Bearings in Twin Screw Compressors

Bearings in twin screw
compressors
Application handbook
2
1 Developments and advantages of twin 1
screw compressors
2
2 Bearing applications in twin screw
compressors
3
3 Ball bearings in twin screw compressors

4
4 Roller bearings in twin screw compressors
5
5 PTFE seals in twin screw compressors
6
6 Screw compressor types
7
7 Bearing damage and failure
3
4
Bearings in twin screw
compressors
Application handbook
5
Contents
Preface 9
Developments and advantages of twin screw compressors 11
Twin screw compressor function 11
Compressor designs 12
Future trends 15
Bearing applications in twin screw compressors 17
Bearing function and selection criteria 17
Bearing arrangement examples 21
Bearing lubrication 27
Bearing rating life 31
Operational limitations 38
Shaft and housing tolerances 40
Ball bearings in twin screw compressors 43
Deep groove ball bearings 43
Single row angular contact ball bearings 46
Four-point contact ball bearings 54
Hybrid angular contact ball bearings 57
Roller bearings in twin screw compressors 59
Cylindrical roller bearings 59
Needle roller bearings 64
Tapered roller bearings 65
PTFE seals in twin screw compressors 69
PTFE seal material and manufacturing 69
PTFE seal applications in twin screw compressors 71
Screw compressor types 77
Air compressors 77
Refrigerant compressors 84
Natural and sour gas compressors 88
Bearing damage and failure 93
Root cause analysis 94
7
Preface
This application handbook is designed to provide speciic application

recommendations for SKF customers It should be used in conjunc-
tion with the SKF catalogue Rolling bearings It is not possible, in the
limited space of this handbook, to present all the information neces-
sary to cover every bearing application of twin screw compressors in
detail SKF application engineering service should be contacted for
speciic bearing recommendations The higher the technical demands
of an application and the more limited the available experience, the
more advisable it is to make use of SKF’s application engineering ser-
vice The handbook, however, will give you a starting point and guide
you as to what questions to ask We hope you ind this handbook
informative and helpful
9
Developments and advantages 1
of twin screw compressors

The irst operating twin screw compressor was developed by Svenska
Rotor Maskiner (SRM) in Stockholm, Sweden in the 1930s SRM
acquired several key patents on the new compressor The irst appli-
cation was a supercharger for airplane engines After further develop-
ments, an industrial air compressor was introduced in the mid 1940s
At that time, SRM also started to sell technology licences
When irst launched, the twin screw compressor competed with the
reciprocating piston compressor The twin screw compressor design
offered potential advantages in terms of smaller physical size, lower
vibration and noise level, and improved reliability, eficiency and cost
Reciprocating piston compressors are still used today in many appli-
cations, when the volume low is low and the pressure level is high
Twin screw Increased number of lobes increases the cavity increases in size and moves forward,
rotor stiffness and allows for higher pres- drawing in more gas until the cavity has
compressor function sures which is common in refrigerant com- passed the suction opening At this point the
pressors (ig. 1) cavity begins to decrease in size as it contin-
In a twin screw compressor, two meshing On the suction side of the compressor, ues moving forward As the cavity reaches
rotors are turning in opposite directions inside gas is drawn into the suction opening in the the discharge side, the compressed gas is
the compressor housing The rotor proile can housing and into the cavity produced pushed through the discharge opening in the
be either symmetric or asymmetric Asym- between the housing wall and the two rotors housing (ig. 2a to d, page 12)
metric rotors allows for higher performance As the rotors turn in opposite directions, the
Fig. 1
female rotor male rotor female rotor male rotor
symmetric proile asymmetric proile
11
Developments and advantages of twin screw compressors
Fig. 2
a b c d
A slide valve can vary the position of the tips of the rotors and the cylindrical surface Oil-injected screw
suction and discharge openings This makes in the housing (1, ig. 3), the clearance compressors
it possible to control both the volume and between the end faces of the rotors and the
the pressure ratio The pressure increase housing ends (2, ig. 3), and the clearance In oil-injected compressors, oil performs all
depends on the volume ratio, but for a given between the rotors (3, ig. 3) The rotor end four functions The sealing of leakage gaps
volume ratio, the pressure ratio depends on clearance is adjusted by adjusting the axial and lubrication of the rotor contacts is very
the thermodynamic properties of the gas An positioning of the thrust bearings during eficient The injected oil passes out of the
alternative way to control volume low only, compressor assembly The clearance compressor with the discharge gas, which
is to use variable speed control of the drive between rotor and housing and between the then goes through an oil separator This sep-
motor rotors is inluenced by the clearance in the arates most of the oil from the gas The
Several cavities in various stages of com- radial bearings return oil from the separator is delivered to
pression are being compressed simultane- an oil reservoir, to be used again for injection
ously The most common drive arrangement in the compressor and to lubricate the bear-
is that the male rotor drives the female In ings (ig. 4)
such case, the number of cavities equals the Compressor designs Oil-injected compressors operate with
number of lobes of the male rotor Since rotor tip speeds in the range 30 to 60 m/s,
each cavity has a different pressure, a small It is possible to classify screw compressor which means bearing ndm1) values of
amount of gas will leak from a cavity with types in many different ways The following 250 000 to 650 000 Typical shaft speeds
high pressure to one with a lower pressure distinctions between compressor designs are in the range of 3 000 to 6 000 r/min
The leakage results in loss of eficiency The are important: Typical discharge pressures for single stage
leakage will be minimized by reducing the oil-injected screw compressors are 7 to
clearance between the rotors and the hous- • Fluid injected compressors 13 bar, and for two stage compressors
ing Three different clearances (ig. 3) must • Dry running compressors 25 bar
be considered; the clearance between the
In luid injected compressors, a luid is
Fig. 3 d+D
injected into the rotor cavities during com- n dm = n ——
2
pression The purpose of the luid injection is:
1 • Seal the leakage gaps between the two where

rotors by illing the gaps with luid n = speed [r/min]
• Absorb compression heat from the gas dm = bearing mean diameter [mm]
• Lubricate the contacts between the two d = bore diameter [mm]
rotors D = outside diameter [mm]
• Prevent corrosion
2
3
1) ndm is the bearing speed n in r/min multiplied
by the bearing mean diameter dm in mm
12
Compressor designs
Water-injected compressors Liquid refrigerant injected

compressors 1
In air compressors, water can also be used
for injection into the rotor cavity to absorb In refrigerant compressors, it is possible to
compression heat and to seal the leakage inject liquid refrigerant instead of oil into the
gaps Since water has high speciic heat, compression cavities The heat necessary to
water injection is more eficient than oil vaporize the liquid refrigerant is absorbed
injection at absorbing the heat and thereby from the compression process The com-
reducing the discharge temperature How- pressor design can either be similar to the
ever, as water is corrosive and not an efi- water-injected compressor, with the bear-
cient lubricant, the rotors have to be coated ings separated from the screws, or similar to
with a polymer or ceramic material An alter- an oil-injected compressor, with the use of
native design uses stainless steel rotors SKF Pure Refrigerant Lubricated bearings
which do not touch, and external timing
gears to facilitate appropriate meshing
Water-injected compressors with rolling
bearings must have eficient seals between
the rotors and the bearings to prevent water
from leaking into the bearing lubricating oil
Fig. 4
Oil low paths in an oil injected screw compressor

One path is for the injection of oil in the compression cavity This oil also lubricates the suction side bearings, and some is leaking into the
discharge bearing cavity The other path is for lubrication of the discharge side bearings
13
Developments and advantages of twin screw compressors
Dry running compressors Because of the larger clearances and the

lack of luid for sealing the clearances, the
Dry running screw compressors use external leakage rate is higher for dry running com-
timing gears mounted on the extended rotor pressors For this reason, they are designed to
shafts for accurate meshing of the two run at high speed By running at high speed,
rotors The rotors are designed never to the compression is faster and there is less
touch For this reason, the clearances time for leakage to occur during each revo-
between the two rotors and between each lution Dry running air compressors operate
rotor and the housing, have to be larger in at rotor tip speeds above 60 m/s and bearing
dry running compressors Dry running com- ndm values in the range of 800 000 to
pressors operate at higher temperatures 1 200 000 Typical shaft speeds are in the
than injected compressors because no liquid range of 10 000 to 25 000 r/min Since there
is injected between the rotors for cooling is no contamination of the air by injected oil,
The bearing housings and the screw dry running air compressors are used in
housing are separated by effective seals, applications such as medical, food and bev-
assuring that no oil is leaking from the bear- erage and electronics, as well as other appli-
ing housings to the screw housing The oil is cations where air contamination with oil is
only used for bearing lubrication (ig. 5) sensitive or prohibited Typically the dis-
charge pressure is 3 to 7 bar To reach 7 bar,
two compression stages are needed, with
intermediate cooling
Fig. 5
Oil low paths in a dry air screw compressor

The oil injected by jets and is only for bearing lubrication To prevent leakage of oil into the air stream, the compression cavity and the screws are
sealed from the bearing cavities
14
Future trends
Future trends
1
Energy eficiency, reliability, noise level and
cost continue to be the main drivers in screw
compressor development For bearings, this
means requirements for improved rotor
positioning accuracy, low friction, varying
speeds and low cost
Smaller bearing operating clearances,
narrower tolerances, energy-eficient com-
pressor designs and higher load capacities
enable bearings to meet those require-
ments Optimized bearing arrangements will
enable compressor designs to take advan-
tage of high performance bearings
Variable speed drive (VSD) technology has
a strong inluence on screw compressor
design and performance This technology is
not in itself new, but cost reductions have
made it economically feasible to use the
technology in screw compressors VSDs
make it possible to operate at peak eficiency
as operating conditions vary The speed of
direct drive compressor designs is no longer
limited to 3 000 or 3 600 r/min, so compres-
sors are able to run at both higher and lower
speeds Gear drive designs can be replaced
by direct drive designs This requires bear-
ings that can also run at varying speeds,
both high and low
Another future trend is the introduction of
new refrigerants, with lower global warming
potential (GWP) The new refrigerants, such
as R1234ze, have different pressures and
cooling capacities, that will affect bearing
loads, speeds and lubrication
15
Bearing applications in twin
screw compressors
2
Compared to bearing applications in other types of machinery, appli-

cations in twin screw compressors are more challenging for several
reasons One is that bearing size is limited because of the ixed centre
distance between the two rotors Another factor is that the rotor posi-
tioning accuracy must be high and so bearing clearance must be small
and bearing runout tolerances small Bearing mounting and adjust-
ment of rotor end clearance are other factors to consider in the selec-
tion of the bearing and bearing arrangement This chapter discusses
the factors affecting the bearing application and offers recommenda-
tions on how to select a good bearing arrangement and suitable
bearing type
Bearing function and affected by the accuracy of the end clearance less oil for lubrication and cooling, and are
adjustment during assembly Thrust bear- less sensitive to momentary loss of lubricant
selection criteria ings mounted with interference its make the and looding of refrigerant than hydrody-
end clearance adjustment more dificult namic bearings
Bearings in twin screw compressors provide The rotor centre distance can be a limita-
accurate radial and axial positioning of the tion in the bearing selection Since the rotor
rotors and support rotor loads These func- design affects the centre distance, the rotor
tions must be performed reliably, with low design and bearing selection process is
friction and low noise generation With accu- sometimes iterative The centre distance
rate rotor positioning, it is possible to design limits the outer diameters of the bearings
compressors with small clearances for high Therefore, if one rotor carries a higher load,
eficiency A high radial positioning accuracy it is possible to select a larger bearing for this
is achieved by using bearings with small rotor and a smaller bearing for the other
operating clearances and small runout toler- rotor This design option, however, conlicts
ances Axial positioning accuracy is accom- with the desire to minimize the number of
plished by small axial bearing clearance or different bearings in the compressor It also
preload requires additional tooling for the production
Axial positioning is also affected by the it of the compressor housing
between the thrust bearing inner ring and The rotors can be supported on rolling
the rotor shaft and bearing delection and bearings or on a combination of hydrody-
displacement due to centrifugal forces namic and rolling bearings Small operating
Interference its will change the relative axial clearances are the main advantage of rolling
position of the bearing rings after mounting bearings Rolling bearings also have lower
Axial positioning of the rotor is further friction than hydrodynamic bearings, require
17
Bearing applications in twin screw compressors
Twin screw compressor Fig. 1

bearing loads
qy
Bearing loads in twin screw compressors are
discharge side
produced by:
• Gas pressure on the rotors

• Gear forces from input and timing gears
• Rotor forces from transmission of torque as
F aG
from one rotor to the other
• Induced loads from rotor inertia at startup
• In semi-hermetic compressors, electric qx
– qx
motor rotor weight and magnetic force
• Loads from incompressible luids being
trapped between the rotors
suction side
• Induced loads from centrifugal forces in z
thrust bearings – qy
• Spring preload or balance piston forces
• Loads from belts drive
The gas pressure is low at the suction side Fig. 2

and high at the discharge side (ig. 1) The In order to reduce the axial force from the rotor, stationary or rotating balance pistons
gas pressure along the length of the rotor are sometimes used.
produces radial forces on the rotors These A rotating balance piston is a disc mounted at the discharge end of the rotor
forces are higher at the discharge side The
gas also produces axial forces from the pres-
sure acting on the projected areas at both
the suction and discharge end of the rotors
The difference between these two forces is
the net axial gas force on the rotor The axial
gas force is always directed towards the suc-
Fgas
tion side and is larger on the male rotor
Fbal
Balance pistons
Stationary or rotating balance pistons can be
used to reduce the net axial force acting on
the thrust bearings A rotating balance piston
is a disc mounted at the suction end of the
rotor Gas at discharge pressure from the Fig. 3
compressor is allowed to act on the end face A stationary balance piston uses a bearing for transmission of the balancing force
of the disc, producing an axial force directed to the rotor
towards the discharge side This force bal-
ance axial gas force on the rotor (ig. 2)
A stationary balance piston uses a bearing
for transmission of the balancing force to the
rotor (ig. 3)
Fgas
Fbal
18
Bearing function and selection criteria
Gear forces The addition of the belt load must be Reverse thrust and backup
accounted for in the selection of compressor bearings
In a gear-driven compressor, (ig. 6, input shaft bearings
page 20) the forces from the gears are also The compressor generates pressure as soon
supported by the rotor bearings By varying as the rotors start rotating That ensures
the gear helix angle, it is possible to control Separation of radial and that there is always an axial gas force on the
both the magnitude and direction of the gear axial forces rotors acting towards suction 2
axial forces This can cause the net axial There are situations, however, when the
force on the rotors to reverse and can cause In cylindrical roller and angular contact ball, net axial force can reverse One such situa-
rubbing between the ends of the rotors and or four point contact ball bearing arrange- tion is when the compressor starts up There
the housing on the discharge side It can also ments, the loads are separated such that the are then inertial moments acting on the
cause instability A reverse thrust bearing radial loads are taken by the cylindrical roller rotors The inertial moments generate axial
can be used to avoid rotor rub and instability bearing (ig. 4), and the axial loads by the forces On the female rotor the direction of
Reverse thrust bearings can either be spring angular contact ball or four point contact ball the inertial axial force counteracts the direc-
loaded or arranged such that the axial bear- bearing (ig. 5) The load separation is accom- tion of net gas force and the direction of the
ing clearance is limited or eliminated com- plished by a radial gap between the outer ring net axial force can be towards discharge
pletely If there is an axial bearing clearance, of the angular contact ball bearing or the four There is also a speed dependent reverse
then the rotor end clearance must be larger point contact ball bearing and the housing thrust force generated by the thrust bear-
than the axial bearing clearance (ig. 4 and 5) With this design it is not possi- ings This force is produced by centrifugal
Too low an axial force on the bearings can ble for the angular contact ball bearing or forces acting on the rolling elements
be detrimental if the loads become less than four-point contact ball bearing to take radial Because of the contact angle with the outer
the minimum required load for satisfactory load, or for the cylindrical roller bearing to ring, when the rolling elements are forced
operation The timing gear forces and iner- take axial load, since it is axially compliant against the outer ring, an axial component of
tial forces from transmission of torque The advantages with this arrangement are: the centrifugal force is produced This force
between the rotors are usually small, except tends to separate the bearing rings If there
at compressor startup Analysis of bearing • The angular contact ball or four point con- is not enough axial gas force present, rotor
loads in screw compressors is complicated tact ball bearing bearing operates with rub can occur This is seldom a problem, but
and should be performed through detailed axial load only; all balls have the same can happen at ndm speeds greater than
analysis of compressor design parameters contact loads and contact angles In this 450 000 It can be avoided if a backup bear-
and operating conditions way, cage forces are minimized and load ing is used Diagram 1, page 49 shows the
capacity maximized ring separation (and rotor displacement) in a
• The load capacity of the arrangement is single angular contact ball bearing at various
Belt drive forces optimized with the separation of axial and speeds In diagram 2, page 50 a backup
radial loads into two bearings bearing has been added to the single
An alternative way to change the speed • It is easy to set the rotor end clearance bearing
between the drive motor and the compressor when the angular contact ball or four- In tapered roller bearings used to take
input shaft is to use a belt drive This is only point contact ball bearing is mounted with combined loads, there is also an induced
possible in an open drive arrangement and a light shaft it There are many ways to do reversed axial force from the radial force
typically used in oil injected air compressors set the rotor end clearance (ig.6, page 66)
Fig. 4 Fig. 5
Radial bearing loads Axial bearing loads
19
Fig. 6
Setting of rotor end Fig. 7

clearance
In principle, there are two ways to set the
rotor end clearance One is to use shims or
spacer rings with precise width The spacer
width or shim thickness should be deter-
mined by measuring bearing widths and
compressor components The spacers or
shims can be positioned between the radial
and axial bearing (ig 7) or between the
radial bearing and shaft shoulder (Alterna-
tively, bearing sets with controlled widths
and stand-out are available SKF ) The bear-
ings should be clamped axially on the rotor
(ig. 7) The other way is to leave a small
(1 mm) gap between the shaft abutment and
the thrust bearing, then drive up the thrust
bearing to the desired position on the shaft,
to produce the desired rotor end clearance A
locking device is then placed behind the Fig. 8
angular contact ball bearing inner ring
(ig. 8)
1mm
20
Bearing arrangement examples
Bearing arrangement Fig. 9
examples
A pair of two angular
contact ball bearings
at discharge-side 2
In ig. 9, two universally matchable angular

contact ball bearings mounted face to face
are used The inboard bearing carries the
axial and most of the radial load The out-
board bearing is a back up bearing The rotor
end clearance is set by a spacer between the
abutment on the rotor and the inboard
bearing The load capacity is limited since
only a single angular contact ball bearing
carries most of the load The arrangement
has reverse load capability Angular contact
ball bearings with different contact angles Fig. 10
can be considered, but two 40° bearings, BE
design in combination with CB clearance, is
the simplest arrangement If the axial load is
light and the radial high, and the load ratio
Fa/Fr < 1,0 a bearing with 25° contact angle,
AC design, would be the optimum for both
bearings
Cylindrical roller and angular

contact ball bearing
discharge-side arrangements
The simplest cylindrical roller bearing/
angular contact ball bearing arrangement is
one single cylindrical roller bearing and one
angular contact ball bearing (ig. 10) The
axial load capacity is limited since there is
only one thrust bearing The rotor end clear-
ance is set by matched spacers or shims and
the bearings are clamped axially on the Fig. 11
shaft There is no reverse thrust bearing and
no reverse thrust capability
Fig. 11 is similar to ig. 10 except that the
inner rings are not clamped on the shaft
Instead there is a small gap (1 mm) between
the cylindrical roller bearing and the shaft
abutment as described in the section Setting
of rotor end clearance, page 20 The gap
allows setting of the rotor end clearance by
pushing the cylindrical roller bearing and
angular contact ball bearing inner rings into
the correct position A lock nut or other 1mm
means can be used to push the bearings on
NOTE: when angular contact ball bearings are

used in double or triple arrangements, they
should be universally matchable, with GA or CB
clearance
21
the shaft into the right position The locknut Fig. 12

shown in ig. 11 is the SKF KMD nut, which
can be locked at an exact axial position by
means of locking screws
Fig. 12 shows one cylindrical roller bear-
ing and two angular contact ball bearings in
tandem This is similar to the arrangement
in ig. 10, except that there are two angular
contact ball bearings in tandem to take the
axial load and thus provide higher axial load
capacity The rotor end clearance is set by
matched spacers or shims and the bearings
are clamped axially on the shaft There is no
reverse thrust bearing and no reverse thrust
capability
Fig. 13 shows one cylindrical roller bear-
ing, two angular contact ball bearings in tan-
dem and one deep groove ball bearing as
reverse thrust bearing The deep groove ball
bearing is spring loaded on the outer ring
There is a spacer between the deep groove Fig. 13
ball bearing and the angular contact ball
bearing to ensure that the outer ring of the
deep groove ball bearing will not touch the
outer ring of the angular contact ball bear-
ing The reverse thrust load capacity is equal
to the spring force The load of the deep
groove ball bearing is always equal to the
spring force and the spring force will add
load to the angular contact ball bearings
(diagram 6, page 53) For determination of
spring load, see chapter Bearing preload,
page 51
Fig. 14 is similar to ig. 11 except that
there are two angular contact ball bearings
in tandem and a deep groove ball bearing as
reverse thrust bearing The reverse thrust
deep groove ball bearing must be located
behind the lock nut The bearing should have
a smaller inner ring diameter and being
abutted by a shoulder on the shaft Fig. 14
Both ig. 14 and 16 show a PTFE seal
between the screw and the bearing housing
For information about PTFE seals see
page 69
1 mm
NOTE: when angular contact ball bearings are

used in double or triple arrangements, they
should be universally matchable, with GA or CB
clearance
22
Fig. 15 shows one cylindrical roller bear- Fig. 15

ing and two angular contact ball bearings
arranged face-to-face In this arrangement
the additional angular contact ball bearing is
the reverse thrust bearing The outer rings
are clamped with a spring The spring load
will not add load to the thrust bearing The 2
load of the reverse thrust angular contact
ball bearing is not easily determinable, and
depends on rotor axial load, the clearance
between the angular contact ball bearings
and the speed (centrifugal forces on the
balls) (diagram 5, page 53) The general
clearance recommendation for the angular
contact ball bearing set is GA For determi-
nation of spring load, see Bearing preload,
page 51
Fig. 16 is similar to ig. 15, except that
there are two angular contact ball bearings
in tandem to take the axial load, providing
higher axial load capacity The third bearing Fig. 16
in face-to-face arrangement is the reverse
thrust bearing
Fig 17 shows one cylindrical roller bearing
and one four-point contact ball bearing This
is similar to ig. 7, page 20, except that the
thrust bearing is a four-point contact roller
bearing instead of an angular contact ball
bearing Unlike the angular contact ball
bearing, the four-point contact ball bearing
has a built-in axial clearance and equal axial
load capacity in both directions In this way, it
functions as both main and reverse thrust
bearing The axial clearance should be small
to avoid excessive axial displacement in case
of reverse thrust For twin screw compres-
sors, the clearance is typically C2L If the
speed is very high, a larger bearing clear-
ance should be selected (table 2, page 83)
to avoid excessive three point ball contact
caused by centrifugal forces on the balls The Fig. 17
inner rings must be clamped on the shaft to
ensure correct clearance of the four-point
contact roller bearing
23
Tapered roller bearing Fig. 18

discharge-side arrangements
Tapered roller bearings should be arranged
face-to-face so that the inboard tapered
roller bearing takes both the radial and the
axial load The outboard tapered roller bear-
ing controls the axial clearance between the
bearings and serves as a reverse thrust
bearing
The contact angle of the inboard bearing
should be selected such that the bearing is
seated toward the suction end of the com-
pressor This means that the ratio of axial to
radial load should preferably be:
F 0,75
—a > ——
Fr Y
but at least
Fig. 19
Fa 0,5
— > ——
Fr Y
where
Fa = total axial load on bearing [N]
Fr = applied radial load [N]
Y = bearing axial load factor, according to
the SKF catalogue Rolling bearings
If not the rotor will move within the bearing

axial clearance towards the discharge end of
the compressor
If the outboard bearing is spring loaded,
ig. 19, the axial load on the inboard bearing
can be increased by increasing the spring
load to satisfy the formulae above
This means that the male rotor bearing
should usually have a large contact angle
(ig. 18) and the contact angle of the female
rotor bearing should be smaller (ig. 19) The Fig. 20
reverse thrust tapered roller bearing is
lightly loaded and can be smaller than the
load-carrying bearing (ig. 18)
The reverse thrust bearing can be either
spring loaded or set with shims to produce a
small clearance between the two bearings
(ig. 20) Because of dificulties in controlling
heat generation and maintaining a control-
lable preload, SKF does not recommend
negative clearance (preload) With too little
clearance, or preload, there is a risk of early
bearing failure due to excessive heat genera-
tion and runaway preload
24
The axial bearing clearance should be Fig. 21

smaller than the rotor end clearance, to
allow reverse thrust loading without causing
rotor rub A deep groove ball bearing can
also be used as a reverse thrust bearing, but
should be spring preloaded since it has low
axial stiffness (ig. 21) 2
Traditionally tapered roller bearings of the
same size and designation have been used
for both the load carrying bearing and for
the backup bearing With this arrangement
the load capacity of the backup bearing is
not fully utilized (ig. 22)
If there is no reverse load, and depending
on the ratio of the axial to radial load and the
bearing contact angle, it may be possible to
use only one tapered roller bearing (ig. 23)
Because of the contact angle, the radial load
will induce an axial load in the reverse direc-
tion to the axial gas load If the gas load is
greater than the reverse induced load, one Fig. 22
single bearing can be used In order to mini-
mize the reverse induced load, a tapered
roller bearing with a small contact angle,
meaning large Y factor, should be used The
reverse induced load can be calculated with
the formula:
0,5 F
Fa = ——–r
Y
where
Fa = total axial load on bearing [N]
Fr = applied radial load [N]
Y = bearing axial load factor, according to
the SKF catalogue Rolling bearings
If the reverse load calculated with this for-

mula is equal to the axial gas load, the bear-
ing loaded zone will be 180 degrees If the Fig. 23
ratio of axial to radial load changes, the
loaded zone will change and the rotor axial
and radial position will change It is recom-
mended that the axial gas load should be at
least double the induced reverse axial load
Since this bearing is carrying radial load, it
should be mounted with an interference
shaft it This means that the standoff will
change after mounting This shift can be
accounted for in the selection of spacer
width (page 67)
25
Suction-side bearing Gear shaft bearing Fig. 28

arrangements arrangements
The most common suction side bearing Compressors with speed increasing gears
arrangement is a single cylindrical roller have a gear shaft coupled to the motor shaft,
bearing or needle roller bearing A snap ring and a gear that drives a pinion which is itted
on the shaft can be used to prevent the inner at the end of one of the rotors, usually the
ring from moving axially (ig. 24) Alterna- male The purpose of the gears is to increase
tively an NJ bearing can be used with the the compressor speed to get the speciied
lange of the inner ring is positioned on the compressor capacity
inboard side of the rotor, preventing the ring A common bearing arrangement for the
from moving axially (ig. 25) If the load is gear shaft is tapered roller bearings
light it is also possible to use a deep groove arranged in cross location face-to-face, with
ball bearing as a suction-side bearing the gear in between This arrangement is
(ig. 26) or an angular contact ball bearing simple and easy to assemble The axial
with 25 degree contact angle (AC sufix) clearance should be set with shims (ig. 28)
The angular contact ball bearing should An alternative arrangement for higher
be spring loaded (ig. 27) An angular contact speeds and loads is to use a four-point con-
ball bearing will also function as a reverse tact ball bearing as the ixed bearing and two
thrust load bearing The spring load, (Fs) cylindrical roller bearings as radial bearings,
should be: with the gears between the cylindrical roller
bearings (ig. 29)
Fs > 0,6 Fr
where
Fs = Spring load [N] Fig. 29
Fr = Radial load [N]
Fig. 27
Fig. 24 Fig. 25 Fig. 26
26
Bearing lubrication
Bearing lubrication Table 1
Viscosity classiication in accordance with ISO 3448

Bearings in twin screw compressors are
lubricated by low of circulating oil The oil Viscosity grade Kinematic viscosity limits at 40 °C
mean min max
lubricates the rolling contact surfaces and
the sliding surfaces within the bearing The – mm2/s
lubricant also provides corrosion protection 2
and cooling to the bearings In oil-injected ISO VG 2 2,2 1,98 2,42
compressors, the oil lubricating the bearings ISO VG 3 3,2 2,88 3,52
ISO VG 5 4,6 4,14 5,06
is the same oil that is injected into the com- ISO VG 7 6,8 6,12 7,48
pressor to lubricate the rotors, remove the ISO VG 10 10 9,00 11,0
heat of compression and seal gaps ISO VG 15 15 13,5 16,5
ISO VG 22 22 19,8 24,2

ISO VG 32 32 28,8 35,2
Oil viscosity ISO VG 46
ISO VG 68
46
68
41,4
61,2
50,6
74,8
ISO VG 100 100 90,0 110
Operating viscosity v is the principal param- ISO VG 150 150 135 165
eter for selecting a bearing lubricant Lubri- ISO VG 220 220 198 242
cating oils are identiied by an ISO viscosity ISO VG 320 320 288 352
grade (VG) number The VG number is the ISO VG 460 460 414 506
ISO VG 680 680 612 748
viscosity of the oil in mm2/s at 40 °C Stand- ISO VG 1 000 1 000 900 1 100
ardised viscosity grades are shown in ISO VG 1 500 1 500 1 350 1 650
table 1 The viscosity index (VI) is indicative
of the change in oil viscosity with tempera-
ture From diagram 1, the viscosity of an ISO
grade oil can be determined at the bearing Diagram 1
operating temperature Synthetic oils are Viscosity-temperature diagram for ISO viscosity grades
also used in compressors The main reasons (Mineral oils, viscosity index 95)
are higher thermal stability, which results in
reduced carbon buildup on hot surfaces, and Viscosity [mm2/s]
in refrigeration compressors, miscibility
1000
characteristics of the oil and the refrigerant
500
200 IS
O
V
10 G 15
00 00
68
100 0
46
32 0
22 0
15 0
50 0
10
0
68
46
32
20
22
15
10
10
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

Operating temperature [°C ]
27
For example, miscibility with HCFC-134a is Diagram 2

the reason why polyolester (POE) oils are Approximate temperature conversion
used with this refrigerant Synthetic oils
have a higher viscosity index than mineral
oils and therefore a higher viscosity at ele- Viscosity [mm2/s]
vated temperatures (diagram 2) The vis- 10 000
cosity index of synthetic oils can be in the
range of 130 to 200 Oils with a high viscos- 1 000
ity index have less viscosity decrease with
400
increase in temperature Common synthetic 200
oil types used in compressors are the polyal-
100
phaglycol (PAG), polyalphaolein (PAO), and
polyolesters (POE) Synthetic lubricants have 40
lower effective viscosity in the rolling con-
20
tacts compared to mineral oils This is due to
a lower viscosity increase under the pressure
10
of the rolling contact This difference is char- 8
acterised by the pressure-viscosity coefi- 6
cient (α) of the lubricant The net effect of
higher viscosity and lower pressure coefi- 4
-20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
cient is that there is no signiicant inluence
on oil ilm thickness The rated viscosity ν1 Synthetic (VI 150) Temperature [°C ]
required for adequate lubrication is obtained Mineral (VI 95)
from diagram 3 The actual operating vis-
cosity is obtained from diagram 1, page 27
The operating viscosity selected for screw Diagram 3
compressors should be greater than ν1, this Estimation of the minimum kinematic viscosity ν1 at operating temperature
means κ should be greater than 1,0 and
Required viscosity ν1 at operating temperature [mm2/s]
preferably greater than 1,5 The lubricant
viscosity should not be too great since this 1 000
2
causes excessive bearing friction and heat
The ratio κ of actual viscosity to ν1 should be
used for calculation of the SKF rating bear- 500 5
ing life, page 31
10
ν
κ =— 20
ν1 200
where
κ = viscosity ratio 50
ν = actual operating viscosity of the lubri- 100 n[
r/m
cant [mm2/s] 10 in]
0
ν1 = rated viscosity of the lubricant depend-
ing on the bearing mean diameter and 20
50 0
rotational speed [mm2/s]
50
0
20 10
1 5 00
2 00
3 0 000
0
50 0
10 00
10
00
20 0
00
0
5
5 100 0 000
000
10 20 50 100 200 500 1 000 2 000
dm = 0,5 (d + D) [mm ]
28
Bearing lubrication
T h e required oil viscosity is also deter- Diagram 4

mined from that needed for injection Kinematic viscosity of an oil refrigerant mixture as a function of temperature and dilution
between the rotors ISO VG 46 and VG 68 are weight %
typical for airscrew compressors In refriger-
ant and natural gas compressors, the oil is
diluted with dissolved liqueied gases, this
reduces the viscosity For refrigerants, the Kinematic viscosity [mm2/s ] 2
viscosity of the oil/refrigerant mixture can be 3 000
determined from two graphs, irst for the 1 000
dilution [%] at equilibrium at a given temper- 500
ature and pressure, the second (diagram 4) 200
for the viscosity of the mixture at the dilution 100
60
[%] from the irst graphs Such graphs, Daniel 40
plots, are available from oil suppliers 0%
Oil dilution in natural gas compressors 17 20
10%
occurs primarily from light hydrocarbon liq- 10
uids (natural gasoline) The viscosity of the 8
6 20%
mixture can be calculated by the method 5
described under Natural and sour gas com- 4
pressors, page 88 3 30%
Because of the lower pressure-viscosity
2
coeficient of dissolved liqueied gases and
differences in compressibility and molecular
weights, the viscosity of the mixture cannot
be used for calculation of κ without an
1
adjustment, diagrams 5 and 6 –10 0 25 50 75 80 100
With the adjustment factor (multiplication
Temperature [°C ]
factor), these effects can be taking into
account
Diagram 5 Diagram 6
Correction factor for κ vs dilution weight %, POE oil, ISO VG 68 and Correction factor for κ vs dilution volume % of gasoline in mineral oil
R134a
Multiplication factor for κ Multiplication factor for κ

1,00 1,00
0,80 0,80
0,60 0,60
0,40 0,40
0,20 0,20
0 0
0 10 20 30 0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0
% %
29
Filtration Oil changes Lubrication, oil-injected

compressors
Deinitions Oil change frequency depends on operating
conditions, temperature, lubricant quality, The oil low rate is determined by the differ-
Compressor at yste te bearing cleanliness, and the cleanliness of ential pressure at steady state operation
ie fi l t e r s t e m o v e i
r t e c o n - the lubrication system Mineral oils oxidize This low rate is usually more than needed to
t a m i n a n t s t r a t eeiei t e a tne and require shorter replacement intervals lubricate the bearings, while the low rate at
s y s t e c o n t a m i n a n t s tn t a i m a g e compared to synthetic oils The actual start up may be marginal To ensure oil
tne e a r i n g s e a r e e c t ei y tne replacement interval is speciied by the com- availability at start-up, the drain holes in the
c l e a n l i n e s tne o m p r e s s o u b r i c a n t - pressor manufacturer or determined by oil bearing housing should be located between
t e r r e a t ei c o r ir t oe i r a t i o sample analyses Longer intervals between the 7 and 8 o’clock positions, so that a pool of
Tne a t iee tne e ey tne te replacements are possible at lower operat- oil is left in the housing at shutdown The
t e m o v e
r t e re oe ing temperatures Compressors are some- drain holes should be adequately sized to
Tne x ( c ) a t ieei o l l o w s : times equipped with oil coolers to remove eliminate the risk of looding the housing and
heat Synthetic oils are more resistant to bearings during operation
deterioration from exposure to high temper- The required oil low can be calculated
N o p a r t e eter te r
β x ( c ) = ———————————— atures and have long service life from the balance of heat input by friction and
N o
r t e e a r t e r
Lubricants may require more frequent heat removed by convection and oil low This
where replacement if contamination is present The can be done with SKF computer programs
x = p a r t e oe ( c ) , gas in the compressor (refrigerant, air, natu- Please contact SKF application engineering
ei tne t o m a t
r t e o u tr ral gas, etc ) can dilute the lubricating oil and service for information The minimum low
etni, a l i b r a t ei c o r d a n c e tn have a signiicant inluence on the operating rate required can be estimated from the
I 7 1 viscosity (Natural and sour gas compressors, formula:
page 88)
F o r e x a
e, a tr β 3 ( c ) = 200 means
that for every 200 particles that enter the Qmin = 0,00005 B D
ilter, only 1 particle greater than 3 microns
leaves the ilter The iner the ilter, the more where
quickly the system is cleaned of contamina- Qmin = minimum required oil low [l/min]
tion When a ine ilter is used it may be nec- B = the total bearing width [mm]
essary to have coarser preilter, to avoid fre- D = bearing outer diameter [mm]
quent clogging of the ine ilter
Filter selection
The ilter speciication in compressors is typ-
ically in the range of β3(c) = 200 to β40(c) = 75
Finer ilters increase bearing life, but the
degree of increase depends also on the vis-
cosity ratio κ and the bearing load intensity
Pu/P If the κ value is high, a change to a iner Fig. 30
ilter can give signiicant improvement in Oil low path for oil jet lubrication at ndm greater than 800 000
bearing life If κ is low, a iner ilter cannot
compensate for the poor lubrication condi-
tion and the beneit may be questionable In
such a case it may be more effective to
increase the bearing size For evaluation of
ilter speciications, SKF computer programs
are available which take into account all of
the above mentioned factors
30
Bearing rating life
Lubrication by oil jet The nozzle should have a minimum 1 mm Care should also be taken when selecting
diameter to prevent the risk of being clogged the bearing load used in the calculation If
In dry running (oil free) air compressors by debris As a rule of thumb, a 1,0 mm noz- the compressor will be operating at different
operating at ndm speeds in excess of zle diameter and a pressure across the noz- loads and speeds at different times, then
800 000, oil is supplied to the bearings by oil zle of 100 kPa will produce a jet velocity of load cycles should be used in the calculation
jet (ig. 30) The compression cavity is sealed 15 m/s and a low of 0,5 l/min If instead, the maximum load and speed are
from the bearing housing used, the selected bearings may be too big, 2
The oil jet must be directed axially with too much friction and higher risk of fail-
between the bearing inner ring and cage ure from overheating and/or light load
(ig. 30) The oil viscosity and low rate must Bearing rating life skidding
be suitable to lubricate and cool the bear- For calculation of load cycle life, the loads
ings The jet speed should be 15 to 20 m/s to Three different life calculations can be used and speeds should be represented as a his-
avoid delection from the air curtain of the for selection of bearings and calculation of togram, where the load and speed are con-
bearing The shaft and housing temperature bearing life: stant for each block The life for each block is
of dry air compressors is high because the then calculated and the total life is the sum
heat of compression is not removed by oil • basic rating life of the life in each block, using the formula on
injection Depending on speed and tempera- • SKF rating life page 37 in chapter Bearing life at varying
ture, the bearings are lubricated by a syn- • SKF advanced fatigue life operating conditions
thetic oil with an ISO VG 32 to ISO VG 68
viscosity The lubrication system should
include ine iltration The oil low to the SKF basic rating life
bearings should not be too great, as that
would cause excessive friction and tempera-
1 000 000 ⎛ C ⎞p
ture rise In order to drain off excessive oil, L10h = ————– –
60 n ⎝P⎠
SKF recommends drainage on both sides of
the bearings The oil low required should be
determined by testing, whereby the low and where
jet speed are varied and the temperature L10h = basic rating life (at 90% reliability)
rise of the oil is measured [operating hours]
The oil low path upstream of the jet hole, n = rotational speed [r/min]
or nozzle, should be designed to minimize C = basic dynamic load rating [kN]
pressure drop before the nozzle The pres- P = equivalent dynamic bearing load [kN]
sure drop should take place in the nozzle p = exponent of the life equation
The jet velocity can be calculated by the Ber- – for ball bearings, p = 3
noulli equation: – for roller bearings, p = 10/3
This is the classic bearing life formula, which

jk is still used by many engineers today The
7 2Р
v = —– only inputs are basic dynamic load rating,
p ρ
speed and (equivalent) bearing load
It should be noted that if angular contact
where ball bearings in face to face or back to back
v = jet velocity [m/s] are arrangement is used, the effect of cen-
P = pressure drop across the nozzle [Pa] trifugal forces on the balls must be
ρ = Oil density [kg/m3] accounted for in the equivalent load The
axial component of centrifugal forces on the
NOTE: This equation is valid only for short balls in one bearing becomes external load
nozzles where the effect of viscosity is small on the other, and vice versa The effect of
The oil low can be calculated by the centrifugal force should be accounted for if
equation: the ndm speed is greater than 450 000 and
can be calculated with SKF computer
Q = 0,05 μ v d2 programs
Since the formula was irst introduced in
where the 1940s, the basic dynamic load rating has
Q = oil low [l/min] been increased several times, due to
μ = nozzle coeficient, typically 0,6 to 0,8 improvements in bearing steel, manufactur-
v = jet velocity [m/s] ing methods and optimization of internal
d = nozzle diameter [mm] geometry
31
SKF rating life Table 2
Values for life adjustment factor a1

In the SKF rating life method, not only are
basic dynamic load rating, speed and (equiv- Reliability Failure SKF rating life Factor
probability
alent) load accounted for, but also lubrica- n Lnm a1
tion, contamination and fatigue load limit
% % million revolutions –
(Pu) The fatigue load limit is the load at
which a bearing life is ininite, if operating
with full ilm lubrication and in a clean 90 10 L10m 1
95 5 L5m 0,64
environment 96 4 L4m 0,55
These inluencing parameters are
accounted for in the aSKF factor, which can be 97 3 L3m 0,47
98 2 L2m 0,37
found in diagram 11, page 34 and 99 1 L1m 0,25
diagram 12, page 35 This method of calcu-
lation has been standardized in ISO 281, and
is much more precise in prediction of rating
life, compared to the basic rating life
formula
The effects of lubrication and contamina-
tion on bearing life are very strong Care
should therefore be taken when selecting Diagram 7
the lubrication factor κ and the contamina- Contamination factor ηc for
tion factor ηc, please refer to diagram 1, • circulating oil lubrication with on line ilters
page 27 and diagram 3, page 28 for deter- • solid contamination level –/19/16 in accordance with ISO 4406
• ilter rating β40(c) = 75
mination of the lubrication factor κ and ηc
diagrams 7 to 10 and table 3 for ηc If actual
1,0
lubrication and contamination conditions are
0,9
not favourable, the actual life may be much
0,8
shorter than calculated Please note that if dm [mm]
0,7
aSKF = 1,0 the SKF rating life is the same as 250
0,6
the basic rating life 160
0,5
100
1 000 000 ⎛ C ⎞p 0,4
L10mh = a1 aSKF L10h = ————– – 60
60 n ⎝P⎠ 0,3 40
0,2 25
0,1
where
a1 = life adjustment factor for reliability 0,0
0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0 3,5 4,0
(† table 2, values in accordance with κ
ISO 281)
aSKF = SKF life modiication factor
(† diagrams 11 and 12, page 34 and Diagram 8
35) Contamination factor ηc for
L10h = basic rating life (at 90% reliability) • circulating oil lubrication with on line ilters
[operating hours] • solid contamination level –/17/14 in accordance with ISO 4406
n = rotational speed [r/min] ηc
C = basic dynamic load rating [kN]
1,0
P = equivalent dynamic bearing load [kN]
0,9
p = exponent of the life equation dm [mm]
0,8
– for ball bearings, p = 3 250
0,7
– for roller bearings, p = 10/3 160
0,6 100
0,5 60
0,4 40
0,3 25
0,2
0,1
0,0
0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0 3,5 4,0
κ
32
Bearing rating life
SKF Advanced fatigue Diagram 9

calculation Contamination factor ηc for
• circulating oil lubrication with on line ilters
In the basic rating and SKF rating life • solid contamination level –/15/12 in accordance with ISO 4406
method, the bearing load capacity is charac- ηc
terized by one constant – the basic dynamic dm [mm]
1,0
load rating C The external forces are used to 250 2
0,9
calculate a equivalent load which is based on 160
0,8
a series of assumptions, e g parallel bearing 100
0,7 60
ring displacements, no misalignment, half of
0,6 40
the rolling elements loaded In the SKF
0,5 25
Advanced fatigue calculation, the contact
0,4
force and stress of each rolling element to
0,3
raceway contact is calculated and the bear-
0,2
ing is viewed as a system The lives of the
0,1
individual contacts are calculated and added
0,0
statistically to yield the life of the bearing In 0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0 3,5 4,0
this life calculation, the effects of lubrication κ
and contamination are also taken into
account, whereby the ηc and aSKF factors are
different in each contact For calculation of Diagram 10
the contact loads and stresses, the effect of Contamination factor ηc for
clearance, misalignment, speed, load distri- • circulating oil lubrication with on line ilters
bution among the rolling elements and the • solid contamination level –/13/10 in accordance with ISO 4406
centrifugal forces on the rolling elements are ηc
taken into consideration This calculation dm [mm]
1,0 250
requires computer analysis The effect of
0,9 160
centrifugal forces is especially important for
0,8 100
angular contact ball bearings at higher 60
0,7
speeds, typically 450 000 and higher, see 40
0,6
page 49, and table 1, page 79 The SKF 25
0,5
Advanced fatigue calculation is the most
0,4
accurate calculation method that exists to
0,3
predict rating life for SKF bearings
0,2
0,1
0,0
0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0 3,5 4,0
κ
Table 3
For ilter rating β3(c) = 200, it can be esti- Contamination factor ηc values for:
mated that in-line ilters will produce • circulating oil lubrication with on line
cleanliness class 11/8 and the following ηc ilters
values can be used if the contaminates • ilter rating β3 = 200
are predominately hard metallic particles: • κ > 1,0
dm ηc
mm –
25 – 40 0,9 – 0,93
40 – 100 0,93 – 0,95
100 – 250 0,95 – 0,96
33
Diagram 11
Factor aSKF for radial ball bearings
a S K F
50, 0
20, 0
10, 0
4
5, 0
k =
2
1
0, 8
0, 6
0, 5
2, 0
0, 4
1, 0
3
0,
0, 5
0, 2
0, 2
0, 15
0, 1
0, 1
SKF Basic design

0, 005 0, 01 0, 02 0, 05 0, 1 0, 2 0, 5 1, 0 2, 0 5,0
P
hc – – u
P
SKF Explorer design
0, 005 0, 01 0, 02 0, 05 0, 1 0, 2 0, 5 1, 0 2, 0
P
hc – – u
P
If κ > 4, use curve for κ = 4
As the value of ηc (Pu/P) tends to zero, aSKF tends to 0,1 for all values of κ
34
Bearing rating life
Diagram 12
Factor aS K F for radial roller bearings
2
a SKF
50, 0
20, 0
10, 0
5, 0
4
k=
2
2, 0 1
0,8
0,6
1, 0
5
0,
4
0,
0, 5
0,3
0, 2
0,2
0,15
0,1
0, 1
0, 05 S K F Basic design
0 ,0 0 5 0, 01 0, 02 0, 05 0, 1 0, 2 0, 5 1, 0 2, 0 5, 0
Pu
hc –––
P
SKF Explorer design
0, 005 0, 01 0, 02 0, 05 0, 1 0, 2 0, 5 1, 0 2, 0
P
hc – –u–
P
If κ > 4, use curve for κ = 4
As the value of ηc (Pu/P) tends to zero, aSKF tends to 0,1 for all values of κ
35
Examples of oil cleanliness and dilution

of oil by refrigerant on SKF bearing rating
life
Operating conditions
Bearing 7306 BE
Speed [r/min] 2 950
ndm 150 450
Axial load [kN] 3,5
Radial load [kN] 0,1
Fatigue load limit, Pu [kN] 0,9
Equivalent bearing load, P [kN] 2,03
Pu/P 0,44
Dynamic load capacity, C [kN] 35,5
Basic L10 bearing [h] 30 200
Refrigerant compressor lubricated by a mixture

Air compressor lubricated with (pure) oil of oil and refrigerant
Lubrication conditions Lubrication conditions
Oil viscosity grade ISO 46 POE oil viscosity grade ISO 150
Operating temperature [°C] 70 Operating temperature [°C] 80
Operating viscosity 15 from diagram 1, page 27 Refrigerant R134a
Minimum adequate viscosity, ν1 9,7 from diagram 3, page 28 Oil dilution by refrigerant 10%
Lubrication condition, κ 1,5 Oil/mixture viscosity [mm2/s] 17 from diagram 4, page 29
Correction factor 0,57 from diagram 5, page 29
Adjusted viscosity [mm2/s] 9,7
Minimum adequate viscosity, ν1 9,7 from diagram 3, page 28
Adjusted κ 1,0
ISO cleanliness ƞc aSKF SKF L10 rating Filter size ISO cleanliness ƞc aSKF SKF L10nmh Filter size
class life class rating life
– – – – μm β – – – – μm β
–/19/16 0,09 1,4 42 300 40 75 -/19/16 0,07 0,75 22 700 40 75

–/17/14 0,19 3,1 93 600 25 75 -/17/14 0,14 1,4 42 300 25 75
–/15/12 0,63 9,7 293 000 12 200 -/15/12 0,27 3,0 90 600 12 200
–/13/10 0,84 50 > 1 000 000 6 200 -/13/10 0,63 13 393 000 6 200
–/11/8 0,93 50 > 1 000 000 3 200 -/11/8 0,931) 32 > 1 000 000 3 200
ƞc from diagrams 7 to 10, page 32 and 33

aSKF from diagram 11, page 34
1) From table 3, page 33
36
Bearing rating life
Bearing system life Bearing life at varying Requisite bearing life

operating conditions
It is sometimes of interest to calculate the The requisite screw compressor bearing
system life for all bearings in the compressor If the operating conditions are continually lives have traditionally been a basic rating
In bearing system life, the L10 life of all bear- changing, bearing life cannot be calculated life of 30 000 to 60 000 hours This has
ings is considered, such that if one bearing without irst reducing the duty cycle to a lim- worked well for the industry, but there are
fails, then the system of bearings is consid- ited number of simpler load cases (diagram reasons to challenge this practice To opti- 2
ered to have failed 13) In situations of continuously changing mize the bearing size selection, a more
System life, L10s can be calculated as load, each different load level can be accu- detailed consideration of the lubrication con-
follows: mulated and the load spectrum represented dition and cleanliness is a must The SKF
as a histogram of constant load blocks Each rating life method allows this The SKF
N block should characterize a given percentage Advanced fatigue life method allows to even
1 1
——–– = O ——–– or time-fraction during operation Note that consider more aspects like centrifugal loads
L10s es i = 1 L10i ei
heavy and normal loads consume bearing on angular contact ball bearings Care
life at a faster rate than light loads There- should be taken not to over dimension bear-
where fore, it is important to have peak loads well ings to achieve long rating life, as this could
L10s = system life, in hours or revolutions represented in the load diagram, even if the result in higher friction and risk of light load
L10i = life of an individual bearing, in hours occurrence of these loads is relatively rare skidding It is recommended to calculate with
or revolutions and limited to a few revolutions In case of both basic and state of the art life formula,
N = number of bearings in the system peak loads, the static safety factor need to be such as the SKF Rating life and the SKF
ei = 10/9 for ball bearings; 1,35 for roller veriied (SKF catalogue Rolling bearings) Advanced Fatigue calculation
bearings Within each duty interval, the bearing load
es = equivalent exponent for all bearings in and operating conditions can be averaged to
a system of ball and roller bearings, some constant value The number of operat-
this can be estimated with the following hours or revolutions expected from each
ing formula: duty interval, showing the life fraction
required by that particular load condition,
N
should also be included Therefore, if N1
O ei
i=1
equals the number of revolutions required
es = ——– under the load condition P1, and N is the
N
expected number of revolutions for the com-
pletion of all variable loading cycles, then the
Whenever possible, the loading used to eval- cycle fraction U1 = N1/N is used by the load
uate the selection of the bearing should be condition P1, which has a calculated life of
based on the duty cycle in which the com- L10m1 Under variable operating conditions,
pressor will be operated The duty cycle con- bearing life can be rated using: Diagram 13
siders the period or percentage of time that Duty intervals with constant bearing load
the compressor will operate at a given load, P and number of revolutions N
1
speed, temperature, etc condition L10m = ——————————–—
U1 U2 U3 P
—— + —— + —— + …
L10m1 L10m2 L10m3 P1
Duty interval
P2
where
L10m = SKF rating life (at 90% reli- P3
ability) [million revolutions] P4
L10m1, L10m2, … = SKF rating lives (at 90%
reliability) under constant
conditions 1, 2, … [million N
revolutions] N3
N2
U1, U2, = life cycle fraction under
the conditions 1, 2, …
Note: U1 + U2 + … Un = 1
N4
The use of this calculation method depends
N1
very much on the availability of representa-
tive load diagrams for the application U1 U2 U3 U4
100%
37
Operational speed can be increased (page 57) Running

precision, or runout, is another speed limit-
limitations ing factor At high speed the balance of the
rotor is affected by the runout of the bearing
Limiting speeds and the shaft seat This means that bearings
with reduced runout tolerance should be
In the SKF catalogue Rolling bearings, two used and the run out tolerance of the shaft
speed ratings are defined; the reference seat should be reduced (table 2, page 83)
speed and the limiting speed.The reference The limiting speed is listed in the SKF cata-
speed is based on the balance of frictional logue Rolling bearings, but application
heat generated by the bearing and heat dis- parameters such as bearing clearance, shaft
sipated from the bearing housing.The refer- and housing its and lubrication must also be
ence speed listed in the SKF catalogue Roll- considered At very high speeds, oil jet lubri-
ing bearings is based on the SKF friction cation should be used (page 31)
model and derived from thermal equilibrium Because of the circulating oil and oil jet
in oil bath operating conditions under stand- lubrication schemes used in screw compres-
ardized operating and cooling conditions sors, and optimizing the application parame-
deined in ISO 15312 Since screw compres- ters and bearing design details, the limiting
sors operate with circulating oil lubrication, speed may be exceeded Please contact SKF
where the frictional heat is removed by oil application engineering for advice The rec-
low, the reference speed is not of practical ommended maximum speeds are often, as
use in this book, referred to in terms of ndm
The limiting speed is based on mechanical speed, which is the inner ring speed multi-
and kinematic considerations such as cage plied with the bearing mean diameter
strength, mass and guidance For high speed (page 12)
operations such as in dry air compressors,
ring guided cages are used because with
ring guidance the cage is better centered in
the bearing than with rolling element guid-
ance For angular contact ball bearings, the
contact angle is also important The mini-
mum load needed for angular contact ball
bearings increase with speed and contact
angle If the speed is too high and the con-
tact angle too large, the minimum load
required becomes so high that the bearing
cannot carry any external loads By using
ceramic balls (hybrid bearings) the minimum
load required is reduced and the operating
Table 4
Cage and seal material compatibility with gases

The table shows maximum continuous operating temperatures [°C]
Material SKF sufix Air NH3 Sour gas Sweet gas FR
PA 66 P, TN, TN9 120 80 80 110 110

PEEK PH, PHA 160 120 120 160 160
Brass, pressed Y + – – + +
Brass, machined M, MA, ML + + + + +
Steel, pressed J + o o + o
Steel, machined F, FA + + + + +
Nitrile (NBR) RS1 100 o o 80 o
FKM RS2 230 – – 200 o
Sour gas = gas containing H2S

FR = luorinated refrigerants
+ = possible
– = not possible
o = not recommended
38
Operational limitations
Limiting temperatures Bearing compatibility with

gases
The maximum allowable bearing operating
temperature is limited by either lubrication Exposure of the bearings to gases within the
conditions or bearing materials The higher compressor may require the selection of
the temperature, the lower the lubricant certain speciic materials for the bearing
viscosity and the thinner the lubricant ilm seals and cages The gases may adversely 2
separating the bearing raceway and the roll- affect the materials, making them age or
ing elements The thermal stability of the become ineffective Experience and tests
lubricant is also reduced at high temperature made at the SKF Engineering and Research
(page 27) Lubrication considerations limits Centre in the Netherlands have established
the bearing temperature of most screw the suitability of common bearing materials
compressors to 100 to 120 °C for use in the presence of certain gases, see
The materials used in bearing compo- table 4 The gaskets, paints, and other seals
nents also have temperature limits The lim- within the compressor may also be affected
iting criteria is different for different material by the composition of the gases In some
types For polymer cages the criteria is age- cases, the possibility that the gas could con-
ing, which makes the cage brittle and weak tain liquid contaminates such as water, may
The presence of aggressive media can accel- also dictate the suitability of the material
erate the ageing process and this lowers the For more details, please also refer to the
temperature limit (table 4) The presence of section on gas compressors in this handbook
aggressive media also limits the tempera-
ture for metal cages (table 4)
The steel in the bearing rings and rolling
elements also have temperature limits,
depending on the heat treatment At ele-
vated temperatures structural transforma-
tions occur in the steel, affecting the dimen-
sions of the components In general, the
higher the hardness, the lower the tempera-
ture at which the transformations occur To
control dimensional change at elevated tem-
perature, SKF bearings are heat stabilized to
different temperatures depending on the
bearing type (table 6)
Table 5 Table 6
Values of ISO standard tolerance grades Dimensional stability
Nominal dimension Tolerance grades Bearing type Temperature [°C]

IT5 IT6 IT7
› ≤ max
mm μm Deep groove ball bearings 120
BE and AC angular contact ball bearings 150

10 18 8 11 18
18 30 9 13 21 ACD and CE angular contact ball bearings 120
30 50 11 16 25
Four point contact ball bearings 150
50 80 13 19 30
80 120 15 22 35 Cylindrical roller bearings 150
120 180 18 25 40
Needle roller bearings 120
Tapered roller bearings 120
39
Shaft and housing Table 7
Recommended shaft and housing tolerances

tolerances
Bearing type Bearing bore diameter, d
10 ≤ d ≤ 50 50 < d ≤ 100 100 < d ≤ 150
Recommended shaft
– mm
tolerances
S K F recommendations for ball and roller Ball bearings, taking axial load only j5, j6 j5, j6 j5, j6
bearing shaft tolerances in twin screw com- RF RF RF
pressor applications appear in table 7 Deep groove ball bearings, k5, k6 k5, k6 m5, m6
Tolerance grades for bearing seats and taking radial load only H6, H7 H6, H7 H6, H7
values of ISO standard tolerance grades can
Cylindrical roller bearings, m5 n5, n6 p5, p6
be found in table 5, page 39 and table 8 taking radial load only K6, K7, J7 K6, K7, J7 K6, K7, J7
Tapered roller bearings taking m5, m6 n5, n6 p6

combined loads K6, K7, J7 K6, K7, J7 K6, K7, J7
Housing tolerances –
bearings taking radial loads Tapered roller bearings taking
axial load only
k5, k6
RF
k5, k6
RF
k5, k6
RF
ISO K6 is the generally recommended hous-

ing tolerance for cylindrical and needle roller
bearings supporting radial loads This toler-
ance results in a transition it between the
bearing outer ring and housing This allows
for easy assembly and prevents the outer
ring from creeping in the housing bore It
also minimizes the total clearance between Recommended bearing shaft seat surface inish Ra = 0,8 μm
Recommended bearing housing seat surface inish Ra = 1,6 μm
the rotor shaft and the housing For cylindrical roller bearings, when using n5 and p6 tolerances, radial internal clearance greater than Normal is necessary
This is important for precise positioning of RF = radially free
Envelope requirement (symbol � from ISO 14405-1) not written but applies
the rotor For easier mounting, it is also pos-
sible to use K7 or J7 tolerance but then the
clearance between the outer ring and housing Table 8
is greater and there is a greater risk of ring Tolerance grades for bearing seats
creep (table 1, page 79 and table 2,
page 83) Shaft seat
A B
t2 A-B
t1 A-B
A B
dA dB DA DB
t2 A-B
t1 A-B
Dimensional tolerance Geometrical tolerance grades

grade
Radial run-out Axial run-out
t1 t2
IT5 IT4/2 IT4
IT6 IT5/2 IT5
IT7 IT6/2 IT6
40
Shaft and housing tolerances
Housing tolerances – bearings

taking axial loads only
B earings taking axial loads only, in combina-
tion with a separate radial bearing, including
reverse thrust bearings, should be radially free
in the housing The housing bore should be 1 2
or 2 mm larger in diameter than the bearing
outer ring If such bearings are constrained
from moving radially, by too heavy clamping
force, they will take a combination of radial
and axial loads, and the radial bearing will
take less or no radial load
Bearings taking axial loads only should be
clamped with a spring to ensure suficient
but not excessive clamping see page 52,
Clamping of outer rings The bearing rings
can also be slotted (N1 or N2 sufix) and itted
with an anti-rotation pin, mounted in the
housing or housing end cover This is com-
mon with four point and single row angular
contact ball bearings The spring can func-
tion either as a clamping spring or as a
preload spring, ig. 12 and ig. 13, page 22
41
Ball bearings in twin screw
compressors
Ball bearings are used in twin screw compressors, either as main
thrust bearings , or as reverse thrust bearings, or backup bearings to 3
control axial clearance or preload in a set of bearings Angular contact
ball bearings with large contact angles are well suited as main thrust
bearings because of their higher axial load capacity, compared to
bearings with smaller contact angles Angular contact ball bearings
can also be used as backup bearings Deep groove ball bearings are
also a good choice as spring loaded reverse thrust bearings If the
loads are light, deep groove ball bearings can also be used to take
radial loads
Deep groove ball depends on the application but is typically

greater than Normal (C3 sufix) Table 1,
bearings page 44 lists the values of unmounted radial
clearance The initial clearance in a bearing is
Deep groove ball bearings have deep unin- reduced by interference its and if the shaft
terrupted raceway groves with close oscula- and inner ring operate with a higher tem-
tion (conformity) with the balls This design perature than the outer ring and housing
enables the bearing to take radial and axial The bearing must support at least a mini-
loads in both directions In order to make mum radial or axial load for satisfactory
bearing assembly possible, there are fewer operation The recommended minimum
balls compared to the same size angular radial load can be determined according to
contact ball bearing the SKF catalogue Rolling bearings An axial
Deep groove ball bearings have limited load can be provided by a spring
radial and axial load capacity compared to
angular contact ball bearings and cylindrical
roller bearings When high load capacity is
not needed, deep groove ball bearings can
be a good and economical alternative
The main application is as reverse thrust
bearings, but deep groove ball bearings can
also be used as the suction end radial bear-
ing, if the radial load is light Bearings with
steel or polyamide cages can be used in most
cases The bearing internal clearance
43
Ball bearings in twin screw compressors
Recommended minimum Cages Allowable misalignment

axial spring force
Depending on their design, series and size, Operation under misalignment reduces
The recommended minimum axial spring SKF deep groove ball bearings are itted with bearing life The maximum allowable mis-
force is determined as follows: one of the cages shown in table 2 The alignment is 2 to 4 minutes, but limiting
standard stamped steel cage is not identiied misalignment to less than 1,5 minute is rec-
F = k 0,01 d in the bearing designation For compatibility ommended in screw compressors For
of gases see table 4, page 38 detailed recommendations see table 1,
where page 79 Misalignment is caused by bending
F = minimum spring force [kN] of the rotor, positioning tolerances of the
d = bearing bore diameter [mm] radial bearing housings and clearances
Table 1
Radial internal clearance of deep groove ball bearings
Bore diameter Radial internal clearance

d C2 Normal C3 C4
over incl min max min max min max min max
mm µm
18 24 0 10 5 20 13 28 20 36
24 30 1 11 5 20 13 28 23 41
30 40 1 11 6 20 15 33 28 46
40 50 1 11 6 23 18 36 30 51
50 65 1 15 8 28 23 43 38 61
65 80 1 15 10 30 25 51 46 71
80 100 1 18 12 36 30 58 53 84
100 120 2 20 15 41 36 66 61 97
120 140 2 23 18 48 41 81 71 114
140 160 2 23 18 53 46 91 81 130

260 180 2 25 20 61 53 102 91 147
180 200 2 30 25 71 63 117 107 163
The axial clearance is 5 to 15 times the radial, depending on bearing series and radial clearance class
44
Deep groove ball bearings
Hybrid deep groove ball

bearings
SKF deep groove ball bearings are also avail-
able as hybrid bearings, with ceramic balls
made of bearing grade silicon nitride (Si3N4)
See chapter Hybrid angular contact ball
bearings, page 57
Table 2
Cages for deep groove ball bearings
Steel cages Polymer cages Brass cages
Cage type R i v eted, ball centered Snap-type, ball centered Riveted, ball, outer ring
or inner ring centered
Material Stamped steel PA66, PEEK, Machined brass

glass ibre reinforced glass ibre reinforced
Sufix – TN9 TNH M, MA or MB
45
Single row angular For dry air compressors, which operate combined with a spring loaded reverse
at ndm speeds over 800 000, bearings of thrust bearing also provide accurate axial
contact ball bearings 70 and 72 series with 15° and 25° contact positioning, but the reverse axial force capa-
angles are used, 70 ACD, 70 CD, 72 ACD, bility is limited by the spring force If the axial
Single-row angular contact ball bearings are 72 CD See table 1, page 79 and table 2, load of the compressor is heavy, two axial
the most commonly used ball bearings in page 83 load carrying bearings can be arranged in
twin screw compressors They support pure tandem, with a third bearing as a backup
axial loads or combined radial and axial bearing in ig. 16, page 23
loads The most important features of this Universally matchable single The standard SKF bearings available for
bearing type are its high axial load capacity row angular contact ball universial matching have the CB or GA sufix,
combined with a high speed rating Single- e g 7310 BECB or 7310 BEGA The CB sufix
row angular contact ball bearings operating
bearings denotes that the bearing is universally
with a small clearance or a light preload pro- Bearings for universal matching are intended matchable and that a pair of these bearings
vide good axial positioning accuracy of the to be used in double and triple arrange- will have a certain axial clearance when
rotor For oil injected screw compressors, the ments in screw compressors Single row mounted in the arrangements shown in
most commonly used SKF single row angu- angular contact bearings are usually ig. 2 The GA sufix denotes that the bearing
lar contact ball bearings are of the 72 BE and mounted in face-to-face arrangements to is universally matchable, but a pair of these
73 BE series which have 40° contact angle facilitate easy adjustment of the rotor end bearings will have a light preload when
Also used are series 72 AC and 73 AC with clearance and for easy dismounting mounted in any of the arrangements shown
25° contact angle The standoff between the rings is manu- in ig. 2
factured to close tolerances When two bear- Tables 4 and 5, page 48 lists the values of
ings are mounted immediately adjacent to unmounted axial clearance and preload for
each other, a given speciied internal clear- the universally matchable bearings The ini-
ance or preload, for example CB or GA, will tial bearing clearance or preload is only
be produced without shimming (ig. 1) assured when the bearing rings are axially
Bearings mounted in tandem will distribute clamped together The initial clearance in a
the load equally between the bearings bearing pair is reduced or initial preload is
(ig. 2) increased by interference its and if the shaft
Universally matchable bearings can also and inner ring operate with a higher tem-
be used as single bearings Most bearings perature than the outer ring and housing
belong to the SKF Explorer design and as SKF Explorer universally matchable bearings
such have smaller dimensional and geomet- are produced with P6 precision class dimen-
rical tolerances, increased load carrying sional tolerances and P5 precision class
capacity and speed capability geometrical tolerances as standard
Universally matchable bearings in the
72 B(E) and 73 B(E) series are identiied by
the sufix CA, CB or CC for internal clearance
or GA, GB or GC for preload
Arrangements of universally matchable
bearings used to support axial loads, provide
Fig. 1 accurate axial positioning of the rotor Bearing
Clearance / Preload class sets made for preload (e g : GA sufix) provide
axial positioning on both directions without
C clearance Angular contact ball bearings
Fig. 2
46
Single row angular contact ball bearings
Cages Allowable misalignment

The SKF BE and AC design bearings are pro- Operation under misalignment reduces
duced as standard with ive optional cages bearing life The maximum allowable mis-
(table 3); the glass ibre reinforced polyam- alignment is 2 to 4 minutes, but it is recom-
ide 6,6 cage (P sufix), the PEEK cage (PH mended to keep the misalignment lees than
sufix), the pressed brass (Y sufix), and the 1,5 minute in screw compressors Misalign-
machined brass cage (M sufix) A limited ment is caused by bending of the rotors,
number of bearings are also available with a positioning tolerances of the radial bearing
machined steel cage (F sufix) For compati- housings and clearances
bility of gases see table 4, page 38
3
Table 3
Cages for single row angular contact ball bearings
Polymer cages Brass cages Steel cages
Cage type Window-type, Window-type, Window-type,

ball centred ball centred ball centred
Material PA66, PEEK, Stamped brass, Machined brass Machined steel

glass ibre glass ibre stamped steel
reinforced reinforced
Sufix P PH Y M F
47
Table 4
Axial internal clearance of BE and AC design universally matchable single row angular contact ball bearings arranged back-to-back or
face-to-face
Bore diameter Axial internal clearance class

d C C CC G
over incl min max min max min max min max
mm µm
– 18 5 13 15 23 24 32 – –
18 30 7 15 18 26 32 40 – –
30 50 9 17 22 30 40 48 – –
50 80 11 23 26 38 48 60 – –
80 120 14 26 32 44 55 67 – –
120 160 17 29 35 47 62 74 26 76
160 180 17 29 35 47 62 74 20 72
180 250 21 37 45 61 74 90 20 72
250 280 – – – – – – 20 72
Axial clearance for BE and AC are the same

Radial clearance for a pair of BE is ~0 85 axial clearance
Radial clearance for a pair of AC is ~0 46 axial clearance
Table 5
Preload of BE and AC design universally matchable single row angular contact ball bearings arranged back-to-back or face-to-face
Bore diameter Preload class

d GA GB GC
over incl min max min max min max
mm µm
10 18 +4 –4 –2 –10 –8 –16
18 30 +4 –4 –2 –10 –8 –16
30 50 +4 –4 –2 –10 –8 –16
50 80 +6 –6 –3 –15 –12 –24

80 120 +6 –6 –3 –15 –12 –24
120 180 +6 –6 –3 –15 –12 –24
180 250 +8 –8 –4 –20 –16 –32
48
Bearing minimum axial load ball bearings can be calculated from the
following equation:
Fo r sa t i s f a c t ory operation, an angular con-
tact ball bearing must carry a certain mini-
q n w2
mum axial load At increased speed, centrif- Fa min = A ———
⎝ 1 000 ⎠
ugal forces on the balls will cause a change
in the contact angle between the inner and
outer raceways, (ig. 3) The differences in where
contact angle will cause sliding, in particular Fa min = minimum required axial load [kN]
at the inner ring, which increase friction and A = minimum load factor
can cause adhesive wear At increased n = rotational speed [r/min]
speed, the gyroscopic moment acting on the 3
balls will increase and cause spinning motion Values of minimum load factor A are listed in
of the balls, causing additional sliding on the table 6, page 50
raceways Adequate axial load minimizes the Bearings with small contact angles are
risk of sliding, both from centrifugal force better suited for high speed and light axial
and gyroscopic moment With effective load applications because of their lower
lubrication, the negative effect of insuficient requirement for axial load
axial load is reduced At increased speed, During operation, the minimum required
axial displacement of the bearing inner ring axial load can be internally maintained by
relative to the outer ring will also occur limiting the internal axial clearance This can Fig. 3
(diagram 1) The axial displacement can be accomplished with a backup bearing With Contact angles
cause the compressor rotor end clearance to small axial clearance, the balls are loaded by
decrease If the axial force is insuficient, this centrifugal force against the raceways with
a ao
may result in the rotor coming into contact low variation of contact angles (diagram 2,
with the housing The magnitude of the ring page 50) As the axial clearance increases,
displacement varies with rotor speed Insuf- so does the difference in the inner and outer
icient axial load also reduces traction of the ring contact angles This allows increased
balls on the raceways and can cause ball internal sliding The minimum axial load can
skidding and variation in ball orbital speed also be maintained by spring preloading
ai
from ball to ball This will result in increased
loads on the cage and possibly cause cage at low speed at high speed
damage The minimum required axial load
for satisfactory operation of angular contact
Diagram 1
Axial rotor displacement vs axial load

SKF 7312 BEGAP
Axial displacement [μm]

25
-25
–50
–75
–100 + –
Direction of rotor
–125 displacement
–150
–175 — 0 r/min
— 300 000 ndm
–200 — 600 000 ndm
0 1 000 2 000 3 000 4 000
Axial load [N]
49
Table 6
SKF single row angular contact ball bearing, minimum axial load factor
Size Bore A factor

diameter 7 2 BE 73 BE 72 AC 73 AC 70 ACD 72 ACD 70 CD 72 CD
– mm
01 12 0,000283 0,000536 0,000114 0,000212 0,000054 0,000092 0,000020 0,000034

02 15 0,000383 0,000907 0,000156 0,000363 0,000080 0,000156 0,000029 0,000057
03 17 0,000625 0,00141 0,000254 0,000563 0,000138 0,000254 0,000051 0,000093
04 20 0,00113 0,00191 0,000461 0,000771 0,000250 0,000460 0,000092 0,000168

05 25 0,00159 0,00391 0,000656 0,00158 0,000352 0,000655 0,000130 0,000241
06 30 0,00377 0,0074 0,00155 0,003 0,000801 0,00135 0,000295 0,000496
07 35 0,00674 0,0111 0,00277 0,00453 0,001078 0,00249 0,000398 0,000915

08 40 0,0102 0,0173 0,00419 0,00707 0,00138 0,00311 0,000511 0,00115
09 45 0,012 0,0268 0,00496 0,0109 0,00246 0,00495 0,000911 0,00182
10 50 0,014 0,0418 0,00584 0,017 0,00287 0,00583 0,00106 0,00215

11 55 0,022 0,0574 0,00917 0,0234 0,00504 0,00915 0,00187 0,00337
12 60 0,0344 0,0846 0,0143 0,0345 0,00576 0,0110 0,00213 0,00405
13 65 0,0478 0,112 0,0199 0,0456 0,00653 0,0153 0,00242 0,00563

14 70 0,0529 0,145 0,022 0,0592 0,0100 0,0174 0,00371 0,00641
15 75 0,0599 0,171 0,025 0,0701 0,0112 0,0196 0,00417 0,00725
16 80 0,0801 0,216 0,0334 0,0887 0,0171 0,0278 0,00635 0,0103

17 85 0,114 0,27 0,0474 0,111 0,0190 0,0384 0,00706 0,0142
18 90 0,149 0,333 0,062 0,137 0,0264 0,0598 0,00979 0,0221
19 95 0,191 0,406 0,0796 0,167 0,0292 0,0729 0,0108 0,0269

20 100 0,239 0,63 0,0997 0,258 0,0320 0,0933 0,0119 0,0344
21 105 0,302 0,669 0,126 0,274 0,0429 0,118 0,0159 0,0434
22 110 0,353 0,906 0,147 0,371 0,0557 0,133 0,0207 0,0493
For hybrid bearing A factors, multiply the values in the table by 0,4
Diagram 2
Axial rotor displacement vs axial load

Two universally matchable angular contact ball bearings in face-to-face arrangement
Active bearing A : 7310 BEGAP
Back up bearing B : 7310 BEGAP or 7310 ACGAP
Delection [μm]
25
A B
20
15
10
K
5 + –
Direction of rotor displacement
0
-5
-10 — ndm = 300 000 with 7310 BE GAP as back up bearing

— ndm = 600 000 with 7310 BE GAP as back up bearing
-15 — ndm = 300 000 with 7310 AC GAP as back up bearing
— ndm = 600 000 with 7310 AC GAP as back up bearing
-20
0 1 000 2 000 3 000 4 000
Axial load [N]
50
Tandem-mounted single row Bearing preload

angular contact ball bearings
The purpose of bearing preload in angular
S i n g l e r o w a n g u l a r c o n t a c t b a ll b e a r i n g s contact ball bearings is to:
a r r a n g e d i n t a n d e m a r e c o m m o n ly u s e d i n
s c r e w c o m p r e s s o r s t o s u p p o r t h i g h a xi a ll o a d • prevent light load skidding and sliding
o n t h e m ale r o t o r T h e t a n d e m m o u n t e d • control contact angles
b e a r i n g s c a n b e p o s iti o n e d a d j a c e n t t o a • improve load distribution
c y li n d r i c a l r o ll e r b e a r i n g , w h i c h s u p p o r t s t h e • increase bearing stiffness
r a d i a l l o a d ( igs. 12, page 21 a n d 16, • improve shaft positioning accuracy
page 23)
T h e a n g u l a r c o n t a c t b a ll b e a r i n g s a r e In twin screw compressor applications, bear- 3
m o u n t e d r a d i a ll y f r e e ( R F ) i n t h e h o u s i n g ing preload is used in angular contact ball
a n d h a v e a r a d i a l c l e a r a n c e o f 1 o r 2 mm bearings for all these reasons Preload can
with the housing bore With this arrange- increase the fatigue life of a bearing by
ment, it is appropriate to determine the rat- improvement of internal load distribution
ing life of each angular contact bearing indi- (diagram 3), but too much preload can
vidually rather than as a set The SKF Explorer reduce bearing fatigue life Preloaded bear-
universally matchable bearings are made to ings are more sensitive to misalignment and
precise tolerances and can distribute the incorrect mounting than bearings with
axial load equally between the bearings in clearance
tandem arrangements
For tandem bearings supporting combined
axial and radial load, the bearing rating life is
determined according to the SKF catalogue
Rolling bearings For SKF bearings mounted
in tandem and supporting only axial load,
the bearing rating life is determined using
the external axial load distributed equally
among the bearings, and using the basic
dynamic load rating C for one single row Diagram 3
angular contact ball bearing Relationship between bearing life and preload/clearance
Below is an example of the life calculation
for bearings arranged in tandem, supporting
only axial load: Life
2 SKF 7310 BEGAP arranged in tandem

Fr = 0 [kN]
Fa = 10 [kN]
n = 3 600 [r/min]
C = 75 kN for 1 bearing
P = 0,35 Fr + 0,57 Fa for Fa/Fr > 1,14
Load per bearing

Fa/2 = 5 kN
P = 0,57 ¥ 5 000 = 2,85 kN
106 ⎛ C ⎞P 106 ⎛ 74 100 ⎞3

L10h = —— ― = ——――– ―――–
60 n ⎝ P ⎠ 60 ¥ 3 600 ⎝ 2 850 ⎠
= 84 400 h
Preload 0 Clearance
NOTE: the dotted line indicates potentially unstable working conditions
51
Preload by axial displacement Preload by springs

b e a r i n g i n t h e o p p o s it e d i r e c ti o n t o t h e m a i n
It i s a l s o p o s s i b l e t o p r e l o a d b e a r i n g s b y ( g a s)lo a d
Diagram 4 s h o w s t h e s t a ti c l o a d d e l e c ti o n u s i n g s p r i n g s I n t h a t c a s e b e a r i n g Bi s T h e c r it e r i a f o r s e l e c ti o n o f s p r i n g f o r c e
f o r t w o p r e l o a d e d a n g u l a r c o n t a c t b a ll b e a r - l o a d e d b y a s p r i n g , a c ti n g o n t h e o u t e r r i n g a r e g i v e n i n table 7
i n g s T h i s d i a g r a m i s t y p i c a l o f 4 0 ° b e a ri n g s ( s e e diagram 6) T h e r e m u s t b e a c l e a r a n c e
a r r a n g e d e it h e r b a c k - t o - b a c k o r f a c e - t o - i t i n t h e h o u s i n g t o a ll o w t h e s p r i n g l o a d e d Clamping of outer rings
f a c e T h e p r e l o a d f o r c e F 0 i n t h is e x a m p l e is b e a r i n g o u t e r r i n g t o d i s p l a c e a x i a ll y T h e r e
p r o d u c e d b y t h e e l a s ti c d e l e c ti o n δ 0 o f t h e m u s t a ls o b e a s p a c e r b e t w e e n t h e i n n e r T o a s s u r e s e p a r a ti o n o f r a d i a l a n d a x i a l f o r c e
b e a ri n g s w h e n c l a m p e d a g a i n s t o n e a n o t h e r r i n g s o f b e a r i n g A a n d b e a r i n g Bt o a s s u r e b e t w e e n t h e r a d i a l a n d t h e t h r u s t b e a ri n g s ,
W h e n a n a x i a l l o a d K i s a p p li e d t o t h e s h a f t, t h a t t h e r e i s a g a p b e t w e e n t h e o u t e r ri n g s , t h e r e s h o uld b e a r a dial g a p b e t w e e n t h e
t h e l o a d i n o n e b e a r i n g ( A) i n c r e a s e s a n d t h e a n d t h a t t h e s p ri n g f o r c e c a n n o t b e t r a n s - o u t e r ri n g o f t h e t h r u s t b e a ri n g a n d t h e
l o a d i n t h e o t h e r ( B) d e c r e a s e s B e a r i n g A i s m it t e d t o t h e o u t e r r i n g o f b e a r i n g A T h e h o u si n g T h is w a y t h e r o t o r s h a ft c a n d is -
d e n o t e d t h e “ a c ti v e ” b e a r i n g T h e d e l e c ti o n s p r i n g f o r c e o n b e a r i n g B w ill a d d f o r c e t o p l a c e r a d i a ll y i n t h e r a d i a l b e a r i n g w it h o u t
i n t h e a c ti v e b e a r i n g i n c r e a s e s , w h il e t h e b e a r i n g A Diagram 6 a l s o s h o w s t h e l o a d a d d i n g r a d i a l f o r c e t o t h e t h r u s t b e a ri n g s I n
d e l e c ti o n i n t h e i n a c ti v e b e a r i n g d e c r e a s e s d e l e c ti o n f o r a n a n g u l a r c o n t a c t b a ll b e a r - t w i n s c r e w c o m p r e s s o r s, t h e p r e f e r r e d
T h e i n a c ti v e b e a r i n g i s t h e b a c k u p b e a r i n g i n g , s p r i n g p r e l o a d e d b y a d e e p g r o o v e b a ll a r r a n g e m e n t o f a n g u l a r c o n t a c t b e a ri n g s i s
Diagram 5, s h o w s l o a d - d e l e c ti o n f o r a b e a ri n g f a c e t o f a c e T h i s m e a n s t h a t t h e o u t e r ri n g s
p a i r o f r o t a ti n g p r e l o a d e d b e a r i n g s U n d e r A n a d v a n t a g e w it h s p r i n g p r e l o a d i n g i s m u s t b e c l a m p e d a x i a ll y t o c o n t r o l b e a r i n g
r o t a ti o n , t h e p r e l o a d f o r c e i n c r e a s e s d u e t o t h a t t h e f o r c e o n t h e p r elo a d e d b a c k u p b e a r - cl e a r a n c e T h e a xi a l cl a m p i n g f o r c e m u s t n o t
c e n t r if u g a l f o r c e s o n t h e b a ll s T h e f o r c e o f i n g is a l w a y s t h e s a m e a n d e q u a l t o t h e b e t o o l a r g e , si n c e t h a t w o u l d p r e v e n t r a d i a l
t h e b a c k u p b e a r i n g i s n e v e r f u ll y r e d u c e d t o s p ri n g l o a d W h e n u s e d a s r e v e r s e t h r u s t d i s p l a c e m e n t o f t h e t h r u s t b e a r i n g s It m u s t
z e r o d u e t o c e n t r if u g a l f o r c e s a n d w ill a l w a y s b e a r i n g t h e s p r i n g f o r c e li m it s t h e a m o u n t o f a l s o n o t b e t o o li g h t F o r t h i s r e a s o n s p r i n g s
a d d f o r c e t o t h e a c ti v e b e a r i n g A t i n c r e a s e d r e v e r s e f o r c e t h a t c a n b e t a k e n If t h e r e v e r s e a r e u s e d t o p r o v i d e a c o n t r o ll e d c l a m p i n g
s p e e d s , s p i n n i n g o f t h e b a ll s d u e t o g y r o - f o r c e e x c e e d s t h e s p ri n g f o r c e , t h e n t h e r o t o r f o r c e T h e c r it e r i a f o r s e l e c ti n g t h e c l a m p i n g
s c o p i c m o m e n t w ill o c c u r if t h e r e s i d u a l w ill d i s p l a c e a n d r u b a g a i n s t t h e h o u s i n g f o r c e a r e g i v e n i n table 8
p r e l o a d i n t h e i n a c ti v e b e a r i n g i s l e s s t h a n S p ri n g l o a d i n g c a n a l s o b e u s e d t o r e d u c e
t h e m i n i m u m r e q u ir e d a x i a l l o a d , F a m i n f o r c e o n t h e m a i n ( i x e d ) t h r u s t b e a ri n g , b y
a p p l y i n g t h e s p r i n g f o r c e o n t h e s u c ti o n s i d e
Table 7 Table 8
Criteria for selecting axial preload spring Criteria for selecting clamping spring force
force
1 T h e s p ri n g p r e l o a d s h o u l d b e g r e a t e r 1 T h e c l a m p i n g s p ri n g f o r c e s h o u l d b e
t h a n t h e m a xi m u m p o s si b l e r e v e r s e g r e a t e r t h a n t h e m a xi m u m p o s si b l e
a xi a ll o a d fr o m t h e r o t o r r e v e r s e a xi a ll o a d fr o m t h e r o t o r
2 T h e s p ri n g p r e l o a d s h o u l d b e g r e a t e r 2 T h e c l a m p i n g s p ri n g f o r c e s h o u l d b e
t h a n t h e m i n i m u m l o a d r e q u ir e d f o r g r e a t e r t h a n t h e i n d u c e d a xi a ll o a d
t h e s p ri n g p r e l o a d b e a ri n g f r o m c e n t r if u g a l f o r c e i n t h e t h r u s t
3 T h e s p ri n g p r e l o a d s h o u l d g i v e a n b e a ri n g s
a c c e p t a b l e L 1 0 lif e o f t h e s p r i n g 3 F o r b e a ri n g s t h a t s h o u l d n o t b e r a d i -
p r e l o a d b e a ri n g a ll y f r e e a n d f o r b e a r i n g i n n e r r i n g s ,
4 T h e s p ri n g p r e l o a d s h o u l d b e g r e a t t h e cl a m p i n g f o r c e s h o u l d b e l e s s t h a n
e n o u g h t o p r e v e n t a n y r e v e r s e d is - C o / 4 , w h e r e C o i s t h e l o w e s t s t a ti c l o a d
pla c e m e n t o f t h e m ain t h r u st b e a r - c a p a c it y o f a b e a r i n g w h i c h i s p a r t o f a
i n g s d u e t o c e n t r if u g a l f o r c e s g e n e r - s e t o f b e a r i n g s T h i s c r it e r i o n i s b a s e d
a t e d i n t h e m a i n t h r u s t b e a ri n g s o n d e f o r m a ti o n / d i s t o r ti o n o f b e a r i n g
5 T h e a d d iti o n o f t h e s p r i n g p r e l o a d t o r i n g s w h i c h c a n o c c u r if t h e c l a m p i n g
t h e l o a d o f t h e m a i n t h r u s t b e a ri n g s f o r c e is t o o h i g h
s h o u l d b e a c c e p t a b l e f o r t h e L 1 0 lif e 4 T h e cl a m p i n g f o r c e s h o u l d n o t b e
r e q u ir e m e n t o f t h e m a i n t h r u s t l a r g e r t h a n n e c e s s a r y t o li m it r a d i a l
b e a ri n g s l o a d i n g o f t h r u s t b e a ri n g s
52
Diagram 4
Preload diagram for two angular contact ball bearings in face to face arrangement
Axial load
Axial load Axial load A B

bearing B bearing A
K
3
F0 K
F0 preload force
K external force
δA0, δB0 initial preload displacement
δA0 δB0
Axial displacement
Diagram 5
Preload diagram for two angular contact ball bearings in face to face arrangement
Axial load
A B
Axial load Axial load
bearing B bearing A
K
K At speed: blue and red curve
F0
At zero speed: blue and red dotted curve
F0 preload force
K external force
Axial delection
Diagram 6
Preload diagram for one angular contact ball bearing (A) and one spring loaded deep groove ball bearing (B)
Axial load
Axial load
bearing A A B
K
Axial load F0 preload force = spring force
bearing B K external force
F
0
Axial displacement
53
Four-point contact At high speed and light axial load, the balls speed, the load at which three-point contact
are forced radially outwards by centrifugal ceases is higher than at lower speed
ball bearings force contacting both raceways of the outer If the axial load reverses, the relative axial
ring and the load-carrying inner ring position of the outer and inner ring shifts
F o u ! contact ball bearings (QJ preix) raceway and the previously unloaded inner ring
are primarily used in oil looded refrigeration If the axial load increases, the load on the becomes loaded
and high speed dry air compressors to sup- outer ring increases on one raceway and By applying a spring loaded backup bear-
port axial load only The bearings have a two decreases on the opposite one, but there is ing, it is possible to shift the axial load at
piece inner ring and an outer ring with two little change in contact angle The contact which the clearance shifts (diagram 7) With
raceways (ig. 4) This design makes possible motion is a combination of rolling and sliding the contact angle more or less constant, the
a large contact angle, small axial and radial at all three contacts With increased load, the delection curve of the four-point contact
clearance and a large number of balls The rolling motion increases at the loaded con- ball change very little with speed and load,
contact angle is 35° The cage is outer-ring tacts At high load the contact at the opposite compared to angular contact ball bearings
guided made of machined brass or PEEK side of the outer ring ceases (ig. 5, (diagram 1, page 49)
(table 9) The above mentioned features page 55) Because of the partial rolling and sliding
make the bearing well suited for high speed If the speed increases, then the centrifugal motion, it is important that four-point con-
applications force on the balls increases and the contact tact ball bearings operate with the lubrica-
If loaded with pure radial load, the bearing force on the outer ring increases, but again tion parameter κ equal to or greater than 1,5
will have two contact points on the inner ring there is little change in contact angle At high
and two on the outer ring This explains why
it is called a four-point contact ball bearing, Fig. 4
but it is not intended to be used that way In Loads and contact points
screw compressors the bearing should be
used for thrust loads only The thrust load
can act in both directions (ig. 4b and 4c)
Because it cannot be preloaded and must
always operate with clearance, functionally it
is similar to but not the same as a pair of
single-row angular contact ball bearings
The inner rings must be clamped axially to
ensure correct axial clearance and the side
face of the inner ring is recessed to avoid
warping if clamped too high up on the side a b c
face
Table 9
Cages for four-point contact ball bearings
Brass cages Polymer cages
Cage type Window-type, Window-type,

outer ring centred lubrication grooves in the guiding
surface, outer ring centred
Material Machined brass PEEK,

glass ibre reinforced
Sufix MA PHAS
54
Four-point contact ball bearings
Bearing minimum load and accuracy In oil looded twin screw compres- of the rotor, positioning tolerances of the
clearance sors, C2L clearance is a common choice for radial bearing housings and clearances
this reason For dry air twin screw compres-
F o u "#$%&'( contact ball bearings should sors, which operate at high speed and high
carry a minimum axial load for satisfactory temperature, it may be necessary to use Bearing loads
operation The criteria for determination of larger clearances, such as C2H, CN, or C3L
minimum axial load is gyroscopic spinning of (table 11, page 56) Four-point contact ball bearings can theo-
the balls, as described for single row angular retically carry combined loads, but radial
contact ball bearings loading should be avoided because it can
The formula for calculating the minimum Allowable misalignment lead to severe three-point contact on one
required axial load is the same as for single side and cause bearing damage Because it
row angular contact ball bearings, but with Operation under misalignment reduces is dificult to predict the ratio of axial to radial 3
the A factor adjusted for the difference in ball bearing life The maximum allowable mis- force in screw compressors, use four-point
complement and contact angles of the two alignment is 2 to 4 minutes SKF recom- contact ball bearings for thrust loads only
bearing types: mends limiting misalignment to less than and in combination with another bearing to
1,5 minute in screw compressors For take the radial load (ig. 17, page 23)
detailed recommendation see table 1,
q n w2
Fa min = A ——— page 79 Misalignment is caused by bending
⎝ 1 000 ⎠
where Fig. 5
Fa min = minimum required axial load [kN] The effect of centrifugal force in a four-point contact ball bearing
A = minimum load factor The centrifugal force Fc moves the ball radially outwards, but the movement is constrained
n = rotational speed [r/min] by contact with the opposite side of the outer ring This is causing three point contact
Values of minimum load factor A for series

QJ 2 and QJ 3 four-point contact ball bear- Fa Fa
Fc Fc
ings are listed in table 10, page 56 As men-
tioned above, four-point contact ball bear-
ings cannot be preloaded like a pair of single Fa Fa
row angular contact ball bearings It is nec-
essary to maintain an operating clearance at
all times Avoid excessive clearance since it
negatively affects screw axial positioning
Diagram 7
Rotor axial displacement vs axial load
Axial rotor displacement [μm]

20
10 + –
–1 500 –500 Direction of rotor displacement
0 500 1 500 2 500 3 500

–10
–20
–30
–40
+ –
–50 Direction of rotor displacement
–60
— One Four point contact ball bearing, SKF QJ 210 C2L
External axial load [N] — One four point contact ball bearing SKF QJ 210 C2L and
one spring loaded angular contact ball SKF 7210 CD
55
Fits and clamping Table 10
SKF four-point contact ball bearing, minimum axial load factors

The recommended shaft tolerance is j5, see
table 7, page 40, this allows the shaft to Size Bore diameter A factor
QJ2 QJ3
locate the two inner rings concentrically and
minimize rotor run out If a tighter it is used, – mm
bearing clearance has to be analyzed accu-
rately and possibly adjusted, especially if the 03 17 0,000427 0,00087
bearing clearance is small (eg C2L) 04 20 N/A 0,00143
05 25 0,00126 0,00278
SKF recommends clamping the outer ring
axially by means of a spring This makes it 06 30 0,00256 0,00508
possible to control the clamping force accu- 07 35 0,00473 0,00744
08 40 0,0066 0,0118
rately Excessive clamping can lead to outer
ring distortion and radial loading Too little 09 45 0,00871 0,022
clamping can lead to outer ring rotation To 10 50 0,0103 0,029
11 55 0,0172 0,0404
determine the clamping force, please refer to
table 8, page 52 The larger size QJ bearings 12 60 0,0242 0,0549
13 65 0,033 0,0731
have an anti-rotation slot (N2 sufix) to be 14 70 0,04 0,0954
used in combination with a locking pin
15 75 0,0453 0,122
16 80 0,0629 0,155
17 85 0,0768 0,193
18 90 0,106 0,26
19 95 0,138 0,317
20 100 0,176 0,442
22 110 0,277 0,635

24 120 0,354 0,785
26 130 0,411 1,06
28 140 0,556 1,40

30 150 0,793 1,65
32 160 1,099 2,12
34 170 1,257 2,92

36 180 1,392 3,38
N/A: Please consult SKF for availability
Table 11
QJ axial clearance
Bore diameter Axial internal clearance

C2L C2M C2H C2 CN C3
over incl min max min max min max min max min max min max
mm μm
10 18 15 40 28 53 40 65 15 65 50 95 85 130
18 40 25 50 38 63 50 75 25 75 65 110 100 150
40 60 35 60 48 73 60 85 35 85 75 125 110 165
60 80 45 73 59 86 73 100 45 100 85 140 125 175

80 100 55 83 69 96 83 110 55 110 95 150 135 190
100 140 70 100 85 115 100 130 70 130 115 175 160 220
140 180 90 123 106 139 123 155 90 155 135 200 185 250
180 220 105 140 123 158 140 175 105 175 155 225 210 280
The radial clearance is 0,7 times the axial
56
Hybrid angular contact ball bearings
Hybrid angular • Higher hardness and lower coeficient of

friction than steel balls and rollers The
contact ball bearings advantages are longer fatigue life, lower
operating temperature and less wear in
Hybrid bearings have rings made of bearing marginal lubrication conditions
steel and rolling elements made of bearing • For bearing life calculation purposes,
grade silicon nitride (Si3N4) κ = 1,0 can be used, even if the actual κ
The following hybrid bearing types are value is lower
available: • Another advantage, in cylindrical roller
bearings with roller made of silicon nitride
• Deep groove ball bearings is that the risk for light load skidding is
• Angular contact ball bearings lower 3
• Four point contact ball bearings • Insulating properties As a non-conductive
• Cylindrical roller bearings material, silicon nitride protects the bear-
• Sour gas bearings, see page 88 ing rings from conducting electric current,
thereby preventing damage caused by
The advantages of hybrid bearings in twin electrical erosion This can occur if there is
screw compressors are: a voltage difference between the rotor and
the housing
• Silicon nitride has lower density (60%) • Silicon nitride has lower coeficient of
than steel Because of this, the effect of thermal expansion than steel This means
gyroscopic moments and centrifugal less sensitivity to temperature gradients
forces, as discussed for angular contact within the bearing and more accurate
ball bearings and four point contact ball control of preload/clearance Temperature
bearings, is much less For bearing perfor- gradients typically result from high speed
mance, this means higher speed capability operation
compared to bearings with steel balls • Silicon nitride has higher modulus of elas-
Cylindrical roller bearings with silicon ticity than steel, ensuring less delection
nitride roller can run faster compared to under load
bearings with steel rollers
C A U T I O N : Be sure to select an appro-
priate cage in order to take advantage of
higher speed capabilities
57
Roller bearings in twin screw
compressors
R o l l e r )*a rings, primarily NU type cylindrical roller bearings and
tapered roller bearings, are used in twin screw compressors as radial
bearings Cylindrical roller bearings can operate at high speed, have
high load capacity and are axially compliant, facilitating easy separa-
tion of axial and radial load when used in combination with angular 4
contact ball bearings The inner and outer rings can be mounted sep-
arately in the compressor Tapered roller bearings are also used, tak-
ing combined radial and axial loads
Cylindrical roller
bearings
Bearing design and features
SKF cylindrical roller bearings of EC design
are used in twin screw compressors for their
high speed and high radial load capability
They have a large number and size of rollers,
logarithmic roller proile, and optimized Fig. 1
lange geometry The bearings are available
with ranges of internal radial clearance for
optimization of rotor position accuracy The
SKF EC cylindrical roller bearing is produced
standard with ISO P6 radial runout All SKF
cylindrical roller bearings are made to
Explorer speciications The NU type cylindri-
cal roller bearing is commonly used in twin
screw compressors since it allows separate
assembly of the inner ring and outer ring/
roller assemblies onto the shaft and into the
housing respectively (ig. 1) The NU type Interchangeable components
bearing accommodates axial displacement
59
Roller bearings in twin screw compressors
due to thermal expansion of the shaft NU Minimum load The minimum load required to avoid skid-
type bearings allow both the inner and outer ding and skid smearing can be calculated
rings to be mounted with interference its for Cylindrical roller bearings (like all bearings) from the formula below
more precise positioning of the rotors must be subjected to a certain minimum
The SKF NU cylindrical roller bearings load in order to create enough traction (fric-
q 4 n w q dm w2
have two integral langes on the outer ring to tion) between the rollers and the inner ring Frm = kr 6 + —— ——
⎝ nr ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠
guide the rollers The bearings have “open” Without traction, the rollers will slide (skid)
langes, i e the inward face of the lange is on the inner ring If there is some but not
inclined by a deined angle (ig. 2) The lange enough traction, the rollers will partially roll where
design, together with the roller end design and skid Traction is the main driving force Frm = minimum radial load [kN]
and surface inish, promote the formation of There are also braking forces, viscous fric- kr = minimum load factor; see bearing
a lubricant ilm to reduce friction and friction drag from lubricant on the roller and tables in the SKF catalogue Rolling
tional heat The roller logarithmic proile cage assembly and rolling resistance in the bearings
(ig. 3) optimizes the stress distribution in raceway contacts, lange contacts, cage to n = operating speed [r/min]
the roller/raceway The logarithmic proile outer ring contacts as well as inertial forces nr = reference speed [r/min]; see bearing
also reduces sensitivity to misalignment and from rapid acceleration tables in the SKF catalogue Rolling
shaft delection (ig. 3) Skidding can lead to metal smearing bearings
The optimized inish of the contact sur- between the bearing rings and the rollers dm = mean diameter of bearing
faces of the rollers and raceways maximizes The greatest risk is smearing on the inner = 0,5 (d + D) [mm]
the formation of a hydrodynamic lubricant ring of a NU type bearing, which is com-
ilm and minimizes friction monly used in screw compressors
The following factors maximizes traction
and minimizes braking;
• suficient applied load

• low oil low
• effective drain of oil from the housing
• minimized bearing clearance
• slow acceleration
• Use of bearings with small rollers such as
the NU 2 series instead of NU 22,
NU 3 or NU 23 series
• Use of roller guided instead of outer ring
guided cage if speeds permit
The following factors reduce the risk of

smearing damage from skidding:
• high oil viscosity (but low low)

• use of AW and EP oil additives
• use of NoWear coated rollers
• black oxidized rollers
• ceramic rollers (hybrid bearing)
Fig. 2 Fig. 3
high load and high load and

low load misalignment low load misalignment
With a conventional proile With a logarithmic proile
60
Cylindrical roller bearings
Cages Allowable misalignment

The SKF EC design cylindrical roller bearings Operation under misalignment reduces
are produced with four basic cages (table 1): bearing life The maximum allowable mis-
alignment is 3 to 4 minutes, depending on
• glass ibre reinforced polyamide 6,6 cage the bearing series, but limiting the misalign-
(P sufix) ment to less than 1,5 minutes in screw com-
• PEEK cage (PH and PHA sufix) pressors is recommended to optimize per-
• pressed steel cage (J sufix) formance and reliability For detailed
• machined brass cage (M and ML sufix) recommendations, see table 1, page 79
Misalignment is caused by bending of the
The bearings are optionally available with a rotor, positioning tolerances of the radial
machined steel cage (F sufix) for gas bearing housings and clearance in the radial
compressors bearings
In order to reduce the sensitivity to mis-
alignment, the rollers have logarithmic pro-
ile and the raceways are slightly crowned 4
Table 1
Cages for single row cylindrical roller bearings
Polymer cages Steel cages Brass cages
Cage Window-type, roller or outer ring centred Window-type, depending on Riveted

type bearing design, inner or outer • roller centred
ring centred • outer ring centred
• inner ring centred
Material • PA66, glass ibre reinforced Stamped steel Machined brass

• PEEK, glass ibre reinforced
Sufix • P or PA • – • ML • M
• PH or PHA • J • MA
• MB
61
Selection of its and radial Radial internal clearance rings between bearings are interchanged
internal clearance ranges from different bearings This is a unique fea-
ture of SKF EC design cylindrical roller
In order to achieve maximum positioning The internal clearance speciications in cylin- bearings
accuracy of the rotors and to maximize bear- drical roller bearings are according to Not all cylindrical roller bearing variants
ing life, cylindrical roller bearings should ISO 5753 -1 The standard ranges of clear- (CNM, CNH, C3L, etc ) are currently in pro-
operate with a small radial internal clearance are the normal range and greater than duction Please contact SKF sales for details
ance However, the initial bearing clearance normal range (C3 sufix) on availability
must be selected to avoid risk of the bearings Additional clearances with a reduced In the withdrawn clearance standard
becoming preloaded in operation The oper- range are also available as non-standards DIN 620-4:1887-08 the clearance values
ating radial internal bearing clearance The reduced clearance ranges use the lower, were slightly different and were shown as
depends on the initial radial internal bearing middle, and upper half of the standard “interchangeable” and “matched assembly”
clearance, shaft and housing tolerances, and ranges For compressor applications, the values Bearings having the old matched
the temperature gradient from the shaft common reduced clearance ranges are CNM assembly clearance are marked by the sufix
through the bearings and into the housings and C3L The CNM sufix denotes that the R, for example C3R Table 2 lists the old and
In a screw compressor, it is important to half clearance range is centred on the mean current clearances
keep the operating radial internal clearance of the normal range The C3L sufix denotes
of a bearing small for the following reasons: that the clearance is the lower half of C3
range Bearings with reduced clearance
• The operating radial internal clearance range should be used for optimum rotor
affects the positioning accuracy of the positioning accuracy The radial internal
rotor and therefore also the compressor clearance ranges in the SKF catalogue Roll-
eficiency The ability to operate with a ing bearings and the reduced clearance
small radial internal clearance is a major ranges (CNM, C3L) are maintained even if
advantage of a cylindrical roller bearing
over a hydrodynamic bearing Diagram 1
• A smaller operating radial internal clear- Bearing life as a function of radial clearance
ance leads to low noise and vibration lev-
els in the compressor
• A smaller operating radial internal clear-
ance results in longer bearing life Bearing life [h]
(diagram 1), increased stiffness, and 500 000
reduced bearing delection under load Operating clearance
450 000
However, the radial internal clearance
should not be too small, for the following
reasons: 400 000
Mounted clearance
• There is risk of radial preload, higher tem- 350 000
peratures and premature bearing failure
• It can cause dificulties in assembling the 300 000
compressor and risks damaging the Unmounted clearance
bearing
250 000
• If an interference housing it is used the
housing seat may be ovalized due to the
effect of the press it on the unsymmetrical 200 000
housing This may increase the possibility
of preloading the bearings and cause difi- 150 000
culties with the assembly
100 000
50 000
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
Radial internal clearance [μm]
The dotted line indicates potentially unstable working conditions
62
Cylindrical roller bearings
Table 2
Comparison of cylindrical roller bearing clearances according to withdrawn standard DIN 620-4:1987-08 and current ISO 5753-1
d ISO 5753-1 ISO 5753-1 – common half ranges
over incl C2 CN C3 C4 CNM CNH C3L C3M
µm – – 4
– 24 0…25 20…45 45…60 50…75 26…39 33…45 45…53 49…56
24 30 0…25 20…45 45…60 50…75 26…39 33…45 45…53 49…56
30 40 5…30 25…50 45…70 60…85 31…44 38…50 45…58 51…64
40 50 5…35 30…60 50…80 70…100 38…53 45…60 50…65 58…73

50 65 10…40 40…70 60…90 80…11 48…63 55…70 60…75 68…83
65 80 10…45 40…75 65…100 90…125 49…66 58…75 65…83 74…91
80 100 15…50 50…85 75…110 105…140 59…76 68…85 75…93 84…101

100 120 15…55 50…90 85…125 125…165 60…80 70…90 85…105 95…115
120 140 15…60 60…105 100…145 145…190 71…94 83…105 100…123 111…134
140 160 20…70 70…120 115…165 165…215 83…108 95…120 115…140 128…153
160 180 25…75 75…125 120…170 170…220 88…113 100…125 120…145 133…158
180 200 35…90 90…145 140…195 195…250 104…131 118…145 140…168 154…181
d DIN 620-4:1987-08 – interchangeable assembly DIN 620-4:1987-08 – matched assembly
over incl C2R CNR C3R C4R C2R CNR C3R C4R
µm – –
– 24 0…30 10…40 25…55 35…65 10…20 20…30 35…45 45…55

24 30 0…30 10…45 30…65 40…70 10…25 25…35 40…50 50…60
30 40 0…35 15…50 35…70 45…80 12…25 25…40 45…55 55…70
40 50 5…40 20…55 40…75 55…90 15…30 30…45 50…65 65…80

50 65 5…45 20…65 45…90 65…105 15…35 35…50 55…75 75…90
65 80 5…55 25…75 55…105 75…125 20…40 40…60 70…90 90…110
80 100 10…60 30…80 65…115 90…140 25…45 45…70 80…105 105…125

100 120 10…65 35…90 80…135 105…160 25…50 50…80 95…120 120…145
120 140 10…75 40…105 90…155 115…180 30…60 60…90 105…135 135…160
140 160 15…80 50…115 100…165 130…195 35…65 65…100 115…150 150…180
160 180 20…85 60…125 110…175 150…215 35…75 75…110 125…165 165…200
180 200 25…95 65…135 125…195 165…235 40…80 80…120 140…180 180…220
63
Needle roller Speciications for raceways

on shafts
bearings
• Hardness 58 to 64 HRC
Needle roller bearings are used in oil-injected • Surface roughness Ra < 0,2 µm or
air and refrigerant compressors because of Rz < 1 µm
their high radial load capability and compact • Roundness tolerance IT5/2
size This can be an advantage in small com- • Material: bearing steel per AISI 52100 or
pressors, where space is limited Needle ISO 683-17 Other hardenable steels can
roller bearings are more sensitive to mis- also be used, but will result in reduced
alignment then cylindrical roller bearings bearing life
Compared to cylindrical roller bearings the • Raceway diameter: contact SKF applica-
rollers (needles) are guided by the cage tion engineering service
instead of being guided by the langes This
limits the speed and can lead to higher noise
level Needle roller bearings have separable
rings like the cylindrical roller bearings, but
can also be used without inner rings if the
raceways are made as per the speciications
below
Needle roller bearings with special clear-
ances, cages or with higher precision have
limited availability To avoid signiicantly
reduced bearing life, the angular misalign-
ment should be less than 1,0 minute
64
Tapered roller bearings
Tapered roller Designs and features Separable bearings

Single row tapered roller bearings are sepa-
bearings Tapered roller bearings have tapered inner rable, i e the inner ring with roller and cage
assembly (cone) can be mounted separately
and outer ring raceways and tapered rollers from the outer ring (cup)
Ta pered roller bearings are used in oil They are designed to accommodate com-
looded air screw compressors at the male bined loads, i e simultaneously acting radial
and female discharge positions, and accom- and axial loads The projection lines of the
modate both axial and the radial load raceways meet at a common point on the
(igs. 18 to 23, pages 24 to 25) They can bearing axis (ig. 4) to provide true rolling
also be used to support the input gear shaft and low friction between the raceways and
in both oil looded compressors and high the rollers The axial load carrying capacity
speed dry air compressors High axial and of tapered roller bearings increases with
radial load capabilities are the main features increasing outer ring contact angle (ig. 5)
of tapered roller bearings The size of the angle is related to the factor Y
Y = 0,4 cot α
4
The value of Y can be found in the SKF cata-
logue Rolling bearings
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
The choice of a contact angle depends on the ratio axial to radial load
The larger the contact angle α, the higher the axial load carrying capacity
α α α
Angle: Low Medium Steep
65
Minimum load
B e c a u s e o f t h e t a p e r e d s h a p e o f t h e r o ll - See also the SKF catalogue Rolling bearings
e r s, t h e c o n t a c t a n g l e s o f t h e o u t e r a n d i n n e r A tapered roller bearing must operate with a for additional details If the axial force on the
r i n g s a r e n o t t h e s a m e , r e s u l ti n g i n a f o r c e certain minimum axial load, which may be bearing ring is too low, it may be necessary
p u s h i n g t h e r o ll e r s a g a i n s t t h e i n n e r r i n g applied by the compressor or produced by to apply an additional force to the bearing
l a n g e ( ig. 6) T h e c o n t a c t m o ti o n b e t w e e n the bearing mounted adjacent to it The axial outer ring to prevent rotation relative to the
t h e r o ll e r e n d a n d t h e i n n e r r i n g l a n g e i s a load must be greater than housing face See the section Housing toler-
c o m b i n a ti o n o f r o lli n g a n d s li d i n g T h e ances – bearings taking axial loads, page 41
g e o m e t r y o f t h e r o ll e r e n d a n d t h e l a n g e i s The face of the bearing can be slotted to
0,5 F
c r iti c a l f o r t h e f o r m a ti o n o f a l u b r i c a n t i l m Fa > ——–r mate with an anti-rotation pin mounted in
Y
t h a t r e d u c e s f r i c ti o n a n d w e a r T h e f r i c ti o n the housing This is a non-standard feature
b e t w e e n t h e r o ll e r e n d a n d t h e l a n g e c a u s e s
h e a t a n d li m it s t h e s p e e d c a p a b ilit y o f where
t a p e r e d r o ll e r b e a r i n g s Fa = total axial load on bearing [N]
B e c a u s e o f t h e d if i c u lt y i n l u b r i c a ti n g t h e Fr = applied radial load [N]
r o ll e r / l a n g e c o n t a c t, S K F d o e s n o t r e c o m - Y = bearing axial load factor, according to
m e n d t a p e r e d r o ll e r b e a r i n g s i n r e f r i g e r a n t the SKF catalogue Rolling bearings
c o m p r e s s o r s T h i s i s e s p e c i a ll y d if i c u lt i n
a m m o n i a c o m p r e s s o r s b u t a ls o i n o t h e r
r e f r i g e r a n t s , s u c h a s R - 1 34a
The SKF Explorer design of tapered roller
bearing is well suited for compressor appli-
cations This design of tapered roller bearing
features logarithmic roller proile, low fric-
tion steel cage design, and optimized roller
end and lange proiles The SKF tapered
roller bearing is also available in the CL7C Fig. 6
execution This bearing has optimized roller Design and function of tapered roller bearings
end and lange geometry to reduce run-
ning-in wear The SKF tapered roller bear- Qe
ings are available in the common ISO series
The 313 series, having high contact angle is
well suited for the male thrust position in
compressor applications Qf
Allowable Misalignment Qe = Outer ring contact force

Qi = Inner ring contact force
Qf = Flange contact force
Similar to cylindrical roller bearings, tapered
roller bearings are somewhat sensitive to Qi
misalignment Operation under misalign-
ment reduces bearing life The maximum
allowable misalignment is 2 to 4 minutes, Fig. 7
but limiting misalignment to less than 1,5 Axial shift in the relative position of the inner and outer rings of tapered roller bearings after
minute in screw compressors is recom- mounting on a shaft with interference it
mended For detailed recommendations see
table 1, page 79 Misalignment is caused by
bending of the rotor, positioning tolerances
of the radial bearing housings and After Before
clearances mounting mounting
In order to reduce sensitivity to misalign-
ment, inner rings have logarithmic proile
and the outer ring raceways are crowned
s = sa – sb
s = Shift in standoff
sa sb sa = Standoff after mounting
sb = Standoff before mounting
66
T a p.0.1 0233.0 4.a 0567-
Mounting considerations
B e c a+-. /a p.0.1 0233.0 4.a 0567- 12 62/ c 28.
w5/9 a -p.:5;.1 -t a 612<< 4./w..6 /9. 566.0
a n d o u t .0 0567-= -:0.w c o m p r .-s o r s i t t .1
w5/9 /a p.0.1 0233.0 4.a 0567- ar . 0.3a/5>.3y
c 28p35:a t .1 /o a s -.843. s ig. 7) A l s o ,
t a p.0.1 r 233.0 4.a 0567- 9av . /2 4. 82+n t .1
w5/9 a6 56/.0<.0.6:. ;/t 2 /9. -9a<t ?9.
@ABDEfDEDAFD FGHJDJ GA GK@GL JM@ft Nf BMD NHBDE
0567 0.3a/5>. /2 /9. 566.0 0567 s ig. 7) ?95-
-95<t c a 6 4. :26-51.0.1 w9.6 /9. 0o t o r .61
:3.a r a n c . 5- a1O+-t .1 ?9. -95<t c a 6 4. :a l c u -
l a t .1 w5/9 /9. <208+3a 4.32w
s = Y 5
w9.0. 4
s = aP5a3 -95<t [ μ m ]
Y = 4.a 0567 aP5a3 32a1 <a c t o r, a c c o r 1567 /2 /9.
S K F c a t a327+. Rolling bearings
5 = 56/.0<.0.6:. 4./w..6 -9a<t a 61 4.a 0567
566.0 0567 Q μ m ]
W9.6 a 0.v .0-. /90u s t t a p.0.1 r 233.0 4.a 0567

5- +-.1= /9.6 /9. :3.a r a n c . 4./w..6 /9. /wo
t a p.0.1 r 233.0 4.a 0567- 8+-t 4. a1O+-t .1 4y
8.a 6- 2< -9588567 A lt .06a/5>.3y /9.
r .v .0-. /90 u s t 4.a 0567 :a 6 4. -p0567 32a1.1
( igs. 18 a n d 19, page 24 a n d 21, page 25)
T a p.0.1 r 233.0 4.a 0567- :a n n o t 2p.0a t . w5/9
-9588.1 p0.32a1 56 -:0.w c o m p r .-s o r s
4.:a+-. 2< /9. -.6-5/5>5/R /2 /9. p0.32a1 b y
-9588567
F o r /9. 0.a-26- 8.6/526.1 a42v .= 5/ 5-
15<;:+3/t 2 -./ a s m a ll r o t o r .61 :3.a r a n c .
w5/9 /a p.0.1 0233.0 4.a 0567-= /9.0.<o r . -:0.w
c o m p r .-s o r s i t t .1 w5/9 /a p.0.1 0233.0 4.a r -
567- /Rp5:a ll y h a v .3ar 7.0 r o t o r .61
:3.a r a n c .
6 7
P TFE seals in twin screw
compressors
Seals in twin screw compressors are designed to prevent luids from
leaking out of the compressor, protect against the entry of contami-
nants and reduce possible leakage inside the compressor PTFE lip
seals are well suited to perform these functions at a reasonable cost
Elastomeric seals, on the other hand, do not offer the service life and
chemical compatibility required for the application, while mechanical
face seals need more space than is normally available and cannot
perform all the required functions
5
PTFE seal material

and manufacturing
Material properties
PTFE (polytetraluoroethylene) is a semi
crystalline thermoplastic with a melting
point of 327 °C The properties of impor-
tance for seals are:
• Favourable
– Low coeficient of friction
– High againg and chemical resistance
– Broad operating temperature range
• Unfavorable
– High wear rate in pure form
– High viscosity as melted makes injection
molding dificult
– Low creep resistance
69
PTFE seals in twin screw compressors
Manufacturing PTFE seal designs

In order to reduce wear, increase the allowa- PTFE seals can be either metal-cased or
ble operating sliding speed and reduce nonmetal-cased A metal-cased seal pro-
creep, a second material is usually added to vides more rigidity and resists change of
the PTFE base material Common secondary dimensions with temperature They are pre-
materials are polyimide, PPS, Ekonol, carbon ferred for larger dimension seals Metal-
ibre, graphite, bronze powder, glass ibre cased seals are pressed into the housing and
and MoS2 The addition of a second material are self-retained, requiring support only in
is made possible by mixing the two materials higher pressure applications Nonmetal-
in the form of ine powders The powders are cased seals can be an economical alternative
mixed thoroughly and then compressed to for smaller seals
produce a void free tube or rod (ig. 1) The Metal-cased seals offer the possibility
material is then heated so that the powder of using different materials in the lips of a
grains are sintered together Other methods multi-lip seal, optimizing the seal’s perfor-
include extrusion and isostatic moulding mance The lips can have spiral grooves to
The inal step involves machining (turning) provide a pumping action to assist the seal-
the tube After machining, the seal lip has ing function at lower pressures A number of
the shape of a washer When the seal is different lip conigurations are possible,
mounted on the shaft, the washer bends into depending on the application requirements
a J shape (ig. 2 and 3) (igs. 2 and 3)
Fig. 1
Compression of mixed powders to make a tube for sintering
before after
70
PTFE seal applications in twin screw compressors
PTFE seal Fig. 2
Single lip seal geometries

applications in twin Single lip seals are used for high speed, low pressure, 0,5 bar max Surface speeds up to 30 m/s
screw compressors
Air compressor input shaft
seals
D u ring normal operation, seal pressure is
below atmospheric pressure, and the input
shaft seal prevents air and contaminants
from entering the compressor At shutdown,
there is a sudden increase in pressure at the Single hydrodynamic Single hydrodynamic Single hydrodynamic lip with
lip all PTFE lip metal cased wiper metal cased
seal location and the seal prevents oil from
leaking out The input shaft seal can be used
in combination with a wear sleeve to avoid
wear of the shaft and to enable easier ield
repairs (ig. 4) A front lip with a spiral groove
is available as an option A typical design for
shop air compressors involves a primary seal Fig. 3
lip with a thread, a secondary seal lip without Double lip seal geometries 5
a thread and a wiper seal lip The threaded A secondary lip enables the seal to be used at pressures up to 13 bar with spikes to 20 bar
primary seal lip seals when the compressor
is running, but leaks at higher pressure dur-
ing shutdown The non threaded secondary
seal lip prevents leakage at shutdown When
the compressor is restarted, the threaded
primary seal pumps the oil collected
between the primary and secondary seal lips
back into the bearings
The wiper seal lip prevent contamination
from entering the compressor
Double lip all PTFE Double lip Double lip metal cased
metal cased with wiper
Fig. 4
Air compressor input shaft seals
71
Internal rotor seals Mechanical seal replacement Mechanical seal oil retention
PTFE seals PTFE seals
Applied at the discharge end of air-condi-
tioning screw compressors, internal rotor For higher pressure applications, up to In refrigerant open drive compressors,
seals have several functions: 13 bar, a triple lip PTFE seal can be used as mechanical seals prevent refrigerants and oil
an economical and less complicated alterna- from leaking to the outside and air from
• To prevent hot gas and contaminants from tive to a mechanical seal A dust lip prevents leaking into the compressor Additionally a
entering the bearing housing air and contaminants from entering the PTFE dust seal is applied to prevent contam-
• To minimize the amount of internal gas compressor, double seal lips prevent refrig- inants to enter A PTFE oil-retention seal
leakage and thereby increasing compres- erant and oil from leaking out The lips can prevents oil from escaping the mechanical
sor eficiency be with or without spiral grooves The inner seal housing during shutoff and standstill
• To reduce bearing housing pressure which and outer lips are of different materials for and ensures lubrication of mechanical seal
reduces axial bearing load optimum performance faces Oil-retention seals have a single lip
• To reduce bearing housing temperature and can be metal cases or non metal cased,
and improve bearing lubrication depending on size (ig. 6)
conditions
Internal rotor seals improve compressor

reliability and eficiency, and are typically
metal-cased, double-lip designs (ig. 5)
Fig. 5
Bearing arrangement with internal rotor PTFE lip seal
72
PTFE seal applications in twin screw compressors
Slide valve PTFE piston seals Poppet valve PTFE seals

C ompressors with slide valves for capacity or Poppet valves are sometimes used as an
pressure control commonly have a hydraulic alternative to slide valves in screw compres-
piston to set the position of the slide valve sors Poppet valve seals are spring energized
The piston has a piston ring, which prevents to minimize leakage
leakage across the piston and a glide ring
which reduces friction and wear between the
piston and the cylinder wall The glide ring
also locates and guides the piston The pis-
ton ring usually has an overlap joint to mini-
mize leakage The guide ring has either a
butt joint or an angled joint and is not sealing
against the piston pressure (ig. 7)
Fig. 7
Different piston ring joints
Butt joint
5
Angled joint
Overlap joint
Fig. 6
Mechanical seal with PTFE oil retention seal
73
Wear sleeves Diagram 1
Allowable application pressure differentials and surface speeds

Compared to elastomeric lip seals, PTFE seal
lips are harder and the lip pressures are
higher As a result, shaft wear is generally
greater To prevent wear, the rotor shaft
Pressure [bar]
mating surface should be hard and have a
ine surface inish An alternative way to pre- 20,0
vent shaft wear is to use a wear sleeve SKF 15,0
wear sleeves are hardened to 58 to 60 HRC
and have the same dimensions as needle 10,0 Consult
roller bearing inner rings The surface is SKF
7,0
plunge ground to prevent leakage that could
occur due to a grind lead that is common on 6,0
centerless ground surfaces (ig. 8) 5,0
4,5
4,0
3,5
Fig. 8
3,0
2,5 Acceptable
velocities / pressures
2,0
1,5
1,0
0,5
3 5 10 15 20 25 30
Velocity [m/s]
Table 1
Dimensions for commonly used PTFE seals and wear sleeves [mm]
Wear sleeve Seal

B
Shaft Sleeve outside Nominal width Sleeve outside Bore diameter
diameter diameter diameter
d d1* B d1* D
mm mm
17 22 13 22 35 / 40 / 47
20 25 17 25 40 / 47 / 52
d d 1* D 25 30 18 30 42 / 47 / 52
30 35 20 35 50 / 52 / 55
40 45 20 45 62 / 65
45 55 22 55 72 / 80
50 55 25 55 72 / 80
60 70 25 70 90 / 95
65 75 28 75 95 / 100
70 80 25 80 100 / 110
75 85 30 85 110 / 120
* M a ting PTFE lip diameter 80 90 25 90 110 / 120
90 100 36 100 120 / 125 / 130
74
P TFE seal applications in twin screw compressors
7 5
Screw compressor types
Twin screw compressors are used for air compression, refrigeration,

air conditioning and compression of various gases These compressor
types and associated bearing application considerations will be
described in this chapter
Operating conditions
Air compressors rotor-to-rotor contact, seal leakage gaps
between the rootors and between the rotors Speeds
The irst air screw compressors were high and the housing, and cool the compressor
speed machines using external timing gears An oil separator on the discharge side ilters The rotor tip speed is typically 30 to 40 m/s
to synchronize the rotors The rotors were out the oil, but the air is not 100% oil free Oil The speeds are adjusted to the compressor
designed to rotate without contact with the injection makes it possible to generate capacity needed by exchange of gear sets or
compressor housing or with each other This higher pressures, operate at lower speeds drive belts The bearing ndm speeds less
compressor type was called “dry running” and with higher eficiency, compared to dry than 450 000
because the rotors operate without injection running compressors With oil injection,
of a luid into the compression cavity The manufacturing is also simpliied and less Radial bearing loads
irst oil-injected air compressor was intro- expensive The radial loads are highest at the female
duced in the late 1950s This design did not Compression can be in one or two stages, discharge position, lighter at the discharge
use timing gears Instead, the male rotor with discharge pressures of 10 to 13 bar for male position and less on the suction side
would drive the female rotor by contacts single stage and 20 to 35 bar for two-stage With gear drive, the radial loads are higher
through the rotor lobes This opened up a compressors The high pressure ratios are at the drive position, which is usually on the
larger market for air screw compressors, made possible by the oil injection, since the suction side
making it the leading design in medium-size oil is cooling the air during compression The
air compressors eficiency is reduced as the pressure ratio is Axial bearing loads
increased because more oil is needed and The axial force is usually higher on the male
the discharge temperature is increased An rotor and lighter on the female rotor The net
Oil-injected air compressors example of a gear-driven oil-injected air thrust bearing force is a combination of the
compressor is shown in ig. 1, page 78 gas force, axial gear forces, balance piston
In oil-injected screw compressors, oil is injected forces, backup bearing or reverse thrust
into the compression cavity to lubricate the bearing forces and, at startup, inertial forces
77
O v e r all, the bearing loads are moderate

Suction side Drive arrangements
and several bearing arrangements are The most common arrangement is a single
possible cylindrical roller bearing If the radial loads The compressor is typically driven by an
are light it may be possible to use deep induction motor coupled to a gear shaft in
Bearing arrangements groove ball bearings (ig. 26, page 26) or the compressor, with speed-increasing gears
angular contact ball bearings AC design for smaller compressors Compressor speed
Discharge side (ig. 27, page 26) and capacity can be customized by changing
The bearing arrangements are either angu- the gear set Bearing arrangements for the
lar contact ball reverse thrust bearings only Gear shaft gears are shown in igs. 28 and 29, page 26
or a combination of cylindrical roller and For gear shaft bearing arrangements see Another arrangement involves driving the
angular contact ball bearings (igs. 9, 10 and igs. 27 and 28, page 26 compressor by belt drive, although direct
11, page 21) or cylindrical roller and four- drive with the motor rotor mounted on the
point ball bearings (ig. 17, page 23) If the Bearing and application extended male shaft is increasingly being
axial load on the male rotor is high, angular used The speed is then controlled with an
recommendations
contact ball bearings in tandem is a possible inverter-type variable speed drive This
solution (igs. 12, 13, 14 and 16, pages 22 to For detailed recommendations see table 1 allows for capacity control by speed and the
23) elimination of valves for that purpose
If there is a risk of reversing axial loads on Lubrication
either the male or female rotor, reverse
thrust bearings can be used (igs. 9, 12 to Bearing lubrication is by circulating oil, with
16, 18 to 22, pages 21 to 25) To minimize lubricant low driven by the pressure differ-
internal loads generated by centrifugal ence between the discharge and suction side
forces, SKF recommends the use of angular of the compressor The oil can be cooled by a
contact ball bearings with a 25° contact cooler, usually integrated with the after-
angle, AC design for ndm for speeds greater cooler for the compressed air The oil viscos-
than 450 000 ity grade is typically ISO 46, but should be
It is also possible to use tapered roller high enough to produce a κ value greater
bearings at the discharge end to take both than 1,0 and preferably greater than 1,5
radial and axial loads (igs. 18 to 23,
pages 24 and 25)
Fig. 1
Gear driven oil injected air compressor
78
Air compressors
Table 1
Bearing inal variant speciication and application recommendations for oil injected screw compressors
Bearing type Bearing series Compressor Bearing bore diameter, d Maximum

design misalignment
10 ≤ d ≤ 50 50 < d ≤ 100 100 < d ≤ 150
– – – mm minutes
Angular contact ball 72 BE, 73 BE A BEGAP BEGAP BEGAP 1,5

bearings for main 72 AC,73 AC j5/RF j5/RF j5/RF
axial load
B BECBP BECBP BECBP 3,0
j6/RF j6/RF j6/RF
Angular contact 72 AC,73 AC A ACGAP ACGAP ACGAP 1,5

backup bearings1) j5/RF j5/RF j5/RF
Angular contact 72 BE, 73 BE A BEGAP BEGAP BEGAP 1,5

backup bearings2) j5/RF j5/RF j5/RF
B BECBP BECBP BECBP 3,0

j6/RF j6/RF j6/RF
Four point ball QJ 2, QJ 3 A C2L C2L C2L 1,5

bearings for j5/RF j5/RF j5/RF
main axial load
B CN CN CN 2,0
j6/RF j6/RF j6/RF
Deep groove ball

back up bearing
60, 62, 63 – C3
j6/RF
C3
j6/RF
C3
j6/RF
4,0 6
Cylindrical roller NU 2,NU22, A ECP/CNM ECP/CNH ECP/C3L 1,5

bearings NU 3,NU23 m5/K6 n5/K6 p5/K6
B ECP ECP/C3 ECP/C3 3,0

m6/J7 n6/J7 p6/J7
Tapered roller All and CL7C A m5/K6 n5/K6 p5/K6 1,5

bearings
All B m6/K7 n6/K7 p6/K7 3,0
Compressor design A: For maximum rotor positioning accuracy

Compressor design B: For best bearing availability
1) For ndm speed higher than 450 000

2) For ndm speed lower than 450 000
RF = radially free
The table is valid for the following conditions:

• Solid steel shafts/steel or cast iron housings
• The inner ring is no more than 10 °C warmer than outer ring If the temperature difference between the inner and outer ring is more than 10 °C,
and/or if the bearing temperature is greater than 90 °C, a bearing with increased clearance may be required The bearing operating clearance or preload
should be veriied by calculation
• Bearing temperature is controlled by circulating oil lubrication
Additional recommendations
• For angular contact ball bearings and four point contact ball bearings taking axial loads only, it is possible to use the same shaft tolerance as for the
adjacent cylindrical roller bearing The inluence on clearance and/or stand-out between the rings shall be checked
• Total run-out, surface inish and housing tolerance recommendations refer to table 5 to 7 on page 39 to 40
• Tapered roller bearings are not recommended in refrigerant compressors
• Maximum temperature for cages, see table 4, page 38
• For more details on these recommendations, contact SKF application engineering service
79
Dry air compressors Operating conditions and bearing

The backup bearing can also be a hybrid
arrangements bearing to minimize induced axial force on
In dry air compressors, there is no oil injec- the main thrust bearings and increase bear-
tion into the compression cavities and no Rotor tip speeds are typically 50 to 70 m/s ing life
contact between the rotors or between the with bearing ndm speeds of 800 000 to In comparison to the above-mentioned
rotors and the housing The rotors are syn- 1 200 000 The loads are moderate, but bearing arrangements of angular contact
chronized by timing gears, located outboard because of the high speeds, the bearing ball bearings, a single four-point contact ball
of the rotor bearings on the extended shafts, arrangements are challenging Due to the bearing has larger internal clearance and
with seals between the compression cavity high speeds, the radial bearings are lighter requires a larger rotor end clearance to avoid
and the bearing and gear casing To com- series cylindrical roller bearings The heavier rotor rub
pensate for the absence of the sealing effect 23 series, with large rollers, is not suitable An advantage with a single four-point ball
of injected oil (the compressor being dry), for the highest speeds The thrust bearings bearing is that there is no additional load
the speed is much higher, so that the time are high-speed angular contact ball bearings from a backup bearing and the 35° contact
for leakage per revolution is minimized Dry with 15 or 25° contact angles or four-point angle means a higher axial load capacity,
air compressors are usually two stage com- angular contact ball bearings with 35° con- compared to the 25° angular contact ball
pressors with a pressure ratio up to 3 bar in tact angles (ig. 2 and ig. 3) With angular bearing
the irst stage and a discharge pressure of contact ball bearings in arrangements with a If a spring-loaded backup bearing is used
7 bar There is an intercooler between the backup bearing, the internal clearance is in combination with a four-point contact ball
two stages and an aftercooler after the sec- minimized and the axial positioning accuracy bearing (ig. 3), the step in the delection
ond The pressure ratios are low because of the rotor is improved However, forces curve (diagram 1 and 2, page 82), occurs at
there is no cooling by oil during compression develop internally between the bearings a negative axial force This may be suficient
The eficiency is reduced with increased because of centrifugal forces acting on the to avoid rotor rub if the axial force reverses
pressure ratio The prime advantage of dry balls This reduces bearing life (diagram 3, Bearings with ceramic rolling elements
air compressors is that the air is 100% oil free page 82) (hybrid bearings) can be used both as main
For a pair of two bearings, internal forces thrust and backup bearings The reduced
can be minimized by using a 15° backup mass of the ceramic rolling elements com-
bearing, CD design, which can also be a pared to steel elements allows hybrid bear-
hybrid bearing, with ceramic balls (ig. 4) In ings to operate at high speeds while inducing
an arrangement of three bearings, two lower internal forces, compared to a bearing
thrust bearings in tandem and one backup with steel balls The minimum axial load
bearing, the backup bearing can have either required to avoid gyroscopic spinning of the
a 15 or 25° contact angle With a 25° backup balls is also lower For detailed bearing rec-
bearing the reverse displacement is mini- ommendations see table 2, page 83
mized but the internal loads are higher,
compared to that of a 15° bearing (ig. 5)
Fig. 2 Fig. 3
Four point angular contact ball bearing arrangement for dry air Four point angular contact ball bearing arrangement for dry air
compressor compressor, with a spring loaded 15° angular contact backup
bearing
80
Air compressors
Lubrication Fig. 6
L ubrica t i o n is by oil jet – see chapter Lubri- Drive gear bearing arrangement for dry air compressor.
cation by oil jet, page 31 for details A sepa- The large bull gear drives the pinions of the irst and second stage compressors
rate oil pump is used to circulate the oil and
an oil cooler is used for cooling The operat-
ing viscosity should be greater than ν1, this
means κ should be greater than 1,0 and
preferably greater than 1,5
First stage drive pinion

Drive arrangements
The two compressors – irst and second
stage, are gear-driven by a common large
diameter bull gear The compressors and the
bull gear are mounted together in a common
housing The bull gear is driven by a direct
coupled motor and the oil pump is driven by
the same motor The bull gear is itted on
spherical roller bearing or cylindrical roller
bearing with a deep groove ball bearing or a
four-point contact ball bearing for axial loads
(ig. 6) Alternatively, if the loads are light, it
may be possible to use a deep groove ball
bearing to take both radial and axial loads
(ig. 6)
6
Second stage drive pinion
Fig. 4 Fig. 5
Angular contact ball bearing arrangement for dry air compressor Angular contact ball bearing arrangement for dry air compressor
with one 25° thrust bearings and one 15° backup bearing with two 25° thrust bearings in tandem and one 25° backup bearing
81
Diagram 1 Diagram 2
Axial rotor displacement vs axial load Axial rotor displacement vs axial load
at zero speed at ndm = 1 000 000
Axial displacement [μm] Axial displacement [μm]

20 20
10 10
–1 500 –500 –1 500 –500
0 500 1 500 2 500 3 500 0 500 1 500 2 500 3 500

–10 –10
–20 –20
–30 –30
–40 –40
–50 –50
–60 –60
Axial load [N] Axial load [N]
Diagram 3
Legends for diagram 1 to 3
L10 life vs axial load.
The life shown is the shortest among the axial bearings of the arrangement
— One four point contact ball
at ndm = 1 000 000
bearing, SKF QJ 210 C2L
L10 life [h]

100 000
90 000 + –
80 000 Direction of rotor displacement
70 000
60 000 — One four point contact ball bear-
ing SKF QJ 210 C2L and one
50 000 spring loaded angular contact ball
SKF 7210 CD
40 000
30 000
20 000
10 000
— Two 25° angular contact ball
–1 500 –500 0 500 1 500 2 500 3 500 bearings, SKF 7210 ACD, in tan-
dem arrangement
Axial load [N] NOTE: This arrangement is not
recommended because of the
large negative displacement at
high speed and low axial load (see
diagram 2)

bearings, SKF 7210 ACD, in tan-
dem arrangement and one 25°
angular contact ball bearings,
SKF 7210 ACD as back up
bearing

bearings, SKF 7210 ACD, in
tandem arrangement and one
15° angular contact ball bear-
ings, SKF 7210 CD as back up
bearing
82
Air compressors
Table 2
Bearing inal variant speciication and application recommendations for dry air screw compressors
Bearing type Bearing series Compressor Bearing bore diameter, d Maximum

design misalignment
10 ≤ d ≤ 50 50 < d ≤ 100 100 < d ≤ 150
– – – mm minutes
ndm range 800 000 to 1 000 000
Angular contact 70 ACD, 72 ACD A CB2) CB2) CB2) 1,5

for main load and 72 AC, 73 AC k5/RF k5/RF m5/RF
backup bearings1)
B CB2) CB2) CB2) 3,0
k6/RF k6/RF m6/RF
70 CD, 72 CD A CB2) CB2) CB2) 1,5

k5/RF k5/RF m5/RF
B CB2) CB2) CB2) 3,0

k6/RF k6/RF m6/RF
Four point contact QJ2 N2MA A C2L C2L C2L 1,5

ball bearings j5/RF j5/RF k5/RF
B CN CN CN 2,0
k6/RF k6/RF m6/RF
Cylindrical roller NU 10, NU 2, NU 22 A ECML/C3L ECML/C3L ECML/C3L 1,5

bearings NU 3, NU 23 m5/K6 n5/K6 p5/K6
B ECML/C3
m6/K7
ECML/C3
n6/K7
ECML/C3N
p6/K7
3,0 6
ndm range 1 000 000 to 1 200 000
Angular contact 70 ACD, 72 ACD A CB2) CB2) CB2) 1,5

for main load and k5/RF k5/RF m5/RF
backup bearings
70 CD, 72 CD A CB2) CB2) CB2) 1,5
k5/RF k5/RF m5/RF
Four point contact QJ2 N2MA/P5 A C2H C2H C2H 1,5

ball bearings k5/RF k5/RF m5/RF
Cylindrical roller NU 10, NU 2, NU 22 A ECML/C3L ECML/C3L ECML/C3L 1,5

bearings m5/K6 n5/K6 p5/K6
Compressor design A: For maximum screw positioning accuracy

Compressor design B: Best bearing availability
1) Single or tandem main bearings, single backup bearings

2) CB clearance for DF and TFT sets (table 4, page 48)
Additional recommendations
Use hybrid bearings (HC sufix) for highest speeds and/or to minimize reverse axial displacement
For angular contact ball bearings and four point contact ball bearings taking axial loads only, it is possible to use the same shaft tolerance as for the
adjacent cylindrical roller bearing The inluence on clearance and/or stand-out between the rings shall be checked
Total run-out and surface inish tolerance recommendations refer to tables 5, 7 and 8 on pages 39 to 40
Maximum temperature for cages, see table 4, page 38
Use ACD or AC backup bearings to minimize reverse axial displacement
Use CD backup bearings to minimize internal axial loads induced by centrifugal force
Use hybrid CD backup bearings (HC sufix) to further minimize internal axial loads induced by centrifugal force
For advice on how to select bearings and bearing arrangement, please contact SKF application engineering service
83
Refrigerant Air conditioning and Radial loads

refrigeration compressors The radial loads are highest at the female
compressors using luorocarbon side discharge position, lighter at the dis-
charge male position and less on the suction
I n t h e l a t S U960s, oil-injected screw com- refrigerants side
pressors for refrigeration were developed, As with air compressors, oil is injected into If there is a gear drive, the radial loads are
using both ammonia and luorocarbons as the compression cavity for lubrication of higher at the drive position, usually on the
refrigerants Some compressors were new rotor-to-rotor contact, for sealing of leakage suction side
designs, while others were based on a simi- gaps between the rotors and between rotors
lar size air compressor This development and housing, and for cooling An oil separa- Axial loads
was followed in the 1980s by air conditioning tor on the discharge side ilters out oil, but The gas force is higher on the male rotor and
compressors using irst R22 and after the the oil is diluted by the refrigerant It is lighter on the female The net thrust bearing
Montreal Protocol in 1989, R134a as refrig- important to control the amount of dilution, forces are a combination of the gas forces,
erant With refrigerant compressors came since it reduces the effectiveness of lubrica- backup or reverse thrust bearing forces, and
new challenges with material compatibility, tion, see page 29 at startup, inertial forces Under certain con-
dilution of oil by refrigerants and heavier ditions, the axial force may reverse The risk
bearing loads The refrigerants changed Operating conditions is usually highest on the female rotor
again in 1997, after the Kyoto protocol, since
the new hydro-chloro-luoro-carbon (HCFC) The rotor tip speed is typically 30 to 60 m/s Bearing arrangements
refrigerants were found to have high Global with bearing ndm speeds of 300 000 to
Warming Potential (GWP) 650 000 The bearing loads are heavy and Discharge side
A new phase down schedule for high GWP the choice of bearing arrangements may be The bearing arrangements are a combina-
refrigerants was introduced at a conference limited by the space available radially tion of cylindrical roller and angular contact
in Kigali in 2016 between the rotors ball bearing (igs. 10 to 16, pages 21 to 23)
Hydroluorooleins (HFOs) such as R123yf, or cylindrical roller and four-point ball
R1234ze have zero ozone depletion potential Speed bearings
(ODP) and very low GWP and are increas- The motors have traditionally been induction The axial load on the male rotor is usually
ingly used, following the Kigali phase down motor two pole speeds, meaning higher than the axial load on the female
schedule, which varies from region to region 2 950 r/min for 50 Hz and 3 550 r/min for rotor and angular contact ball bearings in
Various blends are also introduced such as 60 Hz grids This has limited the tip speeds tandem is a common solution (igs. 12 to 14,
R513 which is a blend of R134a and R1234yf for smaller compressors With variable speed page 22 and ig. 16, page 23)
with lower GWP (630) than R134a (1300) drives it is now possible to drive the motors If there is a risk of reversing axial loads on
and zero lammbilty and toxcicity at higher nominal speeds and to control either the male or the female rotor, reverse
compressor capacity by varying the speed thrust bearings can be used (figs. 13 and
Fig 7
Direct drive refrigerant screw compressor
84
Refrigerant compressors
14V page 22 a nd 16 on page 23) For ndm

Lubrication capacity can be controlled by speed and the
speeds greater than 450 000, angular con- speed can be optimized for the compressor
tact ball bearings with 25° contact angle, AC Bearing lubrication is by circulating oil, with size Other advantages with use of variable
design, are recommended as backup bear- lubricant low driven by the pressure differ- speed drives are less space requirement
ings to minimize internal loads generated by ence between the discharge and suction side (footprint) and fewer parts needed
centrifugal forces of the compressor The oil can be cooled, but Variable speed drives allow for drive fre-
not all compressors use oil coolers quencies both higher and lower than the grid
Suction side Proper lubrication requires consideration frequency (50/60 Hz) Drive frequencies, and
The common arrangement is a cylindrical of the effect of the refrigerant on oil selection corresponding speeds higher than the grid
roller bearing, (igs. 24 and 25, page 26) and oil properties Fluorocarbon-based frequency usually do not present problems,
For semi hermetic compressors (Drive refrigerants do not mix freely with mineral but the reduction in lubricant ilm thickness
arrangements, page 85), the male suction oils When used with compatible oils, the at low speeds is a limitation as to how low
bearing is selected for (large) bore size, the refrigerants dissolve and reduce the viscosity the speed can be When calculating the κ
female discharge bearing for high load of the oil, also reducing the property of the value, the reduction in oil viscosity by refrig-
capacity oil to increase in viscosity with pressure in erant dilution must be considered
Tapered roller bearings are not recom- the rolling contact This diminishes the capa- Refrigeration compressors sometimes
mended, especially in ammonia compres- bility of the oil to develop a lubricant ilm at have a separate drive motor outside the
sors, due to the dificulty in lubricating the the point of rolling contact The oil-diluting pressurized shell, driving the compressor
inner ring lange to roller end contact with oil refrigerant also diminishes the ability of the through a coupling and a mechanical face
diluted by refrigerant oil to support sliding friction (cage and roller/ seal A gearbox is sometimes used For com-
Bearings with ceramic rolling elements lange contacts) pressors with ammonia as refrigerant, such
(hybrid bearings) can also be used in refrig- For proper bearing operation in refrigerant a driveline is necessary since the copper
erant applications The properties of the compressors, it is necessary to adjust the windings in the motor are not compatible
ceramic rolling elements make them suita- viscosity of the lubricant to account for the with ammonia One advantage with an open
ble for use in very high concentrations of dilution of the oil by the refrigerant and also drive is that a defective motor or gearbox
refrigerant Hybrid bearings also have higher for the reduced pressure-viscosity relation- can easily be replaced
speed ratings and are suitable in high speed ship (see section on Oil viscosity, page 27) 6
applications It is also necessary to adjust (increase) the Rust-preventative coatings
minimum rated viscosity (ν1) from diagram 4,
Cages page 28 The oil viscosity grade is typically In refrigerant compressors, the rust pre-
ISO 46 or 68 for air conditioning compres- ventative coatings used for rolling bearings
The bearings can be itted with polymer sors, but can be as high as ISO 120–370 for must be selected carefully to avoid problems
cages, P for polyamide and PH for PEEK, or natural gas compressors to compensate for with chemical compatibility The coating can
brass cages M, MA, ML sufix Tests at the dilution of the oil by the gas The operating act as a catalyst that accelerates reactions
SKF Engineering and Research Centre have viscosity should be greater than ν1, this between the oil and the refrigerant, produc-
shown polyamide cages to be suitable for means κ should be greater than 1,0 and ing undesirable by-products New refriger-
use in luorocarbon-based refrigerants up to preferably greater than 1,5 Consult SKF ants with low Global Warming Potential
bearing operating temperatures of 110 °C, application engineering service for more (GWP) are particularly sensitive to these
while PEEK cages can be used in continuous details reactions, because such refrigerants have
temperatures up to 160 °C For compatibility been designed to have low chemical stability
with gases see table 4, page 38 Drive arrangements to achieve low GWP Another potential prob-
Polymer cages are the optimum cages in lem is that the rust preventative can be par-
low viscosity applications, provided the Air conditioning compressors are almost all tially dissolved by the refrigerant, only to
speed and temperature are within the per- of the semi-hermitic design, meaning that coagulate at critical locations such as in
missible limits the motor rotor is mounted on the extended pressure reduction valves SKF has tested
For detailed bearing recommendations rotor shaft and the stator is mounted inside coatings for compatibility with refrigerants
see table 1, page 79 the pressurized shell (ig. 7) With this design, and compressor oils Contact SKF application
there is no need for a coupling and seal engineering service for more information
between the motor and the rotor shaft With
variable frequency drives, the compressor
85
Ammonia compressors Bearing arrangements Preferred bearing types

Discharge side
Ammonia compressors are similar to com- Bearing types with low friction, such as
pressors using luorocarbon-based refriger- Bearing arrangements are a combination of angular contact ball bearings, four-point
ants, with the exception that the ammonia cylindrical roller and angular contact ball contact ball bearings and cylindrical roller
refrigerant is not compatible with some bearings (igs. 10 to 16, pages 21 to 23) or bearings, are preferred Customers have
materials, and some bearing types are not cylindrical roller and four-point ball bearings experienced severe wear in tapered roller
recommended (ig. 17, page 23) lf the axial load on the bearings, between the roller end face and
male rotor is high, angular contact ball bear- the inner ring lange This wear phenome-
Operating conditions ings in tandem is a possible solution If there non has been reproduced in laboratory test-
is a risk of reversing axial loads on either the ing For this reason, SKF does not recom-
Screw tip speed is typically 40 to 60 m/s with male or female rotor, reverse thrust bearings mend tapered roller bearings and other
bearing ndm speeds of 300 000 to 500 000 can be used (igs. 13 to 16, pages 22 to 23) bearing types with high sliding friction, such
The bearing loads are heavy and the choice One common arrangement is a single four as cylindrical roller thrust bearings, spherical
of bearing arrangements may be limited by point ball bearing as the (ixed) thrust bear- roller thrust bearings, and thrust ball bear-
the space available radially between the ing and a rotating balance piston on the suc- ings, in ammonia compressors
rotors tion side The balance piston limits the axial For detailed bearing recommendations
force and makes the arrangement with a see table 1, page 79
Radial loads single four point ball bearing possible The
Radial loads are highest at the female dis- balance piston should not be too big, so that
charge position, lighter at the discharge male the axial gas force becomes overbalanced
position and less on the suction side If there and causes frequent axial load reversals
is gear or drive, the radial loads are higher at
the drive position, usually on the suction Suction side
side The most common arrangement is a single
cylindrical roller bearing If the radial loads
Axial loads are light it may be possible to use deep
Axial gas force is usually higher on the male groove ball bearings (igs. 24, 25 and 27,
rotor and lighter on the female rotor The net page 26)
thrust bearing force is a combination of the
gas force, axial gear forces, balance piston Gear shaft
forces, backup bearing or reverse thrust For gear shaft bearing arrangements
bearing forces and, at startup, inertial forces see igs. 27 and 28, page 26
Fig. 8
GEA Screw compressor package SP2

Two-stage ammonia compressor package for refrigeration units
86
Refrigerant compressors
Cages cracking Testing at the SKF Engineering &

Pressed steel cage (J sufix) Research Centre and long term experience
have shown that solid, onepiece machined
S K F does not recommend pressed steel brass cages do not crack or corrode in a con-
cages in ammonia compressors because of centrated ammonia environment
the impaired lubrication due to undissolved
ammonia gas in the lubricating oil The Machined steel cage (F and FA sufix)
problems associated with J cages in ammo- Because of the residual stresses found in
nia compressors are cage wear and smear- pressed and some machined brass cages,
ing between the cage and rolling elements many ammonia compressor manufacturers
The experience is somewhat mixed, some hesitate to use them, and prefer machined
customers have experienced such problems, steel cages The machined steel cage offers
others not good contact geometry between the rolling
elements and the cage, and stress corrosion
Polyamide 6,6 cage (P and TN9 sufix) is not an issue with steel However, limited
The presence of ammonia accelerates the production affects the availability of the
againg of polyamide cage material at elevated machined steel cage
temperatures Polyamide cages are success-
fully used in ammonia compressors, but the Lubrication
bearing operating temperature should be
limited to 80 °C, see table 4, page 38 This Bearing lubrication is by circulating oil, with
limit has been established by experience and lubricant low driven by the pressure differ-
laboratory testing ence between the discharge and suction
sides of the compressor The oil is separated
PEEK cages (PH and PHA sufix) from the ammonia in a large tank, with the
PEEK has excellent resistance to ageing and compressor and drive motor mounted on top
chemicals The temperature limit for PEEK of the tank (ig. 8) 6
cages in ammonia compressors is 120 °C, a
limit that has been established in laboratory Drive arrangements
testing Bearings in ammonia compressors
typically operate at lower temperatures than Ammonia compressors always have a sepa-
120 °C, see table 4, page 38 rate drive motor outside the pressurized
shell, driving the compressor through a cou-
Pressed brass (Y sufix) and machined pling and a mechanical face seal A gear box
brass cages (M, MA, and ML sufixes). is sometimes used Such a driveline is nec-
In the ammonia refrigeration industry, spec- essary since the copper windings in the
iications such as the American Society of motor are not compatible with ammonia
Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning One advantage with an open drive is that a
Engineers (ASHRAE) Handbook do not rec- defective motor can easily be replaced
ommend the use of copper alloys in ammonia
systems, since these materials are subject to
stress corrosion cracking For example, as
copper tubes have residual stresses from
bending, steel tubing is used instead of cop-
per tubing
Tests using ammonia have been devel-
oped to determine the presence of residual
stresses in copper and brass One such test
is DIN 50916 Because of the industry’s gen-
eral recommendations regarding copper and
brass, ammonia compressor manufacturers
have traditionally avoided pressed brass and
machined brass cages in compressor bear-
ings This position is technically correct for
pressed brass cages, since pressed brass
cages contain residual stresses from the
pressing operation SKF solid, onepiece
machined brass cages, however, are stress-
free and are not subject to stress corrosion
87
Natural and sour gas Gas compression Bearing arrangements

applications
compressors The bearings and bearing arrangements of
Some of the most common process gases twin screw oil-injected process gas com-
A development in parallel with the refriger- within oil and gas applications are methane pressors are similar to those of refrigerant
ant twin screw compressor was the process (CH4) and higher hydrocarbons, carbon diox- compressors and in some cases, bearing
and natural gas screw compressor These ide (CO2), sour gas (H2S) and hydrogen (H2) arrangements that are similar to those of air
compressors can be used either to replace or (table 4, page 91) In most oil and gas appli- compressors Gas compressors are often
boost reciprocating compressors Boosting cations industry process gas has high water modiied versions of refrigerant or air com-
enables the use of a much smaller sized content and in many cases being fully satu- pressors (ig. 15 and 17, page 23) For sweet
reciprocating compressor at low inlet pres- rated at the inlet to the compressor The gas applications, cage selection recommen-
sures This development, and the eventual general recommendation is to keep the tem- dations are the same as for refrigerant com-
depletion of natural gas ields, opened up a perature at all locations at more than 10 °C pressors, and for sour gas applications, the
market for gas well screw compressors With above the dew point of the gas to avoid recommendations are the same as for
gas well pressure declining, it has become water condensation The dew point and ammonia compressors
necessary to draw the gas out of the well other gas properties can be estimated by
with the compressor Other applications using GPSA estimation methods, or by cal-
boost the pressure between the well and the culation using equations of state programs Sour gas bearings
gas processing plant, or inject CO2 into the In addition, the gases may contain con-
wells to boost well pressure There are also taminants such as brines (cations and ani- In compressor applications containing sour
numerous applications within petrochemical ons) ranging from very low concentrations of gas (H2S), carbon dioxide (CO2) and/or gase-
processing plants The use of such gases 200 ppm, to saturation i e about ous or aqueous water, there are several
means more dificult operating conditions for 300 000 ppm (sea water has about hydrogen induced cracking (HIC) failure
bearings in terms of lubrication, chemical 35 000 ppm) Other contaminants include mechanisms that affect conventional bear-
compatibility and temperature mercaptans (thiols), mercury compounds ing steel (reference ISO 15156):
and quartz sand, all of which may affect the • In environments with low PH and gaseous
running conditions of the compressors and and aqueous water, hydrogen stress
associated bearings Some of the effects of cracking (HSC) results from hydrogen
these contaminants are given in table 4 atoms diffusing into the steel and combine
to form molecular hydrogen Cracking
Fig. 9 then results from the pressurization that
Gas well boosting compressor installation handling sour and acid gas. occurs at the trap sites, in combination
with stress from external loads
• Sulide stress cracking (SSC) is another
form of hydrogen stress cracking that is
caused by corrosion on a metal surface
when the metal reacts with hydrogen
sulide, producing metal sulides and
atomic hydrogen as byproducts Hydrogen
atoms can then diffuse into the metal and
combine to form molecular hydrogen
• Stress corrosion cracking(SCC) is another
mechanism that results from corrosion in
combination with stress
For such applications, SKF recommends

utilizing the SKF sour gas bearings SKF sour
gas bearings have rings made of high nitro-
gen stainless steel, ceramic rolling elements
and PEEK cages
The high nitrogen stainless steel not only
prevents common corrosion, it is also a very
good bearing material with superior fatigue
resistance and it is much less sensitive to
hydrogen induced cracking than conven-
tional bearing steel The ceramic rolling ele-
ments make the sour gas bearings less sen-
sitive to poor lubrication conditions
88
Natural and sour gas compressors
In such applications, SKF recommends Other more accurate methods exist, how- For calculation of κ, the viscosity of the mix-
purging the compressor at a standstill with ever Please contact SKF applications engi- ture should be multiplied with a correction
sweet or nitrogen gas neering service for more information factor for the lower pressure coeficient of
The in situ pH for the process gas contain- Dilution using the density method is given the light hydrocarbon liquid natural gaso-
ing H2S and CO2 is given for various gas by assuming dilution by 0,68 natural line), see diagram 5, page 29, similar to the
compositions with additives in the ISO 15156 gasoline: adjustment for refrigerant/oil mixtures, see
and NACE MR0175 standards However, a refrigerating example page 36
ρlube – ρm
worst case estimate can be calculated with x0,68 = ————–
ρlube – ρ0,68
the formula below:
In situ pH20C = 4,9 – 0,5 log (pH + pCO ) where

2S 2
ρlube = density of lubricating oil [kg/m3]
where ρm = measured desity of mixture [kg/m3]
pH S = Partial pressure of H2S in the ρ0,68 = desity of natural gasoline [kg/m3]
2
process gas [kPa]
pCO = Partial pressure of CO2 in the Or by using the Irving equation for viscosities
2
process gas [kPa] for mixed blends, the volume fraction of the
pH20C = pH at 20 °C hydrocarbons becomes:
For more information, contact SKF applica-

ln νm – ln νoil
tion engineering service x0,68 = ————–—–
ln ν0,68 – ln νoil
Lubrication where
x0,68 = Volume fraction of natrual gasoline
It is common for the oil in an oil-injected gas [mm2/s]
compressor to become diluted over time by νm = Viscosity of mixture [mm2/s] 6
light hydrocarbon liquids, if the compressor νoil = Viscosity of lubricating mineral oil
is handling hydrocarbon gases The viscosity [mm2/s]
of such an oil and light hydrocarbon mixture ν0,68 = Visocisty of natrual gasoline [mm2/s]
can be estimated by using the Irving equa-
tion on a volume fraction basis:
ln νm =O xi ln νi
where Table 3
νi = The viscosity of the i component in the Contaminants of process gases
blend/mixture [mm2/s]
xi = The volume fraction of the i component Contaminant Comment
νm = The viscosity of the blend/mixture
[mm2/s]
XYZ[\] ^ ]_`Zb] T h e c Z[dYe ase salinity of condensing water and therefore increase the
electrical conductivity Thus the ability to cause hydrogen charging,
A good approximation of the viscosity prop- sulide attacks, pitting corrosion and general corrosion increases The
erties of dilution by light hydrocarbon liquids solids may clog ilters etc at standstill and thus reduce oil-low, espe-
cially at start-up by forming scale
is to assume it to be natural gasoline (0,68
relative density) with the approximate Mercaptans (Thiols) Mercaptans are organosulfur compounds that often exhibit a strong
properties: odour and bond strongly with mercury compounds
Mercury Mercury (Hg) and mercury compounds such as HgS may be present in
• Density, ρ0,68 680 kg/m3 ppm levels in natural gases and reinery gases Mercury and its com-
• Viscosity, ν0,68 at 40 °C 0,19 mm2/s pounds can be aggressive to metals by attack of grain boundaries
• Viscosity, ν0,68 at 100 °C 0,12 mm2/s Quartz sand May cause wear and denting of rolling bearings if not separated or il-
tered from the gas stream
The actual amount of dilution can be esti-
mated by measuring the density of the
diluted oil and comparing it to the density of
the fresh oil, assuming no change of density
from any other source
89
Four point ball and cylindrical roller sour gas bearings with rings made of high nitrogen stainless
steel and ceramic rolling elements and PEEK cages
Diagram 1
Recommended use of SKF sour gas bearings. (Ref ISO 15156)
In-situ [pH]
6,5 Re c ommendations for use of SKF sour gas
bearings:
• In applications deined by the blue area in
6,0 the diagram
• When κ (adjusted for dilution of liquid gases)
is less than 1 0
5,5 • At high risk of water condensation
In-situ pH = 4 9 – 0 5 log (pH2S + pCO2)

5,0 pH2S – Partial pressure H2S (kPa)
pCO2 – Partial pressure CO2 (kPa)
kPa = psi х 6 895
4,5
1) typical inlet conditions
2) typical outlet conditions
1)
4,0
3,5 2)
3,0
2,5
0,01 0,1 0,3 1,0 10 100 1 000
Partial pressure (H2S) [kPa]
90
Natural and sour gas compressors
An example of the actual viscosity calcula- Table 4

tion for the blend /mixture of oil and natural Process gases, chemical formula and comments
gasoline is as follows:
Gas Formula Comments
Operating temperature: T = 70 °C
Dilution rate is: 20 volume %
Air n/a Air: 78% N2
Viscosity at the actual 21% O2
operating temperature for 1% Ar
natural gasoline: 0,14 mm2/s
Ammonia NH3 Stress cracking gas by hydrogen ions in water
Viscosity at the actual
operating temperature for Nitrogen N2 Inert if clean and dry Used as purge gas at standstill of
the oil: 20 mm2/s compressors
Oxygen O2 Oxidizing and reactive gas Requires special lubricants

ln νm = x0,68 ln ν0,68 + (1 – x0,68) ln νoil
ln νm = 0,2 ln 14 + (1 – 0,2) ln 20 Water H2O If condensed, creates conditions for stress cracking and general
corrosion
ln νm = 2,00 [mm2/s]
νm = e2,00 Carbon dioxide CO2 Acidic gas – Generally corrosive and may cause stress cracking
in presence of liquid water
νm = 7,4 [mm2/s]
Hydrogen sulide H2S Sour gas – Stress cracking gas either by sulide stress cracking
The viscosity equation calculates the viscos- or by hydrogen ions
NOTE: Very poisonous, with a rotten smell, at low
ity of natural gasoline at the appropriate concentrations
temperature This is done by using the vis-
cosity vs temperature, T [°C] equation for a Hydrogen1) H2 Highly thermally conductive gas causing conditions for water
condensation in hydrogen-rich gases Reactive and may interact
0,68 natural gasoline: e g with oil additives causing detrimental conditions for conven-
tional rolling bearings
⎛―—894 ⎞ Methane CH4 Sweet gas – Used as purge gas at standstill, if clean and dry, of
⎝273 + T⎠
compressors 6
ν0,68 = 0,0109 e
Ethane C2H4 Molecular weight higher than methane
where Ethene C2H6 High molecular weight gas

ν0,68 = Volume fraction of natural gasoline
Propene C3H6 High molecular weight gas
[mm2/s]
T = temperature [°C] Propane C3H8 High molecular weight gas
Butane C4H10 Very high molecular weight gas

Please contact SKF application engineering
service for more information Pentane C5H12 Component in natural gasoline may dilute the lube oil over time
Hexane plus ≥ C5H14 Component in natural gasoline, even small quantities may over
time, dilute the lube oil
Drive arrangements
Drive arrangements are similar to those of
ammonia compressors (ig. 8, page 86),
with the exception that in gas ield applica-
tions, the driver is usually an engine ired by
the gas being extracted There are gears
between the compressor and the engine to
provide the correct compressor speed In
such drive arrangements, the same oil is
used for compressor, gear and engine
lubrication
Hydrogen-rich gases, as often handled in reineries, frequently have a hydrogen content of about
60–80 mol%, with the remaining part comprising various hydrocarbons, acid and sour gases, and
being fully saturated with water
NOTE: Dry and pure hydrogen does not cause bearing issues by itself if not under extremely high
pressures (tens of thousands kPa, hundreds of bars or several thousands psi) Ethene: Ethylene
Propene: Propylene
91
Bearing damage and failure
B earings in screw compressors are very reliable, and most bearings

outlive the screw compressors in which they are installed Bearings
are usually replaced when compressors are disassembled for reasons
other than bearing failure In some cases, however, bearing failure
can occur This chapter examines the underlying causes of bearing
failures in screw compressors and suggests ways to prevent them
Bearing damage and failure in screw com- Bearings in screw compressors can fail pre-
pressors is usually the result of surface maturely for a number of different reasons
damage caused by: In addition to the causes mentioned, prema-
ture failure can also result from damage
• inadequate lubrication during transport or standstill, mounting
• unforeseen contamination problems or improper handling
• water condensation Each cause of failure produces its own
• skidding of rolling elements particular type of damage and leaves its own
• the passage of electrical current special signature on the bearing
Consequently, by examining a damaged
bearing, it is possible in most cases to deter-
mine the root cause of the damage so that
appropriate actions can be taken to prevent
a recurrence
93
Root cause analysis ISO has done much work deining and classi- Subsurface initiated fatigue
fying different failure modes This has
I t is dificult if not impossible to undertake resulted in the ISO 15243 standard Material deterioration is caused by cyclic
root cause failure analysis on a damaged (diagram 1) When looking at bearing fail- loading and the build-up of stresses just
bearing, particularly if it has run to failure ures, a total of six main failure modes can be underneath the raceway surface, ulti-
(ig. 1) without information on the operating observed, which can be further classiied into mately resulting in material decay
conditions, a lubricant analysis, the bearing a number of sub modes The classiication is Cracks are initiated and propagate under-
assembly drawing, and the operating speed based on three major factors: neath the surface, and when they come to
and loads Initial damage can give clues the surface, spalling occurs (igs. 2 and 3)
about the likely root causes Often the initial • damage and changes that occurred during
damage is masked by secondary damage service (as soon as a bearing has left the Corrective actions
such as spalls, smearing or even ring cracks factory)
which ultimately lead to catastrophic bearing • characteristic forms of change in appear- Considerations during operation
failure For this reason, SKF recommends ance that can be attributed to a particular • Bearing steel manufacturing improve-
dismounting damaged bearings before they cause ments have made pure material fatigue in
fail This increases the chances of determin- • classiied by visible features (including the high-quality rolling bearings rare
ing the root cause and allows appropriate use of non-destructive equipment for • Fatigue spalling, where it does occur, is
corrective actions to be taken, reducing the magnifying, such as microscopes) usually the result of an abnormal operat-
risk of repeated bearing failures and collat- ing condition that leads to higher stress in
eral damage the bearing,
While some bearings can operate for
months with easily-detectable minor surface Actions
damage, in others the damage develops • Only use high quality bearings
more quickly The period between the irst • Check belt tension in a belt driven screw
detectable damage and failure can be less compressor
than the interval between two vibration • Check the bearing seating dimensional
analysis readings taken with a handheld and geometrical tolerances
device As a result, continuous online tem- • Make sure adjacent components are prop-
perature and vibration monitoring is often erly designed and manufactured
worth considering
Whether bearing damage is light or
severe, a thorough inspection can provide
valuable information about the root cause of
the problem During an inspection, the key is
to have a structured way of working It is
commonly understood that:
• A cause of damage (failure) results in a

certain characteristic form of change
• A certain failure mechanism results in a
certain failure mode (pattern) Fig. 1
• From the damage observed, one can pos- Failed bearings
sibly determine the root cause of failure
94
Root cause analysis
Fig. 2 Fig. 3
Spalling caused by fatigue Subsurface initiated fatigue on an angular contact ball bearing
outer ring raceway
0,3 – 0,5 mm
n
Diagram 1
Classiication per ISO 15243:2017
5.1 Fatigue 5.1.2 Subsurface initated fatigue
5.1.3 Surface initiated fatigue
5.2 Wear 5.2.2 Abrasive wear
5.2.3 Adhesive wear

7
5.3 Corrosion 5.3.2 Moisture corrosion
5.3.3 Frictional corrosion 5 3 3 2 Fretting corrosion
5.4 Electrical erosion 5.4.2 Excessive current erosion 5 3 3 3 False brinelling
5.4.3 Current leakage erosion
5.5 Plastic deformation 5.5.2 Overload deformation
5.5.3 Indentations from debris
5.6 Fracture and cracking 5.6.2 Forced fracture
5.6.3 Fatigue fracture
5.6.4 Thermal cracking
Numbering follows ISO 15243:2004 subclause numbers
95
Surface initiated fatigue Fig. 4
Mechanism of surface initiated fatigue

ghjklmuatl quvxz{ a|z}h {}hkz|z}h~ {ju~l ~ur-
faclzhz|zj tlk atigue l x}ql } |l quvxz -
cah| z~ |} vuzqk u jh }zq q |j t ~lj ratl~
|l }zh j rt~ } |l vlaxzh hklx }}x a
lubrica|z}h {}hkz|z}h~ ~u{ j~ {}h| azhj -
|z}h }x zhjklmuatl z~{osity ~urfacl j~lxz -
|zl~ } |l x}qqzh lqllh| jhk |l xzh~ zqq
c}h| ac| xl~uq|zh zh zlx ric|z}h jhk
stres~l~ jt j~lxz| qlvel Therl z~ j xz~ } b
surfaclzhz|zj tlk a|zul lhlver |l }zq
il k}l~ h}| ull ~lj ratl |l x}qqzh {}h -
tact ~urfaces
Surfaclzhz|zj tlk a|zul zh lhlxjq z~ |l
c
c}h~lmulh{l } ~urfacl j~lxz|zl~ {}zh zh
direct {}h| act uhklx zlk }x v}uhkjr
lubrica|z}h {}hkz|z}h~ ig. 4a) lh |l
q}jkzh jhk |l ric|z}hjq orcl~ xej{ j
givlh jhz|ukl ~jqq {xj{~ }x }h |l
surfacl ig. 4b) l~l {xj{~ j |lh
devlq} zh|} z{x}~jqq~ ig. 4c) lhlx ally Surface initiated fatigue on the inner ring raceway of a tapered
|l z{x}~jqq~ j rl }hq j e z{x}h~ zh ~zl roller bearing
ahk |l ~urfacl u~t q}}~ kuqq jhk x a
(ig. 5) hq uhklx j z{x osc}l { ah {xj{~
ahk ~jqq~ vl kl| ectlk ig. 6)
Water zh |l quvxz{ ah| { ah jl quvxz{ a-
|z}h zhjklmuate z~ { ah }{ cur lh {}h -
klh~atl ater j~ vllh xl~lh| zh |l {} -
pressor h}|lx lxaql x efrigera|z}h
c}xessor~ lh |l kzqu|z}h v x efriger-
ah| z~ |}} z
Corrective actions Fig. 5

Considerations during operation
Microspalls on the inner ring raceways of a spherical roller bearing
• At z }xzh |llxaturl~ |lxl z~ j
risk } zhjklmuatl quvxz{ a|z}h {}hkz|z}h~
For lxaql |l {qzhk ricjq x oller vlaxzh~
}h |l ljql x otor kz~{j rl lhk ~ll |l
highest q}jk {}vzhlk z| |l q}wes|
speed
• Visc}~z| { ah vl zhjklmuate jt }lx a|zh
tllx aturl kul |} axzjvql ~llk k rivl~
wear j r|z{ql~ jhk |l zhx es~ }
c}h|azhjh| s
Actions Fig. 6
• Revie |l }lx a|zh z~{}~z| } |l quvxz - Microspalls and cracks on the raceway surface (high magniication)
cah| |jzh j{ tujq }lx a|zh {}hkz|z}h~
zh|} {}h~zklxa|z}h
• Check |l {}hkz|z}h } |l seals
9 6
Root cause analysis
Hydrogen induced cracking1)

These are processes in which hydrogen
atoms diffuse into bearing steel and weaken
the material, causing cracks at low stress
levels The source of hydrogen can be either
free water or hydrogen ions in acids In
sulide stress cracking, hydrogen sulide
reacts with steel and releases hydrogen on
the surface that can enter the material
Example of white-etching crack in a tested deep White-etching areas (WEA) along the cracks in a
A bearing subjected to hydrogen embrit- groove ball bearing 6309 bearing inner ring that bearing that was charged with hydrogen. Observa-
tlement or sulide stress cracking can fail was tested with increased hydrogen content. tion was made using a scanning electron micro-
after a very short time, especially if the load Observed in an optical microscope, the white etch- scope, in which the structure of the WEA is not
ing area appears lighter than the surrounding steel white but can be clearly distinguished from the
is high Damage can occur prematurely at matrix. surrounding bearing steel matrix.
lower loads also Depending on the depth of
the crack, the damage produces either sur-
face laking or local deep spalling Both rings
and rolling elements can be involved
When viewed under a microscope, the
sub-surface cracks in damaged rings appear
to be decorated with white etching areas and Some failure modes for conventional all-steel bearings in process gases
are often referred to as white etching cracks
(WEC) The white etching areas are harder
than the surrounding steel matrix They are
produced when crack surfaces rub against
each other, transforming the steel from
martensite into nanocrystalline ferrite
Corrective actions
Spalling of steel raceways caused by stress
Avoid water condensation in the oil loop of corrosion cracking
the compressor, e g by ensuring that the 7
discharge temperature is +10 °C above the
dew point In severe sulide stress cracking
regions (diagram 1, page 90) and for water
saturated hydrogen-rich gases it is recom-
mended to use so-called sour gas bearings
1) Hydrogen embrittlement and sulide stress

cracking is not included in ISO 15243 but Splitting of steel balls caused by stress corrosion cracking
deined in ISO 15156
Cylindrical roller bearing with a spalled

area caused by hydrogen embrittlement
Calotte spalling of steel balls caused by hydro- Cracking of bearing shoulders in hydrogen-rich
gen induced cracking from CO2 and condensing gases due to stress corrosion cracking caused
water, causing general pitting corrosion by water condensation
97
Wear Corrective action (against abrasive wear)

Smearing can also occur between rolling
Check irst whether the appropriate oil is elements and raceways when the load is too
Wear is typical damage that occurs in the being used Verify lubricant selection (includ- light relative to the speed of rotation (light
contact zones of moving parts Wear most ing viscosity, AW and EP additives) load skidding) One example is on the dis-
often is unavoidable However, circum- If the lubricant contains contaminants or charge end, when clamping by springs is not
stances may cause wear to occur at an early water, prevent condensation of water Check used and when too high clamping force has
stage of bearing operation Two variants of the ilter and improve ilter ratings if needed been applied over the outer rings The con-
wear can occur These are abrasive (ig. 7) In high-temperature operating compressors, sequence will be that the cylindrical roller
and adhesive (ig. 8) wear They occur due to a lubricant with a higher viscosity may be bearing is off loaded which causes sliding
differences in the speed of the working con- needed to increase the viscosity ratio and smearing Smearing can also occur in
tact surfaces The cause of the speed differ- four point contact ball bearing if the axial
ences can be kinematic slip, acceleration Adhesive wear load is light and lubrication poor This can
and/or deceleration cause excessive three point contact and
Adhesive wear occurs mainly in contact sur- metal smearing (ig. 9) Three (or four) point
Abrasive wear faces subjected to light loads, poor lubrica- contact can also occur if a four point contact
tion conditions and with important speed ball bearing is loaded radially In that case
This occurs due to abrasive particles in the differences, resulting in sliding of the rolling metal smearing and micro spalling can occur
lubricant These can be contaminant parti- elements One example is the passage of on both raceways in the radially loaded zone
cles coming from the outside or inside The rolling elements from the unloaded zone Excessive amounts of ammonia make cylin-
abrasive particles wear out the surfaces of into the loaded zone The rolling elements drical roller bearings sensitive to light load
the raceways, rolling elements and also can lose speed in the unloaded zone and skidding – typical failures are shown in
metal cages This normally results in dull accelerate when returning to the loaded igs. 10 and 11
surfaces However, if the abrasive particles zone This can result in break-through of the
are very ine and hard, such as cement dust, lubrication ilm, sliding, heat development
a polishing effect might occur and mir- and possibly material transfer from the roll-
ror-like surfaces appear Often, inadequate ing element to the raceway or vice versa In
sealing arrangements result in contami- an early stage, the appearance is shiny sur-
nants entering the bearing cavity An exam- faces, but quickly it turns into a dull surface
ple is a compressor operating at high tem- with (more or less) smeared material
perature and load If particles and/or In angular contact ball bearings, the balls
condensate water enter into the bearings the change their contact angle when they are
thin lubricant ilm under such conditions outside the load zone but are forced back
may not prevent abrasive wear (with slip) to their correct contact angle as
they enter the load zone
Fig. 7 Fig. 8
Abrasive wear Adhesive wear

Polishing wear causes mirror-like surfaces Important speed differences and too light loads can cause sliding,
resulting in very high temperatures and smearing
Flat surfaces due to polishing and plastic deformation Welded material

of the surface asperities
98
Root cause analysis
Corrective action (against adhesive wear)

In order to provide satisfactory operation
and avoid smearing (adhesive wear), all ball
and roller bearings must be subjected to a
given minimum load
Select the right bearing type and bearing
size to avoid conditions where the minimum
load requirements for the bearings are not
fulilled
Below are some of the methods to prevent

or overcome smearing:
• Increase the load, which for ball bearings

can be done by spring preloading
• Use smaller or lighter series bearings
• Use hybrid bearings (lighter rolling
elements)
• Apply protective coatings
• Use different cage execution
• Select a smaller contact angle when using
angular contact ball bearings
• Verify lubricant selection (viscosity, AW
and EP additives)
Both raceways in the outer raceways of a four point contact ball bearings are loaded due to that the
bearing is loaded radially.
Fig. 9
Light load in angular contact ball bearings can lead

to spinning of the balls due to gyroscopic moment.
Photo shows smearing marks on the ball of an Adhesive wear on the inner ring of a cylindrical
angular contact ball bearing. roller bearing, caused by light load skidding.
Fig. 10 Fig. 11
99
Corrosion Fretting corrosion Corrective action

(against fretting corrosion)
Moisture corrosion Micro-movements between two loaded sur- Choose the correct shaft it and housing it
faces is the root cause of fretting corrosion (table 7, page 40)
In contrast to other damage processes, Mostly, this frictional corrosion occurs Check the dimensional and geometrical
corrosion can occur quickly and penetrate between the bearing outside diameter and tolerances and the surface inish
deeply into the material This can cause seri- housing and/or between the bearing bore Minimize high vibration levels and opti-
ous bearing damage Corrosion occurs in the and shaft The micro-movements are mainly mize rotor dynamics Ensure suficient stiff-
presence of water or moisture Also, high caused by the cyclic loads when rolling ele- ness of the bearing support structure and
humidity in the air and touching raceways ments are passing by Inadequate interfer- avoid overly high lexibility since this may
with ingers can lead to this type of corro- ence it, shaft bending and/or imperfections lead to fretting
sion It is therefore important to have good in the contact surfaces can cause or acceler-
protection Corrosion often happens during ate corrosion Air can contact the unpro-
standstill and is then visible by corrosion tected surfaces and accelerate the progres-
marks at rolling element distance Deep- sion of corrosion The formed iron oxide has
seated rust leads to early bearing damage a larger volume than pure steel This can
(ig. 12) produce material growth and high stresses
even to bearing raceways and can lead to
Corrective action (against moisture premature fatigue Fretting corrosion can
corrosion) easily lead to ring cracking
Store bearings in dry areas, where the risk of
considerable temperature changes, which
can cause considerable condensed water, is
practically eliminated For transporting into
tropical areas – use tropical safe packages
Keep the preservative on new bearings and
do not wipe it away during handling and
mounting Avoid contact of bearings with
moisture, water, acid or other aggressive
chemicals through appropriate sealing
Moisture corrosion schematic
roller
outer/inner ring
lubricant (oil) water
Fig. 12
Fretting corrosion in the bore of bearings, resulting from
Moisture corrosion on the inner ring of a cylindrical roller bearing inadequate shaft it
100
Root cause analysis
False brinelling Electrical erosion Fig. 13
F alse brinelling, also referred to as frictional Electrical erosion can occur when a current
corrosion damage, occurs in rolling element/ passes from one ring to the other through
raceway contact areas due to micro move- the rolling elements of a bearing Excessive
ments and resilience of the elastic contact current (high current density) and current
under cyclic vibrations Since it occurs when leakage (low current intensity) are two sub a
the bearing is stationary and loaded, the failure modes
damage appears at rolling element pitch When an electric current (ig. 13) passes
Depending on the vibration intensity, the from one ring to the other via the rolling
lubrication condition and load, a combination elements, damage will occur (a) At the con-
of corrosion and wear occurs, forming shal- tact surfaces, the process is similar to elec-
low depressions in the raceways Normally, tric arc welding high current density over a
Electric current passes
the vibration results in a local breakthrough small contact surface (b) The material is
of the (protective) lubricant ilm, metal-to- heated to temperatures ranging from tem-
metal contact, corrosion of the surfaces and pering to melting levels This leads to the
abrasive wear The appearance is therefore appearance of discoloured areas, varying in b
usually dull, often discoloured and some- size, where the material has been tempered,
times reddish due to corrosion Occasionally, rehardened or melted Craters also form
the depressions can be shiny False brinelling where the material has melted and conse-
damage results in spherical cavities for ball quently broken away due to the rotation of
bearings and lines for roller bearings the rolling element (c) The excess material
on the rolling element wears away (d) A kind of electric arc welding happens
Corrective action (against false brinelling) Appearance: Craters in raceways and rolling between the ring and rolling element
False brinelling can be minimized by install- elements Sometimes zigzag burns can be
ing spring preloaded bearings (page 52) seen in ball bearing raceways Local burns
Do not place non-rotating screw com- are visible on the raceways and rolling c
pressors close to vibrating machines or in elements
an environment where signiicant vibrations In the initial stage of current leakage ero-
occur sion damage, the surface is typically dam-
aged by shallow craters that are closely posi-
tioned to one another and smaller in 7
diameter compared to the damage from Melted material solidiies and breaks away
excessive current This happens even if the
current intensity is comparatively low These
are so small, they can hardly be seen without
magniication
d
Excess material on the rolling element wears

away
False brinelling damage in the inner and outer ring of a cylinder roller bearing.
False brinelling damage occurs at standstill and is characterized by damage at rolling element
distance
Lubricant
Molten material
Rehardened material
Annealed material
101
Fig. 14
Corrective action – a solution to electrical
A ashboard pattern may develop from
erosion
Washboarding caused by current leakage craters over time The pattern appears on
erosion the raceways (igs. 14 and 15) In roller Currents traveling through the bearings can
bearings, the washboard pattern also originate from grounding problems, fre-
appears on the rollers (ig. 15) In ball bear- quency inverters, cabling and motors
ings, the balls typically become discolored The very irst stage of current leakage
(dull, light to dark grey) over their entire (electrical erosion) – current passing through
surface (ig. 16) the bearing is a grey dull surface in the race-
The extent of the damage depends on a way or on the rolling elements The dull sur-
number of factors: current intensity, dura- faces can easily be confused with other fail-
tion, bearing load, speed and lubricant ure modes It is therefore important to
(ig. 17) investigate the bearing with magniication
Solving the problem of electrical erosion
in compressor or motor bearings usually
involves insulating the shaft from the hous-
Fig. 15 ing so that stray currents are not grounded
Washboarding on inner and outer rings through the bearings Although there is no
and roller raceways single best way to do this, one solution is to
use insulated bearings SKF hybrid bearings
with ceramic rolling elements provide sufi-
cient insulation An alternative way to insu-
late the shaft is to use bearings with rings
that are coated with a ceramic material such
as SKF Insocoat
Fig. 17
Current leakage
Dull grey path pattern of the race way can be
a sign of microcratering
Fig. 16
Current leakage
Dull grey surface of the rolling elements can be a sign of microcratering
102
Root cause analysis
Plastic deformation
Permanent deformation occurs whenever
the yield strength of the material is
exceeded
Overload
Overload results from peak loads and leads
to plastic deformation This appears as
depressions at rolling element distance in
the bearing raceways Often, wrong mount-
ing procedures are the reason for the prob-
lem, i e , applying the mounting force to the
wrong ring thereby producing a peak load
over the rolling elements Fig. 18 shows an
example of poor assembly of a cylindrical
roller bearing in the mounting stage The
rollers have made nicks on the inner ring
raceway at roller pitch If put into service,
high noise and eventually failure will result Fig. 18
Also, bearings must always be handled Inner ring of a cylindrical roller bearing with nicks that occurred during mounting
with care Although made of highest quality
steel, localized overloads, e g , from dropping
a bearing, might dent the surfaces and make
the bearing unserviceable
Indentation from debris

Indentations from debris (ig. 19) are caused
by foreign particles (contaminants) that have
gained entry into the bearing and are 7
pressed into the raceways by the rolling ele-
ments The dent size and shape depend on
the particles’ nature The raceway geometry
at the dent is destroyed and lubrication is
impaired Stresses arise at the edge of the
dent and fatigue leads to premature spalling
of the surface
Fig. 19
Indentation from debris

Dents destroy the geometry and lead to surface initiated fatigue in the area behind the spall
Back of indentation
Spalling
103
Corrective action (overload)
• Use appropriate mounting tools and

methods
• Vertical mounting is preferred to horizon-
tal mounting in screw compressors
• Cylindrical roller bearings are separable
radial bearings used in screw compres-
sors The outer ring is irst mounted in the
housing The inner ring is mounted on the
rotor shaft and then lowered into the
housing In order to prevent any damage
during mounting of cylindrical roller bear-
ings do the following:
• Apply lubricant to the cage and roller
assembly Make sure the lubricant also
reaches the raceway Also apply a thin
layer of lubricant to the raceway of the
other ring
• When assembling, make sure that the
roller assembly is not at an angle to the
other ring If either part of the bearing is
assembled at an angle, it will be easy to
damage a ring or rollers, especially if the
rollers or raceways are not lubricated To
avoid this, use a guide sleeve when possi-
ble Make sure the guide sleeve can be
retrieved after assembly (ig. 20) To help
prevent the rollers from scratching the
raceway, turn the rotors during assembly
Corrective action
(against indentations from debris)
• Do not unpack the bearing until immedi-
ately before mounting
• Keep the workshop and tools clean
• Avoid using compressed air to clean
the compressor parts
• Flush the housing and the adjacent
components before assembly
Fig. 20
Mounting of separable bearings
Oil the raceway and rollers Use a

guiding sleeve During assembly,
rotate the rings relative to each other
104
Root cause analysis
Fracture and cracking

F r acture (or cracking) occurs when the
ultimate tensile strength of the material
is exceeded
Forced fracture
Forced fracture is caused by a stress con-
cerntraction in excess of the material tensile
strength by local impact or over-stressing
One common cause is rough treatment Forced fracture
Forced fracture of a
(impact) when a bearing is being mounted or cylinder roller bearing
dismounted Hammer blows applied to a inner ring.
hardened chisel directly against the ring may
cause the formation of ine cracks The result
is that pieces of the ring break off when the
bearing is put into service
Fatigue fracture
This starts when the fatigue strength of the
bearing material is exceeded A crack is initi-
ated and will then propagate Finally, the
Fatigue cracking
whole ring or cage cracks through A fatigue fatigue cracking due to
fracture starts when the fatigue strength of high dynamic cage
a material is exceeded under cyclic bending pocket loads, also
observable in the cage
Repeated bending causes a hairline crack pocket guiding
which propagates until the ring or cage surfaces.
develops a through crack
Thermal cracking 7
Thermal cracking can occur when two sur-
faces slide heavily against each other One
example is an outer ring centred cage that
has seen poor lubrication conditions Crack-
ing can also occur if a ring is turning and
rubbing against an abutment or nut The
frictional heat that is developed causes
cracks, generally at right angles to the sliding
direction Thermal cracking
Thermal cracking of a
cylinder roller bearing
Corrective actions outer ring shoulder.
(against fracture and cracking)
• Apply its according to table 6, page 40
and use appropriate mounting tools and
methods
• Handle bearings with care
• Ensure that minimum load requirement is
fulilled in high speed applications
• Ensure that an appropriate cages design
have been is selected for the operating
speed
Thermal cracking
Metal smearing and
transverse thermal
cracks on the side face
of an inner ring caused
by rubbing against a
nut or abutment.
105
106
1 07
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Bearings in Twin Screw Compressors

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Bearings in Twin Screw Compressors

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Bearings in Twin Screw Compressors

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Bearings in twin screw

3 Ball bearings in twin screw compressors

This application handbook is designed to provide speciic application

of twin screw compressors

female rotor male rotor female rotor male rotor

symmetric proile asymmetric proile

1 • Seal the leakage gaps between the two where

Water-injected compressors Liquid refrigerant injected

Oil low paths in an oil injected screw compressor

Dry running compressors Because of the larger clearances and the

Oil low paths in a dry air screw compressor

Compared to bearing applications in other types of machinery, appli-

Twin screw compressor Fig. 1

• Gas pressure on the rotors

The gas pressure is low at the suction side Fig. 2

Radial bearing loads Axial bearing loads

Setting of rotor end Fig. 7

Bearing arrangement Fig. 9

In ig. 9, two universally matchable angular

Cylindrical roller and angular

NOTE: when angular contact ball bearings are

the shaft into the right position The locknut Fig. 12

NOTE: when angular contact ball bearings are

Fig. 15 shows one cylindrical roller bear- Fig. 15

Tapered roller bearing Fig. 18

If not the rotor will move within the bearing

The axial bearing clearance should be Fig. 21

If the reverse load calculated with this for-

Suction-side bearing Gear shaft bearing Fig. 28

Fig. 24 Fig. 25 Fig. 26

Bearing lubrication Table 1

Viscosity classiication in accordance with ISO 3448

ISO VG 22 22 19,8 24,2

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

For example, miscibility with HCFC-134a is Diagram 2

T h e required oil viscosity is also deter- Diagram 4

Multiplication factor for κ Multiplication factor for κ

Filtration Oil changes Lubrication, oil-injected

This is the classic bearing life formula, which

SKF rating life Table 2

Values for life adjustment factor a1

SKF Advanced fatigue Diagram 9

Factor aSKF for radial ball bearings

SKF Basic design

If κ > 4, use curve for κ = 4

Factor aS K F for radial roller bearings

If κ > 4, use curve for κ = 4

Examples of oil cleanliness and dilution

Basic L10 bearing [h] 30 200

Refrigerant compressor lubricated by a mixture

–/19/16 0,09 1,4 42 300 40 75 -/19/16 0,07 0,75 22 700 40 75

ƞc from diagrams 7 to 10, page 32 and 33

Bearing system life Bearing life at varying Requisite bearing life

Operational speed can be increased (page 57) Running

Cage and seal material compatibility with gases

Material SKF sufix Air NH3 Sour gas Sweet gas FR

PA 66 P, TN, TN9 120 80 80 110 110

Sour gas = gas containing H2S

Limiting temperatures Bearing compatibility with

Values of ISO standard tolerance grades Dimensional stability