CHAPTER 5

SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION

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[Week 13 - 14]

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 LESSON OUTCOMES
At the end of this chapter, student should be able to:

• Discuss the propose of site investigation (scope and objective of site

investigation)

• Categorize site investigation methods (boring and soil sampling).

• Describe the principle of geophysical exploration.

• Execute and interpret site investigation data for in-situ testing (JKR probe
and vane shear test).

• Proposed suitable construction from acquired data.

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 Presentation Outlines :
5.1 Purpose of Site Investigation (S.I)
5.2 Objectives of S.I
5.3 Stages of S.I
5.4 Method of Exploration
5.4.1 Trial Pit
5.4.2 Hand / Power Augers
5.4.3 Boring (Wash / Rotory)
5.5 Borehole Log Descriptions
5.6 Method of Sampling
5.6.1 Disturbed & Undisturbed Sample
5.6.2 Soil Disturbance
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5.6.3 Soil Samplers
 Presentation Outlines :
5.7 Insitu Testing
5.7.1 Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
5.7.2 Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
5.7.3 Shear Vane Test
5.7.4 JKR / Mckintosh Probe Test
5.7.5 Geophysical Methods;
1) Electrical Resistivity Methods
2) Seismic Methods
5.8 Laboratory Testing
5.9 S.I Report
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 5.0 : INTRODUCTION
WHAT IS SITE INVESTIGATION (SI)?

Site Investigation is the process whereby all

relevant information concerning the site of a
proposed civil engineering or building development
and its surrounding area is gathered.

GEOTECHNICAL AND
GEOENVIRONMENTAL
DATA

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5.1 : THE PURPOSE OF SITE INVESTIGATION

The purpose of all site investigation is the identification of

the geotechnical and geoenvironmental characteristics of
the ground at a site to provide the basis for the design of
efficient, economic and safe projects.

Comprehensive accumulation of information on the ground and its

characteristics will be used in an appropriate foundation design for
the structures and pavement design for the projects and enables a
practical, safe and economic construction process to be planned.

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5.2 : OBJECTIVES OF SITE INVESTIGATION

To assess the general suitability of the site and neighbour -

hood for the proposed works, from a geological and
geotechnical point of view.
To provide suitable geotechnical data for all aspects of
an economic, safe and reliable design of foundations,
earthworks and temporary works, including assessment of
the effects of any previous uses of the site.
To assess the quantity, quality and ease of extraction
of construction materials suitable for the works.

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 5.3 : STAGES OF SI

3. DETAILED SITE
2. SITE
1. DESK STUDY RECCONAISSANCE EXPLORATION AND
SAMPLING

4. LABORATORY
6. REPORTING
RESULTS 5. IN SITU TESTING TESTING OF
SAMPLES

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 5.3 : STAGES OF SI
1. DESK STUDY

Collection of information relating to the site

E.g – maps, drawings, details of existing or historic development, local authority
information, geological maps, details of utilities, services, ariel photographs,
ownership of adjacent properties, etc

2. SITE RECCONAISSANCE

Early examination of the site by appropriate experts

E.g – geologist, land surveyor, soils engineer, hydrologist, etc.
Information should be collected on the overall site layout, topography, basic
geology, details of access, entry and height restrictions
Local condition should be examined – climate, stream flows, groundwater
condition and etc.

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 5.3 : STAGES OF SI
3. DETAILED SITE EXPLORATION AND SAMPLING

Investigation of detailed geology and subsurface soil condition

Examination of existing and adjacent structures for signs of cracking and
settlement
Location of underground structures or cavities, buried pipes, services
Provision of samples for further examination and laboratory testing

4. LABORATORY TESTING OF SAMPLES

Tests on disturbed and undisturbed samples

Tests on soils for classification, quality, permeability, shear strength,
compressibility, etc.
Tests on rock cores and samples for strength and durability
Test on constructional material – compaction tests, tests on groundwater,
chemical, etc.

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 5.3 : STAGES OF SI
5. IN SITU TESTING

Texts carried out on the site either prior to or during the construction process;
ground test such as shear-vane, standard penetration, cone penetration, JKR
Probe test and geophysical test.

6. REPORTING RESULTS

Detailed of geological study, including structures, stratigraphy and mapping;

results of boring, etc., including log, references for samples and stratigraphy
interpretations as requested; comments and recommendations relating to the
design and construction of the proposed works.

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5.4 : METHODS OF EXPLORATION

a) Geological nature of the site

b) Topographical nature of the site
c) Type of information required
d) Cost and time

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5.4 : METHODS OF EXPLORATION

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5.4 : METHODS OF EXPLORATION
Selection Of Number And Location Of Boreholes

Warehouse

Multi-storey / Flat Landslide

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5.4 : METHODS OF EXPLORATION
Selection Of Number And Location Of Boreholes

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5.4 : METHODS OF EXPLORATION

Boring rig
Simply dug using excavator or hand tools

TRIAL PIT
1-2 m width
2-3 m depth BOREHOLE
75 mm
diameter
CLAY 10-30 m depth
Other exploration methods :
▪ Hand Augering (HA)
▪ JKR / Mackintosh Probes
▪ Geophysical Testing
▪ Etc.
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5.4 : METHODS OF EXPLORATION
5.4.1 : Trial Pit

TRIAL PITS OR TEST PITS

A pit is dug by hand using shovels or with a machine such as a backhoe. This
method can provide excellent shallow-depth soil stratigraphy. You can inspect the soil
and take undisturbed samples for lab tests.

In details,…

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 5.4.1 : Trial Pit

An engineer supervising and marking Trial pit showing soil Profiles

samples from trial pit
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5.4.1 : Trial Pit

A Very Large Trial Pit

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5.4.2 : Hand Or Power Augers

HAND OR POWER AUGERS

THESE are tools used to quickly create a hole about 100 mm to 250 mm in diamater
in the ground. You can inspect the soil and take undisturbed samples for lab tests.

In details,…

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5.4.2 : Hand Or Power Augers

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5.4.2 : Hand Or Power Augers

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5.4.2 : Hand Or Power Augers

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Advantages and Disadvantages

METHOD ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

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5.4.3 : Wash / Rotary Boring

Rig with
hydraulic feed

WASH BORING
rod
Water pump
Water is pumped though a
hollow rod that may not be
equipped with a drill bit to
remove soil from a borehole.
The washings can be used to
estimate the soil types. casing

ROTARY BORING
Drill bit
These are mechanical devices
used to drill boreholes,
extract soil samples, and
facilitate in situ tests. WASH / ROTARY BORING

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 Hole advanced by rotating and
i) WASH BORING surging/natural force action of
cutting bit attached to drill rod inside
Water under pressure casing. Water discharged sideways
and downwards into soils below
Drill rod
Return water inside of casing, Return water Inside of casing
making related observations
possible
Machine various including manual. More
Casing
suited for drilling water wells and boring
Hole advanced rotating and for disturbed samples.
surging of bit attached to drill
string
Test volume disturbed and altered.

Samples and tests not representative or

Cutting bit
reliable.
Most flushing water discharged
downwards, some water enters
soils below. With care, only some Require some skill
tests samples are possible.

Debatable/doubtful compliance with

specification requiring sampling and
testing or code of practice.
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ii) ROTARY BORING Hole advanced by cutting bit attached to
the bottom of drill rod and hydraulic thrust.
Soil cuttings transported upward by drilling
Water under pressure water. Use compatible casings, rods, drag
and cutting bits. Cutting bits varying with
Compatible drill rod soil types. Almost all water discharged
sideways.
Hole advanced by cutting
action of rotating bit attached
to drill rod and hydraulic thrust Return water inside of casing

Return water inside of casing Machine suited for quality sampling and
making related observations testing. High degree of observations possible
possible
– e.g. return water, water losses, penetration
Compatible casing rates, etc.

Cutting bit
Rig very costly

Almost all flushing water Test volume intact, samples acceptable,

discharged sideways, very little
ingress into soil below. Very reliable.
little disturbance to soil volume
below. Skill essential
Good tests and samples are
possible
In compliance with specification requiring
sampling and testing and code of practice.

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METHODS OF EXPLORATION

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Advantages and Disadvantages

METHOD ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

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5.5 : STRATIGRAPHY
IDENTIFICATION AND
BOREHOLE LOG/RECORD

The subsurface conditions

observed in the soil
samples and drilling cuts or
perceived through the
performance of the drilling
should be described by the
driller.

In addition to the
description of individual
samples, the boring log
should also describe
various strata
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SOIL IDENTIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION CHART

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5.6 : METHODS OF SOIL SAMPLING

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5.6 : METHODS OF SOIL SAMPLING

Soil samples obtained for engineering testing and analysis, in general, are of two
main categories:
1) Disturbed Samples
Disturbed samples are those obtained using equipment that destroy the macro structure
of the soil but do not alter its mineralogical composition.
Specimens from these samples can be used for determining the general lithology of soil
deposits, for identification of soil components and for general classification purposes
(grain size distribution, Atterberg limits) and compaction characteristics of soils.

2) Undisturbed Samples
Undisturbed samples are obtained in clay soil strata for use in laboratory testing to
determine the engineering properties of those soils.
Undisturbed samples of granular soils can be obtained, but often specialized procedures
are required such as freezing or resin impregnation and block or core type sampling.
Undisturbed samples are obtained with specialized equipment designed to
minimize the disturbance to the in-situ structure and moisture content of the soils.
Specimens obtained by undisturbed sampling methods are used to determine the
strength, stratification, permeability, density and compressibility properties

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METHOD OF OBTAINING UNDISTURB BLOCK SAMPLE

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5.6.2 : Sample Disturbance

Soil disturbance occur from several sources during sampling, such as friction
between the soil and the sampling tube, the wall thickness of the sampling tube,
the sharpness of cutting edge, and the care and handling of the sampling tube
during transportation.

To minimize friction, the sampling tube should be pushed instead of driven into the
ground.

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5.6.2 : Sample Disturbance

Required for triaxial, consolidation tests in the lab.

Good quality samples necessary.

AR<10% O.D.2  I .D.2

soil AR  2
 100 (%)
I .D.

sampling tube area ratio

The thicker the wall, the greater the disturbance.

Take good care in transport and handling.

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5.6.2 : Sample Disturbance

Enables visual inspection,

locating strata boundaries,
and access for undisturbed
block samples.

A Very Large Trial Pit

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5.6.3 : SOIL SAMPLERS

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5.7 : IN-SITU TESTING
5.7.1 Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
5.7.2 Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
5.7.3 Shear Vane Test (VST)
5.7.4 JKR/Mackintosh Probe Test
5.7.5 Geophysical Testing
1) Electrical Resistivity Method
2) Seismic Method

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5.7.1 : STANDARD PENETRATION TEST (SPT)

This test is widely used during the course of sinking test

boreholes as means of estimating the relative density and
shear strength characteristics.

According to BS 1337: Part 9, a standard 50 mm diameter

split-barrel sampler (Fig. 12.5 (c), slide 36) is driven into
ground at the bottom of the hole by repeated blows from a
drop-hammer of mass 65 kg, falling a distance of 760 mm.

After the initial drive of 150 mm, the number of blows

required to drive the sampler a further 300 mm is recorded.

This number of blows is referred to as the standard

penetration resistance or N-value (Table 11.6)
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5.7.1 : STANDARD PENETRATION TEST (SPT)

Drop hammer

50 mm

Drive head
76 mm
Extension
borehole
rod

457 mm Split tube

Split spoon
sampler

76 mm Drive shoe
SPT test in borehole

Split-spoon sampler

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5.7.1 : STANDARD PENETRATION TEST (SPT)

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5.7.2 : CONE PENETRATION TEST (CPT)
The cone penetration test is a static
penetration test in which the device (Fig.
12.6) is pushed, rather than being blows,
into the soil.

By applying a measured force to the rod,

the cone is pushed for about 80 mm initially
into soil at a uniform rate of penetration of
20 mm/s.

The ratio of the force required to the end

area of cone is called the cone penetration
resistance (qc)

A recent development is the ‘electric’ cone

penetrometer in which a load cell is
incorporated, thus enabling a continuous
charted readout of penetration resistance
against depth.

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5.7.2 : CONE PENETRATION TEST (CPT)

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5.7.3 : SHEAR VANE TEST

Very often silts and clays, particularly those of alluvial or shallow water
origin are difficult to sample.

The shear vane is used to measure the in situ undrained shear strength of
these soils.

A four-bladed vane (Fig. 12.7) is driven into the soil at the end of the rod
and the vane then rotated at a constant rate between 6 and 12 deg./min.
until the cylinder of soil contained by the blades shears.

The maximum torque required for this is recorded

Remoulded strength can be measured by rotating the vane at a faster rate.

Depending on the nature of the soil, vane tests may be carried out down
to depths of 60-70 m

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5.7.3 : SHEAR VANE TEST

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5.7.4 : JKR / MACKINTOSH PROBE TEST

A light dynamic test where the cone is driven into the soil by 5.0 kg
hammer with free drops from a height of 280 mm

Number of blows is recorded for every 300 mm penetration.

The maximum number of blows for 300 mm is 400 or 12 m penetration.

Possible errors that may occur during this test are:

• Height of drop is not constant
• Applying force to the hammer
• Penetration depth not marked correctly
• Wrong counting of blows
• Bent rod
• Worn out threads

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51
COMMON FIELD TESTS

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5.7.5 : GEOPHYSICAL EXPLORATION

Nondestructive techniques used to provide spatial information on soils, rocks, and

hydrological and environmental conditions.

Do not actually measure engineering properties but provide indirect methods of soil
exploration.

They can be used economically to determine soil stratum boundaries, to locate

bedrock and water table levels

Required correlations with borelogs report

There two (2) types of geophysical method commonly use ;

1) Electrical Resistivity/Conductivity
2) Seismic Methods
i. Seismic Refraction Method
ii. Seismic Reflection Method

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5.7.5 : GEOPHYSICAL EXPLORATION
1) Electrical Resistivity/Conductivity Test
• Can be used for identification and quantification of depth
of groundwater, detection of clays and measurement of
groundwater conductivity.
• Soil resistivity, measured in (ohm-cm), varies with
moisture content and temperature changes.
• In general, an increase in soil moisture results in a
reduction in soil resistivity.
• The pore fluid provides electrical paths in clays.
• Resistivities of wet fine-grained soils are generally much
lower than those of wet course-grained.
• The difference in resistivity between a soil in dry and in a
saturated condition may be several orders of magnitude
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Soil profile from electrical resistivity tests 55
5.7.5 : GEOPHYSICAL EXPLORATION

2) Seismic Test

• Seismic investigations utilize the fact that surface waves

travel with different velocities through different materials
• The subsurface interfaces are determined by recording the
magnitude and travel time of the seismic waves.
• For shallow depths of investigation, the ground surface is
pounded by a sledgehammer to generate the seismic
waves; for large depth, a small explosive charge is used.
• Seismic reflection and refraction are used in geotechnical
site characterization.

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Soil profile from a multichannel analysis of surface wave from
seismic test 57
Common Geophysical Exploration

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Active / Passive Mode

Prospecting instruments collect information by

using both active and passive methods.
• Active geoprospecting instruments use the emission of either
sound waves or electromagnetic energy to characterize how
these waves bounce off unseen objects. This is similar to the
approach used by a submarine when it emits a sound (or
“ping”) and listens for an echo to determine the presence of a
solid object.

• By contrast, passive geoprospecting instruments operate on

the basis of the principle that the continually varying density
of the earth’s crust alters the earth’s magnetic field in
measurable and predictable ways. The strength of the earth’s
gravitational field at any point on the surface of the earth
depends on the density of the rock beneath the surface,
which changes as one moves across the surface of the earth.

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GEOPHYSICAL EXPLORATION

Prospecting Instruments

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5.8 : LABORATORY TESTING (Classification Tests)
Sedimentation analysis
Particle Size Distribution Tests
(Using Hydrometer)
Sieve Analysis

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5.8 : LABORATORY TESTING (Classification Tests)
Liquid Limit Determination Plastic Limit Determination

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5.8 : LABORATORY TESTING
TRIAXIAL TESTS CONSOLIDATION TEST

To determine drained and undrained To determine compressibility

soil strength parameters parameters of soils
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5.9 : SITE INVESTIGATION REPORT
A S.I report is usually the culmination of the investigation, exploration and testing
programme. A typical report will normally include the following;

1. Introduction
A brief summary of the proposed works, the investigation carried out, the location
of the site and significant names and dates.

2. Description of site
A general description of the site, its topography and main features ~ details of
previous development, details access; existing works, underground opening,
drainage, etc. A map showing site location, adjoining land and borehole locations.

3. Geology of the Site

A description of overall geology related to the regional geology of the area,
description of main soil, rock formations and structures, comments on the
influences of geology on design and construction.
4. Soil Conditions
A detailed account of the soil conditions encountered, related to the design and
construction of the proposed works, description of all the relevant layers,
laboratory results and in-situ test, details of gwt and drainage conditions.
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5.9 : SITE INVESTIGATION REPORT

5. Construction Materials
A detailed account of the nature, quantity, availability and significant properties of
materials considered for construction purposes.

6. Comments and Construction Review

Comments are necessary on the validity and reliability of the information being
presented where further work is required this should be mentioned, if the brief is
also make recommendation these should include consideration of alternative
methods of both design and construction
7. Appendices
It is convenient to assemble most of the collected data into a series of appendices;
borehole logs, lab test and results, in-situ test results, geophysical survey records,
references, relevant literature extracts etc.

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 REFERENCES

1. Muni Budhu. (2011). Soil Mechanics and Foundations, 3rd

Edition. John Wiley & Sons.
2. Whitlow, R. (2004). Basic Soil Mechanics, 4th Edition. Pearson
Prentice Hall.
3. Lecturer’s notes** ~ PM IR Haji Bahardin Baharom
**Some extractions were made especially on the photos and schematic diagrams. Many
thanks for sharing the notes and references.

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