IRC:78-2014

STANDARD SPECI~FI.CAT·IONS AND

CODE OF.PRACTICE
FOR ROAD BRIDGES

SECTION : VII · -

FOUNDATIONS AND SUBSTRUCTURE

(Revised Edition)
(lncorporating,a/1 Amendments and Errata Published· up to December, 2013)
f - :- - .• ;.,f . •

Published by

INDIAN ROADS CONGRESS

Kama Koti Marg, R.K. Puram,
New Delhi-110022

Price ~ 700/-
(Pius packing & postage)
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IRC:78-2014
First Published July, 1980 (as Part-1)
First Revision December, 1983 (Incorporating Part II and Amendment
1,2 and 3 to Part I)
Reprinted September, 1988
Reprinted October, 1994
Reprinted September, 1998
Reprinted September, 2000
Second Revision December, 2000
Reprinted April, 2002 :
Reprinted August, 2004 (Incorporates the Amendments) t .
~

Reprinted
Reprinted
August, 2005
August, 2007 (Incorporates the Amendments
dated 30.11.2006)
i
Revised Edition January, 2014 (Incorporating all Amendments and Errata
Published upto December, 2013)

(All Rights Reserved. No Part of this publication shall be reproduced,

translated or transmitted in any form or by any means without the
permission of the Indian Roads Congress)

Printed at: Aravali Printers & Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,

(1000 Copies)

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.,! IRC:78-2014
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" CONTENTS

1 Clause
No.
Page No.

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$if Personnel of Bridges Specifications and Standards Committee vii
Background 1
700 Scope 3
701 Terminology 3
701.1 Abutment 3
• 701.2 Afflux 3
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I' 701.3 Balancer 4
701.4 Bearing Capacity 4
t~ 701.5 Bearing Stress 4
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II 701.6 Cofferdam 5
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' 701.7 Foundation 5
701.8 Pier 5
701.9 Piles 5
701.10 Retaining Wall 6
701 11 Substructure 7
701.12 Well Foundation 7
702 Notations 7
703 Discharge and Depth of Scour for Foundation Design 9
703.1 Design Discharge of Foundation 9
703.2 Mean Depth of Scour 10
703.3 Maximum Depth of Scour for Design of Foundations 11
704 Sub-surface Exploration 12
704.1 Objectives 12
704.2 Zone of Influence 13
704.3 Methods of Exploration 13
705 Depth of Foundation 13
705.1 General 13
705.2 Open Foundations 14
705.3 Well Foundations 14
705.4 Pile Foundations 15
706 Loads, Forces, Stability and Stresses 15
706.1 Loads, Forces and their Combinations 15

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IRC:78-2014
706.2 Horizontal Forces" at Bearing Level 16
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706.3 Base Pressure 17 \
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707 Open Foundations 19 1..~

707.1 General r
. ; 19
707.2 Design 19
707.3 Open Foundations at Sloped Bed Profile 21
707.4 Construction 22
708 Well Foundations 23
708.1 General 23
708.2 Well Steining 23
708.3 Design Considerations 25
708.4 Stability of Well Foundations 26 ' j
708.5 Tilts and Shifts 27
708.6 Cutting Edge 28
708.7 Well Curb 28
708.8 Bottom Plug 29
708.9 Filling the Well 29
708.10 Plug over Filling 29
708.11 Well Cap 29
708.12 Floating Caissons 30
708.13 Sinking of Wells 30
708.14 ~neumatic Sinking of Wells 30
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708.15 Sinking of Wells by Resorting to Blasting 31

709 Pile Foundation 31
709.1 General 31
709.2 Requirement and Steps for. Design and Installation 34
709.3 Geotechnical Capacity of Pile 36
709.4 Structural Design of Piles 40
709.5 Design of Pile Cap 40
709.6 Important Consideration, Inspection/Precautions for
Different Types of Piles 41

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710 Substructure 44
i 710.1 General 44

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710.2
710.3
Piers
Wall Piers
45
46
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-· 710.4 Abutments 46
710.5 Abutment Pier 47
710.6 Dirt Walls, Wing Walls and Return Walls 48
710.7 Retaining Walls 49
·! 710.8 Pier and Abutment Caps 49
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~ 710.9 Cantilever Cap of Abutment and Pier 51
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710.10 Pedestals below Bearing 51
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Appendixes I
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i 1. Guidelines for Calculating Silt Factor for Bed Material Consisting of Clay 53
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2. Guidelines for Sub-surface Exploration 54
3. Procedure for Stability Calculation 67
4. Precautions to be taken during Sinking of Wells 71
5. Capacity of Pile Based on Pile Soil Interaction 76
6. Filling Behind Abutments, Wing and Return Walls 82
7. Part-1-Pile Load Capacity by Dynamic Test Using Wave Equation 84
Part-2-Standard Test Method for Low Strain Pile Integrity Testing 93

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 IRC:78-2014
PERSONNEL OF THE BRIDGES SPECIFICATIONS
AND STANDARDS COMMITTEE
(As on 6.1.2014)

1. Kandasamy, C. Director General (RD) & Spl. Secy. to Govt. of India, Ministry of Road
(Convenor) Transport and Highways, Transport Bhavan, New Delhi
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... 2. Patankar, V.L. Addl. Director General, Ministry of Road Transport and Highways
(Co-Convenor) Transport Bhavan, New Delhi

3. Pathak, A.P. Chief Engineer (B) S&R, (Ministry of RoadTransport & Highways,
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(Member-Secretary) Transport Bhavan, New Delhi

Members

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4.

5.

6.
Agrawal, K.l\l.

Alimchandani, C.R.

Arora, H.C.
DG(W), CPWD (Retd.) Ghaziabad

Chairman & Managing Director, STUP Consultants (P) Ltd.,

Mumbai

Chief Engineer (Retd.) MORTH, New Delhi

7. Bagish, Dr. B.P. C-2/2013, Vasant Kunj,Opp. D.P.S.New Delhi

8. Bandyopadhyay, Dr. N. Director, Stup Consultants (P) Ltd. New Delhi

9. Bandyopadhyay, Dr. T.K. Joint Director General (Retd.) INSDAG, Kolkata

10. Banerjee, A.K. Chief Engineer (Retd.) MORTH, New_Delhi

11. Banerjee,T.B. Chief Engineer (Retd.) MORTH, New Delhi

12. Basa, Ashok Director (Tech.) B. Engineers & Builders Ltd., Bhubaneswar

13. Bhasin, P.C. ADG (B), (Retd.}, MOST, New Delhi

14. Bhowmick, Alok Managing Director, Bridge & Structural Engg. Consultants (P) Ltd.,
Noida

15. Bongirwar, P.L. Advisor, L&T, Mumbai

16. Dhodapkar, A.N. Chief Engineer (Retd.) MORTH, New Delhi

17. Ghoshai,A. Director and Vice President, STUP Consultants (P) Ltd. Kolkata

18. Joglekar,S.G. Vice President, STUP Consultants (P) Ltd. , Mumbai

19. Kand, C.V. Chief Engineer (Retd.), MP, PWD Bhopal

20. Koshi, Ninan DG(RD) & Addi.Secy., (Retd) MOST, New Delhi

21. Kumar, Ashok Chief Enginee (Retd.}, MORTH, New Delhi

22. Kumar, Prafulla DG (RD} & AS, MORT&H (Retd.} New Delhi

23. Kumar, Vijay E-in-Chief (Retd.) UP, PWD,

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IRC:78-2014

24. Manjure, P.Y. Director, Freyssinet Prestressed Concrete Co. Mumbai

25. Mukherjee, M.K. Chief Engineer (Retd.) MOST, New Delhi

26. Nagpa I, A. K. Prof. liT, New Delhi

27, Narain, A.D. DG (RD) & AS, MORT&H (Retd.) New Delhi

28. Ninan, R.S. Chief Engineer (Retd.) MORTH New Delhi

29. Pandey, R.K. Chief Engineer (Planning), MORTH, New Delhi

30. Parameswaran, Dr. Chief Scientist (BAS), CRRI, New Delhi

Lakshmy

31. Raizada, Pratap S. Vice President (Corporate Affairs). Gammon India Ltd. Mumbai

32. Rao, Dr. M.V.B. Senior Consultant, Ms. SNC LAVALIN Infrastructure Pvt. Ltd.

33. Roy, Dr. B.C. Senior Executive Director, M/s. 'Consulting Engg. Services India
(Pvt.) Ltd. Gurgaon

34. Saha, Dr. G.P. Executive Director Construma Consultancy (P) Ltd. Mumbai

35. Sharan, G. DG(RD) & Spi.Secy (Retd.) MORTH, New Dellhi

36. Sharma, R.S. Chief Engineer (Retd.) MORTH, New Delhi

37. Sinha, N.K. DG(RD) & SS, (Retd.) MORT&H New Delhi

38. Subbarao, Dr. Chairman & Managing Director, Construma Consultancy (P) Ltd.
Harshavardhan Mumbai

39. Tandon, Mahesh Managing Director, Tandon Consultants (P) Ltd.,New Delhi

40. Thandavan, K.B. Chief Engineer (Retd.) MORH, New Delhi

41. Velayutham, V. DG (RD) SS (Retd.) MORTH, New Delhi

42. Viswanathan, T. 7046, Sector B, Pocket 10, Vasant Kunj ,New Delhi

43. The Executive Director RDSO, Lucknow

(B&S)

44. The Director and Head, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi
(Civil Engg.),

Corresponding Members
1. Raina, Dr. V.K. Consultant (W.B.)
2. Singh, R.B. Director, Projects Consulting India (P) Ltd. New Delhi

Ex-officio Members
1. Kandasamy, C. Director General (RD) & Special Secretary to Govt. of
India, MoRT&H and President, IRC, New Delhi
2. Prasad, Vishnu Secretary General, Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi
Shankar
VIII
 IRC:78-2014

FOUNDATIONS AND SUBSTRUCTURE

BACKGROUND

The "Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for Road Bridges" Section VII -
Foundations and Substructure was first published in July 1980 as Part I - General

' Features of Design. Later first revision was published in December, 1,983 incorporating
Part II and Amendments 1,2 and 3 to Part I as Unified Code. The second revision
of this code was undertaken by the Foundation and Structure Committee (B-4) and
the initial draft was finalized by the Committee under the Convenorship of Shri R.H.
Sarma . Subsequently, the draft was reconsidered and discussed in various meetings
1
by the reconstituted ·Foundation, Substructure and Protective Works Committee (B-4) ~

under Convenors hip of Shri S.A Reddi. The final draft as approved by Convenor BSS I
Committee was subsequently approved by the Executive Committee in its meeting
": held on 30.8.2000. It was later approved by the Council in its 160th meeting held at
Kolkata on 4.11.2000 for publishing the revised IRC Code Section VII: IRC: 78:2000.
Since then numerous amendments and errata were published to this Code based on
development in design and construction technology.
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The current Revised Edition of IRC:78 inducms all, the amendments and errata
published from time te time upto December, 2013.

The Revised EditionofJRG:78''Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for Road

Bridges" Section VII -Foundation incorporating all amendments and J:rrata published
_,.. ' - • ' :. • • • &J• !

till date was approved by Foundations and Substructure Foundation Substructure

Protective Worls,s and Masonry Structures Committee (B-3)· in its· meeting held on
16.10.2013. The Revised Edition of IRC:78 was approved by theBridgesSpecifications
and Standards Committee in its meeting held on 06.01.2014 and Executive Committee
held on 09.01.2014 for publishing.

The composi_tion ofthe B-.3 Committee is given below:

Bongirwar, P.L. Convenor

Joglekar, S.G. Co-Convenor

Kanhere, O.K. Member-Secretary

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IRC:78-2014
Members

Bagish, B.P. Chonkar, Ravindra

Dhiman, R.K. Deshmukh, Dr. V.V.

Elavarson R, Ganpule, Dr. V.T.

(expired on 15.03.2013)

Gandhi, Prof. S.R Jaigopal, RK.

Kothyari, Prof. U.C. (expired on 30.12.2012) Karandikar, D.V.

Kand, Dr. C.V Mhaiskar, Dr.S.Y.

Marwah, M.P. Nashikkar, Jayant

Nayak, Dr. N.V. Ray, S.

Saha, Smt. S.DNigade,. Subbarao, Dr. H.

Saha, Dr. G.P. Singh, M.N.

Singh, Rajeev Velyutham, V.

Corresponding Members

Basa, Ashok Dey, Prof. S.

Heggade, V.N. Mazumder,Prof. S.K.

Pau,, Dipankar Pitchumani, Dr. N.

Sarma, R.H. Tarapore, Dr. Z.S.

Viswanathan, T.

Ex·Officio Members

C. Kandasamy Director General (Road Development) & Special

Secretary, MoRT&H and President, IRC

Vishnu Shankar Prasad Secretary General, IRC

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 IRC:78-2014

IJ 700 SCOPE

This code deals with the design and construction of foundations and substructure
for road bridges. The provisions of this code are meant to serve as a guide to both

I the design and construction engineers, but mere compliance with the provisions
stipulated herein will not relieve them in any way of their responsibility for the stability
and soundness of the structure designed and erected.

701 TERMINOLOGY
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! The following definitions shall be applicable for the purpose of this code.
701.1 Abutment !

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The end support of the deck (superstructure) of a bridge, which also retains earth, fill of I
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approaches behind fully or partly.

701.1.1 Box type abutment and return wall

When the return walls on two sides are integrated with abutment and a back wall parallel to
abutment is provided at the end of returns with or without additional internal wall along or
across length, this structure is called box type abutment and return wall, or end block.

701.1.2 Non-load bearing abutment

Abutment, which supports the end span of less than 5 m.

701.1.3 Non-spill through abutment

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An abutment structure where the soil is not altowed to spill through.

701.1.4 Spill through abutment

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An abutment where soil is allowed to spill through gaps, along the length of abutment, such
as, column str-ucture where columns are placed below deck beams ancl gap in between is
free to spill earth. (Spilling of earth should not be permitted above a level of 500 mm below
the bottom of bearings).

701.2 Afflux

The rise in the flood level of the river immediately on the upstream of a bridge as a result of
obstruction to natural flow caused by the construction of the bridge and its approaches.
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IRC:78-2014
701.3 Balancer

A bridge/culvert like structure provided on embankment to allow flow of water from one side
of the embankment to other side, for purpose of avoiding heading up of water on one side
or for avoiding blocking the entry to the other side.

701.4 Bearing Capacity

The supporting power of soil/rock expressed as bearing stress is referred to as it bearing

capacity.

701.4.1 Allowable bearing pressure

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It is the maximum gross pressure intensity at which neither the soil fails in shear, (after
accounting for appropriate factor of safety) nor there is excessive settlement beyond
permissible limits, which is expected to be detrimental to the structure.
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701.4.2 Net safe bearing capacity

It is the net ultimate bearing capacity divided by a factor of safety as per Clause
706.3.1.1.1.
701.4.3 Net ultimate bearing capacity

It is the minimum net pressure intensity causing shear failure of the soil.
701.4.4 Safe bearing capacity

The maximum pressure, which the soil can carry safely without risk of shear "failure and it
is equal to the net safe bearing capacity plus original overburden pressure.
701.4.5 Ultimate gross bearing capacity

It is the minimum gross pressure intensity at the base of the foundation at which the soil
fails in shear.

701.5 Bearing Stress

701.5.1 Gross pressure intensity

It is the total pressure at the base of the foundation on soil due to the possible combinations
of load and the weight of the earth fill.

701.5.2 Net pressure intensity

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 IRC:78-2014
It is the difference in intensities of the gross pressure and the original overburden pressure.

701.6 Cofferdam

A structure temporary built for the purpose of excluding water or soil sufficiently to permit
construction or proceed without excessive pumping and to support the surrounding
ground.

' 701.7 Foundation

I The part of a bridge in direct contact with and transmitting load to the founding strata.

701.8 Pier

Intermediate supports of the deck (superstructure) of a bridge.

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701.8.1 Abutment pier

! Generally use in multiple span arch bridges. Abutment pier is designed for a condition that
even if one side arch span collapses it would be safe. These are provided after three or five
spans.

701.9 Piles

701.9.1 Bearing/friction piles

A pile driven or cast-in-situ for transmitting the weight of a structure to the founding strata
by the resistance developed at the pile base and by friction along its surface. If it supports
the load mainly by the resistance developed at its base, it is referred to as an end-bearing
pile, and if mainly by friction along its sUiface, as a friction pile.

701.9.2 Bored cast-in-situ pile

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A pile formed with or without a casing by boring a hole in the ground and subsequently filling
it with plain or reinforced concrete.

' 701.9.3 Driven cast-in-situ pile

A pile formed in the ground by driving a permanent or temporary casing, and filling it with
plain or reinforced concrete.

701.9.4 Dn'ven pile

A pile driven into the ground by the blows of a hammer by a vibrator.

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IRC:78-2014
701.9.5 Precast pile

A reinforced or prestressed concrete pile cast before driving, or installing in bore and
grouted.
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701.9.6 Raker or batter pile
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A pile installed at an inclination to the vertical.

701.9.7 Sheet pile

One or a row of piles driven or formed in the ground adjacent to one another in a
continuous wall, each generally provided with a connecting joint or interlock, designed
to resist mainly lateral forces and to reduce seepage; it may be vertical or at an
inclination.

701.9.8 Tension pile

A pile subjected to tension/uplift is called tension pile.

701.9.9 Test pile

A pile to which a load is applied to determine and/or confirm the load characteristics (ultimate
load/working load) of the pile and the surrounding ground.

701.9.10 Working pile

One of the piles forming the foundation of the structure.

701.10 Retaining Wall

A wall designed to resist the pressure of earth filling behind.

701.10.1 Return wall

A wall adjacent to abutment generally parallel to road or flared up to increased width and
raised upto the top of road.

701.10.2 Toe wall

A wall built at the end of the slope of earthen embankment to prevent slipping of earth and/
or pitching on embankment.

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 IRC:78-2014
701.10.3 Wing wall

A wall adjacent to abutment with its top upto road top level near abutment and sloping down
upto ground level or a little above at the other end. This is generally at 45° to the alignment
of road or parallel to the river and follows profile or earthen banks.

701.11 Substructure

The bridge structure, such as, pier and abutment above the foundation and supporting the
superstructure. It shall include returns and wing walls but exclude bearings.

701.12 Well Foundation

A type of foundation where a part of the structure is hollow, which is generally built in parts
and sunk through ground or water to the prescribed depth by removing earth through
dredge hole.

~ 710.12.1 Tilt of a well

The inclination of the axis of the well from the vertical expressed as the tangent of the angle
between the axis of the well and the vertical.

701.12.2 Shift of a well

The horizontal displacement of the centre of the well at its base in its final position from its
designed position.

702 NOTATIONS

For the purpose of this code, the following notations have been adopted:

A1 Dispersed concentric area

A2 Loaded area
B Width between outer faces of pile group in plan parallel to the direction of
movement
C The allowable bearing pressure with near uniform distribution on the founding strata
c Cohesion
Co The permissible direct compressive stress in concrete at the bearing area of the
base
0 Diameter of pile
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IRC:78-2014
Db Discharge in cubic metre/sec, (cumecs) per metre width
d External diameter of circular well in metre
dm Weighte9 mean diamete~ in mm of bed material .
dsm Mean depth of scour in metre below flood level
Longitudinal force due to braking
Fer Centrifugal force
Fd Deformation effects
Horizontal force
Earth pressure i
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Fer
Seismic force
Erection effects
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F1 Frictional force at bearings
F;m Impact due to floating bodies
Secondary effects
Fwc Water Current
F.,e Temperature effects [See Note (i)]
Fwp Wave pressure [See Note (ii)] ,.
G Dead load
Gb Buoyancy
Gs Snow load
h Minimum thickness of steining in metre
Ka Co-efficient of active earth pressure
KP Co-efficient of passive earth pressure
Ksr Silt factor
L Length between outer faces of pile group in plan parallel to .the direction of
movement
Movement of deck over bearings, other than due to applied force
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Depth of well

s Depth of well in metre, up to MSL.

N Standard penetration test value
Total active pressure
Total passive pressure
Live load
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- ---- . ----- -- r - . - -- ----- -- - - --- -- -

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IRC:78-2014
Rg Dead load reaction
Rq Live load reaction
v r
Shear rating of elastomeric bearing
w Wind load
a R~d~ction ·factor.
f3 Ratio of long side to the short side of the footing
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su Undrained shear strength
f_
~ qu Undrained chohesion
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5 J.l Co-efficient of friction
d> Angle, of internal fdction
8 Settlement of pile
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8g, Settlement of pile group I
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NOTES: i) Temperature effects (F1e) in this context is not the frictional force due to the movement
of bearing but that which is caused by rib shortening, etc.
ii) The wave forces shall be determined by suitable analysis considering drawing and
inertia forces, etc., on single structural members based on rational methods or
model studies. In case of group of piles, piers, etc., proximity effects shall also be
considered.

703 DISCHARGE AND DEPTH OF SCOUR FOR

FOUNDATION DES,GN
".

703.1 Design Discharge of Foundation

703.1.1 To provide for and adequate margin of safety, the scour for foundation··shall
be designed for a larger discharge over the design discharge determined as per IRC:5 as
given below: ·

Catchment area in km2 Increase over design

Discharge in percent ·
o- 3oon 30
3000- 10000 30-20
10000 - 40000 20- 10
Above ,. 40000 10

NOTES: i) For intermediate values of catchment area, linear interpolation may be

adopted.'

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IRC:78-2014

ii) The minimum vertical clearance above the HFL already determined as per IRC:5
need not be increased due to larger discharge calculated above.

703.2 Mean Depth of Scour

The mean scour depth below Highest Flood Level (HFL) for natural channels flowing over
securable bed can be calculated theoretically from the following equation:
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0 :) 3
dsm =1 . 34( Kst

Where

Db= The design discharge for foundation per metre width of effective
waterway.

Ksr = Silt factor for a representative sample of bed material obtained upto
the level of anticipated deepest scour.

703.2.1 The value of Db may be determined by dividing the design discharge for.
foundation by lower of theoretical and actual effective linear waterway as given in IRC:5.

703.2.2 'Ks/ is given by the expression 1.76J(i;; dm being the weighted mean diameter
in millimetre.

703.2.2.1 The value of Kst for various grades of sandy bed are given below forready
reference and adoption:

Type of bed material

dm Ksf
Coarse silt 0.04 0.35
Silt/fine sand 0.081 to 0.158 0.5 to 0.7
Medium sand 0.223 to 0.505 0.85 to 1.25
Coarse sand 0.725 1.5
Fine bajri and sand 0.988 1.75
Heavy sand 1.29 to 2.00 2.0 to 2.42
703.2.2.2 No rational formula or data for determining scour depth for bed material
consisting of gravels and boulders (normally having weighted diameter more than 2.00 mm)
and clayey bed is available. In absence of any data on scour for such material, the mean
scour depth may be calculated following the guidelines given in Appendix-1.

703.2.3 If there is any predominant concentration of flow in any part of waterway due to
bend of the stream in immediate upstream or downstream or for any other reason, like, wide
variation of type of bed material across the width of channel, then mean scour depth may be
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 IRC:78-2014
calculated by dividing the waterway into compartments as per the concentration of flow.

703.2.4 In case of bridge mainly adopted as balancer, the mean scour depth 'dsm, may
be taken as (Highest Flood Level-Lowest Bed Level) divided by 1.27.

703.2.5 Scour depth may be determined by actual observations wherever possible.

This is particularly required for clayey and bouldery strata. Soundings, wherever possible,
shall be taken in the vicinity of the site for the proposed bridge and for any structures
nearby. Such soundings are best during or immediately after a flood before the scour
holes have had time to be silted up. The mean scour depth may be fixed based on such
observations and theoretical calculation.

703.3 Maximum Depth of Scour for Design of Foundation

703.3.1 The maximum depth of scour below the Highest Flood Level (HFL) for the design
of piers and abutments having individual foundations without any floor protection may be
considered as follows.

703.3.1. 1 Flood without seismic combination

i) For piers - 2.0 dsm
ii) For abutments - a) 1.27 dsm with approach retained or lowest
bed level whichever is deeper.
b) 2.00 dsm with scour all around.

703.3.1.2 Flood with seismic combination

For considering load combination of flood and seismic loads (together with other appropriate
combinations given elsewhere) the maximum depth of scour given in Clause 703.3.1.1 may
be reduced by multiplying factor of 0.9.

703. 3. 1. 3 For low water level (without flood conditions) combined with seismic combination
maximum level of scour below high flood level can be assumed as 0.8 times scour given in
Clause 703.3.1.

NOTE: In respect of viaduct/ROB having no possibility of scour, resistance of soil may be

I 703.3.2
considered below depth of excavation for services construction, or 2.0 m below
ground level whichever is greater.

For the design of floor protection works for raft or open foundations, the

' following values of maximum scour depth may be adopted:

i) In a straight reach
ii) In a bend
1.27 dsm
1.50 dsm or on the basis of concentration of flow

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IRC:78-2014
The length of apron on upstream may be 0.7 times of the same on downstream.

703.4 Special studies should be undertaken for determining the maximum scour
depth for the design of foundations in all situations where abnormal conditions, such as,
the following are encountered:

i) a bridge being located on a bend of the river involving a curvilinear flow, or

excessive shoal formation, or
ii) a bridge being located at a site where the deep channel in the river hugs to
one side, or .
!t
iii) a bridge having very thick piers inducing heavy local scours, or
iv) where the obliquity of flow in the river is considerable, or
v) where a bridge is required to be constructed across a canal, or across a
I
river downstream of storage works, with the possibility of the relatively
clear water inducing greater scours, or
vi) a bridge in the vicinity of a dam, weir, barrage or other irrigation structures
where concentration of flow, aggradations/degradation of bed, etc. are
likely to affect the behavior of the structures. -{

vii) An additional tow-lane bridge when located near to the existing bridge, on
major rivers.

NOTE: These studies shall be conducted for the increase discharge calculated vide Clause
703.1.1.

703.5 If a river is of a flashy nature and bed does not lend itself readily to the
scouring effect of floods, the theoretical formula for dsm and maximum depth of scour as
recommended shall not apply. In such cases, the maximum depth shall be assessed from
actual observations.

704 SUB-SURFACE EXPLORATION

704.1 Objectives

The objectives of the sub-surface exploration are:

i} During Preliminary Investigation Stage

As a part of site selection process to study existing geological maps and other
information, previously prepared and available site investigation reports,
known data of nearby structures, if any, surface examination about river bed
and banks, etc., which will help in narrowing down of sites under consideration
12
 IRC:78-2014
for further studies for project preparation stage.
ii) Detailed Investigation Stage

To determine the characteristics of the existing gee-materials, like, soil, rock,

bed material in water courses, etc. in the zone of influence of the proposed
bridge sites in such a way as to establish the design parameters which influence
the choice and design details of the various structural elements, especially the
foundation type.
· iii) During Construction Stage

To confirm the characteristics of gee-materials established in stage (ii}"based

on which the design choices are made and to re-confirm the same or modify to
suit the conditions met at specific foundation locations.

704.2 Zone of Influence

~- . .

Zone of influence mentioned in Clause 704.1 {ii) is defined as the full length of the bridge
including portion of wing/return wall and part of approaches covering, (but not restricted to),
the full flood zone for water courses, and upto depth below proposed foundation levels where
influence of stresses due to foundation is likely to affect the behaviour of the structure, including
settlement, subsidence under ground flow of water, etc. The width of the land strip on eitner
side of the proposed structure should include zones in which the hydraulic characteristics, of

I rive~ water are l.ikely to be changed affecting flow patterns, scour, etc.

704.3

1
Methods of Exploration

A 1atge variety of investigative methods are available. A most suitable and appropriate
· ·

combination of these shall be chosen.· Guidelines for choice of types of investigations,

properties of gee-materials that need be established, the in-situ testing, sampling,
. laboratory testing are given in Appendix-2. This may be further supplemented by
specialized techniques depending on the need.

705 DEPTH OF FOUNDATION

· 705.1 General

The foundation shall be designed to withstand the worst combination of loads and forces
evaluated in accordance with the provisions of Clause 706. The foundations shall be
taken to such depth that they are safe against scour or protected from it. Apart from this,
the depth should also be sufficient from consideration of bearing capacity, settlement,
liquefaction potential, stability and suitability of strata at the founding level and sufficient
depth below lt. In case of bridges where the mean scour depth 'dsm' is calculated with

13
IRC:78-2014
Clause 703.2, the depth of foundation shall not be less than those of existing structures
in the vicinity.

705.2 Open Foundation

705.2.1 In soil

The embedment of foundations in soil shall be based on correct assessment of anticipated

scour considering the values given under Clause 703.

Foundation may be taken down to a comparatively shallow depth below the bed surface
provided good bearing stratum is available, and the foundation is protected against scour.

The minimum depth of open foundations shall be upto stratum having safe bearing capacity
but not less than 2.0 m be!ow the scour level or the protected bed level.

705.2.2 In rocks

For open foundations resting on rock, the depth of rock, which in the opinion of the geological
expert is weathered or fissured, shall be excluded in deciding the depth of embedment into
the rock existing below. Where foundations are to rest on credible rocks, caution shall be
exercised to establish the foundation level at sufficient depth, so as to ensure that they
do not get undermined, keeping in view the continued erosion of the bed. After allowing
for conditions stipulated above the minimum embedment of the foundations into the rock
below shall be as follows, which in case of sloping rock profile can be provided by properly
benching the foundations.

Type of Rock Embedment depth

a) For rocks of moderately strong and above in table 2 of 0.6m
classification of rock (under clause 8.2· of appendix 2) having
UCS of more than 12.5 MPA or where it is not possible to take
core to get the UCS but extrapolated SPT N value is more
than 500
b) For rock of moderately weak and below in table 2 of classifi- 1.5 m
cation of rock (under clause 8.2 of appendix 2) having
UCS < 12.5 MPA but~ 2.5 MPA or where it is not possible
to take core to get the UCS but extrapolated SPT N value is
more than 100 but less than 500

705.3 Well Foundations

705.3.1 In soil

14
 IRC:78-2014
Well foundations shall be taken down to a depth which will provide a minimum grip of 1J3rd the
maximum depth of scour below the design scour level specified in Clause 703.3.

705.3.2 In rocks

As far as possible, the wells shall be taken by all the methods of sinking including pneumatic
sinking (where considered necessary), dewatering, etc. to foundation level and shall be evenly
seated all around the periphery on sound rock (i.e., devoid of fissures, cavities, weathered
zone, likely extent of erosion, etc.) by providing adequate embedment. The extent of seating
and embedment in each case shall be decided by the Engineer-in-charge keeping in view the
factors mentioned above to ensure overall and long-term safety of the structure. It is advisable
to make a sump (shear key) of 300 mm in hard rock or 600 mm in soft rock inside the well by
chiseling/blasting. Diameter of sump may be 1.5 to 2 m less than inner dredge-hole subject to a
minimum size of 1.5m . Six dowel bars of 25 mm dia deformed bars may be anchored 1.5 m in
rock and projected 1.5 m above. These may be anchored in minimum 65 mm dia boreholes and
grouted with 1:1 1h cement mortar.

705.4 Pile Foundations

705.4.1 In soil, the minimum depth of foundations below the point of fixity should be the
minimum length required for developing full fixity as calculated by any rational formula.

705.4.2 In rocks, the pile should be taken down to rock strata devoid of any likely
extension of erosion and properly socketed as required by the design.

706 LOADS, FORCES, STABILITY AND STRESSES

706.1 Loads, Forces and their Combinations

706.1.1 The loads and forces may be evaluated as per IRC:6 and their combinations
for the purpose of this code will be as follows:

Combination 1): G + (Q or Gj + Fwe+ F, + Fb + Gb+Fe,+ Fep

Combination II): i) + W + Fwp

or

i) + Feg + Fwp
or

ii) +F1m +Fwp

Combination iii) : G + Fwc + Gb + Fep + Fer+ Fr + (W or Feq)

15
IRC:78-2014

706.1.2 The permissible increase in stresses in the various members will be 33 1/ 3

percent for the combination of wind (W) and 50 percent for the combination with seismic
(Fer) or (Fi,J. The permissible increase in allowable base pressure should be 25 percent
for all combinations except combination i) However, when temperature effects (F1) ,
secondary effects (F) deformation .effects (fd) are also to be considered for any members in
combination with i) then permissible increase in stresses in various members and allowable
bear~ng pressure will be 15 percent.

706.2 Horizontal Forces at Bearing Level

706.2.1 Simply supported spans

.4
t
706.2.1.1 For simply supported span with fixed and free bearings (other than
Elastomeric type) on stiff supports, horizontal forces at the bearing level in' the
longitudinal direction shall be as given below :
I
Fixed Bearing Free Bearing
Non-Seismic Combinations

Greater of the two values given below :

i) . F h- J1 ( R +R q) Jl(R g +R)
q
9

ii) ~ + J1 (R + R )
2
Seismic Combinations
g q
I
.i
...
.:·;;·'-~

.. '
: • l
I';
where
Fh = Applied horizontal force
Rg =Reaction at the free end due to dead load
Rq = Reaction at the free end due to live load
J1 =Co-efficient of friction at the movable bearing which shall be
assumed to have the allowable values:

i) For steel roller bearings 0.03

ii) For concrete roller bearings 0.05
iii) For sliding bearings:
a) Steel on cast iron or steel on steel 0.4

16
 IRC:78-2014
b) Grey cast iron on grey cast iron 0.3
(Mechanites)
c) Concrete over concrete 0.5
d) Telflon on stainless steel 0.03 and 0.05
(whichever is governing)

706.2.1.2 In case of simply supported small spans upto 10m and where no bearings are
provided, horizontal force in the longitudinal direction at the bearing level shall be

;h or f.I(Rg) whichever is greater

706.2.1.3 For a simply supported span sitting on identical electrometric bearings at
each end and resting on unyielding supports. ;
!

Force of each end= ;h + ~ ~e

Vr = Shear rating of the electrometric bearings
11e = Movement of deck above bearing, other than due to applied forces
706.2.2 Simply supported and continuous span on flexible supports

706.2.2.1 The distribution of applied longitudinal horizontal force (e.g., braking, seismic,
wind, etc.) depends solely on shear rating oft he supports and may be estimated in proportion
c to the ratio of individual shear rating of a support to the sum of the shear ratings of all the
supports. Shear rating of a support is the horizontal force required to move the top of the
support through a unit distance taking into account horizontal deformation of the bridge,
flexing of the support and rotation of the foundation.

706.3 Base Pressure

706.3.1 The allowable bearing pressure and the settlement characteristics under
different loads and stresses may be determined on the basis of sub-soil exploration
and testing. Though the help of relevant Indian Standard Code of Practice may be-
taken, the allowable bearing pressure may be calculated as gross so that the gross
pressure at the base without deducting the soil di~placed can be computed.

706.3.1.1 Factor of safety

706.3.1.1.1 For open foundations and well foundation resting on soil, the allowable bearing
pressure on ultimate bearing capacity may be taken as 2.5 for soil.

17
IRC:78-2014
706.3.1.1.2 For open foundations and well foundation resting on rock, the allowable bearing
pressure on rock may be decided upon not only on the strength of parent rock but also on
overall characteristics particularly deficiencies, like, joints, bedding planes, faults, weathered
zones, etc. In absence of such details or analysis of overall characteristics, the value of
factor of safety based on unconfined compressive strength of the parent rock may be taken
as 6 to 8 unless otherwise indicated on the basis of local experience. The allowable bearing
pressure, thus, obtained is to be further restricted to not over 3 MPa for load combination (i)
given in Clause 706.1.1. For Factor of safety in case of pile foundation the clause 709.3.2
shall be referred

The intermediate geo-materiallike disintegrated weathered or very soft rock may be treated
as soil.

706.3.2 Allowable settlement/differential settlement

706.3. 2.1 The calculated differential settlement between the foundations of simply
supported spans shall not exceed 1 in 400 of the distance between the two foundations from
the consideration of tolerable riding quality unless provision has been made for rectification
of this settlement.

706.3.2.2 In case of structures sensitive to differential settlement, the tolerable limit has
to be fixed for each case separately.

706.3.3 Permissible tension at the base of foundation

706.3.3.1 No tension shall be permitted under any combination of loads on soils.

706.3.3.2 In case of rock if tension is found to be developed at the base of foundation,

the base area should be reduced to a size where no tension will occur and base pressure
is recalculated. The maximum pressure on such reduced area should not exceed allowable
bearing pressure. Such reduced area shall not be less than 67 percent of the total area
for load combination including seismic, or impact of barge, and 80 percent for other load
combinations.

706.3.4 Factor of safety for stability

Factors of safety against overturning and sliding are given below. These are mainly relevant

18
 IRC:78-2014
for open foundations:
Without With Seismic
Seismic Case Case
i) Against overturning 2 1.5
ii) Against sliding 1.5 1.25
iii) Against deep-seated failure 1.25 1.15

Frictional co-efficient between concrete and soil/rock will be Tan 0, 0 being angle of friction.
Founding soil in foundation of bridge being generally properly consolidated, following
values may be adopted:

Friction co-efficient between soil and concrete = 0.5

Friction co-efficient between rock and concrete = 0.8 for good rock and 0.7
for fissured rock !
:f
I
706.3.5 Pile foundations

The allowable load, the allowable settlement/differential settlement and the procedures to
I
i

determine the same for pile foundations are given in Clause 709.

707 OPEN FOUNDATIONS

707.1 General

707.1.1 Provision of the Clause under 707 shall apply for design of isolated footings
and, where applicable, to combined footings, and rafts.

707.1.2 Open foundations may be provided where the foundations can be laid in a
stratum which is in erodible or where the extent of scour of the bed is reliably known. The
foundations are to be reliably protected by means of suitably designed aprons, cut-off
walls or/and launching aprons as may be necessary.

707.2 Design

707.2.1 The thickness of the footings shall not be less than 300 mm.

707.2.2 Bending moments

707.2.2.1 For solid wall type substructure with one-way reinforced footing, the bending
moments can be determined as one-way slab for the unit width subjected to worst
combination of loads and forces.
707.2.2.2 For two-way footing, bending moment at any section of the footing shall be
determined by passing a vertical plane through the footing and computing the moment
of the forces acting over the entire area of footings one side of the vertical plane. The
19
IRC:78-2014
critical section of bending shall be at the face of the solid column.
707.2.2.3 In case of circular footings or polygonal footings, the bending moments in
the footing may be determined in accordance with any rational method. Methods given by
Timoshenko and Rowe for Plate Analysis are acceptable.

707.2.2.4 For combined footings supporting two or more columns, the critical sections for
bending moments along the axis of the columns shall be at the face of the columns/walls.
Further, for determination of critical sections for bending moments between the column/
walls, any rational method of analysis be adopted. ~
.f
707.2.3 The shear strength of the footing may be checked at the critical section which I
is the vertical section at a distance 'd' from the face of the wall for one-way action where
'd' is the effective depth of the section at the face of the wall.
707.2.3.1 For two-way action for slab or footing, the critical section should be
I
perpendicular to plan of slab and so located that its perimeter is minimum, but need not
approach closer than half the effective depth from the perimeter of concentrated load or
reaction area.

707.2.4 To ensure proper load transfer, a limiting value of ratio of depth to length/
width of footing equal to 1:3 is specified. Based on this, for sloped footings the depth
effective at the critical section shall be the minimum depth at the end plus 1/3rd of the distance
between the extreme edge of the footing to the critical section for design of the footing for
all purposes.

707.2.5 The critical section for checking development length of reinforcement bars
should be taken to be the same section as given in Clause 707.2.3 and also all other
vertical planes where abrupt changes in section occur.

707.2.6 Tensile reinforcement

707.2.6.1 The tensile reinforcement shall provide a moment of resistance at least equal
to the bending moment on the section calculated in accordance with Clause 707 22.

707.2.6.2 The tensile reinforcement shall be distributed across the corresponding

resisiting section as below:

a) In one-way reinforced footing, the reinforcement shall be same as

calculated for critical unit width as mentioned in Clause 707 .2.2.1.

b) In two-way reinforced square footing, the reinforcement extending in each

direction shall be distributed uniformly across the full section of the footing.

2Q
 IRC:78-2014
c) In two-way reinforced rectangular footing, the reinforcement in the long
direction shall be distributed uniformly across the full width of the footing.
For reinforcement in the short direction, a central band equal to the short
side of the footing shall be marked along the length of the footing and
portion of the reinforcement determined in accordance with the equation
given below shall be uniformly distributed across the central band:

Reinforcement in central band 2

- {3+1
Total Reinforcement in short direction

Where f3 = the ratio of the long side to the short side of the footing

The remainder of the reinforcement shall be uniformly distributed in the

outer portions of the footing. I
f
f
d) In the case of a circular shaped footing, the reinforcement shall be provided
on the basis of the critical values of radial and circumferential bending
moments in the form of radial and circumferential steel. Alternatively,
equivalent orthogonal grid can be provided.

707.2.7 The area of tension reinforcement should as per IRC: 112, Clause number
16.5.1.1

707.2.8 All faces of the footing shall be provided with a minimum steel of 250 mm2/
metre in each direction for all grades of reinforcement. Spacing of these bars shall not be
more than 300 mm. This steel may be considered to be acting as tensile reinforcement on
that face, if required from the design -considerations.

707.2.9 In case of plain concrete, brick or stone masonry footings, the load from the
pier or column shall be taken as dispersed through the footing at an angle not exceeding 45°
to vertical.

707.3 Open Foundations at Sloped Bed Profile

707.3.1 Open foundations may rest on sloped bed profile provided the stability of the
slope is ensured. The footings shall be located on a horizontal base.

I 707.3.2 For the foundations adjacent to each other, the pressure coming from the
foundations laid on the higher level should be duly considered on the foundations at the
lower level due to the dispersions of the pressure from the foundation at the higher level.
The distance between the two foundations at different levels may be decided in such a way
to minimize this effect taking into account the nature of soil.

I 21
IRC:78-2014
707.4 Construction

707.4.1 The protective works shall be completed before the floods so that the foundation
does not get undermined.

707.4.2 Excavation on open foundations shall be done after taking necessary safety
precautions for which guidance may be taken from IS 3764.
f
707.4.3 Where blasting is required to be done for excavation in rock, and is likely I
to endanger adjoining foundations or other structures, necessary precautions, such as,
controlled blasting, providing suitable mat cover to prevent flying of debris, etc. shall be
I
taken to prevent any damage.

707.4.4 Condition for laying of foundations

707.4.4.1 Normally, the open foundations should be laid dry and every available method
of dewatering by pumping or depression of water by well point, etc. may be resorted to. A
levelling course of 100 mm thickness in M 10 (1 :3:6) shall be provided below foundation.

707.4.4.2 If it is determined before-hand that the foundations cannot be laid dry or

the situation is such that the percolation is too heavy for keeping the foundation dry, the
foundation concrete may be laid under water only by tremie pipe. In case of flowing water
or artesian springs, the flow shall be stopped or reduced as far as possible at the time of
placing of concrete. No pumping of water shall be permitted from the time of placing of
concrete upto 24 hours after placement.

707.4.5 All spaces excavated and not occupied by abutments, pier or other permanent
works shall be refilled with earth upto the surface of the surrounding ground, with sufficient
allowance for settlement. All backfill shall be thoroughly compacted and in general, its top
surface shall be neatly graded.

707.4.6 In case of excavation in rock, the trenches around the footing shall be filled-up
with concrete of M15 grade upto top of the rock.

707.4. 6.1 If the depth of fill required is more than 1.5 m in soft rock or 0.6 m in hard rock
above the foundation level, then concrete may be filled upto this level by M 15 concrete and
portion above may be filled by concrete or by boulders grouted with cement.

707.4.6.2 For design of foundation on rock in river bridges, the design loads and forces
I
22 ~
~
~

-
 IRC:78-2014
shall be considered upto the bottom of footing. The load of filling need not be considered in
stability calculations

708 WELL FOUNDATIONS

708.1 General

708.1.1 Foundations supporting the superstructure located in deep water cannels

shall comprise of properly dimensioned caissons preferably having a single dredge hole.
While selecting the shape, size and type of well, the size of abutment and pier to be
accommodated, need for effecting streamline flow, the possibility of the use of pneumatic
sinking, the anticipated depth of foundation and the nature of data to be penetrated should
be kept in view. The minimum dimensions of dredge-hole shall not be less than 3 m. In
case there is deep standing water, properly designed floating caissons may be used as per
Clause 708.12.
•i
I

However, in case of larger bridges across rivers in wide flood plains prone to scour, delta/
tidal rivers, channels with inland waterway traffic and bridges in coastal/marine locations,
the number of intermediate foundations shall be reduced as far as practicable.

708.1.2 If the external diameter of single circular well exceeds 12 m then Engineer-
in-charge may take recourse to any of the following:

a) Stress in steining shall be evaluated using 3-Dimensional Finite Element

Method (3D FEM) or any other suitable analytical method.

b) Stiffening by compartments may be done for the single circular well.

Design of such stiffened wells shall call for supplemental design and
construction specifications,

c) Twin D-shaped well may be adopted

708.1.3 The conditions arising out of sand blow, if anticipated, should be duly
considered when circular well is analysed using 3D FEM/suitable analytical method or
stiffened circular wells are used.

708.1.4 Bottom plug of well should be suitably designed to resist maximum upward
force acting on it during construction following plugging as well as during life span of the
structure.
708.2 Well Steining

708.2.1 Thickness of the steining should be such so that it is possible to sink the
well without excessive kentledge and without getting damaged during sinking or during
23
IRC:78-2014
rectifying the excessive tilts and shifts. The steining should also be able to resist differential
earth pressure developed during sand blow or other conditions, like, sudden drop.

Stresses at various levels of the steining should be within permissible limits under all
conditions for loads that may be transferred to the well.

708.2.2 Use of cellular steining with two or more shells or use of composite material in
well steining shall not be permitted for wells upto 12 m diameter.

708.2.3 Steining thickness

708.2.3.1 The minimum thickness of the well steining shall not be less than 500 mm and
satisfy the following relationship:

h = Kd.J/
h =minimum thickness of steining in m
d =external diameter of circular well of dumb bell shaped well or in case of
twin D wells smaller dimension in plan in metres

=depth of wells in metre below top of well cap or LWL whichever is more
(for floating caisson '/'may- be taken as depth of well in metres below
bed level).

K =a constant
Value of K shall be as follows:

i) Well in cement concrete K =0.03

ii) Well in brick masonry K =0.05
iii) Twin Dwells K = 0.039

708.2.3.2 The minimum steining thickness may be varied from above in following
conditions:

Strata / Variation from the I Recommended

I minimum \I variation upto
I
! a) Very soft clay strata Reduced 110%
\ b) Hard clay strata Increased 10% I
1
c) Boulder strata or well resting on , Increased 10% Ii
i rock involving blasting I I

24

..
i
 IRC:78-2014
708.2.3.3 However, following aspects may also be considered depending on the strata:

a) Very soft clay strata: Main criteria for reduction in steining thickness is
to prevent the well penetrating by its own weight. When the thickness is
so reduced, the steining shall be adequately reinforced, to get sufficient
strength. ·
b) Hard clay strata: Depending on the previous experience, the increase
in steining thickness may be more than 10 percent.
c) Bouldery strata or well resting on rock involving blasting: higher
grade of concrete, higher reinforcement, use of steel plates in the lower
portions, etc., may be adopted.
708.2.3.4 The recommended values given in Clause 708.2.3.2 can be further varied
based on local experience and in accordance with decision of Engineer-in-charge.
l
f
708.2.3.5 If specialised methods of sinking, such as, jack down method, are adopted
then the steining thickness may be adjusted according to design and construction
requirements.

708.2.3.6 Any variation from dimensions as proposed in Clause 708.2.3.1 should be

decided before framing the proposal.

708.2.3. 7 When the depth of well below well cap is equal to or more than 30 m, the
thickness of the steining of the well calculated as per Clause 708.2.3 may be reduced
above scour level in a slope of 1 horizontal to 3 vertical such that the reduced thickness of
the steining should not be less than required as per Clause 708.2.3 for the depth of well
upto scour level with the reduced diameter.

The reduction in thickness shall be done in the outer surface of the well The diameter of
inner dredge hole shall be kept uniform.

The minimum steel and the concrete grade in the slope portion shall be same as for the
steining below scour level.

Minimum development length of all the vertical steel bars shall be provided beyond the
minimum section as shown in the Appendix-3 (Fig. 1).

The stress in the reduced section of steining shall also be checked.

708.3 Design Considerations

708.3.1 The external diameter of the brick masonry wells shall not exceed 6 m. Brick

25
 ~
y1
"
IRC:78-2014
masonry wells for depth greater than 20m shall not be permitted.

708.3.2 For brick masonry wells, brick not less than Grade-A having strength not less than
7MPa- conforming to IS 1077 shall be used in cement mortar not leaner than 1:3.

708.3.3 For plain concrete wells, vertical reinforcements (whether mild steel or deformed
bars) in the steining shall not be less than 0.12 percent of gross sectional area of the actual •i!
thickness provided. This shall be equally distributed on both faces of the steining. The vertical
reinforcements shall be tied up with hoop steel not less than 0.04 percent of the volume per
unit length of the steining, as shown in the Appendix-3 (Fig. 2).

708.3.4 In case where the well steining is designed as a reinforced concrete element,
it shall be considered as a column section subjected to combined axial load and bending.
However, the amount of vertical reinforcement provided in the steining shall not be less
than 0.2 percent (for either mild steel or deformed bars) of the actual gross sectional area
of the steining. On the inner face, a minimum of 0.06 percent (of gross area) steel shall
be provided. The transverse reinforcement in the steining shall be provided in accordance
with the provisions for a column but in no case shall be less than 0.04 percent of the volume
per unit length of the steining.

The horizontal annular section of well steining shall also be checked for ovalisation moments
by any rational method taking account of side earth pressures evaluated as per Clause
708.4.

708.3.5 The vertical bond rods in brick masonry steining shall not be less than 0.1 percent
of the cross-sectional area and shall be encased into cement concrete of M 15 mix of size
150 mm x 150 mm. These rods shall be equally distributed along the circumference in the middle
of the steining and shall be tied up with hoop steel not less than 0.04 percent of the volume per
unit length of the steining. The hoop steel shall be provided in a concrete band at spacing of 4
times of the thickness of the steining or 3 metres, whichever is less. The horizontal RCC bands
shall not be less than 300 mm wide and 150 mm high, reinforced with bars of diameter not less
than 10 mm placed at the corners and tied with 6 mm diameter stirrups at 300 mm centres, as
shown in the Appendix-3 (Fig. 3).

708.3.6 The stresses in well steining shall be checked at such critical sections where
tensile and compressive stresses are likely to be maximum and also where there is change
in the area of reinforcement or in the concrete mix.

708.4 Stability of Well Foundations

708.4.1 The stability and design of well foundations shall be done under the most critical

26
 IRC:78-2014
combination of loads and forces as per Clause 706. The pressure on foundations shall satisfy
the provisions of Clause 706.

708.4.2 Side earth resistance

708.4. 2. 1 The side earth resistance may be calculated as per guidelines given in
Appendix-3. The use of provisions IRC:45 may be used for pier well foundations in
cohesionless soil.

708.4.2.2 The side earth resistance shall be ignored in case of well foundations resting
on rock. If rock strata is such that the allowable bearing pressure is less than 1 MPa, then
the side earth resistance may be taken into account.

i
708.4.3 Earth pressure on abutments I
'
l
!
708.4.3.1 If the abutments are designed to retain earth and not spilling in front, the
foundations of such abutments shall be designed to withstand the earth pressure and
horizontal forces for the condition of scour depth in front of 1.27 dsm with approach retained
and 2 dsm with scour all around. In case of scour all around, live load may not be considered.

708.4.3.2 However, where earth spilling from the approaches is reliably protected in
front, relief due to the spilling earth in front may be considered from bottom of well cap
downwards.

708.4.4 Construction stage

708.4.4.1 Stability of the well shall also be checked for the construction stage when-there
is no superstructure and the well is subjected to design scour, full pressure due to water
current and/or full design earth pressure as in the case of abutment wells.

708.4.4.2 During the construction of wells when it has not reached the founding level
or has not been plugged, the wells are likely to be subjected to full pressure due to water
tJ current upto full scour. This may result in tilting, sliding and shifting. As a part of the safety

I
•
during construction, this should be considered and safety of well must be ensured by
suitable methods, where required .

708.5 Tilts and Shifts

708.5.1 As far as possible, the wells shall be sunk plumb without any tilts and shifts.
However, a tilt of 1 in 80 and a shift of 150 mm due to translation (both additive) in a direction
which will cause most severe effect shall be considered in the design of well foundations.

27
IRC:78-2014
708.5.2 If the actual tilts and shifts exceed the above limits, then the remedial measures
have to be resorted to bring the well within that limit. If it is not possible then its effect on bearing
pressure, steining stress and other structural elements shall be examined, and controlled if
necessary and feasible, by resorting to change in span length. The Engineer-in-charge may
like to specify the maximum tilts ang shifts upto which the well may be accepted subject to the
bearing pressure and steining stress being within limits, by changing the span length if needed,
and beyond which the well will be rejected irrespective of the result of any modification.

708.6 Cutting Edge

708.6.1 The mild steel cutting edge shall be strong enough and not less than 40 kg/m to
facilitate sinking of the well through the types of strata expected to be encountered without
suffering any damage. It shall be properly anchored to the well curb. For sinking through
rock, cutting edge should be suitably designed. l
708.6.2 When there are two or more compartments in a well, the lover end of the
cutting edge of the middle stems of such wells shall be kept about 300 mm above that
of the outer stems to prevent rocking, as shown in the Appendix-3 (Fig. 2).

708.7 Well Curb

708.7.1 The well curb should be such that it will offer the minimum resistance while the
well is being sunk but should be strong enough to be able to transmit superimposed loads
from the steining to the bottom plug.

708.7.2 The shape and the outline dimension of the curb as given in Appendix-3 (Fig.
2) may be taken for guidance. The internal angle of the curb 'as' as shown in Appendix-3
(Fig. 2) should be kept at about 30° to 3r and may be increased or decreased based on
past experience and geotechnical data.

708.7.3 The well curb shall invariably be in reinforced concrete of mix not leaner
than M 25 with minimum reinforcement of 72 kg/cum ex-cluding bond rods. The steel
shall be suitably arranged to prevent spreading and splitting of the curb during sinking
and in service.

708.7.4 In case blasting is anticipated, the inner faces of the well curb shall be
protected with steel plates of thickness not less than 10 mm upto the top of the well
curb. If it is desired to increase the steel lining above the well curb then the thickness
Is
can be reduced to 6 mm for that increased height. In any case, this extra height of the
steel should not be more than 3 metres unless there is a specific requirement. The I
curb in such a case should be provided with additional hoop reinforcement of 10 mm
dia · mild steel or deformed bars at 150 mm centres which shall also extend upto a
height of 3 m into the well steining above the curb. Additional reinforcement above this

28
 IRC:78-2014
height upto two times the thickness of steining should be provided to avoid cracking
arising out of sudden change in the effective section due to curtailment of plate.

708.8 Bottom Plug

708.8.1 The bottom plug shall be provided in all wells and the top shall be kept not
lower than 300 mm in the centre above the top of the curb as shown in the Appendix-3
(Fig. 2). A suitable sump shall be below the level of the cutting edge. Before concerting the
bottom plug, it shall be ensured that its inside faces have been cleaned thoroughly.

708.8.2 The concrete mix used in bottom plug shall have a minimum cement content
of 330 kg/m 3 and a slump of about 150 mm to permit easy flow of concrete through termie to
place fill-up all cavities. Concrete shall be laid in one continuous operation till dredge hole is
filled to required height. For under water concreting, the concrete shall be placed by tremie
under still water condition and the cement content of mix. be increased by 10 percent.

708.8.3 In case grouted calcrete, e.g., concrete is used, the grout mix shall not be
leaner than 1:2 and it shall be ensured by suitable means, such as, controlling the rate of
pumping that the grout fills-up all interstices upto the top of the plug.

708.8.4 If any dewatering is required it shall be carried out after 7 days have elapsed
after bottom plugging.

708.9 Filling the Well

708.9.1 The filling of the well, if considered necessary, above the bottom plug shall be done
with sand or excavated material free from organic matter.

708.10 Plug over Filling

708.10.1 A300 mm thick plug of M 15 cement concrete shall be provided-over the filling.

708.11 Well Cap

708.11.1 The bottom of well cap shall be laid as low as possible but above the LWL in
the active channel. Where the bed level is higher than LWL the bottom of well cap may be
suitably raised.

708.11.2 As many longitudinal bars as possible coming from the well steining shall be
anchored into the well cap.

708.11.3 The design of the well cap shall be based on; any accepted rational method,
considering the worst combination of loads and forces as per Clause 706.

29
1RC:78-2014
708.12 Floating Caissons

708.12.1 Floating caissons may be of steel, reinforced concrete or any suitable material.
They should have at least 1.5 metres free board above the water level and increased, if
considered necessary, in case there is a possibility of caissons sinking suddenly owing to
reasons, such as, scour likely to result from lowering of caissons, effect of waves, sinking
in very soft strata, etc.

708.12.2 Well caissons should be checked for stability against overturning and
capsizing while being towed, and during sinking, due to the action of water current, wave
pressure, wind, etc.

708.12.3 The floating caisson shall not be considered as part of foundation unless
proper shear transfer at the interface is ensured.

708.13 Sinking of Wells

708.13.1 The well shall as far as possible be sunk true and vertical. Sinking should
not be started till the steining has been cured for at least 48 hours. A complete record f
r
of sinking operating including tilt and shifts, kentledge, dewatering, blasting, etc. done
during sinking shall be maintained.

For safe sinking of wells, necessary guidance may be taken from the precautions as given
in Appendix-4.
I
708.14 Pneumatic Sinking of Wells I
708.14.1 Where sub-surface data indicate the need for pneumatic sinking, it will be
necessary to decide the method and location of pneumatic equipment and its supporting
adapter.

708.14.2 In case if concrete steinlng is provided, it shall be rendered air tight by

restricting the tension in concrete which will not exceed 3/8th of the modulus of rupture.
I
J
For the circular wells, the tension in steining may be evaluated by assuming it to be a thick
walled cylinder.

708.14.3 The steining shall be checked at different sections for any possible rupture
'
'

against the uplift force and, if necessary, shall be adequately strengthened.

708.14.4 The design requirements of the pneumatic equipment, safety of personnel

and the structure shall comply with the provisions of IS 4138 "Safety Code for Working
in Compressed Air". It is desirable that the height of the working chamber in a pneumatic
caissons should not be less than 3 metres to provide sufficient head room when the cutting
30
 IRC:78-2014
edge is embedded a short distance below the excavated level and in particular to allow
for blowing down. The limiting depth for pneumatic sinking should be such that the depth
of water below normal water level to the proposed foundation level upto which pneumatic
sinking is proposed should not exceed 30.

708.15 Sinking of Wells by Resorting to Blasting

Blasting may be employed with prior approval of competent authority to help sinking of well
for breaking obstacles, such as, boulders or for levelling the rock layer for square seating of
wells. Blasting may be resorted to only when other methods are found ineffective.
709 PILE FOUNDATION

709.1 General
$

709.1.1 Piles transmit the load of a structure to competent sub-surface strata by the f
resistance developed from bearing at the toe or skin friction along the surface or both. The
piles may be required to carry uplift and lateral loads besides direct vertical load.

709.1.2 The construction of pile foundation requires a careful choice of piling system
•t
'
depending upon subsoil conditions and load characteristics of structures. The permissible
limits of total and differential settlement, unsupported length of pile under scour and any
other special requirements of project are also equally important criteria for adoption.

709.1.3 Design and construction: For design and construction of piles guidance may
be taken from IS 2911 subject to limitations/stipulations given in this code. Appendix-5
gives the design formulae and their applicability.

709.1.4 For piles in streams, rivers, creeks, etc., the following criteria may be
followed:

i) Scour conditions are properly established.

ii) Permanent steel liner should be provided at least upto maximum scour
level. In case of marine clay or soft soil or soil having aggressive material,
permanent steel liner of sufficient strength shall be used for the full depth of
j
such strata. The minimum thickness of liner should be 6 mm
'
For bridges located in land, steel liners of minimum thickness of 6 mm shall
be provided in cases given below. The liner shall be provided up to depth up
to which following situations prevail.

a) While constructing the piie foundation through very soft clay (N:::; 3) ,very loose
sandy strata (N :::; 8), bouldery formation and artesian conditions, wherein the

31
IRC:78-2014
walls of boreholes cannot be stabilized by bentonite circulation.
.I
b) Where sewage leakage is common phenomenon as well as sites with
aggressive soil/water environment

709.1.5 Spacing of piles and tolerances

709.1.5.1

a)
Spacing of piles

Where pier is supported on multiple piles, connected by frame structure or by

solid pile cap, the spacing of piles should be considered in relation to the nature
'
'

~
of the ground, their behavior in groups and the execution convenience. The i
I
spacing should be chosen with regard to the resulting heave or compaction and i
should be wide enough to enable the desired number of piles to be installed i
to the correct penetration without damage to any adjacent construction or to
the piles themselves.

b) For land bridges, pier may be supported on single pile having diameter sufficiently
large to accommodate construction tolerances of pile installation with reference
to location of piers as well as having strength as required by the design. The
pile shouid be designed to cater for the maximum eccentricity of vertical load
in such case. Alternatively, pile shaft can be continued to act as a pier and get
connected to pier cap which is designed to accommodate the eccentricities due
to construction tolerances.

The size of a cap carrying the load from the structure to the pile heads, or the size and
effective length of a ground beam, may influence type, size and spacing of piles.

The spacing of piles will be determined by many aspects mentioned above. The working
rules which are generally, though not always, suitable, are as follows:

For friction piles, the spacing centre should not be less than the perimeter of the pile or
for circular pile, three times the diameter. The spacing of piles deriving their resistance
mainly from end bearing may be reduced but the distance between the surfaces of the
shafts of adjacent piles should be not less than the least width of the piles.

709. 1. 5. 2 Permissible tolerances for piles shall be as under:

i) For vertical piles 75 mm at piling platform level and tilt not exceeding 1 in
150•
'
ii) For raker piles tolerance of 1 in 25.

709.1.6 The maximum rake to be permitted in pile shall not exceed the following:
i) 1 in 6 for all bored piles;
ii) 1 in 6 for driven cast-in-situ piles; and
32
 IRC:78-2014
iii)• 1 in 4 for Precast driven piles·.

709.1. 7 The minimum diameter shall be 1.0 m for river/marine bridges. For bridges
., beyond the water zone and for bridges on land, the diamete~ may be reduced upto 750 mm.

709.1.8 ~ettlement, differential settlement ~nd pi/~ c~pacity

The Differential settlement between two successive foundations taken at pile cap level,
may be estimated from the·maximum setttement expected at two foundations for the dead
load, superimposed loads, live load and scour effect. The increase in settlement with time
in clayey soils shall be accounted for. In absence of detailed calculations, for the purpose
of preliminary design,· it can-be taken as not more fhan the maximum settlement of any of
the'two foundations.
t
~

The differential settlement shall be limited depending upon the following functional and .•
l

structural considerations:

a) Functionally, acceptable differential settlement _between two neighboring

piers shall not be greater than 1 in 400 of the span to ensure riding comfort,
as specified in Clause 706.3.2.1.

b) The allowable settlement of a single pile considered for estimating the pile
-· capacity shall be arrived froni corfelati6n of the settlement of pile group to
that of single pile, as per Clause 709.3.4.

c) It is further provided that the working load cap9city of pile based on the
sub-clause b) slialinof exceed· 40 percent of the load corresponding to
. the settlement of 10 percent of pile. diameter o:e. safety factor of 2.5 on
ultimate. load capacity is ~nsured).,

For. both Precast

- and cast.,in-sitq piles, tbe values regarding grade of concrete,
.

water cement ratio, slump shall be as follows:

Cone ret~ Cast--in-situ by.:. Precast Concrete

I
~ Grade of concr~te·
Tremie
M35
. • >

M35

i Min. cement contents

Max. W. C. ratio
400 kg/m 3
0.4
400 kg/m 3
0.4
I
~
~
Slump (mm) 150-200 50-75
~
1 NOTE : i) _ For improving resistance to pen~tration of harmful elements from soil use of mineral
~
• 33.
 1

IRC:78-2014
admixtures (flyash, silica fume, GGBS conforming to respective SIS/International
standards) and as per IRC:112 is recommended.
ii) In marine conditrons and areas exposed to action of harmful chemicals, protection
of pile caps with suitable coating such as bituminous based, coal-tar epoxy based
coating may be considered. High alumina cements, (i.e. quick setting cement) shall
not be used in marine conditions. Also when both chlorides and sulphates are present, '
use of sulphate-resistant cement is not recommended. i

709.2 Requirement and Steps for Design and Installation

709.2.1 The initial design of an individual pile, confirmation of its capacity by either .
jj
~
initial load test or by re-confirmation of actual soil parameters, modification of design, if
required, and final adoption should pass through following steps of investigations, design
and load testing:
I
i) Comprehensive and detailed sub-surface investigation for piles to
determine the design parameters of end bearing capacity, friction capacity
and lateral capacity of soil surrounding the pile.
I
5
I

ii) Design of pile and pile group based on i) above for specified bearing
strata.
iii) Initial load testing:
Initialload test on pile of same diameter as design pile for direct confirmation
of design. I
The initial load test is a part of the design process confirming the expected
properties of bearing strata and the pile capacity.
iv) Steps ii) and iii) should be repeated for different types of strata met at site.
I
709.2.2 The steps for design and confirmation by tests are given below:
i) Sub-soil exploration to reconfirm soil parameters assumed in the design.
ii) Provide for the required design capacity of pile group based on tentative
number and diameter of piles in a group.
iii) The allowable total/differential settlement of single pile should be based on
the considerations as per Clauses 709.1.8 and 709.3.4. Capacity of single
pile is to be based on static formula considering ground characteristics.
This step along with step ii) may be iterative.
iv) Structural design of piles.

v) Initial load test as mentioned in Clause 709.2.1 iii) is for axial load capacity,
34
 IRC:78-2014
including uplift capacity, if required, on trial piles of the same diameter as
the design pile. The testing shall be done as per the procedure laid down in
18:2911, Part-IV. This load test shall be conducted for not less than 21/ 2
times the design load. The initial load test shall be cyclic load test for piles
. deriving strength from end bearing and side friction. The maintained load
test can be performed for end bearing piles without relying on friction, and
for the socketed piles in rock.

vi) If the initial load test gives a capacity greater than 25 percent of the capacity
calculated by static formula, and if i~ is desired to take benefit of the higher
capacity, another two load tests shall be carried out to confirm the earlier
value and minimum of the three shall. be co,nsidered as initial load test value.
The number of initial tests shall be determined by the Engineer-in-charge
taking into consideration the bore log and soil profile.

709.2.3 For abutment, it is important to consider. overall stability of the structure

f
and abutment. The piles should also be designed to sustain surcharge effect of
embClnkment.

709.2.4 Routine load test

i)
Routine load test should be done allocations of alternate foundations of
bridges to reconfirm or modify the allowable loads. Vertical and horizontal
load tests should be properly designed to cover particular pile group. The
lateral load test may be conducted on two adjacent piles. However, results
of routine load tests shall not be used for upward revision of design capacity
of piles. The minimum number of tests to be conducted is as given below for
confirming pile capacity.
Total number of Piles for the Bridge Minimum No. of Test Piles
Upto 50 2
Upto 150 3

II
Beyond 150 2 percent of total piles (fractional number
rounded to next higher integer number).

NOTE: The number of tests may be judiciously increased depending upon the variability of
foundations strata.
i
~
ii) Permissible Over Load

I! While conducting routine test on one of the pile belonging to a pile group,if

II 35
e
~
I
IRC:78-2014
the pile is found to be deficient (based on the settlement criteria at 1.5
times the design load) an overload upto 10 percent of the reduced capacity
may be allowed.

iii) For a quick assessment of pile capacity, high-strain dynamic tests may be
conducted after establishing co-relations using the results of load tests.
However, results of the strain dynamic tests shall not be used for upward
revision of design capacity of pile. Detailed guidelines are at Appendix-7
Part 1. These methods can be followed.

iv) To have a fairly good idea about the quality of concrete and construction
defects like voids, discontinuities, etc., pile integrity tests are
extensively conducted. Detailed guidelines and references are at
Appendix-7 Part 2. l
709.3

709.3.1
Geotechnical Capacity of Pile

Resistance to vertical loads

For calculating designed capacity of pile for load combination I of Clause 706.1.1,
recommendation of Appendix-5 should be followed. For calculating capacity of pile group,
I
l
'

refer Clauses 709.3.3 and 709.3.4 and the allowable settlement criteria as per Clause 709.1.8.
For purpose of these Clauses the following definitions will apply.

a) Cohesive soil (clay or plastic silt with Su ~ 0.25 MPa);

b) Granular soil (sand, gravel or non-plastic silt with N (average within layer)
:5 50 blows/0.3 m (50 blows/30 ems);
c) Intermediate Geomaterial
Cohesive: e.g. clay shales or mudstones with 0.25 MPa (2.5 tsf) < Su < 2.5 MPa.
Cohesion less: e.g. granular tills, granular residual soils N>50 blows/0.3 m
(50 blows/30 em);
d) Rock: Cohesive, Cemented Geomaterial with Su ~ 2.5MPa (25 tsf) or
qu ~ 5.0 MPa.
709.3.2 Factor of Safety

The minimum factor of safety on ultimate axial capacity computed on the basis of
static formula shall be 2.5 for load combination i of Clause 706.1.1 for piles in soil. For
piles in rock, factor of safety shall be 3 on end bearing component and 6 on socket
side resistance component, for load combination I of clause 706.1.1 subject to further
limits as stipulated in Appendix-5.

36
 IRC:78-2014
709.3.3 Capacity of piles/group action
The axial capacity of a group of piles should be determined by a factor to be applied to
the capacity of individual piles multiplied by the number of piles of the group.

i) Factor may be taken as 1 in case of purely end bearing piles having minimum
spacing of 2.0 times the diameter of pile and for frictional piles having spacing
of minimum 3 times diameter of pile.

ii) For pile groups in clays, the group capacity shall be lesser of the following:

a) Sum of the capacities of the individual piles in the group.

b) The capacity of the group based on block failure concept, where the ultimate
load carrying capacity of the block enclosing the piles in estimated.
709~3.4 Settlement of pile group

709.3.4.1 The capacity of a pile group is also governed by settlement criterion. Settlement
of a pile group may be computed on the basis of following recommendations or by any other
rational method.

709.3.4.2 Settlement of pile group in sands

The settlement of a pile. group is affected by the shape and size of group, length, spacing and
method of.installation of piles. Methoqs given in IS 8009 {Part-11) of any other rational method
may be used. The settlement of group of piles in sands can be calculated by assuming that
the load carried by the pile group is transferred to the soil through an equivalent raft located
at one third of the pile length upwards from the pile toe for friction piles. For end bearing piles ·
the settlement can be calculated by assuming the raft placed at the· toe of the pile group.

709.3.4.3 ~Seff!ement of pile group in clays

. .
The settlement of pile group in homogeneous clays shall be evaluated using Terzaghi and
Peck Approach which assumes that the load carried by the pile group is transferred to the
soil through an equivalent footing located at one third of the pile length upwards from the
pile toe. The load under the equivalent footing is assumed to spread into soil at a slope of
I 2 (vertical) : 1 (horizontal).

lt The settlement for equivalent footing shall be evaluated in accordance with IS 8009
ii (Part-11).
t
~ 709.3.4.4 Settlement of pile group in rock

t 37
f'
IRC:78-2014
Settlement of piles founded in rock may be computed as per IS 8009 (Part II) considering the
value of in-situ modulus of rock mass.

709.3.5 Resistance to latera/loads

709.3.5.1 The ultimate lateral resistance of a group of vertical piles may be taken as the
passive pressure acting on the enclosed area of the piles. Such passive pressure may be
calculated over an equivalent wall of depth equal to 60 and width equal to L + 28.

where
D = Diameter of pile
L = Length between outer faces of pile group in plan perpendicular to
direction of movement.
8= Width between outer faces of pile group in plan parallel to the direction
of movement.

The minimum factor of safety on ultimate lateral resistance shall be 2.5.

709.3.5.2 The safe lateral resistance of pile-group must not exceed the sum of lateral
resistance of individual piles. The safe lateral load resistance of individual pile depends on the
modulus of horizontal sub-grade reaction of the foundation material as well as the structural
rigidity of pile. Appropriate rational method .of analysis using soil modulus as recommended
by IS:2911 may be used to calculate the same. For safe .lateral load resistance in load
combination I of Clause 706.1.1, the· deflection at scour le\tel.shall not be greater than 1.0
percent of pile diameter. Checking~ of deflections in other load combinations is not required.
For a group of vertical piles, confirmation of capacity of group by load testing is not required.
For single pile the horizontal load test may be performed in accordance with IS:2911. Testing
shall be for free head condition for piles having free standing shaft above scour level upto the
pile cap. For conduction test at scour level, it will be necessary to drive a larger diameter
casing upto scour level so that the test pile above is free to deflect. The deflection at scour
level may be measured directly, or may be calculated from deflection measured at higher
(ground) level assuming that the pile acts as structural cantilever from the point of fixity.
The point of fixity can be taken from the analysis performed for the design or calculated by
simplified method given in IS:2911.

709.3.6 Uplift load carrying capacity

709. 3. 6.1 Piles may be required to resist uplift forces of permanent or temporary nature when
used in foundations subjected to large overturning moments or as anchorages in structures,
like, underpasses subjected to hydrostatic uplift pressure.
38
 IRC:78-2014
ultimate uplift capacity may be calculated with the expression of shaft
.friction only, of the static formulae for compression loads and applying a
of 0.70 00-tne same. In case of rock, the socket length shall be measured
to actuat depth of socket. The weight of the pile shall also be taken
uplift. Pu11 out test shall be conducted for verification of uplift capacity.
.7) = 3.5 on the ultimate strength shall be used.

·rhe uplift capacitY of pile group is lesser of the two following values:

_ the sum of the uplift resistance of the individual piles in the group, and
_ the sum of shear resistance mobilised on the surface perimeter of the
group plus the effective weight of the soil and the piles enclosed in this
surface perimeter.
. Piles should be checked for structural adequacy against uplift forces together
-._.,,v1e1t0n1 forces, if any.

The minimum factor of safety on ultimate uplift load calculated on the aforesaid
2.5.

Piles subjected to downward drag

~stratum through which pile shaft has penetrated into an underlying hard stratum
due to its own weight, or remoulding, or surface load etc., additional vertical
~t.ort along the pile shaft in such stratum. Such additional load coming on pile
tt:~:s~tru on the following basis:

i) In the case of pile deriving its capacity mainly from friction, the value
of downward drag force may be taken as 0.2 to 0.3 times undrained
shear strength multiplied by the surface area of pile shaft embedded in
compressible soil.

ii) In case of pile deriving its capacity mainly from end bearing, the value
of downward drag force may be considered as 0.5 times undrained
shear strength multiplied by the surface area of pile shaft embedded in
compressible soil.
iii) For a group of piles, the drag forces shall also be calculated considering
the surface area of the block (i.e., perimeter of the group times depth)
embedded in compressible soil. In the event of this value being higher
than the number of piles in the group times the. individual downward drag
forces, the same shall be cosidered in the design.

iv) This reduction in capacity of pile is in the ultimate capacity

39
IRC:78-2014
709.4 Structural Design of Piles

709.4.1 A pile as a structural member shall have sufficient strength to transmit theJoc;id
from structure to soil. The pile shall also be designed to withstand temporary stresses, if any,
to which it may be subjected to, such as, handling and driving stresses. The permissible
stresses should be as per IRC:112. ,
l

The test pile shall be separately designed to carry test load safely to the foundation.

709.4.2 The piles may be designed taking into consideration all the load effects and
!
.,

their structural capacity ex.amined as a column. The self load of pile or lateral load due to
earthquake, water current force, etc. on the portion of free pile upto scour level and upto I
potential liquefaction level, if applicable, should be duly accountedfo_r.

709.4.3 For the horizontal loads the moments in pile shaft can be c~lculated as described
I
in Clause 709.3.5.2. For piles on land, if the pile group is provided with rigid cap, then the piles
may be considered as having fixed head in appropriate direction for this purpose. Horizontal
force may be distributed .equally in all piles in a group with a rigid .pile. cap.

709.4.4 Reinforcements for cast-in-situ piles

The reinforcements in pile should be provided complying with the requirements of IRC:112,
as per the design requirements. The area of longitudinal reinforcement shall not be less
than 0.4 percent nor greater than 2.5 percent of the actual area of cross-section in all cast-
in-situ concrete piles. Tne·clear spacing between vertical bars shall not be less than tOO
mm. Grouping of not more than two bars together can be made for achieving the same.
Lateral reinforcement shall be provided in the form of spirals with minimum 8 mm diameter
steel, spacing not more than 150 rftm: Forinner layer of reinforcement, separate links tying
them to each other and 1o outer layers shall be provided.

709.4.5 For pre-cast driven piles, the reinforcement should comply with the provision
of IRC:112, for resisting stresses due to lifting, stacking and transport, any uplift or bending
transmitted from the superstructure and bending due to any secondary elfects. The area of
longitudinal reinforcement shall not be less than the following percentages of the cross-
sectional area of the piles:
a) For piles with a length. less than 30 times the least width - 1.25 percent;
b) For piles with a leng.th 30 to 40 times the ~ast width - 1.5 percent; and
c) For piles with a length greater than 40 times the least width -2 percent.

709.5 Design of Pile Cap

709.5.1 The pile caps shall be of reinforced concrete of size fixed taking into
40
 IRC:78-2014
consideration the allowable tolerance as in Clause 709.1.5.2. A minimum offset of 150 mm
shall be provided beyond the outer faces of the outer-most piles in the group. If the pile
,. cap is in contact with earth at the bottom, a levelling course of minimum 80 mm thick plain
cement concrete shall be provided.

709.5.2 The top of the pile shall project 50 mm into the pile cap and reinforcements of
pile shall be fully anchored in pile cap.

709.5.3 In Marine conditions or in areas exposed to the action of harmful chemicals,

the pile cap shall be protected with a suitable anti-corrosive paint. High alumina cement i.e.
quick setting cement shall' not be used in marine constructions.

709.5.4 The minimum thickness of pile cap should be 1.5 times the diameter of pile.
Such a pile cap can be considered as rigid. The pile cap may be designed ·as thick slab or, /
by using 'strut & tie' method. All reinforcement in pile cap shall have full anchorage capacity
beyond the point at which it is no longer required. It should be specially ascertained for
pile cap designed by 'strut & tie' method. Where large diameter bars are used as main
reinforcement, the corners of pile caps have large local cover due to large radius of bending
of main bars. Such corners shall be protected by locally placing small diameter bars.

709.5.5 Casting of pile cap should be at level higher than water level unless
functionally it is required to be below water level at which time sufficient precautions
should be taken to dewater, the forms to allow concreting I dry conditions.

709.6 Important Consideration, Inspection/Precautions for Different Types

of Piles

709.6.1 Driven cast-in-situ piles

709.6.1, 1 Except otherwise stated in this code, guidance is to be obtained from IS 2911
(Part 1/Section I).

709. 6. 1. 2 The pile shoes which may be either of cast iron conical type or of mild steel flat
type should have double reams for proper seating of the removable casing tube inside the
space between the reams.

709.6.1.3 Before commencement of pouring of concrete, it should be ensured that there

is no ingress of water in the casing tube from the bottom. Further adequate control during
withdrawal of the casing tube is essential so as to maintain sufficient head of concrete
inside the casing tube at all stages of withdrawal.
41
IRC:78-2014
709.6.1.4 Concrete in piles shall be cast upto a minimum height of 600 mm above the
designed top level of pile, which shall be stripped off to obtain sound concrete either before
final set or after 3 days.

709.6.2 Bored cast-in-situ piles

709.6.2.1 The drilling mud, such as, bentonite suspension shall be maintained at a level
sufficiently above the surrounding ground water level to ensure the stability of the strata
which is being penetrated throughout the boring process until the pile has been concreted.
'
709.6.2.2 The bores must be washed by fresh bentonite solution flushing to ensure
j
j
clean bottom at two stages prior to concreting and after placing reinforcement.

709. 6. 2. 3 Concreting of piles

Concreting shall be done by tremie method. In tremie method the following requirements are
particularly applicable.

a) When concreting is carried out for a pile, a temporary casing should

be installed to sufficient depth, so that fragments of ground cannot
drop from the sides of the hole into the concrete as it is placed. The
temporary casing is not required except near the top when concreting
under drilling mud.

b) The hopper and tremie should be a leak proof system.

c) Tremie diameter of minimum 200 mm shall be used with 20 mm diameter

down aggregate.

d) The first charge of concrete should be placed with a sliding plug pushed
down the tube ahead of it or with a steel plate of adequate charge to prevent
mixing of concrete and water. However, the plug should not be left in the
concrete as a lump.

e) The tremie pipe should always penetrate well into the concrete with an
adequate margin of safety against accidental withdrawal of the pipe. The
tremie should be always full of concrete.

f) The pile should be concreted wholly by tremie and the method of deposition
should not be changed part way up the pile, to prevent the laitance from
being entrapped within the pile.

g) All tremie tubes should be scrupulously cleaned after use.

42
 IRC:78-2014
h) As tremie method of concreting is not under water concreting, these is no
need to add 10 percent extra cement.
i) Normally concreting of the piles should be uninterrupted. In the exceptional
case of interruption of concreting; but which can be resumed within 1 or
2 hours, the tremie shall not be taken out of the concrete. Instead it shall
be raised and lowered slowly, from time to time to prevent the concrete
form setting. Concreting should be resumed by introducing a little richer
concrete with a slump of about 200 mm for easy displacement of the
partly set concrete.
If the concreting cannot be resumed before final set of concrete already
placed, the pile so cast may be rejected or accepted with modifications.
j) In case of withdrawal of tremie out of the concrete, either accidentally or
to remove a choke in the tremie, the tremie may be reintroduced in the /
following manner to prevent impregnation of laitance or scum lying on the
top of the concrete already deposited in the bore.
k) The tremie shall be gently lowered on to the old concrete with very
little penetration initially. A vermiculite plug/surface retarders should be
introduced in the tremie. Fresh concrete of slump between 150 mm to 175
mm should be filled in the tremie which will push the plug forward and will
emerge out of the tremie displacing the laitance/scum. The tremie will be
pushed further in steps making fresh concrete sweep away laitance/scum
in its way. When tremie is buried by about 60 to 100 em, concreting may
be resumed.
I)The 'L' bends in the reinforcements at the bottom of the piles should not be
provided to avoid the formation of soft toe.
709. 6. 2.4 Removal of concrete above cut-off level

It is desirable that the concrete above cut-off level is removed before the concrete is set.
The concrete may be removed manually or by specially made bailer or other device. Such
removal of concrete helps in preventing the damages of the good concrete below the cut-off
level which results from chipping by percussion method.

The removal of concrete can be within± 25 mm from the specified cut-off level preferably
on the (-) side. On removal of the such concrete, the concrete should be compacted with
rammer with spikes or it shall be vibrated.

In case the concrete is not removed before setting, a groove shall be made on outer
perimeter by rotary equipment before chipping by percussion method.
43
IRC:78-2014
709.6.3 Driven precast concrete piles

709.6.3.1 Except otherwise stated in this code, guidance is to be obtained from IS 2911
(Part 1/Section 3).

709.6.3.2 This type of piles for bridges may be adopted when length of pile as per
design requirement is known with reasonable degree of accuracy. Extra length of pile
may be cast to avoid lengthening of piles as far as possible. When unavoidable, the
splicing for lengthening of steel may be used only after the method of splicing is tested
and approved earlier.

The longitudinal reinforcement shall be joined by welding or by mechanical couplers. The

concrete at top of original pile shall be cut down to sufficient length to avoid spelling by heat
of welding. Location of mechanical couplers in neighboring reinforcement shall be such as
to permit concreting between the bars.

709.6.3.3 During installation of piles, the final set or penetration of piles per blow of
hammer should be checked taking an average of last 100 blows.

710 SUBSTRUCTURE
710.1 General

710.1.1 In case of plain concrete substructure, surface reinforcement at the rate of

2.5 kg/m 2 shall be provided in each direction, i.e., both horizontally and vertically. Spacing of
such bars shall not exceed 200 mm. In case of substructure in severe environment (as per
Clause14.3.1 of 112 or as per clause 302.6 table 5 of IRC:21) the surface reinforcement
can be dispensed with, if specifically allowed but the dimension of the substructure should
be so proportioned to keep the stresses only up to 90 percent of the allowable stress.
710.1.2 For the design of substructure below the level of the top of bed block, the live
load impact shall be modified by the factors given below:

i) For calculating the pressure at the bottom

surface of the pier/abutment cap 0.5

ii) For calculating pressure on the top 3 m of Decreasing uniformly from

substructure below pier/abutment cap 0.5 to zero

44

t
•
 IRC:78-2014
iii) For calculating the pressure on the portion Zero
of the substructure, at more than 3 m below
the pier/abutment cap.

710.1.3 Structures designed to retain earthfill shall be proportioned to withstand

pressure calculated in accordance with any rational theory. No structure shall, however, be
de~igned to withstand a horizontal pressure less than that exerted by a fluid weighing 480
kg/m 3 , in addition to the live load surcharge, if any.

710.1.4 . The backfill behind the wing and return walls shall conform to the specifications
in Appendix-6 with provision for proper drainage.

710.2 Piers
710.2.1 Piers in stream and channel should be located to meet navigational :
clearance requirements and give a minimum interference to flood flow. In general,
piers should be placed parallel with the direction of stream current at flood stage. Piers
in other locations, like, viaducts or land spans should be according to the requirement
of the obstacles to cross over.
710.2.2 Where necessary, piers shall be provided at both ends with suitably shaped cut
waters qS given in IRC:6. However, cut and ease water where provided shall extend upto
affluxed H.F.L. or higher, if necessary, from consideration of local conditions, like, waves, etc.
710.2.3 Pier may be in PSC, RCC, PCC or masonry. Only solid section should be
adopted for masonry piers. The design of masonry piers should be based on permissible
stresses as provided in IRC:40.
710.2.4 The thickness of the walls of hollow concrete piers should not be less than 300 mm.
710.2.5 The multi-column piers of bridges across rivers carrying floating debris, trees
or timber should be braced throughout the height of the piers by diaphragm wall of minimum
200 r:nm thickness. Unbraced multiple column piers may be allowed depending upon the
performance of similar structures in similar conditions of river. However, type and spacing
of such bracing, when adopted, shall be predetermined.

710.2.6 Piers shall be designed to withstand the load and forces transferred from
the superstructure and the load and forces on the pier itself, apart from the effect of its
self-weight. In general, pier may be solid, hollow or framed structures.

710.2.7 In case of pier consisting of two or more columns, the horizontal forces at
the bearing be distributed on columns as required by appropriate analysis.

710.2.8 If the piers consist of either multiple piles or trestle columns spaced closer
45
IRC:78-2014
than three times the width of piles/columns across the direction of flow, the group
shall be treated as a solid pier of the same overall width and the value of K taken as
1.25 for working out pressure due to water current according to relevant Clause 213.7 of
IRC:6. If such piles/columns are braced then the group should be considered a solid pier
irrespective of the spacing of the columns.

710.2.9 Hollow piers shall be provided with suitably located weep-holes of 100 mm
diameter for enabling free flow of water to equalise the water levels on inside and outside;
considering rate of rise/fall of flood/tide water. The pier walls should be checked for
expected differential water-head/wave pressure and silt pressure. In absence of detailed j
calculations, a minimum difference of 1.5 m in water levels on two sides shall be assumed. i
710.2.10 The lateral reinforcement of the walls of hollow circular RCC pier shall not be less
than 0.3 percent of the sectional area of the walls of the pier. This lateral reinforcement shall be
distributed 60 percent on outer face and 40 percent on inner face.

710.3 Wall Piers

710.3.1 When the length of solid pier is more than four times its thickness, it shall also
be checked as a wall.

710.3.2 The reinforced wall should have minimum vertical reinforcement equal to 0.3
percent of sectional area.

710.3.3 For eccentric axial load, the wall should be designed for axial load with
moment. The moments and the horizontal forces should be distributed taking into
account the dispersal by any rational method.

710.3.4 The vertical reinforcement need not be enclosed by closed stirrups, where
vertical reinforcement is not required for compression. However, horizontal reinforcement
should not be less than 0.25 percent of the gross area and open links (or S-loops) with hook
placed around the vertical bar should be placed at the rate of 4 links in one running metre.

710.3.5 When walls are fixed with superstructure, the design moment and axial load
should be worked out by elastic analysis of the whole structure.
710.4 Abutments

710.4.1 The abutments will carry superstructure from one side. It should be designed/
dimensioned to retain earth from the approach embankment.

710.4.2 The abutments should be designed to withstand earth pressure in normal

condition in addition to load and forces transferred from superstructure. In addition, any
46
 IRC:78-2014
load acting on the abutment itself, including self-weight, is to be considered.

710.4.3 In case of spill through type abutment, the active pressure calculated on the
width of the column shall be increased by 50 percent where two columns have been provided
and by 100 percent where more than two columns have been provided.

710.4.4 All abutments and abutment columns shall be designed for a live load
surcharge equivalent to 1.2 m height of earth fill. The effective width of the columns need
not be increased as in Clause 710.4.3 for surcharge effect when spill through abutment is
adopted.

710.4.5 Abutment should also be designed for water current forces during 'scour all
round' condition.

710.4.6 The abutment may be of plain or reinforced concrete or of masonry. The

abutment may be either solid type, buttressed type, counterfort type, box type or spill
through type. For spill through abutment, column type or wall type, analysis may be carried
out as for piers. Counterfort type abutment may be treated as T or L type as the case may
be and the slab may be designed as continuous over counterforts.

710.4.7 Fully earth retaining abutments should be designed considering submerged/

saturated unit weight of earth as appropriate during H. F. L. or L. W.L. condition. In case of footings,
the submerged unit weight of soil where considered shall not be less than 1000 kg/m 3.

710.4.8 The weight of earth filling material on heel may be considered. In case of toe,
the weight may be considered if the bed is protected.

710.4.9 In case of spill through type abutment, it should be ensured that the slope in
front of the abutment is well protected by means of suitably designed stone pitching and
launching aprons.

710.4.10 In case of abutments having counterfort, the minimum thickness of the front
wall should not be less than 200 mm and the thickness of the counterfort should not be less
than 250 mm.

710.4.11 In case of box type abutments, weep holes shall be provided similar to
hoHow piers as per Clause 710.2.9.

710.5 Abutment Pier

710.5.1 Abutment piers may have to be provided at locations where there may be a

47
IRC:78-2014
need of increasing waterway subsequently. The design of such abutment piers shall be
such that it should be possible to convert them to the similar shape as piers in the active
channel.

710.5.2 For multiple span arch bridges, abutment piers shall be provided after every
fifth span or closer. It is designed for condition that even if arch on one side of it collapses,
the pier and arches on other side will remain safe.

710.6

710.6.1
Dirt Walls, Wing Walls and Return Walls

Wing walls shall be of sufficient length to retain the roadway to the required
'I
i
t•
extent and to provide protection against erosion.

710.6.2 A dirt wall shall be provided to prevent the earth from approaches spilling on
the bearings. A screen wall of sufficient depth (extended for at least 500 mm depth into the
fill) to prevent slipping of the backfill in case the abutment is of the spill through type, shall
be provided.

710.6.3 The wing walls may be of solid type. The return walls may be of solid or
counterfort type. The material used may be plain or reinforced concrete or masonry.

710.6.4 Dirt wall/ballast wall and screen wall shall be provided with minimum thickness
of 200 mm.

710.6.5 The wing walls should be designed primarily to withstand the earth pressure in
addition to self-weight.

710.6.6 The top of the wing/return walls shall be carried above the top of embankment
by at least 100 mm to prevent any soil from being blown or washed away by rain over its
top. A drainage arrangement for return wall/wing wall may be provided similar to that for the
abutment specified in Appendix-6.

710.6.7 The cantilever returns where adopted should not be more than 4 metres long.

710.6.8 In case of open foundations, wing and return walls should be provided with
separate foundations with a joint at their junction with the abutment.

710.6.9 Wing walls may be laid at any suitable angle to the abutment. In case of
river bridges, these are normally splayed in plan at 45°. The return walls may be provided
at right angles to the abutment. Return walls shall be designed to withstand a live-load
surcharge equivalent to 1.2 m height of earthfill.

48
 IRC:78-2014
710.6.10 The box type return wall at rightangles at both ends oft he abutments connected
by wall type diaphragm may be adopted where found suitable. However, in such cases, no
reduction in the earth pressure for the design of the abutment should be considered. The
top of diaphragm should slope inwards to the centre of carriageway for facilitating proper
rolling of the embankment behind the abutment.

710.6.11 Solid type of wing/return walls on independent foundations can be suitably

stepped up towards the approaches depending upon the pattern of scour, local ground
conditions and its profile, safe bearing capacity, etc.
710.6.12 In case of wing walls or return walls, the foundation shall be taken adequately
into the firm soil.
710.7 Retaining Walls
1
710.7.1 The minimum thickness of reinforced concrete retaining wall shall be 200 mm. 1
710.7.2 The retaining walls shall be designed to withstand earth pressure including
any live load surcharge and other loads acting on it, including self-weight, in accordance
with the general principles specified for abutments. Stone masonry and plain concrete walls
shall be of solid type. Reinforced concrete walls may be of solid, counterfort, buttressed or
cellular type.

710.7.3 The vertical stems of cantirever walls shall be designed as· cantilevers fixed
at the base. The vertical or face walls of counterfort type and buttressed type shall be
designed as continuous slabs supported by counterforts or buttresses. The face walls shall
be securely anchored to the supporting counterforts or buttresses by means of adequate
reinforcements.

710.7.4 Counterforts shall be designed as T-beams or L-beams. Buttresses shall be

designed as rectangular beams. In connection with the main- tension reinforcement of
counterforts, there shall be a system of horizontal and vertical bars or stirrups to anchor the
face walls and base slab to the counterfort. These stirrups shall be a~chored as near to the
outside faces of the face walls and as near to the bottom of the base slab as practicable.

710.8 Pier and Abutment Caps

710.8.1 The width of the abutment and pier caps shall be sufficient to accommodate:

i) the bearings leaving an offset of 150 mm beyond them,

ii) The ballast wall.
iii) The space for jacks to iift the superstructure for repair/replacement of
bearings, etc.

49
IRC:78-2014
iv) The equipment for prestressing operations where necessary, over and
above space for end block in cast in-situ cases.
v) The drainage arrangement for the water on the cap.
vi) Seismic arrestor, if provided
vii) To accommodate inspection ladders

710.8.2 The thickness of cap over the hollow pier or column type of abutment should
not be less than 250 mm but in case of solid plain or reinforced concrete pier and abutment,
the thickness can be reduced to 200 mm.

710.8.3 Pier/Abutment caps should be suitably designed and reinforced to take care
of concentrated point loads dispersing in pier/abutment. Caps cantilevering out from the
supports or resting on two or more columns shall be designed to cater for the lifting of
superstructure on jacks for repair/replacement of bearings. The locations of jacks shall be
predetermined and permanently marked on the caps.

710.8.4 In case bearings are placed centrally over the columns and the width of
bearings/pedestals is located within half the depth of cap from any external face of the
columns, the load from bearings will be considered to have been directly transferred to
columns and the cap beam need not be designed for flexure.

710.8.5 The thickness of the cap over masonry piers or abutment shall not be less
than 500 mm. The minimum width at the top of such piers and abutments of slab and girder
bridges just below the caps shall be as given below:

Span in metres 3m 6m 12m 24m

Top width of pier carrying simply 0.50 1.0 1.2 1.6
supported spans in m
Top width of abutment and of piers 0.40 0.75 1.0 1.3
carrying continuous spans in m

710.8.6 Except the portion under bearings, the top surface of caps should have suitable
slope in order to allow drainage of water.

710.8.7 Reinforcement in Pier and Abutment Caps where the bearing satisfied the
square-root formula stated in Clause 307.1 of IRC:21, the pier caps shall be reinforced
with a total minimum of 1 percent steel, assuming a cap thickness of 225 mm. The total
steel shall be distributed equally and provided both at top and bottom in two directions.
The reinforcement in the direction of the length of the pier shall extend from end to end

50
 IRC:78-2014
of the pier cap while the reinforcement at right angles shall extend for the full width of the
piers cap and be in the form of stirrups. In addition, two layers of mesh reinforcement
one at 20 mm from top and the other at 100 mm from top of pedestal or pier cap each
consisting of 8 mm bars at 100 mm centres in both directions shall be provided directly
under the bearings.

710.9 Cantilever Cap of Abutment and Pier

710.9.1 When the distance between the load/centre line of bearing from the face of the
support is equal to or less than the depth of the cap (measured ·at the support) the cap shall
be designed as a corbel.

710.9.2 The equivalent square area may be worked out for circular pier to determine
the face of support for calculating bending moments.

710.9.3 In case of wall pier and the pier cap cantilevering out all around, the
measurement of distance for purpose of the design as bracket and the direction of provision
of reinforcement should be parallel to the line joining the centre of load/bearing with the
nearest supporting face of Pier.

710.9.4 Where a part of the bearing lies directly over the pier, calculation of such
reinforcement should be restricted only for the portion which is outside the face of the pier.
Moreover, in such cases the area of closed horizontal stirrups may be limited to 25 percent
of the area of primary reinforcement.

710.10 Pedestals below Bearing

710.10.1 The pedestals should be so proportioned that a clear offset of 150 mm beyond
the edges of bearings is available.

710.10.2 The height of the pedestal should be between 150 mm and 500 mm. Where
the depths of superstructures from two adjacent spans on a common pier differ and
require use of pedestals of more height below one of the spans, the shape of pier cap
or the diaphragm of superstructure shall be modified to restrict the height of pedestals to
500 mm. For pedestals whose height is less than its width, the requirement of the longitudinal
reinforcement as specified for short column need not be insisted upon.

710.10.3 The allowable bearing pressure with near uniform distribution on the loaded

51
IRC:78-2014
area of a footing or base under a bearing or column shall be given by the following
equation.

where

= the permissible direct compressive stress in concrete at the

bearing area of the base

= dispersed concentric area which is geometrically similar to the

loaded area A2 and also the largest area that can be contained in
the plane of A1 (maximum width of dispersion beyond the loaded
area face shall be limited to twice the height)

= loaded area and the projection of the bases or footing beyond the
face of the bearing or column supported on it shall not be less than
150 mm in any direction.

710.10.4 The two layers of mesh reinforcement- one at 20 mm from top and the other
at 100 mm from top of pedestal or pier cap each consisting of 8 mm bars at 100 mm in both
directions, shall be provided directly under the bearings.

*****

52
 IRC:78-2014
Appendix-1
(Clause 703.2.2.2)

GUIDELINES FOR CALCULATING SILT FACTOR FOR BED

MATERIAL CONSISTING OF CLAY

In absence of any formula 'Ks,' may be determined as per Clause 703.2.2 and may be
adopted based on site information and behaviour history of any existing structure. The
clayey bed having weighted diameter normally less than 0.04mm offers more resistance
scour than sand though mean depth of scour as per the formula given in Clause 703.2
indicates more scour. In absence of any accepted rational formula or any data of scour at
the site of the proposed bridge; the following theoretical calculation may be adopted:

i) In case of soil having 0 <15° and c (cohesion of soil) > 0.2 kg/cm 2
'Ks; calculated as follows:
I
;'

Kst = F (1 +~c) where c in kglcrrr

where

F = 1.50 for C/> > 10° and < 15°

= 1.75 for cp >5° and< 10°

= 2.00 for cp < 5o

ii) Soils having 0 >15° will be treated as sandy soil even if c is more than
2N/mm 2 and silt factor will be as per provisions of Clause 703.2.2.

53
IRC:78-2014
Appendix-2
(Clause 704.3)

GUIDELINES FOR SUB.;SURFACE EXPLORATION

1 GENERAL

The objective of sub-surface exploration is to determine the suitability of the soil or rock,
for the foundation of bridges. The sub-surface exploration for bridges is carried out in two
stages, namely preliminary and detailed. It may require additional/confirmatory exploration
during construction stage.

Guidance may be taken from the following:

i) IS 1892 - Code of Practice, for Site Investigation for Foundations may be

utilised for guidance regarding investigation and collection of data.

ii) Test on soils shall be conducted in accordance with relevant part of IS

2720 - Methods of Test for Soils. The tests on undisturbed samples be
conducted as far as possible at simulated field conditions to get realistic
values.

iii) IS 1498-Ciassification and Identification of Soils for general engineering

purposes.

For preliminary and detailed sub-surface investigation, only rotary drills shall be used. The
casing shall also be, invariably provided with diameters not less than 150 mm upto the level of
rock, if any. However, use of percussion or wash boring equipment shall be permitted only to
penetrate through bouldery or gravelly strata for progressing the boring but not for collection
of samples. While conducting detailed borings, the resistance to the speed of drilling, i.e.,
rate of penetration, core loss, etc. shall be carefully recorded and presented in "Borelog chart
and data sheet" to evaluate the different types of strata and distinguish specially sand from
sandstone, clay from shale, etc.

For preliminary and detailed sub-surface investigation, only double tube diamond drilling
method shall be used. In soft and weak rocks such tuffs, soft shales etc., triple tube diamond
drilling shall be used.

2 PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION

2.1 Preliminary investigation shall include the study of existing geological

information, previous site reports, geological maps, etc., and surface geological

54
 IRC:78-2014
examination. These will help to narrow down the number of sites under consideration
and also to locate the most desirable location for detailed sub-surface investigation.

3 DETAILED INVESTIGATION

3.1 Based on data obtained after preliminary investigations, the bridge site,
the type of structure with span arrangement and the location and type of foundations,
the programme of detailed investigations, etc. shall be tentatively decided. Thereafter
the scope of detailed investigation including the extent of exploration, number of bore
holes, type of tests, number of tests, etc. shall be decided in close liaison with the design
engineer and the exploration team, so that adequate data considered necessary for
detailed design and execution are obtained.

;
3.2 The exploration shall cover the entire length of the bridge and also at either '
end a distance of zone of influence, i.e., about twice the depth below bed of the
last main foundation to assess the effect of the approach embankment on the end
foundations. Generally, the sub-surface investigations should extend to a depth below
the anticipated foundation level equal to about one and a half times the width of the
foundation. However, where such investigations end in any unsuitable or questionable
foundation material, the exploration shall be extended to a sufficient depth into firm
and stable soils or to rock.

3.2.1 Additional drill holes: Where the data made available by detailed exploration
indicate appreciable variation specially in case of foundations resting on rock, it will be
necessary to resort to additional drill holes to establish a complete profile of the underlying
strata. Location and depth of additional drill holes will have to be decided depending upon
the extent of variation in local geology and in consultation with design engineer.

3.3 The scope of the detailed sub-surface exploration shall be fixed as mentioned
in para 3.1 and 3.2. However, as a general guide it shall be comprehensive enough to
enable the designer to estimate or determine the following:

i) engineering properties of the soil/rock;

ii) location and extent of weak layers and cavities, if any, below hard founding
strata;
iii) the sub-surface geological condition, such as, type of rock, structure of
rock, i.e., folds, faults, fissures, shears, fractures, joints, dykes and
subsidence due to mining or presence of cavities;

55
IRC:78-2014
iv) ground water level;
v) artesian conditions, if any;
I
I

vi) quality of water in contact with the foundation;

vii) depth and extent of scour;
viii) suitable foundation level;
ix) safe bearing capacity of foundation stratum;
x) probable settlement and probable differential settlement of the foundations;
xi) likely sinking or driving effort; and
xii) likely construction difficulties.

4 CONSTRUCTION STAGE EXPLORATION

Such exploration may become necessary to verify the actually met strata vis-a-vis detailed
investigation stage or when a change in the sub-soil strata/rock profile is encountered
during construction. In such situations, it may be essential to resort to further explorations
to establish the correct data, for further decisions.

5 METHOD OF TAKING SOIL SAMPLES

The size of the bores shall be predetermined so that undisturbed samples as required for the
various types of tests are obtained. The method of taking samples shall be as given in IS1892
and IS 2132. The tests on soil samples shall be conducted as per relevant part of IS 2720.

6 DETAILS OF EXPLORATION
-.
FOR FOUNDATIONS
RESTING ON SOIL (ERODIBLE STRATA)
6.1 The type and extent of exploration shall be divided into the following
groups keeping in view the different requirements of foundation design and the likely
method of data collection:

i) Foundations requiring shallow depth of exploration;

ii) Foundations requiring large depth of exploration; and
iii) Fills behind abutments and protective works.

6.2 Foundations Requiring Shallow Depth of Exploration (Open Foundation)

These shall cover cases where the depth of exploration is not large and it is possible to take
samples from shallow pits or conduct direct tests, like, plate load tests, etc. This will also
cover generally the foundation soil for a'pproach embankments, protective works, etc.

56

6.2 F-ounaauoms "'==4u ..... ~ .., ............... _ -.- ____ _

I
 IRC:78-20.14
6.2.1 The primary requirements are stability and settlement, for which shearing
strength characteristics, load settlement characteristics, etc. need determination.

6.2.2 Tests shall be conducted on undisturbed representative samples, which

may be obtained from ~pen pits. The use of plate load test (IS 1888-Method of Load
Test on Soils) is considered desirable for ascertaining the safe bearing pressure and
settlement characteristics. A few exploratory bore holes or soundings shall be made
to safeguard against presence of weak strata underlying the foundation. This shall extend
to a depth of about 1 1/2 times the proposed width of foundation.

NOTE: For better interpretation, it will be desirable to correlate the laboratory results with the
in-situ tests, like, plate load tests, penetration test results.

6.2.3 The tests to be conducted for properties of soil are different for cohesive and
cohesionless soils. These are indicated below. While selecting the tests and interpreting
the results, limitations of applicability of chosen tests shall be taken into account. A most
suitable and appropriate combination of these shall be chosen, depending on the properties
needed for design and constructional aspects.

I) Cohesionless Soil

a) Laboratory Tests
i) Classification tests, index tests, density determination, etc.
ii) Shear Strengths by triaxial/direct shear, .etc.

b) Field Tests
i) Plate Load Test, (as per IS 1888).
ii) Standard Penetration Tests (as per IS 2131)
iii) Dynamic Cone Pentration Test, (as per IS 4968 Part I or Part II).
iv) Static Cone Penetration Test, (as per IS 4968 Part Ill).
NOTE: Where dewatering is expected, permeability tests may be conducted
(as per IS 2720 Part XVII).
II) Cohesive Soil
a) Laboratory Tests
i) Classification tests, index tests, density determination etc.
ii) Shear strengths by triaxial/direct shear, etc.
iii) Unconfined compression test (IS 2720 Part X)
iv) Consolidation test (IS 2720 Part V)
57
IRC:78-2014
b) Field Tests
i) Plate Load Test, (as per IS:1888).
ii) Vane Shear Test, (as per IS:4434).
iii) Static Cone Penetration Test, (as per IS:4968 Part Ill).
iv) Standard Penetration Test, (as per IS:2131)
v) Dynamic Cone Penetration Test, (as per ~S:4968 Part I or Part II).

NOTE: Where dewatering is expected, permeability tests may be conducted

(as per IS:2720 Part XVII).

6.3 Foundations Requiring Large Depth of Exploration

6.3.1 In this group are covered cases of deep wells, pile foundations, etc., where the use of
boring equipment, special techniques of sampling, in-situ testing, etc. become essential. In
addition to the problems of soil and foundation interaction an important consideration can be
the soil data required from construction considerations. Often in the case of cohesionless
soils, undisturbed samples cannot be taken and recourse has to be made to in-situ
field tests.

Boring and sampling tends to cause remoulding of sensitive clays. Also for fissured
or layered clays, the sample may not truly represent the in-situ properties, due to
disturbance and stress changes caused by boring and sampling activity. In such cases,
in-situ tests shall be performed.

6.3.2 The sub-surface exploration can be divided into three zones:

i) between bed level and upto anticipated maximum scour depth (below
H.F.L.)
ii) from the maximum scour depth to the foundation level, and
iii) from foundation level to about 11/ 2 times the width of foundation below it.

6.3.3 Sampling and testing (in-situ and laboratory) requirement will vary in each
case and hence are required to be assessed and decided from case-to-case. The sub-
. soil water shall be tested for chemical properties to evaluate the hazard of deterioration
to foundations. Where dewatering is expected to be required, permeability characteristics
should be determined.

6.3.4 For the different zones categorised in para 6.3.2., the data required, method of
sampling, testing, etc. are given in Table 1. Samples of soils in all cases shall be collected
at every 1 to 1 1/z metre or at change of strata.

58
 IRC:78-2014
Table 1 Sub-Soil Data Required for Deep Foundations

Zones Data/Characteristics Required Sampling and Testing

Bed level to anticipated i) Soil Classification Sampling-

maximum scour depth ii) Particles size distribution Disturbed samples may be collected.
iii) Permeability, where Laboratory Tests -
dewatering is expected. Classification Tests, including particle size distribution.
In-situ Tests:-
Permeability tests.

Maximum anticipated i) Soil Classification. Sampling for Laboratory Tests -

scour level to the ii) Particles size distribution Undisturbed samples shall be collected for these tests.
foundation level iii) Moisture content, density, As an exception, for (i) and (ii), disturbed samples may
void ratio. be permitted.
Laboratory Tests -
iv) Shear strength.
a) Classification Tests including particle size
v) Compressibility. distribution.
vi) Permeability where b) Moisture content, density, void ratio
dewatering is expected. c) Shear strength- Triaxial tests to be done on
vii) Chemical analysis of soil and undisturbed samples. Unconfined
ground water (for aggressive compression tests to be done on undisturbed
elements). and/or remoulded samples
d) Consolidation tests.
In-situ Tests for Cohesionless soils-
a) Dynamic Cone Penetration Test.
b) Standard Penetration Test.
c) Down hole/Cross hole seismic surveys.
d) Permeability tests.
In-situ Tests for Cohesive Soils -
a) Dynamic Cone Penetration Test.
b) Static Cone Penetration Test- cone and skin
resistance
c) Field Vane Shear Test.
d) Permeability tests.
e) Down hole/Cross hole seismic surveys.

Foundation level to about i) Soil Classification Same as above

1.5 times of the width of ii) Shear Strength
foundation and below it. iii) Compressibility

Notes:
1) Laboratory tests to be conducted according to the relevant parts of IS 2720,
2) Use of sophisticated equipment like, pressure meter may be made, if suitable co-relations for interpretation of data collected are
available.
3) Down hole/Cross hole seismic surveys shall be as per ASTM 4428/D 4428 M
4) Seismic Methods and/or Electrical Resistivity Method can be used for soil/rock profiling. Down hole/Cross hole seismic surveys
could be used for establishing elastic moduli and rock profiling at greater depths.
5) Down hole/Cross hole seismic surveys are useful for long bridges (i.e. of the order of 1 km and above) and for reducing the number
of bores taken in the portions that are permanently under water. For these applications, geotechnical profiles obtained by seismic
methods shall be calibrated/confirmed with actual profiles taken by bores at intermediate locations.

59
IRC:78-2014
6.4 Fill Materials
Representative disturbed samples shall be collected from the borrowpit areas. Laboratory
tests shall be conducted for determining the following:

i) classification and particle size

ii) moisture content
iii) density vs. moisture content relationship
iv) shearing strength
v) permeability

NOTE: The shearing strength shall be obtained for the density corresponding to the
proposed density for the fill.

7 DETAILS OF EXPLORATION FOR FOUNDATION

RESTING ON ROCK

7.1 Basic Information Required from Explorations

i) Geological system;
ii) Depth of rock and its variation over the site;
iii) Whether isolated boulder or massive rock formation;
iv) Extent and character of weathered zone;
v) The structure of rock-including bedding planes, faults, etc.;
vi) Properties of rock material, like, strength, geological formation, etc.;
vii) Quality and quantity of returning drill water; and
viii) Erodibility of rock to the extent possible, where relevant

7.2 Exploration Programme

If preliminary investigations have revealed presence of rock within levels where the
foundation is to rest, it is essential to take up detailed investigation to collect necessary
information mentioned in the preceding para.

7.2.1 The extent of exploration shall be adequate enough to give a complete

picture of the rock profile, both in depth and across the channel width, for assessing the
constructional difficulties in reaching the foundation levels. Keeping this in view, it shall be
possible to decide the type of foundations, the construction method to be adopted for a
particular bridge, the extent of even seating and embedment into rock of the foundations.
It is desirable to take atleast one drill hole per pier and abutment and one on each side
beyond abutments.
60
 IRC:78-2014
e depth of boring in rock depends primarily on local geology, erodibility of
of structural loads to be transferred to foundation, etc. Normally, it shall
e upper weathered or otherwise weak zone, well into the sound rock. The
of drilling shall be as per para 3.2 above.

Investigations for Rock at Surface or at Shallow Depths

at shallow depths which can be conveniently reached, test pits or

the most dependable and valuable methods, since they permit a direct
of the surface, the weathered zone and presence of any discontinuities.
1S 4453 - Code of Practive for exploration by pits, trenches, drafts and shafts
d to. In case of structurally disturbed rocks, in-situ tests may be made in
ith IS 7292- Code of Practice for in-situ determination of rock properties by
317 - Code of Practice for Uni-axial Jacking Test for Deformation Modulus
· Code of Practice for in-situ Shear Test on Rock.

n.c•'I"~IIOI"t Investigation for Rock at Large Depths

is covers cases where recourse is to be made to sounding, boring and

equate investigation programme has to be planned to cover the whole
c~aracteristics and in particular the foundation location, for obtaining
reg·arding rock-depth and its variation over the foundation area. The
mme of exploration will depend on the type and depth of overburden,
importance of the structure, etc. To decide this, geophysical methods
preliminary investigation stage may be helpful.

1he investigation of the overburden soil layers shall be done as per details
foundations resting in soil. However, in case of foundations resting on rock,·
rden shall be carried out only when necessary, e.g., foundation level lower
Is.

The core shall be stored properly in accordance with IS:4078- Code of Practice
and Storage of Drill Cores. Wherever triple tube core barrel in used, inner
rent plastic tube shall be stored directly in core box with sample.

The rock cores obtained shall be subjected to tests to get necessary data for
follows:

i) Visual identification for

a) Texture

61
 , :

IRC:78-2014
b) Structure
c) Composition
d) Colour
e) Grain size
f) Petrography
ii) Laboratory tests may be done for
a) Specific gravity
b) Porosity
c) Water absorption
d) Compressive strength

NOTE: Generally, shear strength tests will suffice for design purposes. Other tests may need , II
to be done in special case. The shear strength tests can be done as unconfined
compression, triaxial compression or direct shear test.

7.4.5 Use of in-situ tests for measuring strength and deformation characteristics
may be made. Use of bore hole photography will be desirable to evaluate the presence of
faults, fissures or cavities, etc. Particularly in weak and/or highly weathered rock, where
triple tube core barrel is used for drilling, in-situ tests such as Standard Penetration Test
and/or pressure meter test shall be conducted at every 1.5 m interval in the influence zone
of footing or pile.

These in-situ tests are also useful in zones where water loss is recorded during drilling.
However selections of these tests have to be done judiciously and planned along with
drilling operation.

7.5 Special Cases

7.5.1 Investigation for conglomerate

A drill hole shall be made same as for rock. The samples collected shall be subjected to
suitable tests depending upon the material. Special care shall be taken to ascertain the
credibility of the matrix.

7.5.2 Investigation for laterites

The investigation shall generally be similar to that required for cohesive soils. In case of
hard laterite, recourse may have to be made to core drilling as for soft rocks.
62
 IRC:78-2014

8 CLASSIFICATION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF ROCKS

8.1 Identification and classification of rock types for engineering purposes may,
in general, be limited to broad, basic physical condition in accordance with accepted
practice. Strength of parent rock alone is of limited value because overall characteristics
depend considerably on character, spacing and distributions of discontinuities of the
rock mass, such as, the joints, bedding, faults and weathered seams.

8.2 Classification of Rocks

Rocks may be classified based on their physical condition and Unconfined Compressive
Strength as per Table-2.

9 Presentation of Data

The Presentation of Data collected shall be as done as illustrated in Sheet No 1 and 2

Table - 2 Classification of Rocks

Rock Type Description Unconfined

Compressive
Strength (UCS)
in MPa

Extremely Cannot be scratched with knife or sharp pick. Breaking of >200

Strong specimen could be done by sledge hammer only.

Very Strong Cannot be scratched with knife or sharp pick. Breaking 100 to 200
of specimens requires several hard blows of geologists'
pick.

Strong Can be scratched with knife or pick with difficulty. Hard 50 to 100
blow of hammer required to detach hand specimen.

Moderately Can be scratched with knife or pick, 6 mm deep gouges I 12.5 to 50

Strong or grooves can be made by hand blow of geologists' pick.
Hand specimen can be detached by moderate blow.

Moderately Can be grooved or gouged 1.5 mm deep by firm pressure 5to12.5

Weak on knife or pick point. Can be broken into pieces or chips
of about 2.5 mm maximum size by hard blows of the points
of geologists' pick.

63
 J
.

IRC:78""2014

Weak Can be grooved or' gouged easily with knife'or pick point 1.25to5
Can be break down in chips to pieces several em's in size
by moderate blows of pick point. Small thin pieces can be
broken by finger pressure.

Very weak Can be carved with knife. Can be broken easily with point < 1.25
of pick. Pieces 25 mm or more in thickness can be broken
by finger pressure. Can be scratched easily by finger nail

Note:
1) The Unconfined Compressive Strength values are as in British Standard BS-5930 (CI. 44.2.6).
2) Table-2 should not be used to infer the Unconfined Compressive Strength of rock. Actual
laboratory test value of rock core should be used.

64
 IRC:78-2014
Appendix-3
(Clauses 708.2, 708.3 and 708.4)

PROCEDURE FOR STABILITY CALCULATION

1 FORMULA FOR ACTIVE OR PASSIVE PRESSURE IN SOIL

The active and passive pressure co-efficient (Ka & KP respectively) shall be calculated
according to Coulomb's formula taking ·Into account the wall friction. For cohesive soils, the
effect of 'c' may be added to the same as per procedure given by Bell. The value of angle
of wall friction may be taken as 2f3rd of 0 the angle of repose is subject to a limit of 22 1/ 2
degrees. Both the vertical and horizontal components shall be considered in the stability
calculations.

2 SKIN FRICTION

The relief due to skin friction shall be ignored unless specifically permitted by the Engineer-
in-charge. However, in case of highly compressive soils, skin friction, if any, may cause
increased bearing pressure on the foundation and shall be dully considered.

3 FACTOR OF SAFETY OVER ULTIMATE PRESSURES

The factor of safety in assessing the allowable passive resistance shall be 2 for load
combinations without wind or seismic forces and 1.6 for load combinations with wind or
seismic forces. The manner of applying factor of safety shall be as indicated below:

i) Pier wells founded in cohesive soils

The factor of safety as stipulated for the type of soil shall be applied for
the net ultimate soil resistance, viz., (Pp - P)
a
where Pp and Pa are total
passive and active pressure respectively mobilised below the maximum
scour level.

ii) Abutment wells in both cohesive and non-cohesive soiis

In the case of abutment wells, the active pressure on soil above the
maximum scour level (triangular variation of pressure) shall be separately
evaluated and considered as load combined with the other loads acting
on the abutment and no factor of safety shall be taken for the above
components of active pressure. Effects of surcharge due to live load should
be restricted only upto the abutment portion.

67
 l

IRC:78-2014
iii) However, the lateral resistance of soil below the scour level at ultimate
value shall be divided by the appropriate factor of safety, viz., (P _Pa) as
stated in the case of pier wells. FOS

iv) Point of rotation

For the purpose of applying the above formulae, it may be assumed that
the point of rotation lies at the bottom of the well.

h1

- ~INNER DREDGE HOLE

....
OUTER -...----
SURFACE
h = Kd i1
h1 - Kd1 ITS
WHERE d1 • OUTER DIA Of WEU.
AFTER REDUCTION IN
STEINING THICKNESS

IS • DEPTH OF WELL
UPTO MSL
ld = 3 (h-h1)
t1 c!c~ t2 ARE THE
DEVELOPMENT LENGTHS
FOR THE STEEL. BEYONO
j
THE MINIMUM SECTION '
h

Fig. 1 Sketch for Reduction of Ste!ning Thickness

68
~---·---~·- - , 1 ' 1 : m rn· rtn rtm· ' 'I 'f*l$ntbttwM'tt en ti:r'O' so w -

PRoJECTION a 75 , • .,. •• • •

r-
SECTIONAL
<
PlAN M
0)
CD
XX DETAIL AT XX DETAIL AT YY
,---- yy
~ ·~ n........_ .CURB

•Jt:f TO J7'

TO BE WElDED
TO CUTTING EDGE
1- .l.!LiTllNC EOCE PlAT!
BOTTO.. PlUG

SECTIONAL ELEVATION 86
(REINFORCEMENT NOT SHOWN) V TYPE CUTTING EDGE ;:o
0
-..J
coI
N
0__,..
Fig. 2 Details of Well Curbs and Cutting Edge
~

-~ , __ -·"~- -~-·- ~- .... "''-

 ;a
()

... •• -t. lOO -----,.-I -..J

(X)
I
N
0
-"
~

\tltta '""'"'o
~t'c ...... ,. ... ......Q- -~

,..
t.n("ll\ , .....

... "..........
~C.t•~t.D
[
, .....
(tt.•4).
___,

... .,..., ....

•••~ C'ft~ l
0~ 'TA 1\. ~
"'ow••
!tl 2 r,
c••~"•axr t •• c

-..J
0 . , ....
c •~te. ••,... • •.•• 0.

•••c• "&toO••,
{,~'!!!.
I'

,4l -I ...... to•O lOO .,CAM~

0 tl ,.. co.a(.t.t 1t
•~\.k!~
l

l tl .k
y + l w ~J ~

SIC]! OM l\.. !l.£'1 ~l \.S;_~

-
Fig. 3 Details of Well Curbs and Cutting Edge

----------- ---------------------· -- -·-~--,.-

.___.
 IRC:78-2014
Appendix-4
(Clause 708.13)

PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN DURING SINKING OF WELLS

1 CONSTRUCTION OF WELL CURB AND STEINING

1.1 Cutting edge and the top of the well curb shall be placed truly horizontal.

1.2 The methods adopted for placing of the well curb shall depend on the site
conditions, and the cutting edge shall be placed on dry bed.

1.3 Well steining shall be built in lifts and the first lift shall be laid after sinking 1
the curb atleast partially for stability.

1.4 The steining shall be built in one straight line from bottom to top and shall
always be at right angle to the plane of the curb. In no case, it shall be built plumb in
intermediate stages when the well is tilted.

1.5 In soft strata prone to settlement/creep, the construction of the abutment

wells shall be taken up after the approach embankment for a sufficient distance near
the abutment has been completed.

2 SINKING

2.1 A sinking history record be maintained at site.

2.2 Efforts shall be made to sink wells true to position and in plumb.
2.3 Sumps made by dredging below cutting edge shall preferably not be more
than half the internal diameter.
2.4 Boring chart shall be referred to constantly during sinking for taking adequate
care while piercing different types of strata by keeping the boring chart at the site and
plotting the soil as obtained for the well steining and comparing it with earlier bore data
to take prompt decisions.
2.5 When the wells have to be sunk close to each other and the clear distance
is less than the diameter of the wells, they shall normally be sunk in such a manner
that the difference in the levels of the sump and the cutting edge in the two wells do
not exceed half the clear gap between them.

71
IRC:78-2014
2.6 When group of wells are near each other, spedal care is needed to ensure that 5
they do not fail in the course of sinking and also do not cause disturbance to wells already e
sunk. The minimum clearance between the wells shall be half the external diameter. t<
Simultaneous and level dredging shall be carried out in the dredging holes of all the
wells in the group and plugging of all the wells be done together. 5
n
2.7 During construction partially sunk wells shall be taken to a safe depth below tl
the anticipated scour levels to ensure their safety during ensuing floods. fl

2.8 Dredged material shall not be deposited unevenly around the well. 5

3 USE OF KENTLEDGE

3.1 Where a well is loaded with Kentledge to provide additional sinking effort,
E
such load shall be placed evenly on the loading platform, leaving sufficient space in
t
the middle to remove excavated material.

3.2 Where tilts are present or there is a danger of well developing tilt, the position
of the load shall be regulated in such a manner as to provide greater sinking effort on
the higher side of the well.

4 SAND BLOWS IN WELLS

4.1 Dewatering shall be avoided if sand blows are expected. Any equipment
and men working inside the well shall be brought out of the well as soon as there are
any indications of a sand-blow.

4.2 Sand blowing in wells can often be minimized by keeping the level of water
inside the well higher than the water table and also by adding heavy kentledge.

5 SINKING OF WELLS WITH USE OF DIVERS

5.1 Use of divers may be made in well sinking both for sinking purposes, like,
removal of obstructions, rock blasting, etc. as also for inspection. All safety precautions
shall be taken as per any acceptable safety code for sinking with divers or any statutory
regulations in force.

5.2 Only persons trained for the diving operation shall be employed. They
shall work under expert supervision. The diving and other equipments shall be of an
,~cceptable standard. !t sha!i be well maintained for safe use.

7'"'
IL
 !RC:78-2014
5.3 Arrangement for ample supply of low pressure clean cool air shall be
ensured through an armored flexible hose pipe. Standby compressor plant will have
to be provided in case of breakdown.

5.4 Separate high pressure connection for use of pneumatic tools shall be
made. Electric lights, where provided, shall be at 50 volts (maximum). The raising of
the diver from the bottom of wells shall be controlled so that the decompression rate
for divers conforms to the appropriate rate as laid down in the regulation.

5.5 All men employed for diving purpose shall be certified to be fit for diving by
an approved doctor.

6 BLASTING

6.1 Only light charges shall be used under ordinary circumstances and should
be fired under water well below the cutting edge so that there is no chance of the curb
being damaged.

6.2 There shall be no equipment inside the well nor shall there by any labour in
the close vicinity of the well at the time of exploding the charges.

6.3 All safety precautions shall be taken as per IS 4081 "Safety Code for
Blasting and Related Drilling Operations", to the extent applicable, whenever blasting
is resorted to. Use of large charges, 0.7 kg. or above, may not be allowed except
under expert direction and with permission from Engineer-in-charge. Suitable pattern
of charges may be arranged with delay detonators to reduce the number of charges
fired at a time. The burden of the charge may be limited to 1 m and the spacing of
holes may normally be kept 0.5 to 0.6 m.

6.4 If rock blasting is to be done for seating of the well, the damage caused by
the ftying debris should be minimised by provisions of rubber mats covered over the
blasting holes before blasting.

6.5 After blasting, the steining shall be examined for any cracks and corrective
measures *shall be taken immediately.

7 PNEUMATIC SINKING

7.1 The pneumatic sinking plant and other allied machinery shall not only be
of proper design and make, but also shall be worked by competent and weil trained
personnel. Every part of the machinerf and its fixtures shall be minutely examined before

73
 1

IRC:78-2014
installation and use. Appropriate spares, standbys, safety of personnel as recommended (

in the IS 4188 for working in compressed air must be kept at site. Safety code for working t
in and other labour laws and practices prevalent in the country, as specified to provide safe, l
efficient and expeditious sinking shall be followed.

7.2 Inflammable materials shall not be taken into air locks and smoking shall be
prohibited.

7.3 Whenever gases are suspected to be oozing out of dredge hole, the same
shall be analysed by trained personnel and necessary precautions adopted to avoid
hazard to life and equipment.

7.4 Where blasting is resorted to, it shall be carefully controlled and all precautions
regarding blasting shall be observed. Workers shall be allowed inside after blasting only when
a competent and qualified person has examined the chamber and steining thoroughly.

7.5 The weight of pneumatic platform and that of steining and kentledge, if any,
shall be sufficient to resist the uplift from air inside, skin friction being neglected in this
case.

7.6 If at any section the total weight acting downwards is less than the uplift
pressure of air inside, additional kentledge shall be placed on the well.

7.7 If it is possible to make the well heavy enough during excavation; "Blowing
Down" may be used. The men should be withdrawn and the air pressure reduced.
The well should then begin to move with a small reduction in air pressure. "Blowing
Down'' should only be used where the ground is such that it will not heave up inside the
chamber when the pressure is reduced. When the well does not move with a reduction
in air pressure, kentledge should be added. Blowing down should be in short stages
and the drop should not exceed, 0.5 m of any stage. To control sinking during blowing
down, use of packs or packagings may be made.

8 TILTS AND SHIFTS OF WELLS

8.1 Tilts and shifts shall be carefully checked and recorded regularly during
sinking operations. For the purpose of measuring the tilts along and perpendicular to
the axis of the bridge, level marks at regular intervals shall be painted on the surface
of the steining of the well.

8.2 Whenever any tilt is noticed, adequate preventive measures, like, putting
eccentric Kentledge, pulling, strutting, anchoring or dredging unevenly and depositing

74
 IRC:78-2014
dredge material unequally, putting obstacles below cutting edge, after jetting etc., shall
be adopted before any further sinking. After correction, the dredged material placed
unevenly shall be spread evenly.

8.3 A pair of wells close to each other have a tendency to come closer while
sinking. Timber struts may be introduced in between the steining of these wells to
prevent tilting.

8.4 Tilts occurring in a well during sinking 1n dipping rocky strata can be
safeguarded by suitably supporting the kerb.

9 SAND ISLAND

9.1 Sand island where provided shall be protected against scour and the top
level shall be sufficiently above the prevailing water level so that it is safe against
wave action.

9.2 The dimension of the sand island shall not be less then three times the
dimension in plan of the well or caisson.

75
IRC:78-2014
i
Appendix-5
(Clause 709.3.1)

CAPACITY OF PILE BASED ON PILE SOIL INTERACTION

1 AXIAL CAPACITY OF PILES IN SOIL
Axial load carrying capacity of the pile is initially determined by calculating resistance from
I
i
end bearing at toe/tip or wall friction/skin friction along pile surface or both. Based on the
soil data, the ultimate load carrying capacity (Q) is given by:
Qu = Ru +R f

where
Ru =Ultimate base resistance
R, =Ultimate shaft resistance
1.1 Ru = Ru, i.e., Ultimate base resistance maybe calculating from the following:
Ru =Ap (1/2 DY Ny + Pd Nq) + Ap Nc Cp
where
Ap = Cross-sectional area of base of pile
0 =Pile diameter in em
y =Effective unit weight of soil at pile tip in kg/cm 3

Nq & Ny =Bearing capacity factors based on angle of internal friction at pile tip
Nc =Bearing capacity factor usually taken as 9
CP =Average cohesion at pile tip (from unconsolidated untrained test)
Pd - Effective overburden pressure at pile tip limited to 20 times diameter of
pile for piles having length equal to more than 20 times diameter
2 R, i.e., Ultimate side resistance may be calculated from the following:

where
K = Coefficient of earth pressure
=Effective overburden pressure in kg/cm 2 along the embedment of
pile for the layer ith where i varies from I to n
=Angle of wall friction between pile and soil in degrees. It may be taken
equal to angle of internal friction of soil
As; =Surface area of pile shaft in cm2 in the ith layer, where i varies from 1 to n
As = Surface area of pile shaft in cm 2
76
 IRC:78-2014
a = Reduction factor

c = Average cohesion in kg/cm 2 throughout the embedded length of pile

(from unconsolidated untrained test)

3 While evaluating effective overburden pressure, total and submerged weight

of soil shall be considered above and below water table respectively.

4 The initial value of K may be taken as 1.5 which can be further increased
up to 1.8 in particular cases as specified in Clause 709.2.2 (v).

5 The following value of x may be adopted depending upon consistency of soil:

Consistency N Value Bored piles Driven

Cast-in-situ case-in-situ piles
Soft to very soft clay <4 0.7 1 i
f
Medium 4-8 0.5 0.7
Stiff 8-15 0.4 0.4
Very stiff >15 0.30 0.3
6 For piles in over consolidated soils, the drained capacity may be evaluated.
7 When full static penetration data is available for the entire depth, then
Qu =qbA p
+ fs . As
qb = Point resistance at base to be taken as average of the value over a depth
equal to 3 times the diameter of pile above and one time the diameter of pile
below the tip.
Ap = Cross-sectional area of base of pile
fs = Average side friction and following co-relation may be used as a guide:
Type of Soil Side Friction, fs
Clay
Soft qj25
Stiff qc/15
Mixture of silts and sand with traces of clay
Loose qJ50
Dense qj100
qc = Static point resistance.

8 Where soft compressible clay layer is encountered, any contribution towards

capacity of pile from such soil shall be ignored and additional load pile on account of
downward drag on pile due to consolidation of soft soil shall be considered.

77
 1

IRC:78-2014
NOTE: For factors of safety of piles in soil, refer Clause 709.3.2.

9 CAPACITY OF PILES IN INTERMEDIATE GEO-MATERIAL AND ROCK

9.1 Axial Load Carrying Capacity :
Piles in rocks and weathered rocks of varying degree of weathering derive their capacity
by end bearing and socket side resistance. The ultimate load carrying capacity may
be calculated from one of the two approaches given below:
Where cores of the rock can be taken and unconfined compressive strength directly
established using standard method of testing, the approach described in method 1
shall be used. In situations where strata is highly fragmented, where RQD is nil or
(CR+RQD)/2 is less than 30 percent, or where strata is not classified as a granular or
clayey soil, or when the crushing strength is less than 10 MPa, th!3 approach described
in method 2 shall be used. Also, for weak rock like chalk, mud stone, clay stone, shale t
and other intermediate rocks, method 2 is applicable.
MEHTOD 1:

Q allow= (Re/3) + (Rj6)

Where,
Qu
Q allow=
Re
=

=
Ultimate capacity of pile socketed into rock in Newtons
Allowable capacity of Pile
Ultimate end bearing
l
Raf = Ultimate side socket shear
Kp = An empiricalco-efficient whose value ranges from 0.3 to 1.2 as
per the table below for the rocks where core recovery is reported,
and cores tested for uniaxial compressive strength.
(CR + RQD Ksp
I
2 I
30% 0.3
100% 1.2
CR = Core Recovery in percent
RQD = Rock Quality Designation in percent
For Intermediate values, Kpshall be linearly interpolated
= Average unconfined compressive strength of rock core below base
of pile for the depth twice the diameter/least lateral dimension of pile
in MPa

78
 IRC:78-2014

= Cross-sectional area of base of pile

= Depth factor =1 + 0.4 X Length of Socket

Dtameter of Socket

However, value of d1 should not be taken more

than 1.2.
As = Surface area of socket
cus = Ultimate shear strength of rock along socket length,
= 0.225 ~qc, but restricted to shear capacity of concrete of the pile, to
be taken as 3.0 MPa forM 35 concrete in confined coudition, which
for other strength of concrete can be modified by a factor ~(fck/35)
METHOD 2:

This method is applicable when cores and/or core testing result are not available, or when
i
geo-material is highly fragmented. The shear strength of geo-material is obtained from its ;
~

correlation with extrapolated SPT values for 300 mm of penetration as given in table below:

jshear Strength/Consistency Moderately Weak Weak Very Weak

I Approx. N Value 300-200 200-100 100-60
! Shear Strength/Cohesion in MPa 3.3-1.9 1.9-0.7 I 0.7-0.4
Q u = Re + Raf =C u.b Nc. '11'b + Cu.s As
Q allow= (Re/3) + (Ra/6)
where
Cu.b = Average shear strength below base of pile, for the depth equal to
twice the diameter/least lateral dimension of pile, based on average
'N' value of this region
Gus= Ultimate shear strength along socket length, to be obtained from table,
based on average 'N' value of socket portion. This shall be restricted
to shear capacity of concrete of the pile, to be taken as 3.0 MPa
forM 35 concrete in confined condition, which for other strengths of
concrete can be modified by a factor ~(fck/35) Intermediate values
Cub and Gus can be interpolated linearly.

L= Length of socket.
Nc =9.
Q allow= Allowable capacity of pile.
The extrapolated values of 'N' greater than 300 shall be limited to 300 while using this
method.
General notes common to Method 1 and Method 2:

1) For the hinged piles resting on rock proper seating has to be ensured. The minimum
socket length should be 300 mm in hard rock, and 0.5 times the diameter of the pile
79
IRC:78-2014
in weathered rock.
2) The allowable end bearing component after dividing by factor of safety shall be
restricted to 5 MPa.

3) For calculation of socket friction capacity, the top rock 300 mm depth of rock shall be
neglected. The friction capacity shall be further limited to depth of six times diameter
of pile.
4) For the termination of working piles in the rocky strata methodology given in sub-
clause 10 can be used as a quality control tool.
9.2 Moment Carrying Capacity of Socketed Piles:

For the socketed pile, the socket length in the rock may be calculated from following
equation:

where

Ls = Socket length
H = Horizontal force at top of the socket
M = Moment at the top of the socket
D = Diameter of the pile.
a1 = Permissible compressive strength in rock which is leaser of 30 kg/sq em or
0.33qc.

In case of socketed piles, for the satisfactory performance of the socket as fixed tip, the
rotation at the top of the socket for the fixed condition (8) should be less than or equal to
5 percent of the rotation for the pinned condition at the top of the socket (8)

10 PILE TERMINATION CRITERIA AS A QUALITY

CONTROL TOOL IN ROCKS

For establishing the similarity of soil strata actually met while advancing the pile-bore with
the strata selected for terminating the pile on the basis of N values equivalent energy method
can be used.
The concept of Pile Penetration Ratio (PPR) is used in this method.
The pile penetration ratio (PPR) reflects the energy in ton-meter required to advance
the pile bore of one sq. meter cross-sectional area by 1 em.

80
 IRC:78-2014
1) In case of SPT test its PPR can be worked out as follows:
Energy E spent for N blows= 63.5 kg x 75 em x N blows (in kg- em units)= Ex 1o-s ton
meter. Area of samples is 0.758 x (5.2)2 sq. em= 21.24 sq.cm, penetrating 30 em.
Hence PPR = 63.5 x 75 x N x 10-5/ (21.24x104 x30) =0.747 N
PPR for N =50= 37.35 tm/m 2/cm
and for N = 200 =149.4 tm/m 2/cm

where

tm =energy
m2 =area
em = penetration
Whn
2) PPR (P), (for percussion piles)= AP

W = Weight of chisel in MT

h = Fall of chisel in 'm'

n = Number or blows of hammer

A = Area of pile in 'm2'

p = Penetration in 'em'
2rr nTt
3) PPR (R), (for rotary piles)=
. AP
where

N = Revolution per minute

T = Torque in 'tm' for corresponding 'n'

t = time in minutes

A = Area of piles in 'm 2 '

II P = Penetration in 'em'
~

i
I

I
I
~
'
81
~
IRC:78-2014
Appendix-6
(Clause 710.1.4)

FILLING BEHIND ABUTMENTS, WING AND RETURN WALLS

1 FILLING MATERIALS
The type of materials to be used for filling behind abutments and other earth retaining
structures, should be selected with care. A general guide to the selection of soils is given in
Table 1.

Table 1 General Guide to the Selection of Soils on Basis of

Anticipated Embankment Performance
Soil group according to Visual Max. dry Optimum Anticipated
IS 1498-1970 description density moisture embankment
Most probable Possible range kg/ content range performance
m3 percent
GW, GP, GM, Granular 1850-2280 7-15 Good to
SW,HP materials Excellent
SB, SM, GM, Granular 1760-2160 9-18 Fair to
GC, SM, SC materials Excellent
with soil
SP Sand 1760-1850 19-25 Fair to Good
ML, MH, DL CL, SM, Sandy Silts & 1760-2080 10-20 Fair to Good
SB,SC Silts

2 LAYING AND COMPACTION

2.1 Laying of Filter Media for Drainage

The filter material shall be well packed to a thickness of not less than 600 mm with smaller
size towards the soil and bigger size towards the wall and provided over the entire surface
behind abutment, wings or return walls to the full height.
Filter materials need not be provided in case the abutment is of spill through type.

2.2 Density of Compaction

Densities to be aimed at in compaction shall be chosen with due regard to factors, such as,
the soil type, height of embankment, drainage conditions, position of the individual layers
and type of plant available for compaction.
Each compacted layer shall be tested in the field for density and accepted before the
operations for next layer are begun.

82
 IRC:78-2014
3 EXTENT OF BACKFILL

The extent of backfill to be provided behind the abutment should be as illustrated in Fig. 1.

,
i
I

Fig. 1

Notes
I. Active wedge of soil mobilized in developing active pressure has to be filled by selected earth.
2. In case. projection of footing towards earth-fill is less than 600 mm, the filter shall be supported near the
top of the footing.

4 PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN DURING CONSTRUCTION

4.1 The sequence of filling behind abutments, wing walls and return walls shall
be so controlled that the assumptions made in the design are fulfilled and they should
clearly be indicated in the relevant drawings. For example, if the earth pressure in
front of the abutment is assumed in the design, the front filling shall also be done
simultaneously along with the filling behind abutment, layer by, and in case the filling
behind abutment before placing the superstructure is considered not desirable, the
filling behind abutment should also be deferred to a later date. In case of tie beams
and friction slabs, special care shall be taken in compacting the layer underneath and
above them so that no damage is done to them by mechanical equipment.
4.2 Special precautions should be taken to prevent any wedging action against
structures, and the slopes bounding the excavation for the structure shall be stepped
or strutted to prevent such wedging action.
4.3 Adequate number of weep holes not exceeding one metre spacing in both
directions should be provided to prevent any accumulation of water and building up of
hydrostatic pressure behind the walls. The weep holes should be provided above the
low water level.

83
IRC:78-2014
Appendix-7
(Clause - 709.2.4)

PART-1

METHOD-1: PILE LOAD CAPACITY BY DYNAMIC TEST USING

WAVE EQUATION

This method is based on solving wave equation by using idealized model using strata wise
soil parameters to arrive at pile 'set' for given pile load. The force and velocity response of
pile to an impact force applied axially by drop of hammer causing large strain at top of pile
(of the order of magnitude of ultimate capacity of pile) are measured to arrive at the ultimate
capacity of pile.

1 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
For piles considering resistance from surrounding soil, the internal force and
displacements produced on segment of prismatic bar subjected to impact at one end,
the wave equation can be derived as

where
.•
'·

0 = longitudinal displacement of a point of the bar from its original position

E = modulus of elasticity of bar p = density of bar material + t =time
x = direction of longitudinal axis & R = soil-resistance term

l
The above equation may be solved for appropriate boundary conditions and the relationship
among displacement, time, position in the pile and stress are determined usually bynumerical
methods. Solution requires idealization of model considering load deformation diagram for i
each segment, the 'quake' i.e. maximum deformation that can occur elastically, 'Ru' the J
t
ultimate soil resistance and the damping factor. The empirical value of 'quake', damping
factor and percent side adhesion as reported by Forehand and Reese are reproduced for
reference in Table 1.

84
 IRC:78-2014
Table 1 Empirical Values of Q,J, and Percent Side Adhesion
Soil · Q (in.) J(P) (Sec/ft. ) Side Adhesion
(%of Ru)
Coarse sand ·'0.10 O.f5 35
Sand gravel mixed 0.10 0.15 75-100
Fine Sand 0.15 0.15 100
Sand and clay or loam, at least 0.20 0.20 25
50 percent of pile in sand
Silt and fine sand underlain by 0.20 0.20 40
hard strata
Sand and gravel underlain by 0.15 0.15 25
hard strata

2 PILE AND TEST PREPARATION

1) The testing should be conducted by fixing instrumentation that should include strain
sensors and accelerometers to the sides of the pile at a depth of 1.5 x pile diameters
from top of pile and then connecting them to the measuring equipment.
2) For this it is desirable that the pile is extended to suitable length after chipping top
loose concrete. This can be done either using formwork or permanent casing.
Alternatively if it is a liner pile, two openings/windows approximately 300 mm x 300
mm and diametrically opposite to each other shall be made into the liner at 1.5 x pile
diameter from top.
3) In case pile head is extended, it shall be axial, flat and have same strength as pile
concrete. The pile head may even be one grade higher so as to attain early strength.
The rebars and helical reinforcement shall also be extended to avoid cracking of
concrete under hammer impact.
Refer to Fig.1 for a sketch of reinforcement in the exte,nded pile and the diameter of
bars shall generally be the same as pile reinforcement. Further, the concrete at the
sensor level shall be smooth hard and uniform.

100 <TVP> ·
~ 1. All dimensions are in mm
100 YP>

1\ 2. Clear cover to mesh reinforcement is 20 mm.

~ 1 3. Diameter of mesh reinforcement bars is 8 mm.
U/
\
v 4. Spacing of mesh reinforcement bars is I00 mm.
"' "' v
Plan ofTest Pile Elevation ofTest Pile

Fig. 1: Details of Rebar cage for extended portion of pile for dynamic test

85
IRC:78-2014
4) A pile top cushion consisting of sheets of plywood with total thickness between
25 mm to 100 mm or as determined by the Test Engineer shall be placed on the top
of the pile before testing.

5) Steel helmet 25 mm-50 mm thick or as determined by the Test Engineer shall be

kept ready at the time of testing.

6) A hammer of suitable weight (1-2 percent of test load or 5-7 percent of the dead weight of
the pile whichever is higher) shall be used for testing the pile unless specified otherwise
by the Test Engineer. The fall height generally varies from 0.5 m to 3m.

7) Wherever essential, a suitable guide shall be provided to ensure a concentric

fall.

8) A suitable crane or equivalent mechanism capable of freely falling the required

hammer shall be arranged on site in consultation with the test engineer. Refer to
Fig. 2 showing the setup arrangements.
TYPICAL SKETCH SHOWING SETUP DETAILS
fOR HIGH STRAIN DYNAMIC PtLE TESTING

j
-~

Plywoods
I
t
'

j
-r--

!---- SleeiL

-
.51inwa Di---plle
co~
!: p~
...ct gtade
concrete
Steel lin« ~IDe-..:!
lhepile Can UMiomwoori!
!MINd L lner ill oplionel

Rto-built por1lon *"""' eound

.
i

ooncre111 ....., ()( eound &

emoolh
concr-
-'-- 1--- s.n.or. lbced

,...,

Fig. 2: Typical sketch showing setup details for high strain dynamic pile testing

86
 IRC:78-2014
9) A suitable power source supply shall be provided for fixing sensors and for the test
equipment.

3) PILE MONITORING

1) The testing may be conducted atleast 15 days after the pile is installed
and the concrete pile as well as extended portion if any has achieved the
required strength.

2) Dynamic pile testing (based on wave equation) should be conducted by

attaching strain transducers and accelerometers to the sides of the pile,
approximately 1.5 times pile diameter below the pile top. A pair of transducers I
needs to be fixed onto opposite sides of the pile, so as to detect bending in/
the pile if any, during testing.

3) These transducers should be then connected through the cable to measuring

equipment to record strain and acceleration measurements and display them on an
oscilloscope or screen.

4) The testing should be conducted by impacting the pile with blows of the hammer,
generally starting with a smaller drop of 0.5 m. For each hammer blow, the strain
transducers should measure strains whereas accelerations are measured by
accelerometers connected on either sides of the pile. These signals are then
converted to digital form by the equipment and then converted to force and velocity
respectively by integration.

5) For each hammer blow, the test system should display immediate field results
in the form of the mobilized capacity of the pile, pile top compression, integrity,
stresses etc. The force and velocity curve shall be generally as defined in ASTM
04945.

6) Testing should be continued by increasing height fall of the hammer by approximately

0.5 m increment till the time either the pile set or the pile capacity reaches the
required limiting values. A typical force velocity response is also described in Fig.3.

7) The pile capacity shall be generally considered to be fully mobilized if the energy levels
due to hammer impact are sufficient so as to cause a measurable net displacement
of atleast 3-4 mm per blow for a minimum three successive impacts. If the pile set
is less than 3-4 mm per blow and the pile achieves required capacity, then it implies
that not all the static pile resistance has been mobilized and that the pile still has
some capacity that could not be measured or was not required to be measured at
the time of testing.

87
IRC:78-2014

MOMENT OF IMPACT

Fig. 3: Typical force-velocity trace generated by measuring equipment

8) Analysis and Interpretation : Using strain and acceleration data in a suitable

model, ba$ed on local parameters of pile and soil strata, the equivalent static
load bearing capacity shall be calculated. The final report should specffy the
parameters of soil and pile strata considered and the safe capacity arrived.
Atypical blow is then selected for Signal Matching Analysis.

4) TEST LIMITATIONS

1) Evaluation of static soil resistance and it's distribution .can be based on a

variety of analytical methods and is the subject of individual engineering
judgment. The input into the analytical methods may or may not result in
l
i

I
the dynamic evaluation matching static load test ·data. It is necessary to
calibrate the ·result of the dynamic analysis with those of a static pile load
test carried outaccording to IS 2911.
~

2) Based on above, it can be said that it is difficult to predict rock socket friction
and actual end bearing for rock socketed piles that do not show substantial
net displacement under the impacts.

3) Unlike static testing, evaluation of dynamic pile test results requires an

experienced engineer trained in interpretations of the results.

88
1

IRC:78-2014
METHOD-2: PILE DYNAMIC TEST METHOD BASED ON
HILEY'S FORMULAE

(BY LASER/INFRARED OPERATED EQUIPMENT)

1 INTRODUCTION

Since the early days of driven piles, the termination criteria based on "Sets observed", are
followed. Various formulae are available. The IS Code 2911 Part - 1 covering driven piles
provides one such formula. The principle followed is recording the penetration per blow
of the hammer, and on that basis having obtained the desired set i.e. average penetration
of standard numbers of blows of hammer, the ultimate capacity for the pile is worked out
and then with suitable factor of safety the safe capacity is arrived at. The bored cast-
in-situ piles after attaining strength (i.e. after curing) can be treated as precast pile to

I be advanced further in the founding strata (i.e. strata on which terminated) by dynamic
impact energy. The load carrying capacity of bored cast-in-situ pile subjected to impact
energy can then be estimated on measuring consequent displacement by sophisticated
optoelectronic instruments on resorting to IS 2911 procedure. The procedure will help in
ascertaining the quality of workmanship on a large number of piles without much of time
wasting and avoiding delays in a construction activity with relatively less cost.

METHODOLOGY

The methodology ottest is based on a large falling weight giving the dynamic impact to
the elastic body. It equates the energy of hammer blow to work done in overcoming the
resistance of the founding strata to the penetration of the ordinary cast-in-situ piles as
well as grouted micro piles. Allowance is made for losses of energy due to the elastic
compression of the pile, and subsoil as well as losses caused by the impact of the pile. The
Modified Hiley's formulae given in the code IS 2911 Part -1, Section I are used in estimating
the ultimate driving resistance in tonnes. Applying the factor of safety as outlined in the
code, the safe load on pile can be worked out.

The instantaneous displacements including rebounds of the pile are precisely recorded in
automatic data acquisition system. This is done for several cycles and then using formulae
as accepted in IS Code 2911 the safe loading capacity is calculated. The opto-electronic
instrument is used for position sensitive measurement by non contact continuous
measurement, using instrument placed away from the vibrations due to impact load. The
system is based on combined light emitting diode transmitters and a position sensitive
detector The transmitter and receiver are installed so that the infrared light beam forms a
reference line from transmitter, receiver to the prism group reflectors. The reflected light is
89
IRC:78-2014
received and recorded 100 times per second. Using the energy transmitted to the pile and
accounting for temporary compression of pile, ground and dolly occurring during the impact
loading, the ultimate driving resistance is calculated. Applying the factor of safety the safe
load for the pile is calculated.

The modified Hiley formula is :

WhfJ
f? = --------------
S+C/2

where

R = ultimate driving resistance in tonnes. The safe load shall be worked out by
dividing it with a factor of safety of 2.5.

h
= mass of the ram in tonnes;
= height of the free fall of the ram or hammer in em, taken at its full value for
trigger-operated drop hammers, 80 percent oft he fall of normally proportioned
winch operated drop hammers, and 90 percent of the stroke for single-acting
I
hammers. When using the McKiernan Terry type of double acting hammers,
90 percent of the maker's rated energy in tonne-centimeter per blow should
be substituted for the product (Wh) in the formula. The hammer should be
operated at its maximum speed while the set is being taken;

11 = efficiency of the blow, representing the ratio of energy after impact to the
striking energy of ram;

S = final set or penetration per blow in em;

C = sum of the temporary elastic compressions in em of the pile, dolly, packings
and ground

P = Mass of pile in tonnes

Where W is greater than Pe and the pile is driven into penetrable ground,
2
W+ Pe
fJ = W+ p
Where W is less than Pe and the pile is driven into penetrable ground.
2
=W + Pe _ ( W- Pe )2
fJ W+P W+P

90
,
J
IRC:78-2014
The following are the values of rJ in relation toe and to the ration of P/W

Ratio of P/W e = 0.5 e=0.4 E = 0.32 e = 0.25 e=O

1/2 0.75 0.72 0.70 0.69 0.67
1 0.63 0,58 0.55 0.53 0.50
1 1/2 0.55 0.50 0.47 0.44 0.40
2 0.50 0.44 0.40 0.37 0.33

I
ll
21/2

3
0.45
0.42
0.40
0.36
0.36
0.33
0.33
0.30
0.28
0.25
31/2 0.39 0.33 0.30 0.27 0.22
4 0.36 0.31 0.28 0.25 0.20
5 0.31 0.27 0.24 0.21 0.16

I•
1
6
7
0.27
0.24
0.24
0.21
0.21
0.19
0.19
0.17
0.14
0.12
8 0.22 0.20 0.17 0.15 0.11
Pis the weight of the pile, anvil, helmet and follower (if any) in tonnes.

l Where the pile finds refusal in rock, 0.5 Pshould be substituted for Pin the above expression
for rJ.
e is the coefficient of restitution of the materials under impact as tabulated below.

a) For steel ram of double-acting hammer striking on steel anvil and driving reinforced
pile, e =0.5

lI
b)

c)
For cast-iron ram of single-acting or drop hammer striking on head of reinforced
concrete pile, e = 0.4.

Single-acting or drop hammer striking a well-conditioned driving cap and helmet

with hard wood dolly in driving reinforced concrete piles or directly on head of timber
pile, e = 0.25.

Numbers of models of Laser/infrared operated instruments measuring accurately the

deformation are available these days. The required sensitivity of the equipment shall
be such as to read the angular deformation to the accuracy of 10-3 radians and the
instrument should be capable of recording about 100 readings per second. From the
angular deformation, on knowing the distance of the reflector from the instrument,

91
IRC:78-2014

Typical Displacement Record

0
-0.1

-0.2
e
u -0.3

-
·-== -0.4
Q,l
s
Q,l -0.5
u
~

1 -0.6
1.
25
-0.7 J
-0.8

-0.9
Reading Serial Number. l
.tt

vertical movement of the shaft under the given impact energy, (both elastic and
permanent) can be measured accurately. These measurements of the displacement
can then be substituted in modified Hiley's formulae stated in IS 2911. The ultimate
load carrying capacity of the pile can be worked out, resorting to the modified Hiley's
formulae outlined in the code and from that the safe load carrying capacity of pile can
be estimated.

92
 IRC:78-2014
Appendix-7

PART-2
STANDARD TEST METHOD FOR LOW STRAIN PILE INTEGRITY TESTING

1 SIGNIFICANCE AND USE

Pile Integrity Testing (PIT) is a Non-Destructive integrity test method for foundation piles.
The method evaluates continuity of the pile shaft and provides information on any potential
defects due to honeycombs, necking, cross-section reduction, potential bulbs, sudden
changes in soil stratum, concrete quality in terms of wave speed etc. It is known as "Low
Strain" Method since it requires the impact of only a small hand-held hammer and the
resultant strains are of extremely low magnitude. The test procedure is standardized as per
ASTM 05882 and also forms part of various
. specifications
. .
and code provisions worldwide as
indicated in Table-3. The number of tests shall be decided by the engineer to the project.

, Table 3 Major Standards or Codes for Integrity Testing

Sr no Method Country Reference Title

1) LST, CSL Australia Australian Standard Pile Designing and installation
. As 21 59-1 995
Technical code for Building
Piles foundations Chapter 9:
I
1 2) . LST, CSL China JGJ 94-94 Inspection and Acceptance of

l pile Foundation Engin(3ering.

9.1 Quality Inspection of. Pile

Ii 3) LST.CSL China JGJ 93-95

installation.
Specification for Low Strain
Dynamic Testing of Piles.
'
I
Soil investigation and
]
l 4) LST France Norms Francaiso testing ascnliation of buried
work method by reflection
impedance
5) LST.CSL Germany DGGT Empfohlung
lntegritataprufungen -
6) LST,CSL UK Institution of Civil Spedfication of Piling.
Engineers. (ICE)
Standard specification for Low
7) LST USA ASTM 05882
Strain Imaginary Testing of
Piles.

93
IRC:78-2014
2 TYPICAL METHODS
Various methods used to evaluate the integrity of the pile are briefly described below.
The evaluation of PIT records can be described as follows.

Pulse-Echo Method (or Sonic Echo- a time domain analysis)

Force Velocity Approach
Transient Response Procedure (Frequency Domain Analysis)
• Cross Hole Sonic Logging

The Force Velocity approach is sometimes used to evaluate defects near the pile top that
maybe difficult to evaluate in Pulse Echo Method. The Pulse Echo is the most commonly
used method and is described below.

3 TEST EQUIPMENT
The test should be performed using digital data acquisition equipment like a Pile Integrity
Tester or any equivalent that meets ASTM D5882 requirements. The equipment must also
include a sensitive accelerometer, instrumented or non-instrumented hammer etc. The data
must be displayed in the field for evaluations of preliminary data quality and interpretation
and a field printout should be possible.

4 TEST PROCEDURE
The testing shall be conducted at least 7 days after pile concreting by an experienced
engineer/technician. The concrete at the pile top surface must be relatively smooth with
sufficient space for attachment of the motion sensing device and hammer impact area. The
testing involves attachment of an accelerometer onto the pile top (not near its edge) with the
help of bonding material like candle wax, vaseline etc. After attachment, the pile is impacted
with a hand-held device (a hand-held hammer).

The test involves collection of several blows during the stage of testing. All such similar
blows are averaged before display. For larger diameter piles of 600 mm and above testing
may be conducted on at least 3 locations, whereas minimum one location is enough for
smaller diameter piles. The typical data sets for good or damaged pile shall generally be as
per Fig.1 and is also defined in ASTM D5882.
Def'CCT

l
,~;~ '
~ ; i\ _/\ 1'"\__r-/\
0.11~ r\;·~--\/ '\_/"'-~...___

·1.0 ~ ~----------------- ,-
·
~~__j
24x•~o ...... ;

-e 0 I 10 t~J02SSOU ..e o ' 10 1& a u .JO :1'

Fig. 1: PIT Velocity versus Depth plot for normal pile (Top) and defective pile (bottom)
94
 IRC:78-2014
5 REPORT SUBMISSION

The final report shall include the following:

1) Project Identification & Location

2) Test Pile Identification including Length, Nominal Cross-Sectional area
and Concrete Mix as per installation record
3} Type of Pile and description of special installation procedures used if any.

!
4) Description of all the components of the apparatus for obtaining integrity
1 measurements and recording/displaying data.

II
5} Graphical representation of Velocity measurements in time domain.
6) Comments on the quality of the Pile Concrete.
7) Comments on any potential defects/damage and its location.
8) Comments on Integrity of Pile based on above.

6 LIMITATIONS
Certain limitations are inherent in the low strain test method and hence it should be
treated only as an indicator of quality of work and not as a conclusive test. The limitations
mentioned below must be understood and taken into consideration in making the final
integrity evaluation.

1) Integrity evaluation of a pile section below a crack that crosses the entire
pile cross-sectional area or a manufactured mechanical joint is normally
not possible since the impact wave likely will reflect completely at the
discontinuity.

2) Piles with highly variable cross-sections or multiple discontinuities maybe

difficult to evaluate.

3) The method is intended to detect major anomalies and minor defects may
not be detected by this method.

4) The test is not applicable to jointed pre-cast piles or hollow steel pipes or
H-sections.

5) The method cannot be used to derive the pile capacity.

95