The Communication Process and Its Social Context - the relationship that exists

Communication between and among participants.

Communication Historical Context – the background provided by

the previous communication between the
- The process of sharing meaning in any context. participants that influences understanding of
- Wood (2003), in her Book Communication in the current encounter.
our Lives, defined communication as a Psychological Context – includes the moods and
systematic process in which people interact feelings each person brings the communication.
with and though symbols to create and
interpret meanings. Cultural Context – includes beliefs, values,
norms, that shared by a large group of people.
1. We encode (Get ideas and put them into
messages) Participants

2. Send them through our primary signal system - the senders and the receivers
(senses)
- people communicating
3. To someone who receives them through his
or her senses using a channel Messages

- are the encoded and decoded information in a

4. Decodes (translates) the message
communication process
5. He or she then gives his or her feedback
- takes place through sending and receiving
messages

Channels

- a route traveled by the message and the

means of transportation

- Messages are transmitted through sensory

channels
- Communication is a process
- Face-to-face communication has two basic
Context - The setting in which communication channels. Sound (verbal symbols) light (non-
occurs verbal cues)

Physical Context Noise

- refers to the where communication takes - is anything that interferes with

place. (Temperature, lighting, noise level) are communication.
factors that affect communication.
External Noise- are sights, sounds and other Interpersonal Communication –
stimuli in the environment that draw people’s communication occurs between two persons
attention away from at is being said. who establish a communicative relationship.

Internal Noise – through thoughts and feelings - Interviews, small group discussion and
that intervene with the communication process conversation

Systematic Noise – unintended meanings Public Communication – is a speaker sending

aroused by certain symbols that prevent message to an audience, could be direct face-
communication. to-face message delivery of a speaker to an
audience. Or it could be indirect, using radio or
Feedback television.
- responses to message Functions of Communication
- improves communication 1. We communicate to meet needs - just we
need food, water, and shelter, communication
LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION
accomplish our need to talk another human
Verbal Communication – involving words, being.
spoken, written, or signed. 2. We communicate to enhance or maintin our
sense of self – we learn who we and what we
Non-verbal Communication – includes body can do.
language, such as gestures, facial-expressions,
eye contact, and posture. 3. We communicate to fulfill social obligations
– we greet people, talk and communicate with
- Touch is a non-verbal communication them in order to meet our social obligation.

- a firm handshake or warm hug 4. We communicate to develop relationships

- we develop relationships with other people.

- sound of our voice, including pitch, tone and
volume 5. We communicate to exchange information –
through reading, observations, media and
- Eye Contact through communicating others.
- Facial Expression 6. We communicate to influence others –
encouraging and persuading others towards
Intrapersonal Communication - occurs within something like motivating a friend to study for
the person, cognitive or personal an exam.
communication .Include self-talk, acts of
Principles of Communication
imagination and visualization, and even recall
and memory 1. Communication is purposive – purpose of
communication may be trivial or significant.
- self talk, daydreaming
2. Communication is continuous –
- thought processing and decision-making communication happens nonstop, even silence
communicate something.
3. Communication messages vary in conscious 5. Raises the listeners level of expertise by
encoding – may occur spontaneously (without supplying the necessary facts
much thought).
6. Employs message that is free from
-based on a “learned” script, or it could be mental as well as physical coercion,
constructed based on the understanding of a
situation. 7. Does not invent or fabricate information
4. Communication is relational – setting, 8. Gives credit to the source of information
people not only share meanings but also
negotiate and enhance their relationships. Chapter 2
5. Communication has ethical implications – Thinking About Culture
we cannot avoid making choices with ethical
implications, we must recognize some ethical - We usually think of a culture or society as
standards. basically geographical or ethnic, the East
6. Communication is learned – Communicating and the West, the majority and minority.
well is a skill, therefore it can be learned.
- Culture does not create different
Talking is not communicating. It involves,
listening, processing thoughts and opinions and communication but different
the speaking. communication creates “culture.”

Communication Ethics - Culture in relation to communication

cannot be viewed as something
- All forms of communication involve ethical represented by a particular group of people
issues. Ethics are values that have been from specific region or location that has
instilled in us. exclusive rituals, lifestyles, attitudes, beliefs
and customs.
- Our ethical value system is our basis for
our decision-making and our basis of - Communication creates communities and
communication ethics cultures

- In communication there are ethical - Cultures are created though

considerations communication

Ethical communicators or speakers - Communication shapes culture, and

according to Berko (1995) should; cultures shapes communication.

1. Speaks with sincerity - multiple cultures exist in one society or

national group
2. Does not knowingly expose an audience
to falsehood or half-truths that can cause - multiple social communities coexist in a
significant harm, single or national amongst themselves as
part of their conduct or membership.
3. Does not premeditatedly after the truth

4. Presents the truth as she or he

understands it
Ethnocentric bias to go beyond traditional structural views of
cultures.
- believing that your culture is the
benchmark of all others Dimension of Culture

- Your own cultural way of acting is right - Cultures are not synonymous with
and normal, and all others ways of acting countries
are only variants of the only really good
way. - Culture do not respect political boundaries

Culture as Geography or Ethnicity Hofstede (1994) classified these elements of

culture into four categories:
- The way of seeing, culture focuses on
large-scale differences between nation’s 1. Symbols – the verbal and non-verbal
style of religion or belief, ideas of national language.
dreams and goals of preferred ways of 2. Rituals – socially essential and collective
acting activities within the culture.
Cross-cultural Communication 3. Values – what’s good and bad, beautiful
- generally compares the communications or ugly, normal and abnormal.
styles and patterns of people from very 4. Heroes – real imaginary people who
different cultural/social structures such as serve as model in culture.
nation-states.
Cross-cultural Characteristics:
Intercultural Communication
Context
- deals with how people from these
cultural/social structures speak to one - some societies known as high-context
another. societies

Transacting Cultures High-context society

- belong to a set of people who share - spoken words are much less important
meanings than the rest of the context
- “society” is a way of talking about a coded - relies on implicit communication and
system of meaning, not just a structured nonverbal cues. In high-context
bureaucratic machine but a set of beliefs, a communication, a message cannot be
heritage, and a way of being that is understood without a great deal of
transacted in communication. background information. Asian, African,
Arab, central European and Latin American
- “culture” as a system of norms, rituals, cultures are generally considered to be
and beliefs, any group with a system of high-context cultures.
shared meaning is a culture.

- viewing societies and cultures as unique

meaning systems provides an opportunity
Association Learning
 Relationships depend on trust, build up  Knowledge is embedded in the situation;
slowly, are stable. One distinguishes things are connected, synthesized, and
between people inside and people outside global. Multiple sources of information are
one's circle. used. Thinking is deductive, proceeds from
 How things get done depends on general to specific.
relationships with people and attention to  Learning occurs by first observing others as
group process. they model or demonstrate and then
 One's identity is rooted in groups (family, practicing.
culture, work).  Groups are preferred for learning and
 Social structure and authority are problem solving.
centralized; responsibility is at the top.  Accuracy is valued. How well something is
Person at top works for the good of the learned is important.
group.

Low-context Society
Interaction
- the message itself means everything
 High use of nonverbal elements; voice tone,
facial expression, gestures, and eye and it is much more important to have a
movement carry significant parts of well-structured argument or a well-
conversation. delivered presentation.
 Verbal message is implicit;
context (situation, people, nonverbal
elements) is more important than - people tend to try to separate their
words. relationship from the messages and to
 Verbal message is indirect; one talks around focus on the details and the logic.
the point and embellishes it.
 Communication is seen as an art form—a
way of engaging someone. - A low-context culture relies on explicit
 Disagreement is personalized. One is communication. In low-context
sensitive to conflict expressed in another's communication, more of the
nonverbal communication. Conflict either information in a message is spelled out
must be solved before work can progress or
must be avoided because it is personally and defined.
threatening.
Association: Relationships begin and
Territoriality end quickly. Productivity depends on
procedures and paying attention to the
 Space is communal; people stand close to goal. The identity of individuals is rooted
each other, share the same space. in themselves and their
accomplishments. Social structure is
Temporality decentralized.
 Everything has its own time. Time is not
easily scheduled; needs of people may
Interaction: Nonverbal elements are not
interfere with keeping to a set time. What is significant. Verbal messages are explicit,
important is that activity gets done. and communication is seen as a way of
 Change is slow. Things are rooted in the exchanging information, ideas and
past, slow to change, and stable.
 Time is a process; it belongs to others and to
opinions. Disagreement is
nature. depersonalized; the focus is on rational
 (not personal) solutions. An individual goals and achievements, and right to make
can be explicit about another person’s choices.
bothersome behavior.
 Individualist cultures are more likely to
Territoriality: Space is go it alone.
compartmentalized. Privacy is  stress that people should be able to
important, so people stand farther solve problems or accomplish goals on
apart. their own without having to rely on
assistance from others.
Temporality: Events and tasks are  Individualistic workers are very
scheduled and to be done at particular comfortable working with autonomy
times. Change is fast, and time is a and not part of a team.
commodity to be spent or saved. One’s
time is one’s own. TIME

Learning: One source of information is Monochromic time/culture

used. Thinking proceeds from specific to
general. Learning occurs by following - do one thing at a time or multitask
the explicit directions and explanations
of others. Individual orientation is - they value time
preferred, and speed is valued.
- They value a certain orderliness and sense
Collectivism/Individualism of there being an appropriate time and
place for everything.
- Collectivist societies place greater
emphasis on the whole group. - They do not value interruptions.

 Eastern societies - Long-term relationship, commit to the job

 to stress to group benefit and
Polychronic time/culture
overriding value of working
harmoniously rather than individual
- do multiple things at the same time.
personal advancement.
 collectivist cultures might be more
- do not hold time in the same reverence;
likely to turn to family and friends for
these cultures instead have a much more
support during difficult times
relaxed attitude toward time.
 Long-term relationships are very
important
- Their concept of time is free-flowing, and
 Collectivistic persons easily sacrifice
changes depending on each situation
individual benefit or praise to
recognize and honor the team’s
- Distractions and interruptions are a
success.
natural part of life, and have to be taken in
stride.
- Individualist focusing on the individual
person and his or her personal dreams,
- Short-term relationship, committed to  Conflict is seen as unproductive for
relationship relationships; rooted in
spiritual/cultural values.
Conflict  Confrontations are destructive and
ineffective.
- can be distinguished according to their  Does not view conflict as a natural
understanding of and approach, to conflict part of everyday life.
which involves real or perceived  Do not view individual needs and
incompatibilities of processes, desires as more important than
understandings, and viewpoints between group needs and establish norms.
people.
1, Conflict is a destructive disturbance
- conflict occurs in all relationships and of the peace.
among all groups, event those viewing
conflict as destructive. 2. The social system should not be
adjusted to meet needs of members;
- Conflict-as-opportunity cultures tend to rather members should adopt to
be individualist established values.

 View conflict as a normal and useful 3. Confrontations are destructive and

process and inherent part of ineffective
everyday life.
 Naturally experienced when 4. Disputants should be disciplined
interacting with people
Dominating Styles
This approach to conflict based on the
following four assumptions. - involve forcing one’s will on another
to satisfy individual desires regardless of
1. Conflict is a normal, useful process. negative relational consequences.

2. All issues are subject to change through Integrating Styles

negotiation
- great deal, open discussion about the
3. Direct confrontation and conciliation are conflict to reach a solution that
valued. completely satisfy everyone involved\

4. Conflict is necessary renegotiation of an Compromising Styles

implied contract.
- have a another way
Culture-as-destructive – tend to be
collectivist - confused with integrating styles,
solution is reach following discussion
Obliging styles of conflict management Feminine Culture

- giving up one’s position to satisfy - permit more overlapping social roles for
another’s the sexes

Avoiding Styles of conflict - stress quality of life, interpersonal

relationships, and concern for the weak
- people avoid the conflict entirely by failing
to acknowledge its existence or by Power Distance
withdrawing from a situation when it arises.
- This dimension expresses the degree to
Individualism versus Collectivism which the less powerful members of a
society accept and expect that power is
Individualist Culture distributed unequally.

- the interest of the individual prevails over High power distance culture
the interest of the group
- children are expected to display respect
- Ties between individuals are loose for those of higher status

- People look after themselves and their - have power and influence concentrated in
immediate families the hands of a few rather than distribute
throughout the population.
Collectivist Culture
- power inequality is pronounced and
- the interest of the group prevails over the common, and people accept that without
interest of the individual question. High power distance cultures tend
to value things like tradition, which keeps
- People are integrated into strong society stable and prevent massive changes
to power relations.
- stress interdependent activities and
suppressing individual aims for the group’s - They also tend to be very hierarchical
welfare
Uncertainty Avoidance
Masculinity versus Feminity
- refers to the extent to which people in a
Masculine Culture culture feel threatened by uncertain or
unknown situations.
- strive for maximal distinction between
what women and men are expected to do. - this feeling is express through nervous
stress and in a need for predictability or a
- high values on masculine traits stress need for written or unwritten rules.
assertiveness, competition, and material
success. - Cultures are active, aggressive
Task versus Social Orientation - address people of other cultures with the
same respect that they would like to receive
Social-orientation societies themselves.

- more likely concern about the members - seek to describe the world as they
and their smooth functioning as a team. perceive it as accurately possible.

- focus more on collective concern: - encourage people of other culture to

cooperative problem solving, a friendly express themselves in their uniqueness.
atmosphere, and good physical working
conditions. - strive for identification with people of
other cultures
Task-oriented societies
The Language and Ethics of Prejudice and
- characterized by a focus on making the Racism
team more competent through traning and
the use of up-to-date methods. - Prejudice and racism are commonly
viewed as being rooted in the child’s early
- members are highly concerned in socialization and fostered in communication
individual success with other people who are prejudiced or
racist.
- advancing to more responsible jobs, better
training Hate Speech

Intercultural Communication Ethics and - includes threats or verbal slurs directed

Competence against specific groups or physical acts such
as burning crosses or spray-painting
Identifying Your Culture swastikas on public and private property.

Cultural identity refers to identification The Language and Ethics of Othering

with, or sense of belonging to, a particular
group based on various cultural categories, Othering – refers to the labelling and
including nationality, ethnicity, race, degrading of cultures and subgroups
gender, and religion. outside of one’s own.

- Cultural identity is dynamic and constantly - language of oppression

evolving
Communication Approach to Intercultural
Ethical Across Cultures (Kale, 1997) Communication

Ethical Communicators Personality Strength

Self-concept- refers to the way in which a Psychological Adjustment – Effective
person views the self Communication must be able to acclimate
to new environments. They must be able to
Self-disclosure – refers to the willingness of handle the feelings of “culture shock”.
individuals to openly and appropriately
reveal information about themselves to Cultural Awareness – individuals must be
their counterparts. understand the social customs and the
social system of the host culture.
Self-monitoring – refers to using social Understanding how people think and
comparison information to control and behave.
modify your self-presentation and
expressive behavior. Barriers to Intercultural Communication

Social relaxation – ability to reveal little Anxiety

anxiety in communication.
- first barrier is high anxiety
Communication Skills
- Your anxious because of not knowing what
Intercultural communication skills – you are expected to do, it is only natural to
require message skills, behavioral flexibility, focus on that feeling and not be totally
interaction management, and social skills. present in the communication transaction

Message skills – refers to the ability to Assuming Similarity Instead of Differences

understand and use the language and
feedback. - the second barrier

Behavioral Flexibility – is the ability to - Assuming difference instead of similarity

select an appropriate behavior in diverse can lead to your not recognizing important
contexts. things that cultures share in common.

Interaction Management – emphasizes a - When you have no information about a

person’s other-oriented ability to new culture, it might make sense to assume
interaction, such as attentiveness and there are no differences.
responsiveness.
- it’s better to assume nothing. It’s better to
Social skills – are empathy and identity ask. “What are the customs?” rather than
maintenance. assuming they’re the same or different
everywhere.
Empathy – is the ability to think the same
thoughts and feel the same emotion Ethnocentrism

Identity maintenance – is the ability to - third barrier

maintain a counterpart’s identity by
communicating back
- It's the belief that one's ethnic group is - They cause us to assume that a widely
superior to another. held belief is true when it may not be.

- negatively judging aspects of another - Continued use of stereotype reinforces the

culture by the standards of one’s own belief.
culture.
- Stereotypes also impede communication
- the other name for ethnocentrism is the when they cause us to assume that a widely
anthropological concept of cultural held belief is true of any one individual.
relativism.
- The stereotype can become a “self-
- a less extreme form of ethnocentrism can fulfilling prophecy” for the person
be labeled cultural nearsightedness or stereotype.
takins one’s own culture for granted and
neglecting other cultures. Prejudice

Stereotypes and Prejudice - refers to the irrational dislike, suspicion or

hatred of a particular group, race, religion,
- Stereotypes and Prejudice are a or sexual orientation.
destructive stumbling block to intercultural
communication - Psychologists have identified the highly
prejudice individual as having an
- the term stereotype is the broader term authoritarian personality.
commonly used to refer to negative or
positive judgments made about individuals - Highly prejudice people are unlikely to
based on any observable or believed group change their attitudes even when presented
membership. with new and conflicting information.

- while prejudice refers to the irrational Characteristics of Intercultural

suspicion or hatred of a particular group, Competence
race, religion, or sexual orientation.
Motivation
Stereotypes
- people high in willingness to communicate
- the word stereotyping was first used by with people from other culture has a
journalist Walter Lippmann in 1942. To greater number of friends
describe judgements made about others.
Today the term is more broadly used to having proper motivation is important in all
refer to judgements made on the basis of communication.
any group membership
Tolerance for Ambiguity
Negative Effects on Communication
- makes it possible to accept, and even
embrace, the often equivocal and
sometimes downright incomprehensible Varieties and Registers of Spoken and
messages that characterize intercultural Written Language
communication.
Characteristics of Spoken Language
Open-Mindedness

- it’s one thing to tolerate ambiguity

- it’s another to become open-minded

about cultural differences.

Knowledge and skill

- One way to boost your understanding of

cultural differences is via mindfulness –
awareness of your own behavior and that of
others.

Passive observation – involves noticing

what behavior embers of a different culture

Active strategies – include reading.

Watching films, and asking experts and
Varieties of Spoken Language
members other the other culture hoe to
behave. 1. Interactional – having a social function.
This makes use of informal type of speech
Self-disclosure – involves volunteering
which aims to develop relationships
personal information to people from the
between interlocutors.
other culture with whom you want to
communicate. 2. Referential – providing the listener some
information referring to objects or abstract
Diversity is reality. These types of diversity
concepts.
include socially excluded groups,
nationality, ethnicity, race, gender, sexual 3. Expressive – showing the speaker’s
preference, social class, religious beliefs and judgments or feelings about a person,
practices. event, or situation.
For Barry Tomalin, culture is the fifth 4. Transactional – getting information or
language skill in addition to listening , making a deal.
speaking, reading, and writing.
5. Phatic – engaging in small, plain talk. The
Traditionally, Culture is defined as a set or speaker and listener use minimal amount of
collection of traditions, beliefs, values, and language to engage in the conversation.
customs of a particular community.
“Calling an illegal alien an undocumented 6. Avoid expressions that devalue people
immigrant Is like a calling a drug dealer an with physical or mental disabilities.
undocumented pharmacist.” – Anon
- right prefer identity-first language
Ways on how to choose appropriate
language (Hogan-Garcia, 1999) 7. Refrain from language that groups
people into one large category.
1. Notice and reflect on disrespectful
language, thoughts and actions. - avoid classifying people based on religion,
sexual orientation, gender, and ethnicity.
- if you educate yourself and monitor your
thoughts, this will help control and change
your language.

2. Respect people of different races

- Recognize racist roots of words, whether

they are as inflammatory as the n-word or
as subtle as referring to immigrants as
illegals.

3. Use language that includes LGBTQIA+

people.

- Some people are bisexual, transgender,

asexual, gender fluid, etc. and they deserve
respect and inclusion.

4. Avoid exclusionary, gender-specific

language.

- Gender-specific language can be extremely

harmful. Sexism, or discrimination against a
person due to their marginalized gender -
identity, is used often and inadvertently.

5. Avoid using explicitly religious terms in

mixed religious company.

- Limit the amount of religious terms in our

language, especially when speaking in
groups of people. Avoid referencing
“God/god.”