ zþ z e2 =4πε0 r þ b exp½ðr þ þ r r Þ=r 0 ð3:9Þ

uðr Þ ¼ zþ z e2 =4πε0 r þ b exp½ðr þ þ r r Þ=r 0 c r 6 d r 8 ð3:10Þ

where τm 300/zI K nm for uni-univalent and di-divalent salts is a universal

where ζ is a listed salt-specific parameter, close to unity (0.929 ζ 1.005)

ce ¼ U L ½ðH 298 H 0 Þ ðH 1:1Tm H 298 Þ 1:1νRT m ð3:26Þ

ρðP; T Þ ¼ ρðP0 ; T Þ=½1 0:1lnf1 þ P=BðT Þg ð3:36Þ

σ ¼ φ1 ðV sd =V Þ2 kB T m ½0:0481Es =RT ð3:41Þ

lnðΦ=ΦÞ ¼ a bðT=T Þ þ cðT=T*Þ8

Φ ¼ ðV=N A Þ2=3 ðkB TmS Þ1=2 ½aexpðbT=T Þ þ fcðT=T Þ dgμS ð3:49Þ

κ ¼ 0:129Cexpð1:03 T=TÞV2=3 T*1=2 ½ðMþ þ M Þ=Mþ M 1=2 ð3:53Þ