UNIT I

ENVIRONMENT, ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY

Definition, scope and importance of Risk and hazards; Chemical hazards,
Physical hazards, Biological hazards in the environment – concept of an
ecosystem – structure and function of an ecosystem – producers, consumers
and decomposers-Oxygen cycle and Nitrogen cycle – energy flow in the
ecosystem – ecological succession processes – Introduction, types,
characteristic features, structure and function of the (a) forest ecosystem (b)
grassland ecosystem (c) desert ecosystem (d) aquatic ecosystems (ponds,
streams, lakes, rivers, oceans, estuaries) – Introduction to biodiversity definition:
genetic, species and ecosystem diversity – biogeographical classification of India
– value of biodiversity: consumptive use, productive use, social, ethical, aesthetic
and option values – Biodiversity at global, national and local levels – India as a
mega-diversity nation – hot-spots of biodiversity – threats to biodiversity: habitat
loss, poaching of wildlife, man-wildlife conflicts – endangered and endemic
species of India – conservation of biodiversity: In-situ and ex-situ conservation of
biodiversity.
Field study of common plants, insects, birds
Field study of simple ecosystems – pond, river, hill slopes, etc.

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE- INTRODUCTION

The word Environment is derived from the French word “Environ” which means
“surrounding”. Environment is the sum total of air, water and land, inter
relationships among themselves and also with human beings, other living
organisms and property.
Environmental science is an interdisciplinary academic field that integrates
physical and biological sciences, which deals with the study of the environment,
and the solution of environmental problems.
ENVIRONMENT STUDIES: SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE
Environment studies have become significant for the following reasons:
1. Environment Issues Being of International Importance
PREPARED BY DR. ARUN LUIZ T, DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY, SSN COLLEGE
OF ENGINEERING
Environment issues like global warming and ozone depletion, acid rain, marine
pollution and biodiversity are not merely national issues but are global issues and
hence must be tackled with international efforts and cooperation.
2. Problems associated with industrialization and development
Rapid growth of science and technology has caused severe environmental
impact due to its activities. .
3. Explosively Increase in Pollution
World census reflects that one in every seven persons in this planted lives in
India. Evidently with 16 per cent of the world's population and only 2.4 per cent of
its land area,there is a heavy pressure on all of the natural resources.
4. Natural resources: Conservation and management
Due to over exploitation, most of the natural resources are the being depleted at
an alarming rate. Proper steps have to be taken for their preservation.
5. Ecology and Biodiversity
Earth is having different types of ecosystems (terrestrial, aquatic etc). Diverse
flora and fauna are also found here. Human activites may damage them, hence
efforts have to be taken to preserve these systems.
6. Environmental pollution and control
Human activities have lead to wide spread pollution of land, water and air.
Irrecoverable damage to environment can happen if pollution is not checked.
Methods to propagate environmental awareness
Among students through education: Schools, colleges, universities etc
Among people through mass-media: Through articles, environmental
rallies, plantation campaigns, movies, documentaries, street plays, TV serials.
Among the planners, decision-makers and leaders: Orientation, training
through specially organized workshops and training programmes
Publication of environment-related resource material: in the form of books,
booklets or pamphlets.
World Environment Day ('WED') is celebrated every year on June 5 to raise
global awareness of the need to take positive environmental action. It was the
day that United Nations Conference on the Human Environment began in
PREPARED BY DR. ARUN LUIZ T, DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY, SSN COLLEGE
OF ENGINEERING
Stockholm, Sweeden. The United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment was from 5–16 June 1972. Since 1972, WED is celeberated on
June 5th.
HAZARD AND RISK
Hazards and risks are often mentioned in relation to occupational safety and
health. These are defined as the following.
A Hazard is a potential source of harm or adverse health effect on a person or
persons. Or it is the way in which an object or a situation may cause harm.
A hazard exists where an object (or substance) or situation has a built-in ability to
cause an adverse effect. Such hazards include uneven pavements, unguarded
machinery, an icy road, a fire, an explosion and a sudden escape of toxic gas.
A risk is the likelihood that a person may be harmed or suffers adverse health
effects if exposed to a hazard. Or the chance that harm will actually occur. Risk
can be high or negligible.
Risk = hazard + exposure

The terms Hazard and Risk are often used interchangeably but this simple
example explains the difference between the two.
If there was a spill of water in a room then that water would result in a slipping
hazard to persons passing through it. If access to that area was prevented by a
physical barrier then the hazard would remain though the risk would be
minimised.
Chemical hazards in the environment
A chemical hazard is any substance that can cause harm, primarily to people.
Several factors can influence how a chemical will behave and the hazards the
chemical presents, including the severity of the response:

PREPARED BY DR. ARUN LUIZ T, DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY, SSN COLLEGE

OF ENGINEERING
 • Concentration of the chemical.
• Physical state of the chemical (solid, liquid, gas).
• Physical processes involved in using the chemical (cutting, grinding,
heating, cooling, etc.).
• Chemical processes involved in using the chemical (mixing with other
chemicals, purification, distillation, etc.).
• Other processes (improper storage, addition of moisture, storage in
sunlight, refrigeration, etc.).
Classification of chemical hazards:
Explosives: Explosive are chemicals that causes a sudden, almost
instantaneous release of pressure, gas, and heat when subjected to sudden
shock, pressure, or high temperature.
Examples of explosive and potentially explosive chemicals include:
• Compounds containing the functional groups azide, acetylide, diazo,
nitroso, haloamine, peroxide, and ozonide
• Nitrocellulose
• Di- and Tri-nitro compounds like trinitrotoluene (TNT)
• Peroxide forming compounds
• Benzoyl peroxide (dry)
Flammable and Combustible Liquids:
Flammable Liquid: A liquid having a flash point below 100°F (38°C) a nd a vapor
pressure not exceeding 40 psi at 100°F
Examples: acetaldehyde, ethyl ether, acetone, benzene, ethyl alcohol.
Combustible Liquid: A liquid having a flash point above 100°F.
Examples: kerosene, nitrobenzene
Poisons: A substance that is capable of causing the illness or death of a living
organism when introduced or absorbed.
Examples: Potassium cyanide, methyl alcohol, carbon monoxide.
Corrosive: A chemical that causes visible destruction of, or irreversible
alterations in living tissue by chemical action at the site of contact.
Examples: Concentrated mineral acids, base etc.
PREPARED BY DR. ARUN LUIZ T, DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY, SSN COLLEGE
OF ENGINEERING
Suggestions to minimize risks due to chemical hazards
• Always use the smallest quantity of the chemical possible (explosives,
poisons etc).
• Always wear appropriate gloves, lab coat or apron, safety goggles along
with a face shield, and explosion-proof shields when working with
potentially explosive chemicals.
• Be sure to notify other people in the laboratory what experiment is being
conducted, what the potential hazards are, and when the experiment will
be run.
• Corrosive chemicals should be handled in a fume hood to avoid breathing
corrosive vapors and gases.
• When using flammable liquids, keep containers away from open flames
and it should be kept away from the oxidizers.
• Properly dispose of any hazardous waste according to the instructions.
Physical hazards in the environment
A physical hazard is defined as “A factor within the environment that can harm
the body without necessarily touching it. Physical hazards are hazards that arise
at work due to the influence of various forms of energy. They include noise,
temperature, lighting, vibration and radiation. These also include natural disaster
events such as earthquakes, tornadoes, volcanoes, blizzards, landslides and
droughts. Not all physical hazards are discrete events - some are ongoing, like
ultraviolet radiation. UV radiation is considered a hazard because it damages
DNA and can cause human health issues like skin cancer and cataracts.
Biological hazards in the environment
Biological hazards are organisms, or by-products from an organism, that are
harmful or potentially harmful to human beings. They include pathogenic bacteria,
viruses and parasites, and also toxins (poisons) that are produced by organisms.
Biological hazards are the cause of the majority of human diseases.
Bacteria: cholera, tuberculosis, leprosy and many diarrhoeal diseases
Viruses: Hepatitis B and C, HIV, measles and polio

PREPARED BY DR. ARUN LUIZ T, DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY, SSN COLLEGE

OF ENGINEERING
Parasites: Lice, worms etc
Biological agents enter the body when they are inhaled, eaten (ingested) or
absorbed. Most biological agents are inhaled. Once inside the body, these
infectious agents can multiply quickly and may be passed from one person to
another.
Controlling biological hazards
The best way to prevent illness is to reduce or eliminate exposure to biological
agents. Some methods to reduce biological hazards are
• Practice good personal hygiene (e.g. regular hand washing)
• Have properly sterilized food, water etc.
• Clean and disinfect work surfaces often.
• Injury and wounds must be given first aid and given immediate medical
attention to minimize the chance of infection.

EXAMPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH HAZARDS BY TYPE OF AGENT

PHYSICAL CHEMICAL BIOLOGICAL
Noise Solvents Animals (rodents, wild
Lighting Acids/bases animals, pets)
Radiation Metals (Pb, Cd, Hg) Bacteria
Vibration Poisons Viruses
Temperature Dusts (asbestos, silica, wood) Spores/fungi
Electricity Pesticides Pests
Air pollutants/particulates Insects

Principles of hazard management

• Establish the context and identify the hazard

• Hazard/risk analysis and evaluation
• Communicate and consult
• Treat the hazard/risk
• Monitoring and reviewing
• Record keeping
PREPARED BY DR. ARUN LUIZ T, DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY, SSN COLLEGE
OF ENGINEERING
 ECOSYSTEMS

Ecosystem: An ecosystem is a group of biotic communities of species

interacting with one another and with their non-living environment exchanging
energy and matter.
Ecology: The study of animals and plants in their relation to each other and to
their environment. Now ecology is often defined as “the study of ecosystems”.
Structural Aspects of Ecosystems
Two major components of ecosystem are
(i) Abiotic components
(ii) Biotic components
(i) Abiotic components
Main abiotic factors of the ecosystem are include
(1) Climatic factors: solar radiation, temperature, wind, water currents, rainfall.
(2) Physical factors: light, fire, pressure, geomagnetism,
(3) Chemical factors: acidity, salinity and the availability of inorganic nutrients
needed by plants.
PREPARED BY DR. ARUN LUIZ T, DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY, SSN COLLEGE
OF ENGINEERING
 (ii) Biotic components
The plants, animals and microorganisms (all living things) present in an
ecosystem form the biotic component.
These consists of three types (a) producers, (b) consumers, and (c)
decomposers or reducers
(a) Producers
They are mainly the green plants, which can synthesize their food themselves by
making use of CO2 and water in the presence of sunlight by in presence of
chlorophyll, through the process of photosynthesis. They are also known as
photo autotrophs (auto=self; troph=food, photo=light).
Some microorganisms which can produce food to some extent through oxidation
of certain chemicals in the absence of sunlight. They are known as
chemosynthetic organisms or chemo-autotrophs.
(b) Consumers
Primary consumers or Herbivores: They feed directly on producers. e.g. rabbit,
deer, sheep, insect
Secondary consumers or carnivores: They feed on herbivores they are called
secondary consumers e.g. small fish, frog.
Tertiary consumers: They feed on secondary consumers e.g. big fish, snake.
Detritivores (Detritus feeders or Saprotrophs): They feed on the parts of
dead organisms, wastes of living organisms. e.g. beetles, termites, ants, crabs
etc
(c) Decomposers
They derive their nutrition by breaking down the complex organic molecules to
simpler organic compounds and ultimately into inorganic nutrients. Eg: Various
bacteria and fungi
FUNCTION OF ECOSYSTEMS
The major functional attributes of ecosystems are as follows:
(i) Food chain, food webs and trophic structure (Ecological pyramids)
(ii) Energy flow
(iii) Cycling of nutrients (Biogeochemical cycles)
PREPARED BY DR. ARUN LUIZ T, DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY, SSN COLLEGE
OF ENGINEERING
(iv) Primary and Secondary production
(v) Ecosystem development and regulation
FOOD CHAINS, FOOD WEBS AND ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

FOOD CHAIN

The transfer of energy within the ecosystem (among various levels) by a

sequence of eating and being eaten in an ecosystem is known as food chain.
Some common examples of simple food chains are:
(i) Grass → grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Hawk (Grassland
ecosystem)
(ii) Phytoplanktons → Zoo plankton → small fish → Large fish (Marine
ecosystem)
Some features of food chain:
(i) Involves nutritive interaction between the various biotic components of
an ecosystem.
(ii) A food chain is always straight (unidirectional flow of energy).
(iii) Usually 80 to 90% of potential energy is lost as heat when energy is
transferred from one level to another.
(iv) Shorter food chains provide greater available energy and vice – versa.
(v) Most food chains have no more than four or five links.
Significance of food chain:
(a) Understand the feeding relationships and interaction between organisms
in any ecosystem.
b) Comprehend the energy flow mechanism and matter circulation in
ecosystems.
c) Understand the movement of toxic substances and the problem of
'Biological magnification' in the ecosystem.
d) Analyse the link between biological diversity & stability of an ecosystem.
Types of food chain
I. Grazing food chain: It starts with green plants (primary producers) and ends
in carnivores
PREPARED BY DR. ARUN LUIZ T, DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY, SSN COLLEGE
OF ENGINEERING
Eg: Grass → Rabbit → Fox
II. Detritus food chain: It starts with dead organic matter which the detritivores
and decomposers consume. Partially decomposed dead organic matter and even
the decomposers are consumed by detritivores and their predators.
Eg: Leaf litter → algae → crabs → small carnivor ous fish → large
carnivorous fish (Mangrove ecosystem)
Eg: Dead organic matter → fungi → bacteria (Forest ecosystem)
FOOD WEBS
A network of food chains which are interconnected is called food web.

FOOD CHAINS AND FOOD WEBS- A COMPARISON

Food Chain Food Web

1, Simple structure 1. Quite complex structure
2. Unidirectional 2. Multi directional
3. No. Of organisms are less 3. No of organisms are large.
4. Food chain is a single strand of 4. Food web will show many
different levels of energy transfers food chains in a particular
ecosystem (eg: forest)

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
Graphic representation of trophic structure and function of an ecosystem, starting
with producers at the base and successive trophic levels forming the apex is
knows as an ecological pyramid.
Ecological pyramids are of three general types as under:
(i) Pyramid of numbers: It shows the number of individual organisms at each
level
(ii) Pyramid of energy: It shows the rate of energy flow and/or productivity at
successive trophic levels.
(iii) Pyramid of biomass: It shows the total biomass of each tropic level in the
food chain.
PREPARED BY DR. ARUN LUIZ T, DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY, SSN COLLEGE
OF ENGINEERING
 (i) Pyramid of numbers
The pyramids of numbers show the relationship between producers, herbivores
and carnivores at successive trophic levels in terms or their numbers.
(i) Grass land: In a grassland the producers, (mainly grasses) are always
maximum in number. The number decreases towards apex, as number
of every other level is less than number of grasses. The secondary
consumers, snakes and lizards are less in number than the rabbits and
mice. In the top (tertiary) consumers hawks or other birds, are least in
number.

UPRIGHT
(ii) Pond: The producers, which are mainly the phyto-planktons as
algae, bacteria etc. are maximum in number. The herbivores, which
are smaller fishes are less in number than the producers.
The secondary consumers (carnivores), such as small fish which
eat up each other are less in number than the herbivores. Finally,
the top (tertiary) consumers, the bigger fish are least in number

UPRIGHT (SIMILAR TO ABOVE)

(ii) Forest: Producers, are mainly large-sized trees which are less in number
form the base of the pyramid. Herbivores, which are the fruit-eating birds,
elephants, deer etc. are more in number than the producers. Thereafter
there is a gradual decrease in the number of successive carnivores. The
pyramid is narrow on both sides and broader in the middle

PREPARED BY DR. ARUN LUIZ T, DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY, SSN COLLEGE

OF ENGINEERING
 (iii) Parasitic food chain: Parasitic food chain shows an inverted pyramid
of number. The producers are big trees. Fruit eating birds acting like
herbivores which are larger in number. A much higher number of lice,
bugs etc. grow as parasites on these birds while a still greater number
of hyperparasites like bugs, fleas and microbes feed upon them, thus
making an inverted pyramid

(ii) Pyramid of energy

The amount of energy present at each trophic level is considered for this type
of pyramid. Pyramid of energy gives the best representation of the trophic
relationships and it is always upright.
At every successive trophic level, there is a huge loss of energy (about 90%)
in the form of heat, respiration etc. Thus, at each next higher level only 10%
of the energy passes on. Hence, there is a sharp decline in energy level of
each successive trophic level as we move from producers to top carnivores.
Therefore, the pyramid of energy is always upright.

PREPARED BY DR. ARUN LUIZ T, DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY, SSN COLLEGE

OF ENGINEERING
 (iii) Pyramid of biomass
It is based upon the total biomass (dry matter) at each trophic level in a food
chain. The pyramid of biomass can also be upright or inverted. Figure show
pyramids of biomass in a forest and an aquatic ecosystem. The pyramid of
biomass in a forest is upright in contrast to its pyramid of numbers. This is
because the producers (trees) accumulate a huge biomass while the
consumers total biomass feeding on them declines at higher trophic levels,
resulting in broad base and narrowing top.

ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECO SYSTEM

Flow of energy in an ecosystem takes place through the food chain and it is
this energy flow which keeps the ecosystem going. The most important
feature of this energy flow is that it is unidirectional or one-way flow.
Flow of energy follows the two laws of Thermodynamics.

PREPARED BY DR. ARUN LUIZ T, DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY, SSN COLLEGE

OF ENGINEERING
 Ist law of Thermod ynamics states that energy can neither be created nor
be destroyed but it can be transformed from one form to another.
The solar energy captured by the green plants (producers) gets converted
into biochemical energy of plants and later into that of consumers.
IInd law of Thermodynamics states that energy is lost when it is transferred
from one level to another. As energy flows through the food chain, there
occurs dissipation of energy at every trophic level. The loss of energy takes
place through respiration, loss of energy in locomotion, running, hunting and
other activities. At every level there is a 90% loss of energy and the energy
transferred from one trophic level to the other is only about 10%.(10% law).
Energy flow models: The flow of energy through various trophic levels in an
ecosystem can be explained with the help of various energy flow models.
(a) Universal energy flow model: Energy flow through an ecosystem was
explained by E.P. Odum as the universal energy flow model. As the flow of
energy takes place, there is a gradual loss of energy at every level, thereby
resulting in less energy available at next trophic level as indicated by
narrower pipes (energy flow) and smaller boxes (stored energy in biomass).
The loss of energy is mainly the energy not utilized (NU). This is the energy
lost in locomotion, excretion etc. or it is the energy lost in respiration (R)
which is for maintenance. The rest of the energy is used for production (P).

PREPARED BY DR. ARUN LUIZ T, DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY, SSN COLLEGE

OF ENGINEERING
 (b) Single channel energy flow model: The flow of energy takes place in a
unidirectional manner through a single channel of green plants or producers
to herbivores and carnivores. Figure depicts such a model and illustrated the
gradual decline in energy level due to loss of energy at each successive
trophic level in a grazing food chain.

(c) Double channel or Y-shaped energy flow model: In nature, both

grazing food chain and detritus food chain operate in the same ecosystem.
However, in many cases it is the grazing food chain which predominates. In
marine ecosystem where primary production in the open sea is limited and a
major portion of it is eaten by herbivorous marine animals. Therefore, very
little primary production is left to be passed on to the dead or detritus
compartment.
On the other hand, in a forest ecosystem the huge quantity of biomass
produced cannot be all consumed by herbivores. Rather, a large proportion of
the live biomass enters into detritus (dead) compartment in the form of litter.
Hence the detritus food chain is more important there. The two channel or Y-
shaped model of energy flow shows the passage of energy through these
two chains, which are separated in time and space.

PREPARED BY DR. ARUN LUIZ T, DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY, SSN COLLEGE

OF ENGINEERING
 NUTRIENT CYCLES (BIO GEOCHEMICAL CYCLES)

These are of two types

• Gaseous cycles like carbon (as carbon dioxide), oxygen, nitrogen, etc.
• Sedimentary cycles like sulphur, phosphorus, etc.

OXYGEN CYCLE

Atmospheric oxygen is the major source of oxygen (21% of air). Oxygen is taken
up by plants and animals from the air during respiration. The plants return
oxygen to the atmosphere during photosynthesis. So equilibrium is maintained.
Oxygen Cycle and Carbon Cycle are related.

PREPARED BY DR. ARUN LUIZ T, DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY, SSN COLLEGE

OF ENGINEERING
Oxygen removal:
• Oxygen gets removed from the atmosphere chemically by reacting with
rocks and minerals exposed by weathering.
• Respiration by producers, consumers and decomposers remove oxygen
from the atmosphere.
• Oxygen is also removed during the formation of ozone in the upper
atmosphere.

Oxygen supply:
• Oxygen is released into the atmosphere during photosynthesis.

• Oxygen is formed in the atmosphere during the decomposition of ozone

NITROGEN CYCLE

Nitrogen is present in the atmosphere as N2 in large amount (78%) and it is fixed

either by the physical process of lightening or biologically by some bacteria
and/or cyanobacteria (blue green algae). The nitrogen is taken up by plants and
PREPARED BY DR. ARUN LUIZ T, DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY, SSN COLLEGE
OF ENGINEERING
used in metabolism for biosynthesis of amino acids, proteins, vitamins etc. and
passes through the food chain. After death of the plants and animals, the organic
nitrogen in dead tissues is decomposed by several groups of ammonifying and
nitrifying bacteria which convert them into ammonia, nitrites and nitrates, which
are again used by plants. Some bacteria convert nitrates, into molecular nitrogen
or N2 which is released back into the atmosphere and the cycle goes on.

VARIOUS STEPS IN NITROGEN CYCLE

Atmospheric nitrogen fixation by lightning - The enormous energy of lightning
breaks nitrogen molecules and enables their atoms to combine with oxygen in
the air forming nitrogen oxides. These dissolve in rain, forming nitrates, that are
carried to the earth.
Biological nitrogen fixation by certain microbes — alone or in a symbiotic
relationship with some plants and animals. eg: Rhizobium and Nitrogen-fixing
cyano bacteria
Industrial Fixation: Use of nitrogen rich fertilizers
Ammonification: Bacteria, or fungi, convert the organic nitrogen (dead remains
of organisms) into ammonium (NH4+) (Eg: Bacillus)
Nitrification: Biological oxidation of ammonia with oxygen into nitrite followed by
the oxidation of these nitrites into nitrates (Eg: Nitrobactor)
Denitrification: Denitrification is the reduction of nitrates back into inert nitrogen
gas (N2) by bacteria, completing the nitrogen cycle. (Eg: Pseudomonas and
clostridium).

PREPARED BY DR. ARUN LUIZ T, DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY, SSN COLLEGE

OF ENGINEERING
 ECOSYSTEM PRODUCTIVITY
PRIMARY PRODUCTION
Primary productivity of an ecosystem is defined as the rate at which radiant
energy is converted into organic substances by photosyn-thesis or chemo-
synthesis by the primary producers.
SECONDARY PRODUCTION
The energy stored at consumer level for use by the next trophic level is thus
defined as secondary production.
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
Ecological succession is defined as an orderly process of changes in the
community structure and function with time mediated through modifications in the
physical environment and ultimately culminating in a stabilized ecosystem known
as climax.
The whole sequence of communities which are transitory are known as Seral
stages or seres whereas the community establishing first of all in the area is
called a pioneer community.
PREPARED BY DR. ARUN LUIZ T, DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY, SSN COLLEGE
OF ENGINEERING
Process of Succession
The process of succession takes place in a systematic order of sequential steps
as follows:
(i) Nudation: It is the development of a bare area without any life form.
The bare area may be caused due to landslides, volcanic eruption etc.
(topographic factor), or due to drought, glaciers, frost etc. (Climatic
factor), or due to overgrazing, disease outbreak, agricultural/ industrial
activities (biotic factors).
(ii) Invasion: It is the successful establishment of one or more species on
a bare area through dispersal or migration, followed by establishment.
Dispersal of the seeds, spores etc. is brought about by wind, water,
insects or birds. Then the seeds germinate and grow on the land. As
growth and reproduction start, these pioneer species increase in
number and form groups or aggregations.
(iii) Competition and co-action: As the number of individuals grows there
is competition, both inter-specific (between different species) and intra-
specific (within the same species), for space, water and nutrition. They
influence each other in a number of ways, known as co-action.
(iv) Reaction: The living organisms grow, use water and nutrients from the
substratum, and in turn, they have a strong influence on the
environment which is modified to a large extent and this is known as
reaction. The modifications are very often such that they become
unsuitable for the existing species and favour some new species,
which replace them. Thus, reaction leads to several seral communities.
(v) Stabilization: The succession ultimately culminates in a more or less
stable community called climax which is in equilibrium with the
environment.

PREPARED BY DR. ARUN LUIZ T, DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY, SSN COLLEGE

OF ENGINEERING
 MAJOR ECOSYSTEM TYPES

FOREST ECOSYSTEM
Depending upon the prevailing climatic conditions forests can be of various
types
a) Tropical Rain Forests: They are evergreen broadleaf forests found near the
equator (tropics). They are characterized by high temperature, high humidity and
high rainfall.
b) Tropical deciduous forests: They are found a little away from the equator
and are characterized by a warm climate the year round. Different types of
deciduous trees are found here, which lose their leaves during dry season.
c) Tropical scrub forests: They are found in areas where the dry season is
even longer. Here there are small deciduous trees and shrubs.
d) Temperate rain forests: They are found in temperate areas with adequate
rainfall. These are dominated by coniferous trees like pines, firs, redwoods etc.
e) Temperate deciduous forests: They are found in areas with moderate
temperatures.
1. Abiotic Substances (Non-Living Components)
The Abiotic substances of forest eco system include basic inorganic and organic
compounds of the environment or habitat of the organism.

PREPARED BY DR. ARUN LUIZ T, DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY, SSN COLLEGE

OF ENGINEERING
(a) Inorganic Components: The inorganic components of an ecosystem are
carbon dioxide, water, nitrogen, calcium, and phosphate. All of these are involved
in matter cycles (biogeochemical cycles).
(b) Organic Components: The organic components of an ecosystem are
proteins, carbohydrates; lipids and amino acids, all of these are synthesized by
the biota (flora and fauna) of an ecosystem and are reached to ecosystem as
their wastes, dead remains, etc.
(c) The climate, temperature, light, soil etc., are other abiotic components of
the eco-system.
2. Biotic Substances (Living Components)
PRODUCERS
These include green plants like herbs, shrubs and trees. These prepare food
(starch) from water and CO2 in presence of sunlight and chlorophyll. The nature
of plants associated may vary according to the location.
Examples : Grass, trees etc.
CONSUMERS
A) Herbivores (plant eaters): They feed directly on producers and hence also
known as primary consumers . e.g. rabbit, deer, squirrel, insects.
B) Carnivores (meat eaters): They feed on other herbivores. If they feed on
herbivores they are known as secondary consumers. E.g. frog, fox. If they feed
on other secondary consumers they are known as tertiary consumers. Eg:
snake, lion, tiger.
DECOMPOSERS
They break down complex compounds of dead tissues of producers and
consumers,absorb some of the decomposition products and release simple
substances consumable by autotrophic organisms. Decomposers include
earthworms, bacteria, fungi etc.
DESERT ECOSYSTEM
A desert biome is one that receives less than 25 cm of annual precipitation.
One third of the earth's surface (land) are covered by deserts

PREPARED BY DR. ARUN LUIZ T, DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY, SSN COLLEGE

OF ENGINEERING
 Desert are classified into two.
a) Hot and dry: Temperature exhibit daily extreme because the atmosphere
contains little humidity to block the Sun's rays. (Sahara)
b) Cold: Cold deserts can be covered in snow or ice. (Antartica)
1. Abiotic Substances (Non-Living Components)
The Abiotic substances of desert eco system include basic inorganic and organic
compounds of the environment or habitat of the organism.
(a) Inorganic Components: The inorganic components of an ecosystem are
carbon dioxide, water, nitrogen, calcium, and phosphate.
(b) Organic Components: The organic components of an ecosystem are
proteins, carbohydrates; lipids and amino acids. However, organic content is
much lesser when compared to any other eco system.
(c) The climate, temperature, light, soil etc., are other abiotic components of
the eco-system.
2. Biotic Substances (Living Components)
PRODUCERS
There are many kinds of plants in the desert. They are the date palms, cacti,
thorn acacia, bushes, desert milkweed, desert willow, desert tobacco and many
annuals. Xerophytic plants like cacti store water in stems and have extended root
system.They prepare food (starch) from water and CO2 in presence of sunlight
and chlorophyll. Desert ecosystem has low productivity.
CONSUMERS
A) Herbivores (plant eaters): They feed directly on producers and hence also
known as primary consumers. These are small mammals like kangaroo rat,
ground squirrels, certain insects and Arabian camels.
B) Carnivores (meat eaters): They feed on other herbivores. If they feed on
herbivores they are known as secondary consumers. These are lizards, snakes
like rattle snake, some mammals like mongoose, tarantula and scorpions. Some
animals eat both plants and animals. These are called omnivores. Some are
called scavengers as they feed on dead animals.
DECOMPOSERS
PREPARED BY DR. ARUN LUIZ T, DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY, SSN COLLEGE
OF ENGINEERING
They break down complex compounds of dead tissues of producers and
consumers,absorb some of the decomposition products and release simple
substances consumable by autotrophic organisms. Decomposers include
earthworms, bacteria, fungi etc.

A typical desert food chain:

Date palm (producer)
Kangaroo rats(herbivore)
Sandy cat (carnivore).

GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM
Grasslands are areas where the vegetation is dominated by grasses.
Grasslands occur naturally on all continents except Antarctica. Grasslands often
occur in areas with annual precipitation between 60 cm and 1,50 cm and average
mean annual temperatures ranges from −5 and 20 °C.
1. Abiotic Substances (Non-Living Components)
The Abiotic substances of desert eco system include basic inorganic and organic
compounds of the environment or habitat of the organism.
(a) Inorganic Components: The inorganic components of an ecosystem are
carbon dioxide, water, nitrogen, calcium, and phosphate.
(b) Organic Components: The organic components of an ecosystem are
proteins, carbohydrates; lipids and amino acids.
(c) The climate, temperature, light, soil etc., are other abiotic components of
the eco-system.
2. Biotic Substances (Living Components)
PRODUCERS
The primary producers are herbs and shrubs. Isolated trees are also found. They
prepare food (starch) from water and CO2 in presence of sunlight and chlorophyll.
CONSUMERS
A) Herbivores (plant eaters): They feed directly on producers and hence also
known as primary consumers. These are small mammals like insects, deer,
rabbit, hare etc.

PREPARED BY DR. ARUN LUIZ T, DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY, SSN COLLEGE

OF ENGINEERING
B) Carnivores (meat eaters): They feed on other herbivores. If they feed on
herbivores they are known as secondary consumers. These are lizards, snakes,
fox, jackal etc. Tertiary consumers like tiger, lion are also found in few grass
lands.
DECOMPOSERS
They break down complex compounds of dead tissues of producers and
consumers,absorb some of the decomposition products and release simple
substances consumable by autotrophic organisms. Decomposers include
earthworms, bacteria, fungi etc.

A typical grassland food chain:

Grass (producer)
Rabbit(herbivore)
Jackal (carnivore).

POND/LAKE ECOSYSTEM
Ponds are shallow water bodies with a depth of 12-15 feet in which the sun rays
can penetrate to the bottom permitting the growth of plants there. Lake is much
larger water body when compared to pond. Both pond and lake ecosystem are
fresh water ecosystem where various organisms dependent on each other in
water environment for their nutrients and survival.
The functional components of a Pond ecosystem
1. Abiotic Substances (Non-Living Components)
The Abiotic substances of desert eco system include basic inorganic and organic
compounds of the environment or habitat of the organism.
(a) Inorganic Components: The inorganic components of an ecosystem are
carbon dioxide, water, nitrogen, calcium, and phosphate.
(b) Organic Components: The organic components of an ecosystem are
proteins, carbohydrates; lipids and amino acids.
(c) The climate, temperature, light, soil etc., are other abiotic components of
the eco-system.
2. Biotic Substances (Living Components)
PRODUCERS
PREPARED BY DR. ARUN LUIZ T, DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY, SSN COLLEGE
OF ENGINEERING
The producres are of two types
• larger rooted and floating vegetations together termed macrophytes
• microscopic floating algae called phytoplanktons.
Phytoplanktons are available upto the depth of water where light penetrates.
Eg: filamentous alga like Ulothrix, Spirogyra, Oscillatoria and minute floating
plants like Microcystis.
The macrophytes include plants like lotus, hydrilla etc.
CONSUMERS
Consumers of Pond ecosystem are heterotrophs which depend for their nutrition
on other organisms. Zooplanktons form primary consumers which feed on
phytoplankton. Nectic animals like insects, beetles, small fishes form secondary
consumers as they feed on zooplanktons. Benthic animals like snakes ,big
fishes live on nectic animals and are termed tertiary consumers.
DECOMPOSERS
Most of the decomposers of Pond ecosystem are saprophytes but some
parasites are also found .Bacteria, fungi are decomposers. Generally the
decomposers either live in the soil layer beneath water or in the mud. They act
on dead and decayed organic matter of plants and animals and supply raw
materials to the producers.

A typical grassland food chain:

Phytoplankton (producer)
Zooplankton(herbivore)
Small fish
Big fish

Snake (carnivore).

BASED ON POND ECOSYSTEM, MODIFY THE NAMES

OF ANIMALS TO OBTAIN RIVER, EUSTRINE AND
MARINE ECOSYSTEM.

PREPARED BY DR. ARUN LUIZ T, DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY, SSN COLLEGE

OF ENGINEERING
 BIODIVERSITY
The variety and variability of life on earth is known as biodiversity.
Levels(Types) of biodiversity
Genetic diversity: Due to the diversity of genetic materials within species
(Example: different breeds of dogs- pug, bull dog, Dalmatian, Alsatian etc. Tiger-
Royal Bengal tiger, Siberian tiger, White tiger. Elephant- Indian elephant and
African elephant. Varities of orchids, rice, mangoes etc)
Species diversity: The variation among species in a community.
Example : Cat and tiger and very closely related by different species.
Community Diversity: Variation in the biological communities in an ecosystem.
Different populations forms a community and diversity exists among various
communities. Example : population of dogs and population of humans
Ecosystem diversity: Variation in the structure and functions of different
ecosystems. Example : Forest ecosystem and pond ecosystem are quite diverse.
Ecosystem diversity has 3 perspectives
Alpha Diversity: Within community diversity. Alpha diversity refers
to the diversity of organisms sharing the same Community/Habitat.
Beta Diversity: Between community diversity. It refers to the
diversity of organisms sharing two habitat.
Gamma Diversity : Diversity of the habitat over the total landscape
or geographical area is called gamma diversity
Diversity at different levels of biological organization
1. Individual (species or organism) A species is a group of reproductively
isolated organisms. It is the basic unit of taxonomic classification of organisms
2. Population: Population is a group of individuals of the same species
occupying a distinct space at a certain time. It contains genetic variation within
itself.
3. Community: A group of interacting organisms sharing a specific geographical
area and it shows species diversity.

PREPARED BY DR. ARUN LUIZ T, DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY, SSN COLLEGE

OF ENGINEERING
4. Ecosystem: It refers to all the abiotic factors (physical and chemical
constituents) and all the communities that established in a specific area.
Community diversity exists at this level due to the presence of different
communities in an ecosystem.
5. Biomes-Largest ecological unit present in different geographic area and
named after the dominant vegetation. Variation in the structure and functions of
different ecosystems creates ecosystem diversity.
Terrestrial biodiversity of earth is described as biomes.
6. Biosphere: Biosphere is the sum of all the ecosystems established on Earth..
It is the whole portion of Earth colonized by living beings.

IMPORTANT SPECIES IN A COMMUNITY

Keystone Species- Species or set of species whose impact on its
community or ecosystem is much larger and more influential and whose
extinction would consequently lead to the extinction of other forms of life.
Keystone species help to support the ecosystem (entire community of life) of
which they are a part.
In the African savanna, the larger herbivores, especially the elephants, shape
their environment. The elephants destroy trees, making room for the grass
species. Without these animals, much of the savannah would turn into woodland.
Thus elephant is a keystone species. Beaver, starfish are other examples.
Indicator Species: : Species that serve as early warning s of damage to a
community or ecosystem. They quickly respond to environmental change and
considered as biological indicators ex., Presence or absence of trout( a kind if
fish) species in water indicates the quality of water
Native species: Species that normally seen in a particular ecosystem. Species
which are native to particular area.
Exotic or alien Species: Species that migrate or accidentally introduced into
an ecosystem by human beings.

PREPARED BY DR. ARUN LUIZ T, DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY, SSN COLLEGE

OF ENGINEERING
 THE VALUES (IMPORTANCE) OF BIODIVERSITY
Each organism has its own significance in an ecosystem and it is vital for healthy
biosphere. Main uses of biodiversity are the following
1. Consumptive values
2. Productive values
3. Social values
4. Ethical values
5. Aesthetic values
6. Optional values
7. Ecosystem service values
8. Genetic value

1. CONSUMPTIVE VALUE
– These are direct use values
– For the essential needs, natural products can be harvested and
directly consumed
– Natural products are gathered, harvested and hunted for food,
medicine, clothing, sheltering and fuel
– Examples: Food,Penicillin from fungi, different medicinal
plants.
2. PRODUCTIVE VALUES OR COMMERCIAL VALUE
– Commercially harvested for markets
– Forestry, fisheries and use of fossil fuels
Examples: Fuel, Fibers from silk worm, musk from musk deer
3. SOCIAL VALUES
Values associated with the social, religion, spiritual aspects of life
 Holy plants – tulsi, lotus,vembu
 Holy animals – cow, snake, peacock
 Holy River -Ganga, Cauveri
4. ETHICAL VALUES

PREPARED BY DR. ARUN LUIZ T, DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY, SSN COLLEGE

OF ENGINEERING
 – Biodiversity lies in the understanding that humanity is part of
nature and one among the other species.
– A species may or may not be useful but its existence in nature
gives pleasure.
– It is essential for conservation of biodiversity.
– All life must be preserved-Live and let live
– Ex. We don't drive anything direct from zebra or giraffe but we
strongly feel that these species should exist in nature and we feel
sorry when we know that dodo or dinosaur is no more on earth.
5. AESTHETIC VALUES
The beauty of the nature has aesthetic values
– Must be enjoyed and preserved for future generation
– Eco-tourism -willingness to pay concept is estimated to generate
10 billion dollars income/year
– Eco-tourism facilitating the enjoyment of nature, which may
generate many forms of income and employment in the tourism
sector.
6. OPTIONAL VALUES
– Potentials of biodiversity –presently unknown and need to be
explored and useful in future
– The possibility of a natural resources having some medicinal value
It includes the values of option to visit areas where variety of flora and fauna or
specifically some endemic, rare endangered species exist.
7. ECOSYSTEM SERVICE VALUE
– Air Purification: Trees play an important role in absorbing
greenhouse gases. Through photosynthesis, trees absorb and
store atmospheric carbon, helping to combat global warming and
purifying the air we breathe.
– Protection of water : Vegetation regulates and stabilizes water
runoff and increases water yield and quality: eg coastal wet lands &
Mangroves
PREPARED BY DR. ARUN LUIZ T, DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY, SSN COLLEGE
OF ENGINEERING
 – Soil formatting and protection: Helps in the formation and
maintenance of soil structure and quality, the retention of moisture
and nutrient levels, and the prevention of erosion
– Nutrient cycling: Cycling of nutrients in the ecosystem
– Food production: Production of food for all life forms.
– Climate control: Forest plays an important role in checking global
warming and hence regulating the climate
8. GENETIC VALUE
– Specific habitats are important for breeding and spawning.
– Some habitats are genetic reservoirs from which seed and other
materials can be obtained.
– Biotechnological advances permit genetic engineering (i.e., the
transfer of genes from one organism to another).
Classification of species
• Extinct species-A species is said to be extinct when it is not seen in the wild
for 50 years at a stretch. Eg Dodo, passenger pigeon, dinosaur, mammoth,
saber-toothed tiger.
• Endangered species-When the number has been reduced to a critical level or
whose habitats have been drastically reduced and when not protected and
conserved they are endangered species eg: Giant panda
Critically endangered species: species are facing extremely high risk of
extinction in immediate future
• Rare species-Species which are not endangered at present, but are at risk are
categorized as rare species
• Endemic species-Species which are restricted to a particular area is called as
endemic species Eg: Nilgiri Tahr, Lion tailed macque.
Few endangered species of India
1) Reptiles: Green sea turtle, Tortoise, Python
2) Birds: Peacock, Great Indian Hornbill, Pelican, Siberian White Crane
3) Carnivorous mammals: Indian wolf, red fox, royal Bengal tiger, lion, red
panda, leopard, striped hyena, desert cat
PREPARED BY DR. ARUN LUIZ T, DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY, SSN COLLEGE
OF ENGINEERING
4) Primates: Capped monkey, golden monkey, nilgiri langur, hoolock gibbon
5) Plants: many species of orchids
Endemic species of India
• India has two biodiversity hotspots and thus possesses a large number of
endemic species
• Endemic flora- Sapria himalayana, Uvaria lurida, Nepenthes Khasiana,
Pedicularis perroter etc
• Endemic animals- Lion-tailed monkey, Nilgiri leaf monkey, Brown palm civet,
Nilgiri tahr
Hot Spots of Biodiversity
Areas that is rich in endemic species and containing high diversity of species and
under threat of human activity. Hot Spots are the richest and most threatened
reservoirs of plant and animal life on earth.
Key criteria for determining Hot Spots are:
-Presence of large number of endemic species the region should contain 0.5% of
plant endemic species
- degree of threat which is measured in terms of habitat loss(70% loss)
Around the world, at least 35 areas qualify under this definition. Two are present
in India, namely the Eastern Himalayas and Western Ghats.

The Western Ghats

The Western Ghats are a chain of hills that run along the western edge of
peninsular India. Due to their proximity to the ocean they receive high rainfall.
These regions have moist deciduous forest and rain forest. The region shows
high species diversity as well as high levels of endemism. Nearly 77% of the
amphibians and 62% of the reptile species found here are found nowhere else.

Biodiversity: There are over 6000 vascular plants belonging to over 2500
genera in this hotspot, of which over 3000 are endemic. Much of the world's
spices such as black pepper and cardamom have their origins in the Western
Ghats. The highest concentration of species in the Western Ghats is believed to

PREPARED BY DR. ARUN LUIZ T, DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY, SSN COLLEGE

OF ENGINEERING
be the Agasthyamalai Hills in the extreme south. This region have over 450 bird
species, about 140 mammalian species, 260 reptiles and 175 amphibians. Over
60% of the reptiles and amphibians are completely endemic to the hotspot. The
vegetation in this hotspot originally extended over 190,000 square kms. Today,
its been reduced to just 43,000 sq. km.

The Eastern Himalayas

The Eastern Himalayas is the region encompassing Bhutan, northeastern India,

and southern, central, and eastern Nepal. The region is geologically young and
shows high altitudinal variation. Together, the Himalayan mountain system is the
world's highest, and home to the world's highest peaks, which include Mount
Everest and K2.

Biodiversity: The Eastern Himalayan hotspot has nearly 163 globally threatened
species including the One-horned Rhinoceros, the Wild Asian Water buffalo
and in all 45 mammals, 50 birds, 17 reptiles, 12 amphibians, 3 invertebrate and
36 plant species . The Relict Dragonfly is an endangered species found here
with the only other species in the genus being found in Japan. Many plant
species are found even in the highest reaches of the Himalayan mountains

Red List of Threatened Species(Red data book)

IUCN: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
publishes Red Data Book-list the threatened species of plants and animals.
The main objectives are
– Identification and documentation of endangered species
– Providing a global index of the decline of biodiversity
– Create awareness about the importance of threatened biodiversity
– Defining conservation priorities and guiding conservation action
India as a mega-diversity nation
India is one of the 12 mega diversity countries in the world.

PREPARED BY DR. ARUN LUIZ T, DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY, SSN COLLEGE

OF ENGINEERING
It is estimated that India ranks 10th among the plant rich countries of the world,
11th in terms of number of endemic species of higher vertebrates and 6th among
the centers of diversity and origin of agricultural crops.
India has 350 different mammals (rated eight highest in the world), 1,200 species
of birds (eighth in the world), 453 species of reptiles (fifth in the world) and
45,000 plant species, of which most are angiosperms, (fifteenth in the world).
These include especially high species diversity of ferns (1022 species) and
orchids (1082 species). India has 50,000 known species of insects, including
13,000 butterflies and moths. It is estimated that the number of unknown species
could be several times higher.
Out of a total of 35 biodiversity hot-spots in the world, India possesses two, one
in the north-east region and one in the western ghats.
A large proportion of the India Biodiversity is still unexplored.
Reasons for India as a mega-diversity nation
1) Endemism
• Species which are restricted only to a particular area are known as endemic.
• India shows a good number of endemic species. About 62% amphibians and
50% lizards are endemic to India.
• Western ghats are the site of maximum endemism
2) Centre of origin
• A large number of species are known to have originated in India
• Nearly 500 species of flowering plants have their origin in India
• India has been the center of origin for 166 species of crop plants and 320
species of wild relatives of cultivated crops.
3) Marine diversity
• The coastline of our country exhibits a rich biodiversity
• Along 7500 km long coastline, in the mangroves, coral reefs back waters etc,
different species are found.
• The marine diversity is rich in mollusks, crustaceans and several species of
mangrove plants and sea grasses
4) Hot spots of biodiversity
PREPARED BY DR. ARUN LUIZ T, DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY, SSN COLLEGE
OF ENGINEERING
Areas which exhibit high species richness as well as high species endemism are
termed as hot spots of biodiversity. There are 35 such hot spots of biodiversity
on a global level out of which two are present in India, namely the Eastern
Himalayas and Western Ghats

The biogeographical classification of India

Biogeography: Study of distribution, evolution, dispersal and environmental

relationship of plants and animals in time and space
– Biogeographic classification of India was done by Rodgers and Panwar (1988)-
describing 10 biogeographic zones in India
– Each zone has its own characteristic climate, soil, topography and biodiversity.
1. Trans – Himalayan region - upper region 6% of country’s land mass- pine,
deodar, leopard, black necked crane.
2. The Himalayan region- north-west, east and central Himalayan-pine, cork
tree, sikkim stag, musk deer,
3. The Indian desert- Gujarat desert, Himalayan cold desert, Thar, Ladakh-
Acacia,date palm, camel, desert cat ,mice, fox
4. The semi arid region -between desert and deccan plateau-Aravalli hills-Date
palm, Gir Lion, Ranthambore.
5. The western ghats- mountain range along the western coast of India-Gujarat
to Kanyakumari-Tuna, Tortoise, Lizards
6. The deccan peninsula –south of narmata valley, satpura mountain covers the
north side,western ghats west side, eastern ghats east side-Pine,Sloth bear,
Cheetal
7. The gangetic plain-ganges river side, 600 mm average rain fall, Sunderban
forests-Jamun, Rhinoceros, Alligator
8. The coastal region- East and western coastal area-Coconut, banana, turtle,
aligator, dolphin
9. The north – east region- a wide biodiversity-Bamboo, Tuna Chestnut,
elephant, Rhinoceros.

PREPARED BY DR. ARUN LUIZ T, DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY, SSN COLLEGE

OF ENGINEERING
10. The Indian island -Andaman-Nicobar, 300 islands with high biodiversity-
Coconut, Cashew nut, Dolphin, Alligator
Threats to biodiversity
Major threat to biodiversity is Extinction of species. Extinction or elimination of a
species is a natural process of evolution. Extinction at 10000 species per year or
27 per day!
Factors leading to extinction of Species
1. Destruction of Habitats : Destruction and loss of natural habitat is the single
largest cause of biodiversity loss. Due to deforestation animals are deprived of
shelter and food.
2. Habitat Fragmentation : Sometimes the loss of habitat is in instalments so
that the habitat is divided into small and scattered patches, a phenomenon
known as habitat fragmentation. There are many wild life species such as bears
and large cats that require large territories to subsist. They get badly threatened
as they breed only in the interiors of the forests.
3.Disturbance and pollution : Man made activities such as air/water pollution,
eutrophication etc afftects biodiversity adversely. For example, oil spillage can
affect marine ecosystem adversely. Natural causes like forest fire and volcanic
eruption can also affect biodiversity.
4.Introduction of exotic species: These are new species entering a
geographical region. Exotic species alter the habitat and natives cannot survive.
Exotic species may kill or eat native species to the point of extinction. Disease
causing microorganism if introduced may cause epidemic and eliminate the
native species completely. Eg: Introduction of Water hyacinth-free floating exotic
water weeds clogs rivers and lakes and threatens the survival of many aquatic
species in India.
5. Hunting and over exploitation: Man hunts wild animals for food, safety and
pleasure which can result in extinction of species. ex., Disappearance of dodo.
Over fishing is depleting the marine and fresh water living resources. Many
species of fishes, sea rurtles, sea cows and whales are facing extinction.

PREPARED BY DR. ARUN LUIZ T, DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY, SSN COLLEGE

OF ENGINEERING
6.Poaching: Killing of prohibited wild animals for illegal trading of wildlife
products is called poaching. Despite international ban, products from endangered
species, smuggling of wildlife items like furs, horns, tusks and herbal products
are still going on. Animal products of commercial Value- hide, ivory, horn, teeth
and bone.
7. Man wildlife Conflicts: Conflicts between man and wild animals is called
wildlife conflict.
Reasons for man-wild life conflict
Habitat loss-compels them to move out of forests
Human encroachment – Humans occupy animal habitat
Ill, weak and sick animals attack man
Females of many animals attack to secure their babies
During hot summer for water
Shortage of food: bamboo- -elephant
Farmers put electric wire – injured animals turns violent
Human Settlements area in the migratory routes
Conservation of Biodiversity
The enormous value of biodiversity due to their genetic, commercial, medical,
esthetic importance emphasizes the need to conserve biodiversity.
There are two approaches of biodiversity conservation
–In situ conservation
–Ex situ conservation
Insitu Conservation
This refers to the conservation of species in their natural habitat in place where
the species normally occurs (within their natural habitat).
Protected Areas
• Areas especially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological
diversity and of natural resources
• Protected areas are managed through legal means
• Examples: National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries and Biosphere reserves

PREPARED BY DR. ARUN LUIZ T, DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY, SSN COLLEGE

OF ENGINEERING
National Parks
• Areas strictly reserved for wildlife and activities such as cultivation, grazing,
cutting etc are not allowed
Private ownership right and manipulation of habitat not allowed.
Each national park aims at conservation of some particular species along with
others
Nearly 100 Parks in India: Jim Corbett National Park – first in India
Some Important National Parks in India

Jim Corbett National Park, Nainital-Tigers

Kaziranga National Park, Assam- One horned Rhino
Gir National Park, Gujarat- Indian Lion
Bandipur National Park, Mysore- Tiger
Periyar, Kerala -elephant and tiger
Mudumalai National park Tamilnadu- Elephant

Wild life Sanctuaries

Area reserved for conservation of animals only.
– Killing, hunting, shooting or capturing of wildlife is prohibited under the control
of highest authority
– Private ownership rights are allowed provided they do not affect wildlife
adversely
– About 500 wildlife sanctuaries in our country
– Vedanthangal Bird Sanctuary, TamilNadu- Water birds
BIOSPHERE RESERVES

A special category of protected areas where in people are an integrated part of

the environment for long-term conservation. Area is much larger when compared
to national park and wild life sanctuary.
– Protection is granted: Flora, fauna and to the human communities who inhabit
these regions, and their ways of life.
Roles of biosphere reserves
PREPARED BY DR. ARUN LUIZ T, DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY, SSN COLLEGE
OF ENGINEERING
1. Conservation
2. Development
3. Scientific research, monitoring and education
15 biosphere reserves in India
– Within biosphere we have one or more national parks
– Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve
Sacred forests and lakes

Special sites, areas or landscapes that have one or more attributes which
distinguish them as somehow extraordinary, usually in a religious or spiritual
sense, are called sacred places. (Eg: Lake Pushkar)
• In our country many plants/ trees and animals are sacred and worshiped by
local peoples.
Ex situ conservation

• This type of conservation is mainly done for conservation of crop varieties, the
wild relatives of crops and all the local varieties
• In this the conservation in captivity under human care
• Threatened animals and plants are taken out from their natural habitat and
placed in a place where they can be protected and given special care

Examples
1. Germ plasm banks or Gene banks
2. Botanical Gardens
3. Zoos
4. Genetic resource centers.
5. Pollen grain, seed, seedling, tissue culture, DNA
Methods of Ex-Situ Conservation
• Long Term Captive breeding
Zoo’s (800 in world) & botanical Gardens & Arboreta (A place where an
extensive variety of woody plants (trees & shrubs) are cultivated for scientific,
educational, and ornamental purposes.(1500 in world))

PREPARED BY DR. ARUN LUIZ T, DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY, SSN COLLEGE

OF ENGINEERING
- Vital conservation action for all Critically Endangered species.
• Short Term propagation & release
-Endangered species bred in captivity & released in wild later
- Practiced when the population declines due temporary set back in living
conditions
Cryo-preservation

Preservation of seeds, gametes and embryos of endangered species, pollen etc.

using liquid N2 at temp as low as -196 c for several years without losing viability
Seed Bank and Gene banks
Seeds and genetic resources of different strains of commercially important plants
can be stored for long periods in seed banks

Important Gene/Seed banks in India

National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), New Delhi:

Agricultural and horticultural crops and their wild relatives are preserved by cryo-
preservation
National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (NBAGR),Haryana Preserves
the semen of domesticated bovine animals:
National Facility for Plant Tissue Culture Repository (NFPTCR), New Delhi:
Conservation of varieties of crop/plants/trees by tissue.
Tissue culture

Eggs can be fertilized in vitro and plants can be propagated by tissue culture
methods. If seed is not available, it is possible to produce a plant with this
method. It can be used to produce many copies of the same plants then which
may be used to produce plants with better flowers, odors, fruits or any other
properties of the plants that are beneficial to the human beings.

By artificial insemination
Breeding of the captive species can be done by artifical insemination. In this
method semen is injected to a female for breeding.

PREPARED BY DR. ARUN LUIZ T, DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY, SSN COLLEGE

OF ENGINEERING
Cloning
Cloning can be used for breeding purpose. Cloning describes the processes
used to create an exact genetic replica of another cell, tissue or organism. The
copied material, which has the same genetic makeup as the original, is referred
to as a clone. The most famous clone was a Scottish sheep named Dolly.

There are three different types of cloning:

• Gene cloning, which creates copies of genes or segments of DNA

• Reproductive cloning, which creates copies of whole animals
• Therapeutic cloning, which creates embryonic stem cells. Researchers
hope to use these cells to grow healthy tissue to replace injured or
diseased tissues in the human body.

PREPARED BY DR. ARUN LUIZ T, DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY, SSN COLLEGE

OF ENGINEERING