Hoon - Advanced Fire Fighting

ADVANCED FIRE-FIGHTING COURSE
INTRODUCTION
It seems very simple but the frequency of serious fires and the incidence of ship losses by fire are higher than by any other cause.
Statistics show ship losses by fires to be of an alarming proportion.
The problems of fire prevention and fire-fighting on board ships has become more pronounced with the construction and
operation of special types of vessels in particular, the techniques of fire-fighting aboard container ships car ferries, RO-RO
vessels, combination carriers, oil, chemical and liquefied gas carriers, amplify the needs for more systematic and organized
approach to fire-fighting techniques including the correct use of equipment and more effective fire-fighting drills.
There is a general need to enhance and upgrade the standards of training to improve management skills in organization of fire-
fighting and to enhance the understanding of fire prevention measures on board.
There is statutory obligation to develop basic, advanced and specialized levels of maritime training courses in fire prevention and
fire-fighting for shipboard personnel in accordance with the provisions of the STCW convention 1978 and its amendments.
As ships today, are required to comply with the relevant provisions of the 1974 SOLAS Convention, they are already well
equipped with regard to fire protection, fire detection and fire extinction equipment. In order to understand the principles and to
use the equipment effectively, "training of crews in fire-fighting" plays an ever important role.
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The IMO Resolution A, 437 (XI), training of crews in Fire-fighting which was adopted on 15 November 1979, recommends that
each member Government Should aim at training all its seafarers in fire prevention and fire-fighting to an extent appropriate to
their functions on board ship.
Accordingly, this course which is called "TRAINING IN ADVANCED FIRE FIGHTING" has specially designed and developed to meet
the relevant provisions of the 2010 STCW convention and in particular IMO Model Course 2.O3 "Advanced Training in Fire
Fighting" and the IMO. Resolution A. 437 (XI) and provision of Regulation V1/3, section A-VI/3 of STCW Code. Revision 2010
Amendment to the STCW convention 1995
Trainees successfully completing this course will, in the event of fire on board ship, be enabled to take command, organize the
personnel effectively and control the fire-fighting operations, using those techniques in which they have been trained. They will
also have acquired knowledge of fire prevention and an ability to inspect and maintain the fire extinguishing systems and
equipment.
It is hoped that ship's officer and other key personnel who may have to control fire-fighting operations on board ships, would
benefit from this course in the techniques for fighting fires with particular emphasis on organization, tactics and command. It is
also hoped that the knowledge and experience gained by the ship's officers, from this course, would contribute significantly in
the enhancement of SAFETY AT SEA.
PREFACE
The purpose of this Book is to train potential seafarers and other personnel working in similar environments in acquiring Basic
knowledge in Fire Prevention and Fire Fighting.
This Book aims to impart in an easy -to - understand language the Basics of Fire Theory, the Organization for dealing with
emergencies on board ships, the construction and working of various Fire Fighting Appliances (FFA) and the actions to be taken
By persons (During emergencies.)
The contents of this Book cover all aspects laid down in the IMO Model Course and the Standards for Training, Certification and
Watch keeping -2010 (STCW'10).
Every effort has been made to keep the contents of this Book in conformance with the latest practices on board ships as well as
inclusion of new fire fighting systems like the High Expansion foam system. All illustrations are in color with emphasis being laid
on imparting knowledge through pictures where required.
In keeping with the age old adage "Prevention is Better than Cure", the topic ofFire Prevention has also been given its due place
in the Book.
A great deal of emphasis has been placed on topics concerning training,response and maintenance of FFA at the level intended
for this course.
After assimilating the contents of this Book in conjunction with the practical training imparted, we are sure that you will be able
to take up duties on Board ships with confidence and contribute to a safe working environment.
We wish you safe voyages............
A. Hoon
Hoon Maritime Institute
Course Outline
CHAPTER MODULE MODULE PAGE NO.
1.0 INTRODUCTION, SAFETY AND PRINCIPLES OF FIRE
2.0 THEORY OF FIRE
3.0 FIRE CONTROL ABOARD SHIPS
4.0 SHIP FIRE-FIGHTING ORGANIZATION
5.0 TRAINING OF SEAFARERS IN FIRE FIGHTING
6.0 PROCEDURES FOR FIRE-FIGHTING
7.0 FIRE APPLIANCES AND EQUIPMENT
8.0 FIRE-FIGHTING PROCESS HAZARDS

9.0 FIRST AID
10.0 FIRE INVESTIGATION AND REPORTING
GENERAL SAFETY GUIDELINES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PLANS OF SHIPS MOCK UP

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION, SAFETY AND PRINCIPLES
1.1 The main aims of annex 2 of resolution A. 437(XI) are :
• Instructing masters, deck officers, engineers' officers and key personnel in organizational methods and the
best use of staff for combating fires.
• Training them in the maintenance and inspection of fire extinguishing equipment.
• Instructing them in the hazards applying to fires in dangerous goods and safe methods for combating such
fires.
1.2 The safety rules laid down by the chief instructor must be adhered to during the course.
1.3 The principles of survival in relation to fire are;
• Knowledge of theory of fire and fire precautions
• Regular training and drills
• Preparedness for any fire emergency
• Knowledge of dangers of smoke and toxic fumes
• Regular inspection and maintenance of
a) Fire detection equipment.
b) Fixed Fire extinguishing equipment.
c) Portable fire extinguishers.
d) Mobile fire extinguishers.
e) Compressed air operated breathing apparatus

f) Firemen's Outfit.
Chapter 2
THEORY OF FIRE
2.1 CONDITIONS FOR FIRES
2.1.1 Conditions required for fire to occur are:
- The presence of material which act as a fuel
- A source of ignition, e.g. chemical, biological or physical;
- The presence of oxygen, as air or from oxidizing agents.
2.1.2 These three conditions can be represented as a triangle (the fire triangle)
2.1.3 In addition of a chain reaction forms a square or a tetrahedron and represents a continuously burning fire.
In order to be able to choose the correct means of fire control it is necessary to understand the nature of
combustion. Combustion is a chemical reaction, or a series of reactions, in which heat and light are evolved. When
the rate of reaction is very slow only heat is evolved and slow oxidation occurs, such as rusting.
In combustion reaction there is a continuous combination of a fuel (reducing agent) with certain elements, prominent
among which is oxygen in a free or combined form (oxidizing agent). The quality which all these reactions have in
common is that they are exothermic (i.e. converting chemical energy trapped in the original molecules in to the form
of thermal energy).
Fire or combustion is said to be the result of a rapid oxidation reaction at temperatures above 73O°C. Accompanied
by the evolution of highly heated gaseous products of combustion and the emission of visible and invisible radiation.
The following reactions are examples of combustion:
Reaction with atmospheric oxygen:

C +O2 = CO2 Carbon Dioxide 2H2 + O = 2H2O
The combustion may take place using oxygen contained within the burning material, the combustion material and the
supporter of combustion being together in the same compound:
4C3H5 (NO3)3=12CO2 + 1OH2O + 6N2+O2
Nitroglycerine.
Oxygen may be provided by one of the materials in the mixture of compounds. The thermite reaction illustrates this
principle.
Fe2O3+2AI +Al2O3+2Fe+Heat
THERMITE MIXTURE
Elements other than oxygen may be considered as oxidizing agents (e.g. Chlorine, fluorine). These substances may
behave an oxidizing agent in a combustion reaction. Hydrogen will burn explosively with chlorine.
H2 + CI2 = 2HCL
Many organic materials will burn readily in halogen gases.
C1OH1O+8CI2= 16HCI + 10C
TURPENTINE
Nitrogen is not usually thought of as an oxidizing agent or even a reactive element, but some metals will burn
vigorously in this gas. Magnesium, aluminum, and calcium can burn a pure atmosphere of nitrogen, to form nitrides.
3Mg + N2 = Mg3N2
Furthermore many materials when exposed sufficiently high temperatures will decompose emitting light and heat.
Examples of these materials are hydrazine (N2H4), diborane (B2H4), nitro methane (CH3NO2), hydrogen peroxide and
ozone (O3).
The combustion process can be said to be occurring in two modes:
- The flaming type (including explosions) and
- The flame less surface type (including glowing and deep seated glowing members).
The requirements for sustained burning, the flaming mode is associated with relatively high burning rates, expressed
in terms of heat energy released from the originally bound chemical energy per unit time which, together with the
weight- time rate and specific heats of effluent gaseous combustion products, determines flame temperature.
All combustion reactions such as those quoted involve giving out heat and are therefore called exothermic reactions.
The quantity of heat produced per unit weight of fuel can be calculated, and is known as calorific value of the fuel. For
example, when 12 grams of carbon are burned to carbon dioxide 392920 joules of heat are produced.
BASIC FIRE MODES
Thus calorific value of carbon is
392920
----------- = 32819 Joule/grame = 7.842 kcal/gm
12
(Note: 1 joule =0.000239 kcal)
It is of interest that theoretical flame temperatures for different gasses burning in air, with no excess air, do not vary
appreciably despite large differences in heat of combustion. For example, hydrogen with a heating value of
284OKcal/m3 at 15.6°C and 1 atmosphere has a theoretical flame temperature of 2290°C. Benzene with a heating
value more than ten times as great (32700 Kcal) gives a temperature of 2290°C, this is because the gases with higher
value require larger amounts or air for combustion. Most hydrocarbon flame temperatures (ideal combustion, no
excess air), vary between 1845 and 2235°C. Higher temperatures for these gases and vapours would require air
preheating and/or oxygen enriched air. Usual fire conditions result in air deficiency, incomplete combustion, and
somewhat lower flame temperatures.
An approximate analysis of hydrocarbon liquid fuel pan fires will show that about two thirds of the heat release
passes of to the surrounding environment as sensible heat of the effluent, and one third as heat. For equilibrium
conditions, the heat energy generated by the fire and the heat energy loss to the environment, both of which are
measured on a time basis, must balance. If the former is in excess, the fire will grow; conversely, of the latter is in
excess, the fire will diminish. The process is highly heat dependent.
While the combustion is extraordinarily complex and is subject of much research, sufficient information has been
gained to make it possible.
The flaming mode can be conceived of as a square (or tetrahedron) with each side representing one of the four basic
requirements fuel, heat, and oxygen and flame chain reactions.
The surface combustion (glowing mode) can be symbolized correctly in the form of the traditional triangle in which
each of three sides is contiguous with the other two sides, with each side representing of the three basic
requirements fuel, heat, and oxygen.
Flame may be defined as a reaction having the ability to propagate through an atmosphere with the emission of heat
and light.
The exact nature of the propagation of the flame is not fully understood, but flame fronts may be thought as a
transition region separating burnt from un-burnt vapours. Light is usually emitted from this region. A fuel - oxidant
mixture which liberates enough energy on combustion to allow flame to spread through the un-ignited region of the
mixture is called flammable.
A flame front stemming from a local ignition source is established in a flammable medium. A form of chemical
reaction is set up in the layer adjacent to this source. Heat and chain carriers pass into the next layer of gas and
continue the operation there. Chain carriers are believed to be atoms or parts of molecules known as free radicals
and these are extremely reactive. Combustion is a chain reaction.

Flames have varying structures, depending on the gas or vapour being burned. The different zones in a flame are
often characterized by the type of reaction going on in each zone. Very often flames are relatively starved of oxygen.
The difficulty of supplying air or oxygen forces the volatile combustible matter to go far in search of air or oxygen and
the result is a long flame. In the absence of oxygen within certain zones of the flame, the organic materials are
decomposed by heat giving rise to tarry and sooty decomposition products. In other words, smoke is formed. In
addition carbon monoxide is formed due to incomplete combustion.
The flaming and surface glowing modes are not mutually exclusive, they may occur singly or in combustion.
Flammable liquids are gases burn in the flaming mode only. Most solid plastics can be constructed as "frozen
flammable liquids", and as such will melt with sufficient thermal feedback prior to burning. The commonalty of this
variety of fuels is that they must vapourize and be diffused with oxygen immediately before burning.
Examples in which both modes exist are solid carbonaceous fuels such as coal, solid carbohydrates such as sugars and
starches oil cellulosic / lign in such as wood, straw brush and similar vegetable materials and thermosetting plastics
which do not melt. With these later materials the early stages of combustion start in the flaming mode due to
destructive distillation with a gradual transition occurring toward the surface combustion mode during which both
modes are simultaneously in action. Ultimately the flaming mode is terminated with the surface combustion existing
alone.
Examples in which surface combustion mode exists alone are pure carbon and other readily oxidizing metals such as
magnesium, aluminum zirconium, uranium, sodium, and potassium. These metals burn with characteristically higher
temperatures ranging from 2680 to 3235°C as compared to temperatures ranging from 1565 to 1845°C that can be
obtained by the atmospheric burning of hydrocarbons. Special extinguishing agents need to be used at these
extremely high temperatures.
From the foregoing, it is apparent that with the flaming mode there are four separate and distinct means of fire and
explosion control, namely - by removal of fuel, removal of heat, limitation of oxidizing material and by retarding the
flame chain reaction; whereas in the surface combustion (glow) mode my the first three means of fire control,
mentioned above are effective.
HAZARDS OF OXIDIZING AGENTS
Nearly all combustion reactions involve oxidation which is its most simple form is combination with oxygen, such as
the combustion of carbon:
C + O2 = CO2.
The oxygen in this case may be called an oxidizing agent. The word oxidation also has a broader meaning where
elements other than oxygen maybe considered as oxidizing agents. For example most metals will react with chlorine,
or other halogens, and this is also a type of oxidation.
Mg+CI2 + MgCI2
Here chlorine is the oxidizing agent.
There are certain compounds which do not necessarily burn themselves but, on decomposition, release oxygen which
can greatly assist a combustion reaction. Some of these compounds may be relatively stable at room temperature
but at elevated temperatures they could be extremely hazardous. Some of the more common oxidizing agents are
considered below.
NITRIC ACID AND THE INORGANIC NITRATES
Concentrated nitric acid is very powerful oxidizing agent and reacts vigorously with many organic (carbon-based)
compounds. Carbon itself reacts with the hot acid, this:
C+4HNO +CO2+4NO2+2H2O
Interaction of the concentrated acid with carbonaceous material involves a vigorous exothermic reaction with the
evolution of nitrogen dioxide. (Nitrous fumes). Sawdust and wood chippings must not be used to soak up this acid.
The nitrates (salts of nitric acid) are also good oxidizing agents. They are used industrially and agriculturally and may
be found in large quantities. An example is the use of molten nitrate salt baths for treating metals and the
considerable use of certain nitrates as fertilizers.
On strong heating the nitrates of sodium and potassium give oxygen and the metal nitrite: 2KNO 3=2KNO2 +O2
Most other metal nitrates decompose to the metal oxide with evolution of nitrogen dioxide (nitrous fuels) and
oxygen. Ammonium nitrate is widely used as an agricultural fertilizer under various trade names. It is a white
crystalline solid very soluble in water (all nitrates are soluble in water). It does not burn but decomposes violently
when heated giving nitrous oxide.
NH3NO4 = N2O + 2H2O
Under certain conditions explosions may occur. Brown nitrous fumes (NO 2) are also given off on heating;
decomposition is complex. Because nitrous oxide will support combustion in a similar manner to oxygen, this
decomposition produces conditions for oxidation in a similar way as other nitrates.
PERMANGANATES
The sodium (NaMnO4) and potassium (KMnO4) compounds are the most common. They are powerful oxidizing agent
and react with oxidizing organic materials, very often in a violent manner. This is seen in the reaction with glycerol
(Glycerene) where spontaneous ignition occurs. With concentrated hydrochloric acid, permanganates produce the
highly toxic chlorine gas as a result of oxidation.
CHLORATES
Chlorates are often used as their sodium or potassium compounds. On heating oxygen is evolved.
2KCIO3 = 2KCI + 3O2
Very violent reactions occur on contact with oxidizing materials and many occur merely by friction. Potassium per
chlorate (KCIO4) might appear to be a similar type of substance, but is in fact stable. Anhydrous per chloric acid
(HCIO4) is a powerful oxidizing agent and will explode on heating. Sodium chlorate is used as a weed killer. It has also
been used in homemade explosives.
CHROMATES AND DICHROMATES
The most common compounds of this type are potassium chromate (K2CrO4) and potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7);
these materials are yellow and orange respectively and are oxidizing agents. They are soluble in water and will
produce a highly combustible mixture with oxidizing substances.
INORGANIC PEROXIDES
Peroxides are a group of compounds which contain a higher proportion of oxygen than the normal oxide. This extra
oxygen is liberated, making these compounds good oxidizing agents. Inorganic peroxides may be considered to derive
from hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Pure hydrogen peroxide is a clear viscous liquid with a specific gravity of 1.46 (at
0°C). It is soluble in water and is used at various concentrations. Above 70 percent concentration in water it is a
powerful oxidizing agent and decomposes explosively.
2H2O2 = O2 + 2H2O
This decomposition may occur on heating, but may also be initiated by the presence of a catalyst. Small traces of
metallic dust, charcoal or even strong light may be sufficient. Concentrated solutions of hydrogen peroxide are often
known as 'High Test Peroxide' (HTP).
Common metal peroxides, derived from hydrogen peroxide, are those of sodium (Na 2O2) and barium (Ba2O2). Sodium
peroxide is a pale yellow solid which reacts vigorously with water, releasing oxygen:
2Na2O2 +2H2O= O2 +2NaOH
A great deal of heat is liberated in this reaction and this could cause a fire in adjacent combustible material and
obviously the fire would be increased by the oxygen evolved.
Sodium peroxide can absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen at the same time.
2Na2O2 + 2CO = 2NaCO3 +O2
ORGANIC OXIDIZING AGENTS
When nitric acid reacts with organic (carbon based) compounds, two important types of substances are formed:
organic nitrates (-NO2) and nitro-compounds (-NO3). These compounds are oxidizing agents and further more they
carry oxidizing carbon-containing material within their own molecules. Consequently, both the organic nitrates and
the nitro-compounds are flammable. Some that contain several nitrate or nitro-compounds are flammable. Some
that contain several nitrate or nitro groups in the molecule are explosive, and typical examples are glycerol
tri-nitrate (used in dynamite) and trinitrotoluene (TNT), an important military explosive.
Most organic nitrates and nitro-compounds are toxic and many of them, including glycerol trinitrate may be absorbed
through skin.
ORGANIC PEROXIDES AND HYDRO PEROXIDES
The structure of these compounds can be derived from that of hydrogen peroxide (H-O-O-H), by replacing both
hydrogen atoms by organic groups, thus forming organic peroxide.
If only one hydrogen molecule is replaced hydro peroxide is formed. As would be expected peroxides and hydro
peroxides are powerful oxidizing agents and because there is a carbon- containing part of the molecule which can be
oxidized, they are highly inflammable. Many of them are explosive and sensitive to heat and mechanical shock.
Because of this they are often diluted or dampened down with either water or stable esters. Peroxides are toxic and
are especially irritating to the skin and mucous membranes. Skin contact and breathing of vapours should be avoided.
In all respects, organic peroxides and hydro peroxides should be treated with extreme caution.
COMBUSTIBLE SOLIDS
• WOOD
Wood is a complex polymeric material closely ailed to cellulose. In spite of the wide use of synthetic materials, wood
still accounts for a great deal of useful non-metallic material.
There is a high water content in wood and the wide difference in moisture content between green and well-dried
wood is significant in regard to fire risk. Considerable quantities of heat are required to dry timber, due to the high
latent heat of vapourization of water. When wood is heated, a marked decomposition occurs at 170°C with the
evolution of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and water due to the decomposition of the polymeric material of
which wood is composed. At 302°C an exothermic reaction occurs, still further decomposes the wood. The liberation
of heat can enable the late stages of carbonization to occur without external heating.
The properties of wood are such that a long- flaming fuel is produced, which burns readily and spreads fire quickly.
Many methods have been used to try to render wood either non-flammable or less flammable. These methods
depend usually on impregnating or painting the wood with suitable materials, of which there are many, such borax,
water-glass, sulphate, ammonium salts and other compounds sold under trade names.
• COAL
Coal is formed by the action of pressure and temperature on the decayed vegetable products of ancient forest. Coal
is a very complex mixture of carbon and a variety of resinous organic compounds. There are many varieties of coal
and they may be roughly divided into hard and soft, the harder coatis containing more carbon. The softer coatis are
more useful for gas making and the harder coals for use in special furnaces for raising steam. Plates of inorganic, non-
combustible materials are also found in coal, and these consist of limestone and compounds of iron, magnesium and
manganese. The surface of coal has reactive centers where combination with oxygen can occur, and spontaneously
ignition of coal is attributed to direct oxidation. It is clear that the smaller the coal particles, the greater the danger. It
is promoted by moisture and the greater the oxygen content of the coal, the greater is the danger, so that coal,
especially, pulverized coal containing more than 1O% oxygen, may be dangerous in storage. In addition, a small
proportion of the coal dust can form an explosive mixture in air. When the temperature is excess of 6O°C ignition
may occur within a week or so. Storage heaps must be kept free as possible from excess of air and external sources of
heat should be avoided. Coal is sometimes sprayed with a high flash-point mineral oil that not only reduces dustiness,
but also protects coal surfaces against oxidation.
METALS
Three quarters of all the elements are metals, though; some of them are very rare. To a chemist a metal is a
substance which can lose electrons and form positive ions. Ions are charged atoms or group of atoms. In addition
metals have a group of properties associated with them if an element possesses most of them we describe it as a
metal.
PROPERTIES OF METALS
1. All except mercury.
2. They are malleable and ductile, i.e. they can be hammered into shape and can be drawn into wires.
3. They are good conductors of heat and electricity.
4. They have relatively high melting points.
5. They can form alloys.
6. Many of them combine with oxygen.

7. The oxides and hydroxides are basic.
8. They usually dissolve in mineral acids, often releasing hydrogen.
Metal Chemical Formula Occurrence Reaction with water
Potassium K
Never found Uncombined with React with cold water to yield
Sodium Na
other elements hydrogen.
Barium Ba
Strontium Sr
Calcium Ca
Magnesium Mg
Rarely found uncombined with Burning metals decompose
Chromium Cr
other metals water and hot metals
Manganese Mn
decompose steam.
Zinc Zn
Cadmium Cd
Iron
Cobalt Co
Very Little reaction unless at
Nickel Ni
white heat
Tin Sn
Lead Pb
HYDROGEN H
Bismuth Bi
Sometimes found uncombined Inactive with water or steam
Copper Cu
with other elements
Mercury Hg
Silver Ag
Platinum Pt
Found uncombined with other
Gold Au
elements
* Indicates that breathing apparatus should be worn in an incident involving these metals. Although not a metal, hydrogen is
included as it also forms a positive ion.
Metals show a wide range of chemical properties and range from dangerously reactive metals such as sodium to inert
metals such as gold. Metals can be arranged in an activity series. In this table, the most reactive metals are at the top
and the least reactive at the bottom. Whenever chemical property is considered, those metals at the top of the series
react most vigorously, indeed often violently, and those at the bottom react slowly or not at all. Although hydrogen is
not a metal, it is included in the following table, as it also forms a positive ion. Many important metal reactions
involve displacement of hydrogen either from water or from acids.
REACTION OF METALS WITH WATER OR STEAM
• POTASSIUM TO CALCIUM
These metals react immediately with water to release flammable hydrogen gas and leave a metal hydroxide. In some
cases the hydroxide so formed is itself a corrosive alkali. In the case of potassium the reaction is so vigorous that the
metal seems to ignite on contact with water. Sodium moves rapidly about on the surface of water and if prevented
from doing so, it will ignite.
Larger pieces of these metals pose a danger of explosion on contact with water. Calcium reacts steadily with cold
water but vigorously with hot.
• MAGNESIUM TO IRON
These metals show little reaction with cold water, even when magnesium is powdered. At higher temperatures, the
reaction rate increases and a steady flow of hydrogen is produced by reaction with steam. If the metals are already
burning the reaction with cold water becomes very high. Addition of cold water to burning magnesium gives rapid
production of hydrogen with subsequent explosions. As the activity series scale is descended, the rate of reaction
decreases until, there is little reaction unless the red-hot metal is treated with steam.
• COBALT TO LEAD
Here the white metals must be treated with steam before reaction will take place.
• BISMUTH TO GOLD
Since these metals are below hydrogen in the activity series, there are no reactions with water or steam.
• FORMATION OF OXIDES AND COMBUSTION
Metals at the top of the activity series react mostly readily with oxygen; sodium and potassium are so reactive that
they are stored immersed in paraffin oil to prevent such oxidation. Many other metals will burn in air or oxygen,
though with increasing difficulty as one descends the series. Even metals like tin and lead will burn at high
temperatures.
When metal is very finely divided and so presents a greatly increased surface area, the ease of combustion may be
vastly increased. Some metallic powders and dusts can burn or explode spontaneously in air. When the material
occurs at ordinary temperatures is said to be pyrophoric.
The property of being pyrophoric is shared by many flammable metal powders and dusts, especially magnesium,
calcium, sodium, potassium, zirconium, hafnium or under water. Metal powders when dump may also cause fires and
explosions, even in the absence of air and often without warning, and in the absence of heat.
• SULPHUR
This is usually found either as a yellow powder (known as flowers of sulphur) or as yellow crystals, but it is sometimes
produced as blocks or sticks. It burns with a blue flame to give sulphur dioxide.
• PHOSPHOROUS
The element phosphorous is extremely reactive and is found in nature combined with other elements, mostly
phosphates.
Inorganic metallic phosphates are crystalline solids which are normally safe unless one of the toxic metals is
involved. Some of these metallic phosphates are used as fertilizers. Organic phosphates are often very toxic
indeed and are found as pesticides with some of these a few drops on skin can prove fatal.
2.2 PRINCIPLES OF FIRE FIGHTING
The principals of fire fighting rest on the removal of one of the sides of the fire tetrahedron or fire square.
METHODS OF EXTINGUISHING FIRE
It has been shown by the fire triangle and fire
square that three or four factors are essential to
combustion. Namely:
a) The presence of a fuel, or combustible substance.
b) The presence of oxygen (usually as air) or other supporter
of combustion.
c) The attainment and maintenance of a certain minimum
temperature and,
d) The flame chain reaction.
Fire extinction, in principle, consists in the limitation of one or more of these factors and the methods of
extinguishing fire may therefore be classified conveniently under the following headings:
— Starvation or the limitation of fuel.
— Smothering or the limitation of oxygen.
— Cooling or the limitation of temperature.
— Inhibition or the retardation of the combustion reaction.
In practice, specific methods of fire extinction often embody more than one of these principles, but it will be
convenient to consider them according to the main principle involved.
STARVATION
The extinction of fire by starvation is applied in three ways:

a) By removing combustible material from the neighborhood of the fire. Examples of these are the draining of fuel
from burning oil tanks; the discharging of cargo at ship fire.
b) By removing the fire from the neighborhood of combustible material as, for instance, pulling apart a burning
haystack or a thatched roof.
c) By sub-dividing the burning material, when the smaller fires produced may be left to burn or to be extinguished
more easily by other means. A typical example is the emulsification of the surface of burning oil.
SMOTHERING
If the oxygen content of the atmosphere in the immediate neighborhood of burning material can be sufficiently
reduced combustion will cease. The general procedure is to prevent or impede the access of fresh air to the seat of
this fire, and allow the combustion to reduce the oxygen content in the confined atmosphere until it extinguishes
itself. This principle is, of course, ineffective in the case of celluloid and similar substance, where the burning material
contains within itself. This principle is of course, ineffective in the case of celluloid and similar substances where the
burning material contains within itself in a chemically form, the oxygen it requires for combustion.
The principle of smothering is employed on a small scale, in capping a burning material contains within itself in a
chemically form, the oxygen it requires for combustion.
The principle of smothering is employed on a small scale in snuffing a candle and on a large scale, in capping a
burning oil well: two processes which are analogous. The battening down of a ships hold when a fore breaks out
below decks will often hold the flames in check until the port is reached. Small fires, such as those involving a
person's clothing, can be smothering with a rug, or blanket, while the use of sand or earth on a small metal fire is
further instance of the same principle.
An important practical application of the smothering method is the use of foam. This forms a viscous coating over the
burning material and limits the supply of air. It also tends to prevent the formation of flammable vapour.
Another method of smothering is by the application of a cloud of finely divided particles of dry powder, usually
sodium bicarbonate, from a pressurized extinguisher. Research has been made into this method and It Is not certain
that the action is solely related to smothering. Carbonates will absorb heat and when they are finely divided; their
specific heat is very much greater. It may, therefore, be more accurate to say that the powder has a cooling and
flame-inhibiting effect in addition to its smothering, effect a further development in the smothering method has
been the discovery of a powdered compound for use on metal fires, such as uranium and plutonium, thorium and
magnesium. This powder (ternary eutectic, chloride) is applied by means of a gas cartridge pressurized extinguisher.
As the fusing temperature of the powder is in the region of 58°C, it is intended that it shall form a crust over the
burning metal and thus exclude the oxygen of the air.
Another class of smothering agent, inert gas, may be described as providing a temporary blanketing effect. Thus the
vigorous discharge of an, inert gas has the immediate vicinity of the fire may so reduce the oxygen content of the
atmosphere for the time being that combustion cannot be maintained. Carbon dioxide and nitrogen are familiar
examples of this. With fires of any magnitude, however, the convection currents set up are sufficiently powerful to
dissipate the inert atmosphere formed by the application of the gas blanket before the extinguishing action can take
effect. The same thing happens if this method is tested out of doors with a strong wind blowing:. The application of
these media .in liquid form, which is then vapourized by the fire, thus forming the required inert atmosphere,, is
more likely to be effective. Smothering and extinguishing a fire by the use of carbon dioxide is most effective in an
enclosed compartment.
COOLING
If the rate at which heat is generated by combustion is less than the rate at which it is dissipated through various
agencies, the combustion cannot persist.
In applying this principle of fire extinction, the first step is to accelerate the speed with which heat. Is removed from
the fire, thus reducing the temperature of the burning mass and as a consequence the rate at which heat is
produced. In due course, the rate at which heat is lost from the fire exceeds the rate of heat production and the fire
dies away.
The application of a jet or spray of water to a fire Is Invariably based on this simple but fundamental principle. There
are many variations : another example - Is the emulsification of the surface of oil by means of the emulsifying type of
sprinkler head producing an oil in-water or water-in-oil emulsion?
The cooling principle in fire extinction is the one most commonly employed, forming as it does the basis of the
application of water and other liquids to burning materials. The extinguishing medium operates by absorbing heat
from the fire, as consequence of which it may undergo one or more of the following changes:
a) Its temperature is raised.
b) It is converted to the vapour state.
c) It is decomposed.
d) It reacts chemically with the burning material.
It is clearly desirable that the quantity of heat required to produce any or all of these changes in a given quantity of
an extinguishing medium should be as high as possible. That Is to say, referring specifically to the above headings;
that the following values should be as high as possible:
a) The amount of heat absorbed for any given increase in temperature.
• (The thermal capacity);
b) The amount of heat required to vapourize a unit weight of the extinguishing medium (the latent heat of
vapourization);
c) The amount of heat required to cause decomposition of a unit weight.
• of the extinguishing medium (the heat of decomposition);
d) • the amount of heat required to cause a unit weight of the extinguishing.
• Medium to react chemically with the burning material (the heat of reaction).
Water is a coolant having a capacity for absorbing heat far in excess of any other commonly used medium; as it
extracts heat from the fire it turns into steam which has a smothering effect. Certain substances, for example
carbonates, absorb heat by thermal decomposition. Water is not usually effective in absorbing much heat by reacting
with burning substance. Some extinguishing media may in certain circumstances prove dangerous in this connection,
their reaction with the burning substance resulting in the evolution rather than the absorption of heat. Moreover, the
reaction may result in the production of a substance which Is Itself combustible, thus adding fuel to the fire. The
action of water on burning magnesium exemplifies both these effects, since It reacts with the metal exothermically
(I.e. producing heat) with the formation of hydrogen, which Is readily Ignited. In the case of other media the reaction
products may be undesirable in other senses,
In the case of carbon tetrachloride which, under certain conditions, may evolve phosgene, a highly poisonous gas.
FLAME INHIBITION
This method is still a subject of continuing research. Extinguishment by flame inhibition applies only to the flaming
mode, not to the glowing mode. The flame inhibiting extinguishing medium interferes with the active species in a
flame chain reaction which would otherwise functions as 'chain carriers'. There is not necessarily any accompanying
cooling, smothering or fuel removal. This method extinguishes the flames very rapidly; Research has produced a
group of extinguishing medium consisting of volatile liquids based on the halogenated .hydrocarbons. The first and
probably the simplest of these was carbon tetrachloride, but owing to its toxic effects, its use has been discontinued
and a number of others of lesser toxicity have found favor. The best known lsbromochlorodifluoromethane(known as
BOF or Halon 1211) and bromotrifluoromethane (known a BTM or Halon 1301).These vapourizing liquids act by
chemical interference with the chain reaction of flame, propagation.
• The more rapid the decomposition of the gas the faster is the 'reaction with the flame and the sooner the
extinguishment of the fire. Sodium bicarbonate; potassium bicarbonate and mono-ammonium phosphate used as
extinguishing.
Medium in dry chemical powder extinguishers also has a flame inhibiting effect.
2.2.2 & 2.2.3 FIRE-FIGHTING MEDIUM -WATER
Despite the 'many new techniques which have come to the assistance of the fire-fighter, water is still the most
efficient, cheapest and most readily available medium for extinguishing fires of a general nature. It is used for the
majority, of fires, although the methods of application have undergone a number of Improvements. If more water is
applied than is actually required to contain and extinguish the fire, the surplus will drain off and perhaps cause more
damage to goods and property than that caused by the fire itself. Accordingly, the method of applying water to a fire
varies according to the size of the fire.
If small quantities only, are required, the necessary amount may be obtained by the use of portable extinguishers if
fire is larger than it can be deal by hand appliances, then hose are used instead.
A variation in the application of water can be made by means of nozzles that produce jets or sprays ranging from
large size droplets down to atomized discharge.
Judicious use of this type of application can net only cut down the amount of water used, minimizing water damage,
but will ensure that it is used to greater effect. Spray nozzles have become standard equipment in fire appliances on
ships, but their range is limited.
Special pumps and ancillary equipment are used with high pressure fog, giving a greater range of application, but the
special equipment makes it a less economical proposition. The cooling action of Water as a fire fighting medium
depends predominantly on It cooling a fire due to its large thermal capacity and also cooling a fire by drawing latent
heat of vapourization from the fire to vapourize Into steam The latter being by far the more important It takes about
six times as much heat. To convert a certain weight of water at its boiling point Into steam as it is required to raise the
temperature of the same amount of water than the usual atmospheric temperature to its boiling point In the interest
of fire-fighting efficiency, it is desirable that water should be applied to a fire in the liquid condition and in such a way
that as much as possible is converted to steam The smothering effect of the steam produced at the seat at the fire Is
thought to play a part In assisting in the extinguishing process. In all fire-fighting operations where water Is in use it
should be the aim to ensure that the proportion of water which escapes from the fire area In liquid form to that which
is applied should be as low as possible When the heat of a fire is considerable, as in its early stages, steam formed will
not be visible, but as the temperature falls the steam will condense above the fire. This is widely recognized by
experienced fire-fighters as a sign that a fire is being brought under control.
On a basis of thermal capacity and latent heat of vapourization, water is an excellent fire extinguishing medium.
These facts, combined with its availability in large quantities, make it by far the most useful fire extinguishing medium
for general purposes. Water is fairly stable except at very high temperatures and is unlikely to decompose in most fire
situations. It may be applied in a solid jet to class-A fires involving solid materials such as wood, paper and fabrics
achieving deep penetration to set the fire. A fine spray of water is effective in extracting heat from the flames from
burning liquids without seriously disturbing the surface at the liquid. Water spray curtains are used to protect. The
front of superstructures facing the cargo tank and deck mounted cargo tanks from deck spillage fires on gas and
chemical tankers. Water spray curtains generated at the nozzle of hand held hoses are also effective for the
protection of the fire-fighter.
The disadvantages with the use of water are:
1. It conducts electricity.
2. It can cause damage to cargo and machinery.
3. It can cause considerable loss of stability when used in large quantities.
4. It may aggravate the fire it used on cargoes which emit flammable gases when wet.
2.2.4 FIRE-FIGHTING MEDIUM CARBON DIOXIDE GAS
At normal temperatures, carbon dioxide is a gas 1.5 times as dense as air. It is easily liquefied and bottled. It is
normally contained under a pressure of approximately 50 Bar in steel cylinders. As a 1 Ire extinguishing
medium it acts as follows:
'When CO2 Is applied to a fire, the liquid CO2 boils off rapidly as a gas, extracting heat from the surrounding
atmosphere. The gas, however, extinguishes by smothering, or reducing the oxygen content of the air. About
20 to 30 percent of the atmosphere should contain CO2 to completely extinguish the fire. This varies
according to the nature of the burning material; in fact, materials which supply their own oxygen will
continue to burn, as well as any material that tends to decompose the carbon dioxide, such as burning
magnesium. Apart from these considerations, carbon dioxide is quick and clean, non-conductor of electricity,
nontoxic and does not harm most fabrics.
For fire situations in cargo and machinery spaces, where complete flooding of the compartment is desirable,
fixed carbon dioxide installations may be provided.
The advantages of carbon dioxide are:
1. It is non-corrosive.
2. It does not conduct electricity.
3. It leaves no residue.
4. It is not subject to deterioration In quality with age.
5. It is easily available.
Its disadvantages are:
1. It is highly asphyxiating, a concentration of about 9% would produce unconsciousness within a few minutes.
2. It has little cooling effect and there is consequently a danger of reigniting if air is readmitted to the compartment
too soon after the fire.
3. When discharged,' particles of' solid carbon dioxide are normally present and can generate sufficient static
electricity to produce an incentive spark which could ignite flammable atmosphere may be found in ships. For this
reason carbon dioxide is unsuitable as an inert medium in cargo oil tanks and pump rooms.
2.2.5 FIRE-FIGHTING HALOGENATED (HALONS) [MEDIUM HYDROCARBONS]
Halons are extremely effective extinguishing agents which have been used for some time In land based Installations
and in thefield of aviation but due to their toxic properties had, until a couple of decades ago, not been accepted for
use In the marine environment, the halogenated hydrocarbons used for extinguishing fires
have the property of vapourizing readily when heated arid are, therefore, generally known as: vapourizing liquids.
They form a dense, heavier than air cloud of non-flammable vapour which not only blankets a fire by the
displacement of air, but also has the property of interfering with the chemical reaction of flame propagation in the
burning material.
Vapourizing liquids have a special use for extinguishing fires involving electrical equipment, as they are non-
conductors of electricity and they are also non-injurious to delicate electronic equipment. The greatest, drawback of
halogenated hydrocarbons used in the early days has been their toxicity and this has led to the withdrawal of some
Well-known extinguishing media from the group, namely carbon tetrachloride and methyl bromide. This has left the
field open to the 'Freon' types which, because of the Introduction of fluorine's to the mixtures, tend to be less toxic.
Two Halons, bromotriflurornethane (BTM or Halons 1301) and bromochiorodifluromethane (BCE or Halons 1211) are
mostly acceptable' for use in ships. These vapourizing liquids extinguish fires by interrupting the normal chemistry of
combustion and are particularly effective in extinguishing fires where the energy of combustion is mainly
concentrated in the flame. Unlike carbon dioxide they do not extinguish by smothering. They extinguish a fire by
inhibition of the flame chain reaction.
The advantages of Halons are:
1. It achieves incredibly rapid extinguishment of fires.
2. It leaves no residue.
3. Halon 1301 containers can be located inside or outside some protected spaces.
4. At the extinguishing concentrations required Halon 1301 and 1211 are slightly toxic but have no after effects for
exposure of a few minutes.
The disadvantages are:
1. It is not so effective against solid materials in which' fires quickly become deep seated.
2. It has little cooling effect.
3. It is unsuitable for use against combustible chemicals that contain oxygen, reactive metals and metal
hydrides.
4. The medium in expensive in comparison with co2.
The use of Halon 2402 (Dibromotete- trafluoroethane) is also permitted but because of its relatively higher toxicity its
use is limited.
It is necessary to mention the adverse effect of Halons upon the ozone layer of the atmosphere. Ozone is variant
form of oxygen - the most life-sustaining gas of all. Under the effect of intense ultra-violet radiation from the sun in
the stratosphere (upper atmosphere) normal two- atom molecules of oxygen are split into single atoms. Some of
these single oxygen atoms rejoin with other two-atom oxygen molecules to form a three-atom oxygen molecule
called ozone. The amount of ozone in the stratosphere is very scant, less than ten parts per million but that layer Is
enough to atop most of the sun's dangerous ultra-violet rays from reaching the earth's surface, 10 to 30 miles below.
Halons are highly stable and inert at ambient conditions. When these Halon molecules drift into upper atmosphere
they damage the ozone layer. In the same manner that ozone is created, Halons may also decompose due to solar
radiation in the upper atmosphere. The products of the decomposition of Halons react with ozone to create a two-
atom oxygen molecule. Each decomposed Halon molecule will be capable of converting thousands of ozone
molecules into oxygen molecules before being finally neutralized. This results in a hole in the stratospheric ozone
layer. Sun's ultraviolet radiation which is shielded from the earth by the ozone layer then reaches the earth's surface
un-hindered this ultraviolet radiation kills beneficial forms of life, and it can affect the life cycle of many plants, both
on land and in the sea. The IMO Resolution A. 719 (17) urges Governments to take the necessary steps to implement
the following measure for the prevention of air pollution from ships by Halon.
"The use of halon in installations of fire- extinguishing systems on board ships except those falling in the category of
essential use shall be 'prohibited on ships of which the keel is laid or which are at a similar stage of construction on or
after 1 July 1992. The use of Halon in such new installations on other ships shall be prohibited by 1 July 1992. Full-
scale tests of Halon fire- extinguishing systems on board ships shall be prohibited by 1 January. 1992".
2.2.6 FIRE-FIGHTING MEDIUM – FOAM
Foam is the most suitable medium for extinguishing fires involving flammable liquids. Extinguishing is achieved by
forming a layer of small bubbles on the surface of the liquid preventing fuel vapourizing and restricting the oxygen
supply. After extinguishing the flames, the foam blanket should be maintained to allow the surrounding structure to
cool below the ignition temperature of the liquid.
Some of the most hazardous substances so far as fire risk is concerned, are liquids having a specific gravity lower than
that of water. When water is applied to the burning surface of such a liquid, It lowers the temperature momentarily
and then sinks below the surface where any further effect is lost, except in the case of liquids such as methylated
spirits, which mix freely with water, and where dilution may therefore occur to the point when combustion cannot be
maintained.
One of the methods which can be employed for fire extinction is smothering, or the limitation of oxygen. Foam,
which is relatively insoluble in most liquids and light-weight forms a blanket capable of covering the surface of the
burning liquid and so extinguishes the fire. It also forms a radiant heat barrier which is of importance in the extinction
of oil fires.
Foam is usually generated by the mechanical agitation of a diluted foam compound solution in the presence of air.
These compounds Include soaps, glue and wetting agent mixtures and hydrolyzed protein concentrates. Protein
Concentrate foam compound produces foam with the most suitable characteristics for general use for fighting large
oil fires. It is manufactured by the, acid or alkaline hydrolysis of hoof and horn meal or animal blood.
The desirable characteristics of foam are resistance to radiant heat, to fuel vapours and to loss of water content by
drainage. It should flow readily and recover a surface if disturbed, without being too sloppy. The most satisfactory
measure of the efficiency of the foam as a fire-fighting agent is the minimum rate of application at which a fire is
controlled by the agent.
Normal protein foam is destroyed rapidly by polar solvents such as alcohols and ketones. Foam application rates for
fires in polar solvents have to be higher than required for oil fires. Alcohol resistant and all purpose foams are
suitable for use on polar solvents.
Research has produced what is sometimes known as Aqueous Filmy Forming Foam (AFFF) or 'light water'. This so-
called slight water' is per fluorinated hydrocarbon dissolved In water. This makes foam which is much less viscous
than is usual without losing its inherent strength, and so it flows rapidly over the surface producing a sealing effect.
When the surface is disturbed and flash back occurs the re-sealing is extremely fast 'Another variety of foam Is known
as 'High Expansion Foam' which has an expansion ratio of around 1000 to 1 instead of about 8 to 1 for standard foam.
High expansion foam has a particular application for dealing with carbonaceous fires in compartments which are
inaccessible and which lend themselves to complete flooding of the compartment.
2.2.7 FIRE-FIGHTING MEDIUM - DRY CHEMICAL POWDER
New problems have been produced for the firefighter by the use In Industry of an ever widening range of materials.
Water can often not be used; on most fires involving burning metals, the result of applying water can be explosively
disastrous, and so new methods of extinction have been evolved. Chief among these are powdered chemicals which
are stored in cylinders under pressure, or which can be ejected by the release of gas under pressure.
The basis of most chemical powders is sodium bicarbonate this, with the addition, of a metallic stearate as a water
proofing agent, is widely used as an extinguishing media, not only in portable extinguishers, but also for general
application in large quantities. Apart from stearates, other additives are sometimes used to decrease the bulk density
and to reduce packing in the cylinder dry chemical powder is expelled from containers by gas pressure.
It is directed at the fire in concentrated clouds by means of specially designed nozzles. This cloud also screens the
operator from the flames and enables a relatively close attack to be made. Dry Chemical Powder (also, known as "Dry
Powder") normally used on board ships is a flame Inhibitor. Discharged as a free flowing cloud, it can be effective in
dealing initially with a fire resulting from a flammable liquid spill on deck or in a confined space. It is especially
effective on burning liquids such as liquefied gas, or oil escaping from leaking lines and joints, and on vertical surface
e.g. diesel equipment fires, although there is a possibility of some damage to the electrical machinery from its,
abrasion. Dry powder has negligible cooling effect and so may give no protection against possible re-ignition by a hot
surface.
Dry powder will clog and become useless if it is allowed to become, damp.
Dry powder on account Its unique ability to quickly stop combustion of gases and most chemical products has
become the most popular medium used in gas carriers and chemical tankers. Most multipurpose powders are
polyvalent dry powders based on sodium bi-carbonate or potassium bicarbonate. The powder is practically nontoxic
and has ho harmful effect (reactivity) on materials. It is an electrical non-conductor, thus it can be utilized on fires
Involving live electrical equipment (not more than 1000V). It is considered that a cloud of powder in the area of the
fire inhibits the combustion reaction, since powder particles react with active species of the combustion chain
reaction.
Dry chemical powders are also tested for their compatibility with foam, as it was discovered that the early powders
tended to break down foam. It should be confirmed whether the two complement each other on fires where foam is
the standard extinguishing medium. Certain types of dry powder can cause a breakdown of a foam blanket and only
those known to be "foam compatible" should be used in conjunction with foam.
For extinguishing fires involving alkali metals, a special powder is used which soda ash forms<-the base chemical. This
dry chemical powder can also be supplied in polythene bags for metal fires, as it is more effective to bury the fire
under a pile of bags which melt and allow the contents to smother the fire.
Special powders have been developed for some metal fires, especially for the radioactive metals such uranium and
plutonium. Those are known as the ternary eutectic chloride group and were researched and perfected by the United
Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority. These powders contain an ingredient which melts, then flow a little and form a
crust over burning metal, effectively sealing it from the surrounding atmosphere and isolating the fire.
FIRE-FIGHTING MEDIUM - SAND Some burning materials, such as metals, which cannot be extinguished by the use of
water, may be dealt with by means of dry earth, dry sand, powdered graphite, powdered talc, soda ash or limestone,
all of which act as a smothering agent. Dry sand may also be used to prevent burning liquids, such as paints and oils,
from flowing down drains, etc. and for confining shallow layers of such liquids, thus permitting the use of foam or
spray branches On no account should sand be used for extinguishing fires In machinery, such as electric motors, since
Its use may well necessitate dismantling the entire machine for cleaning, even though the fire damage Is negligible.
FIRE-FIGHTING - BLANKETING
Another method, by which, fire may be extinguished, is by blanketing. For dealing with fires in small utensils, such as
those containing cooking fats, the best method is to smother the fire with an asbestos blanket, or similar material,
such as a doormat which has been wetted first.
FIRE-FIGHTING - BEATING OUT
Small fires in materials, such as textiles, etc. may often be extinguished by beating them out, or by rolling and
screwing up the burning material tightly to.
• Exclude the air. Beating is also the method normally employed to extinguish heath, crop and other similar fires in
rural areas when water is not readily available.
22.8 It is important to cut off the fuel supply in situations such as:
- Engine-room fires involving burst oil pipes.
- Gas fires.
22.9 Means for cutting off fuel supply are:
- Closing supply valve.
- Stopping pumps.
- Dropping (emptying) high tanks.
2.2.10 It is Importance to limit the Ingress of air by means of:
- Stopping fans.
- Closing dampers an doors.
2.3 PROPERTIES OF FLAMMABLE MATERIALS
2.3.1 Flammability is the ability of a substance to burn.
Vapours given off by a flammable material can
burn when mixed with air in the right proportion,
in the presence of an ignition source.
• IGNITION POINT is the lowest temperature to which a flammable substance must be heated for it to ignite.
• FLASH POINT is the lowest temperature at which the vapours of a substance are available In sufficient
quantity to produce a momentary flash when a flame Is applied.
• FIRE POINT is the lowest temperature at which the heat horn the combustion of the burning vapour of a
substance is capable of producing sufficient vapour to enable combustion to continue.
• FLAME SPEED is the speed of rapid propagation of theflamefrontthrough a flammable vapour and air
mixture when flammable vapour and oxygen are present in the right quantity required to oxidize the
flammable vapour completely, then the mixture is said to be stochlornetrlc and any Ignition will produce
the most rapid propagation of flame.
• LOWER FLAMMABLE LIMIT (LFL) Is that concentration of flammable vapour in air below which there is
insufficient flammable vapour to support and propagate combustion. Upper Flammable Limit (UFL) is that
concentration of flammable vapour in air above which there is insufficient air to support is propagate
combustion.
• FLAMMABLE RANGE is the range of concentrations of a flammable vapour in air within which the vapour
and air mixture is flammable.
• AUTO-IGNITION is the ignition of a flammable material without the assistance of a external pilot source.
Auto-ignition temperature is the temperature at which a flammable material will ignite without Initiation
by a spark or flame.
2.3.2 STATIC ELECTRICITY is the electricity produced on dissimilar materials through physical contact and
separation. Whenever two dissimilar materials come into contact charge separation occurs at the interface.
The materials stay in contact and immobile relative to one another, the charges are extremely close together.
When the materials separate, the charges are separated and a large voltage difference develops between the
materials. Charges which have separated attempt to recombine and neutralize each other, this process is
known as charge relaxation. Electrical breakdown between any two points in the dissimilar materials give rise
to a sparked discharge which will provide an ignition source, Static electricity causes fire and explosion
hazards on board a ship, especially during the handling of petroleum.
An example of a static discharge between two electrodes adjacent to each other is: A sampling apparatus
lowered into a tank containing charged petroleum liquid.
2.3.3 Reactivity is the property of most materials to enter into a chemical reaction with each other. A chemical
reaction is any chemical change, regardless of rate, amount of product formed, or whether it occurs naturally
or is purposely induced in a laboratory or in production process. The rates of reaction depends on the nature
of the reacting substances, the temperature and concentration of the reactants.
Many reactions are influenced by the presence, of substances which can accelerate or retard the rate of
reaction. Such substances are called catalysts or Inhibitors respectively.
2.3.4 A Source of Ignition is required for combustion to occur. Fire' prevention and extinguishment are dependent
on the control of heat or heat energy source. It is thus important to be familiar with the more common ways
in which the heat energy can be produced.
Sources of Heat Energy (Ignition).
• Chemical Heat Energy.
• Electrical Heat Energy.
• Mechanical Heat Energy.
• Nuclear Heat Energy.
CHEMICAL HEAT ENERGY
Oxidation reactions usually produce it. They form the primary concern of life protection professionals. The source, of
chemical heat energy can be further sub-divided into heat energy through the following processes.
HEAT OF COMBUSTION
It is the amount of heat released during a substance's complete oxidation. Heat of combustion is commonly referred
to as calorific or fuel value, basically depends on the structure and arrangements of atoms in the molecule of the
substance. They are commonly expressed in Joules per gram. Heat Is also produced in complete or partial oxidation.
The quantum of heat in fire is limited by the air (oxygen) supply in every case.
SPONTANEOUS HEATING
This is the process of increase in temperature of a material without drawing heat from its surroundings. Spontaneous
heating of a material to its ignition temperature results in spontaneous ignition or spontaneous combustion.
The fundamental factors are the following:
1. Rate of heat generation.
2. Air supply.
3. Insulation properties of the immediate surroundings.
If exposed to the atmosphere, practically all, organic substances capable of combination with oxygen will oxidize at
some critical temperature with evolution of heat. The rate of oxidation at normal temperature is usually so slow,
.that the heat produced is transferred to surroundings as rapidly as it is formed, with the result that there is no
appreciable temperature Increase in the combustible material being oxidized. There are however certain combustible
materials which oxidize in air. It generates heat more rapidly than It can be' dissipated, with spontaneous ignition
being the result.
For spontaneous Ignition to occur,' enough air must be available to permit oxidation, yet not so much that the heat is
carried away by convection as rapidly as it is formed. An oily rag which might heat spontaneously in the bottom of a
waste basket would not be expected to do so if hung on a clothes line, where air movement would remove heat; nor
would it be likely to heat up if it were sealed in a tightly packed bale of rags. On the other hand, because of more air
and the insulating effect of the bale a loosely packed bale might provide ideal conditions for heating.
In the presence of air, substances subject to oxidation will first form products of partial oxidation which may act as
catalysts to further oxidation. Additional heat can initiate spontaneous heating in some combustible materials .In
these instances, the pre-heating increases the rate of oxidation sufficiently so that more heat, Is produced than can
be lost e.g. foam rubber is capable of spontaneous Ignition and causing fires following pre-heating in a dryer.
HEAT OF DECOMPOSITION
This is the heat released for the decomposition of compounds requiring the addition of heat for their original
formation from the elements; since most chemical compounds are produced by exothermic reactions, Heat of
decomposition is not a common phenomenon. Compounds formed from endothermic reactions are often unstable.
When decomposition is started by heating to above a critical, temperature, decomposition continues with the
liberation of heat e.g. cellulose nitrate decomposes with the liberation of dangerous quantities of heat.
HEAT OF SOLUTION
The heat of solution is the heat released when a substance is dissolved in a liquid. Most materials release heat when
dissolved, although theamount is not sufficient to have a significant effect as a source of Ignition. In the case of some
chemicals e.g. sulphuric acid, the' heat evolved may be sufficient to be dangerous. The chemicals that react with
water in this way are not themselves combustible, but the liberated heat may be sufficient to ignite nearby
combustible materials, in contrast to most materials; ammonium nitrate absorbs heat when dissolved in water
(negative heat of solution). It is used in First Aid packs where keeping an Injury or a body area cool is recommended.
These packs become cold when water is added.
ELECTRICAL HEAT ENERGY
The electrical resistance of any substance depends on atomic and molecular characteristics. The electrical resistance
is proportional to the energy required to move a unit quantity of electrons through the substance against the forces
of electron capture and collision. This energy expenditure appears in the form of heat.
The various sources of heat energy through electrical characteristics are as follows:
RESISTANCE HEATING
Is characterized by a rate of heat generation proportional to the resistance and the square of the current. Since the
temperature of the conductor resulting from resistance heating depends on dissipation of heat to the surroundings,
bare wires carry more current than insulated wires without heating dangerously and single wire can carry more
current than bunched or closely grouped wires.
The concept of resistance heating is utilized in the manufacture of incandescent and infra-red bulbs. The heat
generated is due to the resistance of the filaments in the bulb. Materials of very high melting point are used. The
destruction of the filament by oxidation is prevented by partial evacuation of the bulb and by removal of oxygen.
DIELECTRIC HEATING
Whenever atoms are subject to electric potential gradients from external sources, the arrangement of the atoms is
distorted with a tendency for electrons to move in the direction of the positive potential and for protons to move in
the opposite direction. The external applied potential may be due to a battery or a generator or as a result of a
magnetic field. Even though the external potential is insufficient to break away any electrons, the distortion of the
normal atomic or molecular arrangement represents energy expenditure. This has no consequence if the external
force is unidirectional, but can be substantial In the case of an alternating voltage e.g. the heating of a dielectric (a
good insulator) may be considerable if the frequency of an alternating voltage becomes high.
INDUCTION HEATING
It is caused whenever a conductor is subject to the Influence of a fluctuating or alternating magnetic field or
whenever a conductor is in motion across the lines of force of a magnetic field. Due to the above effect, potential
difference appears in the conductor, resulting in the flow of current giving rise to resistance heating. Frequency of
alternation increases the' heating. An alternating current passing through a wire can induce a current in another wire
parallel to it. If the wire in which a current is induced does not have adequate current-carrying capacity for the size of
the induced current, resistance heating will occur in It.
LEAKAGE CURRENT HEATING Since all available insulating materials are far from perfect insulators, there is always
some current flow when the insulators are subjected to substantial voltages. This flow is commonly referred to all
leakage current. From the standpoint of heat generation, the above is not important, However, If the insulating
material is not suited for the service, or for reasons of economy, space saving, or attempts to attain the maximum
capacity in a condenser, the material is too thin, then the leakage current may exceed safe limits resulting in heating
of the insulator with consequent deterioration of the material and ultimate breakdown.
HEAT FROM ARCING
Arcing occurs when an electric circuit which is carrying current is interrupted intentionally or accidentally. Arcing is
especially severe when motor or inductive circuits are involved. The temperatures of arcs are very high, and the heat
released may be sufficient to ignite combustible or flammable material in the vicinity. In some instances, the arc may
melt the conductor, with the result that molten metal is scattered.
STATIC ELECTRIC HEATING
An electrical charge that accumulates on the surfaces of two material is that have been brought together and then
separated. One surface becomes charged positively, the other negatively. If the substance are not bonded or
grounded, they will eventually accumulate sufficient electrical charge so that a spark discharge may occur. Static arcs
do not produce sufficient heat to ignite ordinary combustible materials such as paper some, however are capable of
Igniting flammable vapours and gases. Fuel flowing in a pipe can generate enough static electricity of sufficient
energy to ignite a flammable vapour.
HEAT GENERATED BY LIGHTNING Lighting is the discharge of an electrical charge on a cloud to an opposite charge on
another cloud or to the ground. Lightning passing between a cloud and the ground can develop very high
temperature in any material of high resistance in its path, such as wood or masonry.
MECHANICAL HEAT ENERGY
Mechanical heat energy is responsible for a significant number of fires on board ships. Frictional heat is responsible
for most of them, while some can be attributed to heat of compression.
FRICTIONAL HEAT
The mechanical energy used in overcoming the resistance t7o motion where two solids are rubbed together is known
as frictional heat. Any friction generates heat. The danger depends on the available mechanical energy, the rate at
which the heat is generated and its rate of dissipation e.g. hot metal' sparks thrown off when a piece of foreign metal
enters a grinding mill.
FRICTION SPARKS
They include the sparks which result from the Impact of two hard surfaces, at least one of which is usually a metal.
Heat generated by impact or friction, initially heats the particle. Depending on the case of oxidation and the heat of
combustion of the metal particle, the freshly exposed surface of the particle may oxidize at the elevated temperature
with the heat of oxidation Increasing temperature of the particle until It is Incandescent e.g. sparks from falling tool is
striking machinery (or piping) from shoe nails, etc.
The practical danger from, mechanical sparks is limited by the fact that usually they are very small and have a low
total heat content, even though they may have a temperature of 1100°C or higher. They cool quickly and start fires
only under favorable conditions, such as when they fall into loose dry cotton combustible dust or explosive materials.
There are no metal tools which can wholly eliminate the danger of sparks and no, benefit is gained by using non-
sparking hand tools In place of steel to prevent explosions of hydrocarbons Leather, plastic and wooden tool are free
from the friction spark hazard.
HEAT OF COMPRESSION
It is the heat released when, the gas is compressed. Compression waves set up in any enclosed cavity is usually
converted to heat which can raise the temperature of the material to the Ignition.
Temperature of any surrounding medium if finds practical application in the theory of Diesel Engines, in which heat
of' compression eliminates the need for a spark ignition system.
NUCLEAR HEAT ENERGY
Nuclear heat energy is released from the nucleus of an atom: the nucleus is composed of matter held together by
tremendous forces which can be released when the nucleus is bombard by energized particles.
Nuclear energy is released in the form of heat, pressure and nuclear radiation. The energy released' by bombardment
of the nucleus's commonly a million times greater than that released by ordinary chemical reaction.
Instantaneous release of large quantities of nuclear heat energy results in an atomic explosion.
Controlled release of nuclear heat energy is a source of power.
2.4 FIRE HAZARD AND SPREAD OF FIRE
CONDUCTION
Conduction is the transfer of heat within a substance from high temperature regions to low temperature regions by
direct conflict between the particles of solid, by means of elastic waves, by diffusions of atoms or molecules and by
the diffusion of free electrons.
Conduction may occur in solids, liquids or gases, although it is most clearly present in solids. In conduction, heat
energy is passed on from one molecule to the next, much as water is passed from one man to the next in a bucket
chain. In the bucket chain the men only move a very small distance to either side of their mean position - it is only the
water which passes on. In conduction of heat, the molecules vibrate about a mean position and pass on the heat
energy by colliding with their neighbors.
The ability to conduct heat (thermal conductivity) varies between materials. Most metals conduct heat relatively
easily, and are therefore classed as good conductors, though their abilities to conduct heat vary among themselves.
The best conductors of heat are silver and copper. Aluminum has about half the thermal conductivity of silver and
iron about one-eighth, Non metallic solids' is poor conductors and all liquids (except mercury, which is a metal) are
poor conductors of heat. In fact, some solids and also liquids and gases are sometimes referred to as heat insulators
because they are such poor conductors. In general good conductors of electricity are good conductors of heat, and
vice-versa.
The ability of a material to conduct heat can be measured experimentally and is known as the thermal conductivity
(usually denoted by K). The flow of heat measured in joules per second (J/s) and this unit is the watt (w). Thermal
conductivity on the SI system is measured in watts/meter/ degree Kelvin (W/m/K).
In fire situations, thermal conductivity is important in terms of the danger of fire spread. A steel girder passing
through an otherwise fireproof wall may be a cause of fire spread because of heat conducted along it. A plain steel
door subjected to heat on one side conducts heat rapidly to the other side, but a wooden door (though it may
become ignited) is, initially, a more effective barrier to heat due to it being a poor conductor. The relative conductivity
factor of materials of construction may be an important factor in the fire resisting ability of a structure.
CONVECTION CURRENTS
Convection currents transfer of heat by actual physical movements of fluid (Liquid and gas) particles Heat is
transferred by convection the Intermixing of particles. The fluid is set in bodily motion due to either difference in
density because of heating or external forces such as fans etc.
CONVECTION
This occurs only in liquids and gases. When liquid or gas is heated, it expands and therefore becomes less dense. The
lighter fluid rises, being displaced by colder and therefore denser fluid. This in turn becomes heated and so a
circulation is set up. Heat energy is carried throughout the fluid by actual movement of molecules until a state of
uniform temperature is reached.
In a fire situation in a ship's accommodation, convection currents can convey hot gases produced by combustion
upward through the stairwells and open lift shafts thereby spreading the fire to the upper decks. A downward current
of cool air replaces the rising hot gases and helps to accelerate the burning process.
RADIATION
Radiation is transfer of heat by temperature, excited electromagnetic waves. Thermal energy is converted into
radiant energy. Heat may also be transmitted in straight lines through empty space, without the use of a medium.
This method of transmission of heat is called radiation and does not involve any contact between bodies and is
independent of any material in the intervening space. All forms of radiant energy travel in straight lines at 3 X 108
meters per second (m/s); this is the speed of light. The intensity falls off inversely as the square of the, distance from
the source of radiation This means that at twice the' distance the Intensity is one quarter; at three times the distance,
the intensity is one- ninth, and so on. The inverse square law can be understood by looking at a square with 1 meter
sides placed at, say 2 meters from the source. It will throw a shadow with 2 meters sides on a second sheet placed 4
meters from the source. Thus the energy falling on 1 m is the same as that which would have fallen on an area of 2m
x 2m = 4m2 at a distance of 4 meters. So the energy per square meter at 4 meters is one quarter that at 2 meters, i.e.
one quarter at twice the distant. This is Important when considering the effect of radiation from a heat source such
as a fire.
When radiant energy (which of course, includes infra-red radiation) falls on a body, there are three possibilities.
a) TRANSMISSION
The energy passes through the body without warming It. The body is therefore 'transparent' to the energy.
b) ABSORPTION
The energy is absorbed by the body, whose temperature is raised.
c) REFLECTION-
The energy may be reflected back from the surface, e.g. reflection of light.
Some substances exhibit the phenomenon of 'selective absorption', that is, they allow some form of radiation to
pass, but not others. Glass for example allows light to pass but absorbs infra-red radiation - hence glass may be
used as a fire screen; the heat is stopped but the fire may be seen through it. (This is not intended to infer that
glass is of much value as a fire barrier, as a number of other factors must be taken into account.) Carbon dioxide
and water vapour also exhibit this property. Hence the sun's radiant energy (mainly in the form of light) falling on
the earth passes through the atmosphere and warms the ground while the resulting Infrared radiation from the
ground is absorbed by the atmosphere and so does not readily escape back into space. Other substances e.g.
pitch, allow infra-red radiation to pass, but absorb light.
The condition of the surface of a body affects its ability to absorb or reflect radiation. White or polished metal
surfaces are the best reflectors, while matt black surfaces are bad reflectors. Good reflectors are bad absorbers and
vice versa. Hence the use in hot climates of white clothes, whiter painted houses and cars and the like. Snow and ice,
being white and good reflectors, are poor absorbers of heat and hence melt slowly in strong sunlight unless the
surrounding temperature is raised sufficiently to cause heating by conduction or convection. Experiments have been
carried out in which coal dust or other black powders have been spread on show the effect is to accelerate the
melting because the sun's heat is more readily absorbed. It is also found that a substance which is a good reflector of
heat is a poor radiator of heat, and vice-versa. Thus a polished silver teapot retains its heat.
Better than would a blackened teapot, In spite of silver being a good conductor. For the, so-called radiators of a hot
water system to radiate effectively they should be painted black, not a light colour as is usually the case. 'Many fires
have been caused by radiation - QUOM most common is clothing being ignited by being placed too close to a source
of radiation as sometimes happens when clothes are aired on a clothes horse. Radiant heat from the sun passing
through a glass window has sometimes been concentrated by an object inside the space which acts as a lens, a
magnifying glass or a bottle, for instance, and this has been the cause of fire.
HEAT FLOW
Energy is stored in one or more forms of stored- potential, kinetic and Internal energy. Heat flow is defined as an
energy which flows from a substance at a higher temperature to another substance at a lower temperature. Heat
transfer or heat flow Is on account of temperature difference existing between the two substances.
2.4.4 FIRE HAZARDS IN THE ENGINE-ROOM, INCLUDE:
a) Combustible liquids-fuel and lubricating oil.
b) Oil leaks and oil-soaked insulation.
c) Hot surfaces, e.g. exhaust pipes, engine parts overheating.
d) Defects In lagging.
e) Hot work, e.g. welding, cutting by oxyacetylene torch.
f) Auto-ignition, e.g. oil dripping on hot surface.
2.4.5 HAZARDS IN THE GALLEY INCLUDE:
a) Combustible liquids, e.g. cooking oil.
b) Hot fat hot surfaces, e.g. ovens, frying pans.
c) Defective electrical connections.
2.4.6 HAZARDS IN ACCOMMODATION INCLUDE:
a) Combustible material is, e.g. furnishings, personal effects.
b) Matches and cigarette smoking.
c) Defective or overloaded electrical systems.
2.4.7 HAZARDS FROM CARGOES INCLUDE:
— Self-heating cargo and spontaneous combustion.
— Oxidizing cargoes and organic peroxides.
— Compressed flammable gas.
— Pyrophoric cargoes.
a) Flammable liquids and solids.

b) Substances liable to react with themselves, with water, with other cargoes and with materials of the
ship.
c) Explosives.
2.4.8 Smoking is a fire hazard because of:
— The temperature of a burning cigarette, which is 500°C.
— Carelessness with cigarettes, pipes and matches, scatting fire to bedclothes, contents of waste-paper bin
and furnishings.
2.4.9 Four phases of fire Development are,
— Ignition (incipient).
— Developing (surface fire).
— Absolute fire (fire in depth in solids).
— Burning out.
Actual ignition depends on many factors such as length of time and amount of material exposed to the heat
source, ventilation, the condition of the fuel (specific surface), whether or not the substance is pure or coated
in some way.
A fire in a carbonaceous material will develop through the overheating and shouldering stage to flaming combustion.
When exposed to heat, the heat will dry out the moisture. Once the material is dry of all moisture, the temperature
starts to rise, at 173°C oxidation commences and overheating starts. The reaction becomes violent in the shouldering
stage at 302°C. During the shouldering stage some of the vapours produced are flammable. These vapours do not
burn because they are 'not hot enough. Once the, material is heated above 240°C, no further heating is required as
the energy required to raise the temperature is obtained from the exothermicity of the oxidation of the fuel itself. It
will burst into flame at about 420°C. Spark Ignition of flammable vapours would lead straight to flaming combustion.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF FIRE WITH RESPECT TO TIME AND TEMPERATURE
The transition from shouldering to flaming combustion can be quite mini and is termed as flashover, which happens
when the self ignition temperature of the vapours is reached. Flashover s generally associated with high
temperatures but it can happen at relatively low temperatures with fires involving certain modern materials such as
foamed rubber .If a match flame is observed, a bright white part of the flame and a dark bit in the middle can be
noted. The incandescent (white hot part of the flame is where the chemical reaction, combustion, is taking place.
The source of ignition breaks up the vapour molecules into radicals, which will then react with the oxygen. The
energy that is released by this reaction breaks up other molecules and the fire proceeds by a molecular chain
reaction. This chain reaction proceeds towards the fuel at about the same speed as the molecules themselves are
coming away from the fuel so that the flame front remains more or less constant between the area where the
vapours are burning and the dark area over the fuel which is a mixture of unburned vapours and air. Feedback of
radiated heat from the flame to the fuel ensures a constant supply of vapour and the fire is self sustaining once
initiated.
SURFACE FIRES
Materials such as wood and paper are poor conductors of heat, so that for a while only the surface of the fuel is hot,
a surface fire is easily blown out.
DEEP SEATED FIRE
After awhile the heat will penetrate the fuel and become what is called deep seated fire in which case copious
quantities of a cooling medium will have to be used. Even after the fire is apparently out the heat in the fuel will
slowly travel to the surface, dry of the surface and it may reignite.
2.4.10 Something that is very fundamental to firefighting is that if a wood and paper fire has been burning for longer
than ten or fifteen minutes the temperature of the burning material would probably be in excess of 1000°C
where as the temperature of burning petrol would probably not be more than 100°C even though the
temperature in petrol flame would be hotter. Hydrocarbon which does not evaporate as readily as petrol
such as lubricating oil or cooking oil would have a temperature of 600°C. Iron and steel (metal) will burn if hot
enough (11 50°C).
2.4.11 The effect of temperature rise on the rate of the chain reaction and the lire Intensity is discussed below.
Branched chain combustion reaction of the hydrogen-oxygen system, Is the simplest and the most rapid of all
combustion types. Following the initial splitting of the hydrogen molecules the individual hydrogen atoms interact
with oxygen molecules to produce active OH and 0 ions. These active species are formed as products and are
consumed as reactants and they can be called "Chain Carriers. It has been found that the flame velocity is dependent
upon the concentration of the active OH species and upon the pressure at which the reaction proceeds.
Molecules of flammable vapour can be mixed with air and they will not ignite until a source of Ignition Is provided the
source of ignition breaks up the vapour molecules into radicals which will then react with oxygen. The energy that is
released by this reaction breaks up other molecules and the fire proceed by a molecular chain reaction. The effect of
the temperature also causes feedback of radiated heat from the flame to the fuel. This ensures a constant supply of
vapour and the fire is self-sustaining once initiated;
2.5 CLASSIFICATION OF FIRES & APPROPRIATE EXTINGUISHING AGENTS

2.5.1 Fires have been classified into four types 1 namely AIBIC and denoting carbonaceous fires, flammable liquids
fires, electrical fires and metal fires. This classification is known as the NFPA Classification. The ISO Classification
(which is more commonly used nowadays) is detailed below:
• CLASS 'A'
These are fires Involving solid materials normally of an organic nature (compounds of carbon) in which
combustion generally occurs with the formation of glowing embers. Class 'A' fires are the most common and the
most effective extinguishing agent Is generally water in the form of a jet or spray.
• CLASS 'B'
These are .fires Involving liquids or liquefiable solids. For the purpose of choosing effective extinguishing agents,
flammable liquids may be divided into two groups:
I. Those that are miscible with water, and
ii. Those that is immiscible with water.
Depending on (I) and (II), the extinguishing agents include water spray, foam, light water, vapourising liquids,
carbon dioxide arid dry chemical powders.
• CLASS 'C'
These are fires involving gases or liquefied gases in the form of a liquid spillage, or a liquid or gas leak, and this
Include methane, butane, etc. foam or dry chemical powder can be used to control fires involving shallow liquid
spills. (Water in the form of spray Is generally used to cool the containers).
• CLASS 'D'
These are fires Involving metals. Extinguishing agents containing water are ineffective, and even dangerous,
carbon dioxide, acids, the bicarbonate classes of dry chemical powders may also be hazardous if applied to
most metal fires .Powdered graphite, powdered talc, soda ash, limestone and dry sand are normally suitable
for Class 'D' fires. Special fusing powders have been developed for fires involving some metals, especially the
radioactive ones.
ELECTRICAL FIRES
It is not considered, according to present-day Ideas, that electrical fires constitute a class, since any fire
Involving, or started by, electrical equipment must, in fact, be a fire of Class A, B, COR D. The normal
procedure in such circumstances is to cut off the electricity and use an extinguishing method appropriate to
what is burning. Only when this cannot be done with certainty special extinguishing agents be required which
are nonconductors of electricity and non-damaging to equipment; these include vapourising liquids, dry
powders and carbon' dioxide, although the latter's cooling and condensation effects may affect 'sensitive
electronic equipment.
2.5.2 The need to know which system of classification has been Used by the manufacturer of an extinguisher and
the importance of heeding diagrammatic or written warnings of these types of fire for which 'It Is' unsuitable,
is very Important.
2.5.3 It is Important to select a suitable extinguishing medium 'to fight a fire in energized electrical equipment
because using some extinguishers marked as suitable for type C fires (ISO Classification) could result in
electrocution of the operator or of personnel nearby whereas all extinguishers marked as suitable for class C
fires (NFPA classification) are suitable for electrical fires.
EXPLOSION
The word "explosion" has assumed so many shades of meaning that it cannot be used with any appreciable
degree of precision by members of the scientific and engineering communities. By regarding an explosion as
an effect or result of another phenomenon, an understanding of the phenomenon of explosion can be
idealized. For example, a vessel is filled with a flammable gas-air mixture. The mixture is ignited and the
resultant pressure Increase ruptures the vessel. This would be termed an explosion. However, if the same
vessel were stressed beyond its ultimate stress limits by steam pressure, it could be just as easily ruptured.
Therefore, in the widest sense, an explosion Is an effect produced by the sudden violent expansion of gases.
This process of rapid physical and/or chemical transformation of a system into mechanical, work,
accompanied by a change of its potential energy may also be accompanied by shock waves and/or the
disruption of enclosing materials or structures. An explosion may result from chemical changes such as in the
detonation of an explosive or the combustion of a flammable gas-air mixture, physical or mechanical changes
such as the bursting of a boiler, or atomic changes. Associated with the term explosion are the term
"Deflagration" and "Detonation". Deflagration is an exothermic reaction which propagates from the burning
gases to the unreacted material by conduction, convection, and radiation. In this process the combustion
zone progresses through the material at a rate that is less than the velocity of sound in the unreacted
materials.
In contrast, a detonation is an exothermic reaction characterized by the presence of a shock wave in the
material which establishes and maintains the reaction. A distinctive difference is that the reaction zone
propagates at a rate greater than the velocity of sound in the unreacted material.
Gas or vapour-air mixtures have both flammability (deflagration) and detonability limits these define the
range of fuel-to oxidant ratio over which the mixtures can be burned' or detonated. The limits of detonability
are dependent upon the Initiating stimulus and the environment. They are usually about the same as
flammability limits but in some systems, such as hydrogen-air, they may be quite different.
Maximum pressures of approximately eight times the initial pressure result from deflagrations of
stoichometric gas-air mixtures; the increase may be as much as 20 times in fuel-oxygen systems.
The side-on pressures from gas detonations are about twice those from deflagrations, and the reflected
pressure is about another factor of two greater. Thus, a detonating fuel-oxygen mixture may give a 40 - fold
pressure increase.
Gas or vapour-air mixtures have both flammability (deflagration) and detonability limits. These define the
range of fuel-to-oxidant ratio over which the mixtures can be burped or detonated. The limits of detonability
are dependent upon the initiating stimulus and the environment. They are usually about the same as
flammability limits but in some systems, such as hydrogen-air, they may be quite different. Maximum
pressures of approximately eight times the initial pressure result from deflagrations stoichometric gas-air
mixtures; the increase may be as much as 20 times in fuel-oxygen systems. The side-on pressures from gas
detonations are about twice those from deflagrations, and the reflected pressure is about another factor of
two greater. Thus, a detonating fuel oxygen mixture may give a 40-fold pressure increase.
2.5.5 BLEVE
Instances where liquefied gas containment vessels fail and break into two or more pieces are likely. These
circumstances warrant treatment in some detail. These failures are described as Boiling Liquid Expanding
Vapour Explosions, or BLEVE (pronounced "BLEVEY") a type of pressure release explosion.
Failure is most often due to weakening of the vessel's metal from flame contact; however, it will happen if the
liquefied gas containment vessel fails for any other reason.
Reduction of internal pressure to atmospheric level in a pressurized liquefied gas containment vessel results
from structural failure of the vessel, the strength of carbon steel steadily decreases with Increase in
temperature above about 200°C. The loss of strength with increasing temperature is valid for all common
metals: It is extremely difficult to significantly heat the liquefied gas containment vessel metal where it is In
contact with liquid because the liquid conducts the heat away from the metal and acts as a heat absorber.
This situation does not exist for the metal in the vapour space of the liquefied gas containment vessel as
vapour is a relatively poor heat conductor and has, little heat absorbing capacity. In most BLEVE the failure
originates in the metal of the vapour space and is characterized by both the metal stretching and thinning out
and the appearance of a longitudinal tear which progressively gets Larger until a critical length is reached. At
this point the failure becomes brittle in nature and propagates at some velocity through the metal in both
longitudinal and circumferential directions.
The time between Initiation of flame contact and a BLEVE is variable because it depends upon such widely
varying factors as the size and nature of the fire as well as the liquefied gas containment vessel itself. Un-
insulated containers can BLEVE In a matter of a few minutes in the case of small containers to a few hours for
very large containers in the absence of water cooling. Insulation designed for fire exposure conditions can
delay BLEVE times significantly.
Liquefied gases may be stored in containment at a temperature above their boiling point at NTP and remain
under pressure only so long as the liquefied gas containment vessel remains closed to the atmosphere. If the
pressure is reduced to atmospheric, such as through containment vessel failure, the substantial heat which Is
In effect "stared" in the liquid, causes very rapid vapourisation of a portion of the liquid to a degree directly
proportional to the temperature difference between that of the liquid at the instant of the vessel failure and
the normal boiling point of the liquid. For many liquefied flammable gases, this temperature difference at
normal atmospheric temperature can result in vapourisation of about one-third of the liquid in the liquefied
gas containment vessel.
Liquid vapourisation is accompanied by a large liquid to vapour expansion. It a this expansion process which
provides the energy for propagation of cracks the liquefied gas containment vessel structure, propulsion of
pieces of the vessel, rapid mixing of the vapour and air resulting in a characteristic fireball upon ignition by
the fire which caused the BLEVE and atomization of the remaining cold liquid. Many of the atomized droplets
burn as they fly through the air, however, it is not uncommon for the cold liquid to be propelled from the fire
zone too fast for ignition to occur and fall to earth still in liquid form.
Protection
for an un-insulated liquefied gas containment vessel which can be exposed to fire is provided by the
application of water so that a film of water exists on portion of the vessel not in internal contact with liquid.
Chapter 3
FIRE CONTROL ABOARD SHIPS
3.1 AREAS OF FIRE HAZARD
3.1.1 For fires in the machinery space :
• Causes include:
1. Combustible liquids leaking through faulty or damaged connections.
2. Oil-soaked Insulation.
3. Hot surfaces, e.g. exhaust pipes, engine parts overheating in close proximity to oil lines.
4. Defects in lagging.
5. Hot work, e.g. welding, cutting by oxyacetylene torch.
6. Auto Ignition, e.g. oil dripping on hot surface.

METHODS OF CONTAINMENT INCLUDE
1. Watertight doors.
2. Fire doors.
3. Dampers.
4. Water sprays and screens, and remote control of these where applicable.
• Methods of Detection Include
1. Smoke detectors.
2. High-temperature probes.
3. Rate-of-rise-of-temperature probes.
4. Patrols.
• Include
1. Fixed systems, e.g. water, foam, carbon dioxide and Halons.
2. Portable, e.g. water, foam, carbon dioxide and powder.
3. Mobile, e.g. foam, carbon dioxide and powder.
3.1.2 FIRES IN THE ACCOMMODATION:
• Causes Include.
1. Combustible materials.
2. Matches and cigarette smoking, Including careless disposal of burning cigarettes or ash.
3. Textiles adjacent to hot objects such as radiators and lamps.
4. Defective and overloaded electrical systems.
5. In a laundry, incorrect Installation of tumbled drier or failure to keep it clean.
• Methods of Containment Include.

1. Fire doors and dampers.
2. Sprinkler system.
3. Fire-retardant materializing construction.
4. Fire-retardant deck coverings.
5. Fire-retardant furnishings.
• Methods of Detection Include.
1. Smoke detectors and temperature probes.
2. Sprinkler system.
3. Patrols.
• Fire-Appliances Include.
1. Fixed system, e.g. water hydrants and hoses
2. Portable, e.g. water-type extinguishers.
3 FOR FIRES IN THE GALLEY
• Causes Include
1. Overheating of combustible liquids and fats.
2. Overheating of deep-fat fryers.
3. Hot surfaces.
4. Defective electrical connections.
5. Greasy flues.
• Methods of containment include.
1. Fire doors, ventilation and flue dampers.

2. Fire blankets.
• Methods of Detection Include.
1. Patrols.
• Fire Appliances Include.
1. Fixed system e.g. water hydrants and hoses.
2. Portable, e.g. water (not for fat or oil fires), carbon dioxide and powder.
3.1.4 For fires in the radio room or battery room and for electrical fires:
• Causes Include.
1. Overloads and short circuits.
2. Defective Insulation.
3. Fractured and loose connections.
4. In battery room, build-up of hydrogen (due to lack of ventilation) and Its Ignition, e.g. from smoking.
1. Fire Doors.
• Methods Of Detection Include Observation.
Fire appliances include.
1. Portable extinguishers e.g. carbon dioxide and powder.
3.1.5 FIRES IN CONTAINERS:
• Causes include.
1. Cargoes liableto self-heating and spontaneous combustion(Coal).
2. Bulk cargoes liable to emit flammable gas. (coal, direct reduced iron).
3. Loss Of integrity of packages containing flammable or reactive substances.
4. Collection of oily materials as a result of insufficient cleaning and of leakage from tanks.
1. Hatch covers, 'tweet docks and hull structure.
2. Use of dampers.
3. Remote control of extinguishing media.
4. Methods of detection include.
5. Smoke detectors.
6. Temperature probes.
• Fire Appliances Include.
1. Fixed systems, e.g. water spray, high- expansion foam, carbon dioxide and Halons
2. Portable extinguishers, e.g. water, foam, powder and carbon dioxide.
3. Mobile, e.g. foam-making equipment.
3.1.6 For Flammable Ship's Stores: potentially hazardous materials, which include:
1. Paints and varnishes approved by an Administration.
2. Lubricating oil.
3. Cleaning fluids, paint thinners, paraffin.
4. Fuel for motor lifeboats and emergency engines.
5. Oxygen and acetylene cylinders.
• Approved storage areas for such materials are
1. Paint store.
2. Deck lockers.
• Prohibited storage area for paints, oils & cleaning fluids are:
1. Accommodation.
2. Machinery spaces.
3. Approved methods of handling between shore and ship should be complied with to avoid spillage.
4. Ignition from any cause.
5. Transportation delay (shore to storage)

3.2 FIRE PRECAUTIONS
3.2.1 Structural Fire Provisions Include:
1. Division of the ship into main vertical zones by thermal and structural boundaries.
2. Inert gas protection on tankers.
3. Lockers for combustible materials.
4. Use of flame-retardant materials.
5. Flame screens and other devices for preventing the passage of flame.
6. The use of Steel.
7. Provisions with respect to the fire main diameter, pressure.
3.2.2 Fire-Fighting Equipment And Systems For A Passenger Ship Include:
• The following fire-fighting equipment.
1. Fixed fire-extinguishing gas systems, C02 or Halons.
2. Hydrants and fire hoses.
3. Portable fire extinguishers.
4. Sprinklers.
5. Fireman's outfits.
• Arrangements for the Supply of Power and Water, Including Emergency Supplies.
• Automatic Fire Detection.
• Provision of Emergency Controls.

3.2.3 It is necessary to:
1. Maintain cleanliness on board.
2. Ensure smoking is done only in approved spaces keep doors closed.
3. Maintain fire appliances, including fire dampers.
4. Use approved fire-fighting methods.
5. Conduct regular fire drills and instruction sessions.
3.2.4 The organization and task of fire patrols is discussed in detail in.
3.2.5 Procedures which must be observed when a ship is in a dockyard for repairs, Including.
1. Safety procedures or dockyard personnel.
2. Responsibility for fire fighting.
3. Control of testing.
3.3 STRUCTURAL FIRE PROTECTION
This aspect is taken care of in the design stage itself. During the construction of a ship the design incorporates
the current regulations in force at the time. They give details and specifications, of protection to be afforded
to various spaces. It is achieved by:
1. Division of ship into main vertical zones by thermal and structural boundaries.
2. Separation of accommodation spaces from the remainder of ship by thermal and structural boundaries.
3. Restricted use of combustible material.
4. Containment and extinction of any fire in the space of origin.
5. Protection of means of escape or access for fire fighting.
6. Ready availability of fire extinguishing appliances.
7. Minimization of possibility of Ignition of flammable vapour.

Some important definitions related with the fire protection methods adopted in ship construction are given here to
enable easier understanding of the regulations.
NON-COMBUSTIBLE MATERIAL: is a material which neither burns nor gives off flammable vapours in sufficient
quantity for self-ignition when heated to approximately 750°C, this being determined to the satisfaction of the
Administration by an established test procedure. Any other material is a combustible material.
A STANDARD FIRE TEST: is one in which specimens of the relevant bulkheads or decks are exposed in a test furnace to
temperatures corresponding approximately to the standard time temperature curve. The specimen shall have an
exposed surface of not less than 4.65m2 and height (or length of deck) of 2.44m, resembling as closely as possible the
intended construction and Including where appropriate at least one joint. The standard time- temperature curve is
defined by a smooth curve drawn through the following temperature points measured above the initial furnace
temperature:
At the end of the first 5 minutes 556oC
At the end of the first 10 minutes 659 oC
At the end of the first 15 minutes 718oC
"A" CLASS DIVISIONS are those divisions formed by bulkheads and decks which comply with the following:
1. They shall be constructed of steel or other equivalent material.
2. They shall be suitably stiffened.
3. They shall be so constructed as to be capable of preventing the passage of smoke and flown to the end of the
one-hour standard fire test.
4. They shall be insulated with approved noncombustible materials such that the average temperature of the
unexposed side will not rise more than 139°C. Above the original temperature, nor will the temperature, at any
one point, including any joint, rise more than 180°C above the original temperature within the time listed
below:
Class A-60 60 minutes

Class A-0 0 minutes
The Administration may require a test of a prototype bulk head or deck to ensure that it meets the, above
requirements for integrity and temperature rise.
“B” class division are those divisions formed by bulkheads, decks, ceilings or linings which comply with the following :
1. They shall be so constructed as to be capable of preventing the passage of flame to the end of the first half hour of
the standard fire test.
2. They shall have an insulation value such that the average temperature of the unexposed side will not rise more
than 139°C above the original temperature, nor will the temperature at any one point, including any joint, rise
more than 225°C above the original temperature within the time listed.
Class B-15 15 minutes
Class 8-0 0 minutes
They shall be constructed of approved noncombustible materials and all materials entering into the construction and
erection of "B" class divisions shall be non-combustible, with the exception that combustible veneer may be
permitted provided they meet other requirements of this chapter; and the Administration may require a test of a
prototype division to ensure that it meets the above requirements for integrity and temperature.
"C” CLASS DIVISIONS are divisions constructed of approved non-combustible material are. They need meet neither
requirements relative to the passage of smoke and flame or limitations relative to the temperature rise. Combustible
veneers are permitted provided they meet there requirements of this chapter. Machinery spaces are all machinery
spaces of category A and all other spaces containing propulsion machinery, boilers, fuel units, steam and internal
combustion engines, generators, and major electrical machinery, oil filling stations, refrigerating, stabilizing,
ventilation and air-conditioning machinery, and similar spaces, and trunks to such spaces.
REGULATION REQUIREMENTS FOR STRUCTURAL PROTECTION
Ships carrying more than thirty-six passengers are required to have accommodation spaces and main divisional
bulkheads and decks which are generally of incombustible material [in association with either an automatic fire
detection and alarm system or an automatic sprinkler and alarm system. The hull, superstructure, and deck houses
are subdivided by 'A' class divisions into main vertical zones the length of which on any one deck should not exceed
40m. Main horizontal zones of 'A' class divisions are fitted to provide a barrier between sprinkle head and non-
sprinkled zones of the ship. Bulkheads within the main vertical zones are required to be "A", "B" or "C" class divisions
depending on the fire risk of the adjoining spaces and whether adjoining spaces are within sprinkler zones.
Passenger vessels carrying out not more than thirty six passengers are required to have the hull, super structure and
deck houses subdivided into main vertical zones by 'A" class divisions. The accommodation and service spaces are to
be protected either by all enclosure bulkheads within the space being of at least 'B' class divisions or only the corridor
bulkhead being of at least 'B' class division where an approved automatic fire detection alarm system is installed.
Cargo ships of more than 4000 tons gross are required in general to be constructed of steel. Corridor in the
accommodation are required to be at least B class divisions and the bulkheads of galleys and inflammable stores
adjacent to accommodation, crew lift trucks and also stairways below the weather deck are required to be of steel.
In the construction of tankers particular attention is paid to the exterior boundaries of superstructure and deck
houses which face the cargo oil tanks. Bulkheads between pump rooms and main machinery spaces and bulkheads
between pump rooms and accommodation and service spaces are required to be of class divisions. Corridor
bulkheads within the accommodation spaces are to be of at least B class divisions.
Generally openings in fire divisions are to be fitted with permanently attached means of closing which have the same
fire resisting rating as the division. Suitable arrangements are made to ensure that the fire resistance of a division is
not impaired where it is pierced for the passage of pipes, vent trunks, electrical cables, etc.
Aspecial category space is an enclosed space above or below the bulkhead deck used for the carriage of motor
vehicles with fuel for their own propulsion in their own tanks and to which passengers have access. Obvious examples
are the garage spaces in RO-RO passenger ferries and vehicle decks in RO-RO cargo ships. Such spaces cannot have
the normal main vertical fire zoning without interfering with the working of the ship.
Equivalent protection is provided in such spaces by ensuring that the horizontal and vertical boundaries of the space
are treated as main fire zone divisions and an efficient fixed fire- extinguishing system is fitted within the space. This
takes the form of a fixed pressure water spraying system generally in association with an automatic fire detection
system. Special scupper arrangements are provided to clear the deck of water deposited by the system in the event
of a fire to avoid a drastic reduction in stability.
FIRE PROTECTION- INERT GAS SYSTEMS
Hydrocarbon gas normally encountered in petroleum tankers cannot burn in an atmosphere containing less than 11
% oxygen by volume. One way of providing protection against the fire or explosion in the vapour space of cargo tanks
is to keep the oxygen level below 11%. This can be achieved by using fixed piping arrangement to deliver inert gas
into each cargo tank in order to reduce the air content, and hence the oxygen content, and render the tank
atmosphere nonflammable.
A boiler flue gas - inert gas system, was first installed on board an oil tanker in 1925 as a means of preventing
explosions within the cargo tanks and remained voluntarily until the 1978 protocol of SOLAS 74 was effective. The
1978 Protocol to SOLAS74, which applied to a wider range of tankers, required further attention to be given to inert
gas systems. The 1981 Amendments to SOLAS 74 have further revised the inert gas requirements making the
installation of IGS obligatory on all new tankers above 20,000 tones deadweight and on many existing tankers
depending on their age and deadweight.
INERT GAS SYSTEM USING FLUE GAS
A typical arrangement of an inert gas plant is shown in the accompanying figure. The inert gas plant is capable of
supplying 1.25 times the combined volumetric capacity of the cargo pumps to ensure that a small positive pressure,
not exceeding 0.20 kg/m2 can be maintained in the cargo tanks under maximum demand conditions, which will be
when cargo oil is being uploaded. Flue gases which contain about 5% oxygen as a result of automatic combustion
control are drawn out of the boiler uptake into the inert gas system. The flue gases are then led into the base of a
scrubber where, by washing and cooling the gases with sea water as they pass upwards through the various sprays
and trays containing packed stones or plastic chippings, over 90% of the sulphurous contents and most of the solids
are washed out and drained overboard through an effluent line.
The flue gas which may now be considered as inert gas is passed out at the top of the scrubber and through a filter or
demister. The blowers are capable of supplying 1.25 times the discharge capacity of the cargo pumps and can ensure
a positive pressure of inert gas is maintained at all times.
The Inert gas Will then pass from what can be considered a safe area (where the boilers, scrubber and fans are
located) to the dangerous area through a bulkhead valve and a via water seal. The purpose of the deck water seal is
to form a barrier to the return of hydrocarbon gases from the cargo tanks in the event that the blowers stop or the
inert gas supply pressure falls too low. Precautions in the form of a mechanical non-return valve, to prevent oil
returning to the engine room are provided. The inert gas then passes into the deck main where branches distribute
the gas to each cargo tank. An inserted cargo oil tank should not have oxygen content more than 8% by volume
.Cargo tanks are also protected against the effects of overpressure and vacuum conditions caused either by the
loading, discharge, or transfer of cargo oil or by temperature variations during voyage, and since inert gas must be
carried under a small positive pressure up to 0.20 Kg/rn2 any breathing of the tanks Is through pressure/vacuum
valves. During loading, when large volumes of hydrocarbon gases are emitted, a hand operated valve Is opened to
allow the gases to escape up the vent mast to atmosphere by by-passing the pressure/ vacuum valve.
A final safeguard against an excessive overpressure or vacuum condition in the cargo tanks is a pressure/vacuum
breaking device, which are fitted in the main deck.
INERT GAS SYSTEM WITH INDEPENDENT GENERATORS
The system is similar to an inert gas system using flue gases from the boiler uptakes except that the gas is produced
by units in which diesel oil is burnt under controlled conditions.
The units are situated in compartments clear of the cargo tank deck.
AUTOMATIC SPRINKLER SYSTEM
Sprinklers are fixed devices for distributing water upon a fire in sufficient quantity. Either to extinguish it entirely or
to prevent its spread in the event that the original fire is out of range of, or is of a type that cannot be completely
extinguished, by water discharged, from sprinklers. The water is fed to the sprinklers through a system of piping,
ordinarily located within the ceiling panels, with sprinklers placed at intervals along the pipes.
Automatic sprinklers give warning of the existence of fire and at the same time apply water to the burning area. With
sprinklers there are seldom problems of interference with visibility for fire-fighting due to smoke. The downward
force of water discharged from sprinkler may lower the smoke level in the room but positively cools the smoke to
make it possible for persons to remain in the area danger to fight fire. This system is generally fitted in passenger
ships. This system incorporates two types of sprinkler heads, each one of them serving a different application,
namely: sprinkler head with quartzite bulb which contain special fluid sprinkler head without bulb.
The first type is normally used in a system designed for protection of accommodation and service spaces in passenger
ships, where it serves the purpose of detection alarm and extinction. The second type of sprinkler is utilized in
systems protecting machinery spaces and bilges. A typical installation is described herein. The system utilizing
quartzite old bulbs has a number of sprinkler heads. A typical sprinkler head is shown in the figure the sprinkler heads
are supplied with water under constant pressure. These are so arranged that every part of each space requiring
protection is adequately covered.
Each head has a glass or quartz old bulb which retains a diaphragm seal in the outlet of the water pipe. The bulb is
partly filled with a special fluid so arranged that a rise in temperature in the compartment concerned would cause
the liquid to expand. When the liquid has expanded and entirely filled the space, the bulb being unable to withstand
the pressure bursts. The constant water pressure being maintained forces the diaphragm out and water flows from
the sprinkler. The bulbs burst at fixed temperatures ranging from 68°C to 79°C. Special bulbs bursting at 93°C are also
available. Each section contains not more than 200 sprinkler heads in any case. Each section contains a control valve.
A schematic layout of the sprinkler arrangement is shown on the above page. For test purposes a small valve is
incorporated, which when opened creates a drop in pressure, actuating the alarm.
The constant pressure in the line is maintained by maintaining a pressure of 3.5 to 8.3 bars in the reservoir tank. This
pressure is sufficient to provide operational efficiency and coverage as required to the sprinkler head. Once the
pressure drops in the reservoir tank a pump which is provided, automatically operates supplying the sea water to the
sprinkler head. To prevent corrosion and wear and tear on all moving parts, the system is charged with freshwater
and hence once salt water is pumped through, It requires thorough flushing before the system is recharged.
REGULATIONS REQUIRE THAT
• System should be capable of immediate automatic operation, if subject to freezing, it should be suitably protected
against it.
• Alarm should be visual and adjustable at local station and navigating bridge or control room, with a provision for
testing the alarm without sprinkler head operating.
• Each group shall, not serve more than two decks and shall not be situated 'in more than one vertical zone.
• Gauge indicating pressure in the system shall be provided at each local station and main control station.
• Application rate available per sprinkler head should be not less than 5 liters/m 2/min. over the nominal area
covered by sprinkler B.
• Pressure tank is to be provided with level gauges indicating level; quantity sufficient to cover rate of discharge of
sea water pump for one minute running time; plus maintain air pressure sufficient to provide.
• Efficient discharge for the highest fitted sprinkler.
• The pump provided should be capable of providing sufficient throughput for simultaneous coverage of a minimum
area of 280 m2, at the application rate for sprinklers (5 liters/m2/mm.)
• Sprinkler pressure tank and pump should not be boated in spaces they protect and located reasonably remote
from any machinery space.
• Sources of power for pumps and alarm system should be available from two Independent sources of power with
automatic change over.
• Means provided to test the automatic operation, of the pump, on reduction of pressure in the system.
• Sufficient spare sprinkler heads should be provided with bulbs.
FIXED PRESSURE WATER SPRAYING SYSTEM
The machinery spaces of certain cargo ships and passenger ships - depending on the type and horsepower or the
machinery and the vessels size and class are fitted with fixed pressure water spraying system. This system
incorporates an almost similar layout as the automatic sprinkler system excepting that the sprinkler head has no bulb.
Thus In this type of protection the fire has to be detected by other means; the system only provides ready availability
of water at stipulated rates flow through numerous sprinkler or nozzle outlets.
The water from this system is capable of being sprayed on the tank tops and other areas over which oil may spread or
any other main fire hazard areas. Each of these areas is controlled by a valve. A valve is normally situated just
adjacent to the areas protected. This is similar to the zones in an automatic sprinkler system. The line from the valve
to the supply tank is filled with fresh water and kept under constant pressure. An air vessel is incorporated into the
system to prevent the pump from operating at minimum or pressure drops. When the control valve of any section is
opened the pressure drop created cuts in the pump provided automatically.
Regulations stipulate that:
• Nozzle/sprinkler heads provided, must be of approved type only.
• Number and arrangements such that the spaces protected are provided with water at rate of 5 liters/m 2.
• Nozzles/sprinkler heads so fitted and designed that they do not get clogged with debris or by Impurities in water.
• System divided into sections and Isolated by valves suitably located outside such spaces protected.
• System kept charged continuously, with pump starting automatically when a pressure drop occurs.
• Pump capacity should be sufficient to supply requested throughput at stipulated rates per nozzle/sprinkler head in
the protected space (any one compartment or area to be protected).
• Location of pump should be outside the space protected power supply should also be available from emergency
source of supply cutting in automatically.
This system is also used to protect cargo spaces in Roll-on-Roll off ferries where access to the deck is required and
smothering gas system is therefore Inappropriate. Regulations require A 60 fire divisions to be fitted in vehicle decks;
a water spray system has been accepted as an alternative. In this system the vehicle deck is divided Into zones, the
minimum length of each being equal the length of the longest vehicle permitted On the roads; Each such zone has a
control valve and the pump capacity is such way that two adjacent zones can be catered to simultaneously at their
rated capacity. The water application rates are similar as for sprinkler systems - coverage being entire and at 5.0
liters/m2/min) reduced to 3.5 liters/m2/min when deck head height is less than 2.5 meters. The system is manually
controlled for application initially water being then made available continuously on the same stipulations as for
pumps required in pressure water system In machinery spaces.
Gas carriers are fitted with a fixed dry-powder extinguishing system covering the cargo deck area. LPG (e.g. propane
and butane) may be carried In tanks under pressure at ambient temperature, they are more usually carried
refrigerated , e.g. methane with a critical temperature of 82.7°C (-116°F), is always carried deeply refrigerated in the
liquid state, Its boiling point at ambient pressure being -162°C (260°F). Any leakage of such liquids from joints, valves,
etc. on deck vaporizes quickly. The speed of vaporization is affected by such factors as the area over which the liquid
has spread the depth of spill, ambient temperatures, etc. With the liquid temperature being so low, application of
comparatively warm sea water through a fire hose, or as foam, obviously hastens its change of state from liquid to
gas with all the attendant risk of explosion. On such ships, therefore, it is preferable to provide a fixed dry powder
system for use on deck to combat incipient gas fires. The arrangements consists essentially of dry powder or dry
chemical in one or more vessels capable of being pressurized from a bank of cylinders of N 2, the former being
connected to various control stations on deck. At each control station there is a powder monitor or a hose and
nozzle, a cylinder of pilot N2 and the appropriate controls. On opening the nitrogen cylinder 1 the control box, gas
flows through the reducing valve back to the compartment containing the dry powder installation and pneumatically
opens the appropriate distribution valve. Simultaneously it opens the N2 cylinders by the action of the pneumatic
piston release lever and release mechanism. The gas flows into the dry powder container through the pressure
regulator. The pressure in the container builds up until about 16 bars. Then the main powder valve opens
automatically and the powder flows to the appropriate release station (powder monitor or hose and Nozzle type) via
the distribution manifold, the previously opened distribution valve, and the piping and control cock. The pressure in
the powder container remains constant until the few kilograms are left in the container. When the powder in the
container has been used, the second container may .be brought into action by manually opening its bank of N 2
cylinders. Flow of powder back into the first container is prevented by the automatic closing of valve by the
pneumatic release piston. Flow of powder then continues as before. After use, the dry powder lines should be blown
clear with compressed air or gas, the N2 cylinders replenished and the dry powder containers refilled without delay.
The dilemma facing every master confronted with a deck fire involving LPG, of course, whether or not to attempt to
put it out. The answer to a certain extent lies in the circumstances. If, for example, a joint fails during cargo working
and the issuing gas catches fire; It may well be that the fire is not Involving other parts of the gas system; then, after
bringing all the available fire extinguishing equipment to a state of readiness, no attempt should be made to
extinguish the fire until the gas supply to the fire has been Isolated.
The dying fire may then be extinguished, If need be, by the use of dry powder. Adjacent fires not involving the gas
system can be dealt with as appropriate and boundary cooling of the poop by means of water from fire hoses may be
prudent In the meantime to prevent the spread of fire, for example, into the accommodation.
Extinguishing a gas fire before the supply is secured, whist being understandable, may only result in the ensuing gas-
air mixture re-igniting with possible catastrophic results. Gross spill age of deeply refrigerated liquids is dangerous in
the extreme. Not only can they cause brittlement of the deck but contact with the human body results in vicious cold
burns at the very least. Whist all the fire-fighting equipment should be brought to a state of readiness should such
spillage occur, probably only three courses of positive action are possible.
Attempt to isolate the source of leakage
Wash the leaked liquid overboard as quickly as possible with copious amounts of sea water from the fire hoses.
Extinguish or secure all possible sources of Ignition until the resulting gas cloud has dissipated.
This Is all far easier said than done and in case of such an emergency a prepared plan is required to be made for each
individual ship, having regard to all the relevant circumstances.
Chapter 4
SHIPS FIRE-FIGHTING ORGANIZATION
4.1 The central control station will be on the bridge.
4.2 The master will be in charge.
4.3 Each Team Leader will report to the bridge and receive instructions.
4.4 The information which central control station requires, Includes:
1. The time at which the fire alarm was given.
2. The position and nature of the fire.
Confirmation that fire parties are at their assembly points and that the fireman's outfits are available.
Confirmation that the fire main is pressurized.
1. Report on initial attempts to extinguish fire using portable extinguishers.

2. Report on effect of fire on services, e.g. lighting.
3. Report on persons present or trapped in compartments or unaccounted for.
4.5 Information which should be available on the bridge includes:
1. Arrangement drawings, in a convenient size, of ship, engine-room and accommodation.
2. Details of accesses and escapes from the different zones of the ship details of fire- extinguishing equipment, both
fixed and portable, for the entire ship, including storage position of refills stability information.
4.6 Details of survival equipment and where it is stored stowage plans
1. Information on dangerous goods.
Communication methods available include:
• Telephones loud hailers.
Direct speech, e.g. bridge to machinery control room.
• Radio telephones, hand-held radios messengers.
4.7 Methods of damage control and containment of fires, includes:
1. Bridge-operated closing of watertight doors and release of fire doors to their shut position.
2. Stopping of ventilation fans and closing of dampers on funnel and other places.
3. Closing of all windows and portholes in accommodation, galley and other spaces turning ship to give best
position relative to wind direction for fighting the fire.
4. Cooling boundary bulkheads.
5. Using fire blankets as necessary maintaining fire-Watch after fire is extinguished.
4.8 The methods to ensure that the stability of the ship is monitored and controlled, includes:
1. Calculating the change in GM caused by the weight of the extinguishing water and its free surface effect.
2. Arranging pumping or draining of fire-fighting water from affected spaces, including cutting holes In ship's
side for cargo fires, calculating the effect of having to move cargo to attack a fire.
3. Assessing the effect of any damage which causes spaces to be flooded by seawater.
4. Considering possibilities of moving vessel to shallow water or even allowing it to ground.
4.9 The organization of fire parties is explained below:
In any emergency situation on a vessel, a prompt organized and well rehearsed Emergency Response Plan
(ERP) must go into immediate action, to minimize the effect of that emergency. The basis of an ERP is .that
small and well-trained teams should tackle any emergency that may arise.
The main features of an effective ERP, is that it should:
1. Ensure safety of life.
2. Clearly define the response to an alarm be suitable for all for emergency on board facilitate efficient
communication.
3. Comply with standard procedure.
The steps to follow, in order to develop an effective ERP are:
1. Establish a simple alarm system.
2. Prescribe a clear and unambiguous response to the alarm.
3. Select teams.
4. Make the ERP chart.
5. Select primary and secondary muster locations and Identify them with large painted signs.
6. Fabricate emergency equipment storage lockers close to muster locations.
7. Start training and drill sessions.
The ERP Should is posted in the following locations:
1. Navigating Bridge.
2. Engine Room.
3. Crew Accommodation.
4. Recreation Rooms.
5. Near all Muster Stations.
ALARM AND INITIAL RESPONSE
Irrespective of whether the vessel is at sea, at anchor or in port, on hearing an emergency alarm all the ship's staff
should muster at the designated Muster Stations. This ensures that available resources are known and missing
persons identified. A maximum state of readiness's promptly established and a standardized response to the
emergency is achieved allowing for coordinated and controlled remedial action.
An individual should be trained to respond in three following manner on discovering an emergency:
1. On discovery of the emergency raise the alarm.
2. Provide the Command Team with as much Information as possible.
3. Attempt to control the emergency by whatever means available, until relieved by the Emergency Team.
4. Should the situation become hazardous to the individual, he must retreat to the Muster Station and report to the
Command Team.
The Initial response required from all personnel on hearing the emergency alarm must be:-
1. Collect life Jacket.
2. Dress In long sleeved boiler suit, safety shoes and, safety helmet. Proceed to Muster Station.
Exceptions to the above-mentioned response will be:
1. Chief Engineer: to relieve engine watch keeper and contact Command Team to obtain maximum information
about the emergency.
2. Chief Officer: to secure cargo and ballast operations before proceeding to the Muster Stations.
3. Watch keepers at the Navigating Bridge or Engine Room to 'remain on watch until relieved.
4. Bridge Messenger: to distribute portable radio sets to all team leaders.
MUSTER STATIONS
The muster stations 'of the various teams should be selected after due consideration of the layout of a particular
vessel. The team leader or his deputy must take charge of the muster and report to the Command Team.
The Command Team may normally choose the navigating bridge as its primary muster station. The secondary muster
station for this team should be chosen after closely considering the proximity of this location to communication
equipment. The Emergency Team may be allotted a muster station where there is no difficulty to communicate with
the Command Team. The secondary location should also be similarly located. The Technical Team should muster in
the Engine Control Room or at a convenient location in the Engine Room. The secondary location should, be in a safe
position outside the Engine Room.
The Support Team should muster on the open desk, close to the hospital.
The choice of all muster locations must be made a closely considering the positioning of emergency equipment and
the accessibility to survival crafts.
Master In-charge
3rd Officer Assistant
Command Team Radio Officer Communication records
Helmsman Steering
ER Rating (ERR) Messenger
Chief Officer Leader
Bosun Deputy
Emergency Team 1 Seaman -do-
Seaman -do-
ERR -do-
2nd Engineer Leader
3rd Engineer Deputy
Emergency Team II Seamen -do-
Seamen -do-
ERR -do-
Chief Engineer Leader
4th Engineer Deputy
Technical Team Electrical Officer As directed
ERR -do-
ERR -do-
Seamen -do-
2nd Officer Leader
Support Team Seaman As directed
Saloon Crew -do-
Saloon Crew -do-
FIRE STATION MUSTER LIST
TEAMS AND THEIR DUTIES
The advantages of the team concept are that small teams are more easily accounted for and managed and
can be rapidly deployed with equipment from a muster station. It is recommended that no team should ever exceed
eight people as this would make it a large and unwieldy unit. The success of each team is dependent upon the varying
skills and attributes of its members and the degree of training. In selecting teams a blend of local knowledge and
experience should be sought, among the personnel assigned to a particular team. Each team leader must maintain
discipline of his team throughout the emergency. The team leader must ensure that individual team members do not
act Independently In tackling an emergency and that the teams keep together and follow instructions.
The Command Team is responsible for command and control of the emergency situation, and for ensuring that an
efficient musters of personnel. They will institute search for any person not accounted for. The Command Team will
establish Internal and external communication. They will maintain safe navigation of the vessel and keep a detailed
time-event record.
On hearing the alarm, the Command Team will muster at the muster location (Bridge), the Master will assess the
situation from the reports received from team leaders. The Master will direct the Emergency Teams to provide
Information relating to the emergency. The information received and directions given by the Master must be timed
and recorded on the Bridge.
As the emergency situation progresses, the Command Team will build up an .overall picture of the total situation on
board. To form an overall strategy to tackle the emergency, at hand the Master mast seeks answers to the following
questions:
1. What is the emergency situation?
2. Are all persons accounted for and safe?
3. How severe is the damage?
4. What are the possible outcomes?
5. Can the situation be contained?
6. What are the boundaries?
7. What are the resources to use to mount an attack?
8. Is there any progress in limiting the emergency?
9. Is external assistance available / necessary? 10.1s best use being made of ships resources?
The Emergency Teams must first muster and report to Command Team. They should prepare equipment as ordered
and report readiness. The emergency team is the spearhead of the attack on the emergency.
The Support Team should muster at a predetermined location and advise their readiness to the Command Team.
They should provide support to the Emergency Team when ordered, for example.
1. Logistic support.
2. Prepare survival crafts.
3. B.A. support.
4. Provide additional fire-fighting equipment.
5. Maintain security patrol Boundary cooling.
6. Shut off ventilation.
The Technical Team must advise the In-Charge of the state of readiness of the engine room. This advice must indicate
the status of plant and emergency systems. The Technical Team should establish whether the emergency has any
adverse: effect on the operation of the plant, and determine any action to be taken to reduce ill-effects. The team
should maintain essential emergency services and attend to fixed fire fighting appliances as necessary.
In fire emergencies invoking the engine room, Technical Team must ensure remote shutoffs and fuel-oil trips are
operated when directed by the Command Team.
TRAINING & DRILLS
On joining any ship, all personnel must know their Muster Station and determine their role In an ERR they should
make themselves familiar with the alarms system. They should familiarize themselves with the general layout of the
ship. They must become conversant with the expected initial response to an alarm.
REGULATION REQUIREMENTS REGARDING FIRE DRILLS, MUSTERS & ONBOARD TRAINING.
Fire drill should include:
1. Reporting to muster Stations and preparation for duties described In the muster list.
2. Starting a fire pump using at least two required jets of Water to show that the system is in proper working order.
3. Checking the fireman's outfit and other personal rescue equipment.
4. Checking the relevant communication equipment.
5. Checking the operation of water tight doors, fire doors and fire dampers checking the necessary arrangements for
subsequent abandonment of ship.
Fire drills should be planned in such a way that due consideration is given to regular practice in various emergencies
that may occur depending on the type of ship and its cargo.
The equipment used during drills should immediately be brought back to its fully operational condition and any fault
and defects discovered during the drills should be remedied as soon as possible.
Drills should as far as practicable be conducted as if there were an emergency.
On-board training and instructions in the use of the ship's fire-extinguishing appliances should be given as soon as
possible but not later than two weeks after a crew member joins the ship. Individual instructions may cover different
fire extinguishing appliances but all; fireextinguishing appliances should be covered within any period of two months.
Each member of the crew should be given Instructions which should include, but not necessarily be limited to the
operation and use of fire-extinguishing appliances. The date when the musters are held, details of fire drills and on-
board training should be recorded in the log, book. If a full muster, drill or training session is not held at the
appointed time an entry should be made in the log-book stating the circumstances and the extent of the muster, drill
or training session held.
Clear instructions to be followed In the event of an emergency should be provided person on board.
Muster lists complying with the requirements should be exhibited in conspicuous places Including the navigating
bridge, engine room and crew accommodation spaces.
The muster list should specify details of the general alarm signal and also the action to be taken by the crew and
passengers when this alarm is sounded.
The muster list should show duties assigned to the different members of the crew including:
1. Closing of water-tight doors, fire doors, valves, scuppers, side scuttles, skylights, portholes and similar openings In
the ship.
2. Use of communication equipment.
3. Manning of fire parties.
4. Special duties assigned for use of fire-fighting equipment.
5. Preparation and launching of survival craft.
Muster list should specify which officers are assigned to ensure that fire appliances are maintained in good and item
and ready for immediate use. Muster list should specify substitutes for key persons who may become disabled, taking
into account that different emergencies may call for different action.
Muster list should be prepared before the vessel proceeds to sea and revised whenever any changes in crew occur.
Chapter 5
TRAINING OF SEAFARERS IN FIRE FIGHTING
5.1 After joining a ship, the crew must be given instruction on the emergency procedures in use and trained in
the use of the ship's fire appliances and its equipment, paying particular attention to
The location and use of portable fire extinguishers contain.
1. Water.
2. Foam powder.
3. Carbon dioxide.
4. Halon.
The location and use of mobile fire extinguishers containing.
1. Foam powder.
2. Carbon dioxide.
The location and use of fixed fire-extinguishing appliances, e.g.
1. Fire hydrants.
2. Hoses and nozzles.
3. Water sprinklers.
4. Water sprays.
5. Foam system.
6. Carbon dioxide.
7. Halon system.
The location and use of fireman's outfit and in particular.
1. Learning how to don the protective clothing quickly.
2. Knowing where the personal equipment is stowed and what it comprises.
3. Checking and using the approved breathing apparatus.
4. Checking and using the fireproof lifeline and being familiar with the signaling codes.
5.2 For crew training, realistic but safe fire drills should be held in various areas of the ship. The drills should
include the following:
General functions, covering.
1. Starting the emergency generator.
2. Starting the emergency fire and bilge pump.
3. Operating the appropriate valves for providing water for fire fighting, flooding holds or pumping out bilges.
4. Identifying the emergency controls and their function.
Improving personal safety by practicing.
1. Moving and finding the way in spaces with restricted visibility.
2. Moving through small apertures.
3. Finding and removing casualties.
4. Using compressed-air breathing apparatus and the fireproof lifeline in these conditions.
Assuming mock fires, machinery spaces.
1. Fire on diesel alternator due to fuel-oil spray from fractured fuel injection pipe striking hot exhaust pipe.
2. Fire in bilge due to fuel oil being ignited by sparks from welding work in the vicinity.
3. Fire at top of engine-room due to lubricating oil leaking from a fractured pipe to the turbocharger bearing and
striking the hot surface of turbocharger.
4. Fire adjacent to boiler due to blow-back from furnace fire In switchboard caused by loose connection.
5. Fire In the economizer or boiler uptake due to accumulation of soot.
Assuming mock fires, accommodation spaces,
1. Fire In a cabin due to bedclothes catching fire from a fallen cigarette.
2. Fire in crew lounge due to defective electrical connection.
Assuming mock fires in galley.
1. Fire on top of stove due to spilled cooking fat.
2. Fire in deep-fat fryer.
Assuming mock fires in deck container,
1. Fire due to defect in Integral refrigeration unit.
Assuming mock fires in cargo spaces,
1. In holds, between-deck' or containers.
5.3 The members of fire parties should be given training which must include:
1. Instruction In the duties of each fire party to which a crew member maybe assigned.
2. Instruction in the duties of each member of a fire party and how these duties are allocated, e.g. by
number or otherwise.
3. Exercises to make each fire party proficient, including first-aid.
5.4 Crew members who operate a fire patrol system should be trained to ensure that they are familiar with the
arrangements .of the ship as well as the location and operation of equipment, Including:
1. Manually operated call points.
2. Fixed fire & detection and alarm system.
3. Telephones.
4. Portable fire extinguishers and their limitations
5. Hydrants, hoses and nozzles.
PORTABLE FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
Portable fire extinguishers are for immediate use in .the early stages of a fire. They should not be expected to deal
with large fires since they have a limited duration of use and capacity. Portable extinguishers may be divided into five
categories according to the extinguishing agent they contain, namely:
1. Water
2. Foam
3. Dry powder
4. Carbon dioxide
5. Halons
The capacity of a portable fluid extinguisher should not be more than 13.5 liters and not less than 9 liters. Other
extinguishers should at least have the portability of a 13.5 liters fluid extinguisher and the fire-fighting effectively
equivalent to that of a 9 liter fluid extinguisher. The choice of portable extinguishers which is to be used for a
particular risk is to be decided In relation to the nature of the fire anticipated .Portable extinguishers are to be
located in conspicuous positions where they can be readily seen by persons following an escape route. They should
be sited near to room exits and in corridors and stairways. A portable extinguisher should bestow near places
containing major fire risks. Spare charges are to be provided for each type of extinguisher.
The IMO Resolution A. 602 (15)Revised guidelines for Marine Portable Fire Extinguishers recommends standards for
the construction, performance, test specifications, markings, periodical Inspections and maintenance of portable fire
extinguishers. A summary of these guidelines is given below.
An extinguisher should be designed and manufactured for simple and rapid operation and ease of handling. The
extinguisher should be manufactured to national or other recognized standard which includes a requirement that the
body 'and all other parts subject to internal pressure are subject to pressure test above the maximum expected
pressureduringtheservicelife of an extinguisher. In the design of components, selection of materials, determination of
maximum filling ratios and densities, consideration should be given to the extreme conditions to which the
extinguisher may be exposed on board. The materials of construction of exposed parts and adjoining dissimilar
materials should be carefully selected to function properly in the marine environment.
Construction, performance and fire-extinguishing test specifications should be to the satisfaction of the
Administration.
Every, extinguisher should be clearly marked to indicate:
1. Name of manufacturer.
2. Types of fire on which the extinguishers suitable.
3. Type and quantity of extinguishing medium.
4. Approval details.
5. Instructions for use and recharge (it is recommended that operating instructions are given in pictorial form).
6. Year of manufacture.
7. Temperature range over which the extinguisher will operate' satisfactorily.
8. Test pressure.
FIGURE OF TYPICAL SODA-ASH FIRE EXTINGUISHER

Extinguishers should be subject to periodical Inspections and maintenance In accordance with the manufacturer's
instructions. The periods between such Inspections and maintenance should not exceed the period between safety
equipment surveys. Records of inspections should be repainted. The records should show the date of inspection, the
type of maintenance carried out, and whether or Not, a pressure test was performed. Instructions for recharging
extinguishers should be supplied by the manufacturer and be available for use on board.
SODA ACID EXTINGUISHER (no more used in merchant navy)
In this type of extinguisher, the fire extinguishing medium is water The water is released in the form of a jet by means
of gas pressure in the upper part of the container. This pressure is created by a chemical reaction between sodium
bicarbonate solution and sulphuric acid (contained in a glass bulb).
The extinguisher has a cylindrical shell of around 178 mm diameter and 533 mm high, usually made of 16 or 18 gauge
steel. The body is internally coated with Zinc, Tin or Lead to avoid corrosion; in some designs they may be internally
plastic lined. The extinguisher is designed to withstand an internal pressure developed within its body of below 17
bar at 2 1°C. The extinguisher is tested when new to 24 bars.
The acid charge is contained in a sealed glass bulb, which is broken when the operating spindle strikes it, thus
permitting the acid to mix with the alkali solution in the outer container and causing the extinguisher to operate. The
extinguisher is charged with around 454 grams. Of alkali, sodium bicarbonate mixed in warm water to make 9 liters of
solution, which is poured into the outer container up to an internal level Indicator. A glass bulb containing around 57
grams of sulphuric acid is placed in a perforated container in the air space above the liquid. The cap is screwed On to
the jointing. When the plunger knob on the top of the extinguisher is given a sharp blow, as mentioned earlier, the
acid, bulb breaks and the chemical reaction starts .The pressure of the carbon dioxide formed by the reaction,
Increases the internal pressure in the extinguisher, and the, liquid contents is ejected out of the extinguisher.
The equation for the chemical reaction is as follows:
H2SO4 2NaHCO3 = Na2SO4 + 2H2O + 2CO2
The water jet from this extinguisher will project more than 6 meters for a period not less than one minute; the
complete contents will be discharged in not more than 2 minutes.
TO OPERATE :
1. Hold extinguisher firmly with nozzle pointing towards fire.
2. Remove guard cap/pin.
3. Strike plunger hard.
4. Direct jet from nozzle towards base of fire.

CARE AND MAINTENANCE:
Weekly, polish the painted portions with a little colorless wax polish and the brass/chromium external parts with
brass/silver polish. Check nozzle outlet and vent holes on the added portions of the cap are clear; check whether
plunger is fully extended and safety pin is in place. Every three months dismantle the components, check for damage,
clean and grease them as required (avoid over greasing), stir the solution In the extinguisher body and top up with
water quantity to the marked level if the level has gone below It; ensure acid bulb is Intact.
— Annually or at shorter fixed intervals operate 50% of the extinguisher and observe their performance. There must
be a jet length of 6 meters for minimum 60 seconds. Clean thoroughly subject rusty or corroded extinguishers to a
pressure test.
WATER - CARBON DIOXIDE TYPE EXTINGUISHER

In this type of extinguisher, the fire extinguishing medium is water (The water is released in the form of a jet by
means of gas pressure in the upper part of the container. This pressure is created by the release of carbon dioxide
from a pressurized gas cartridge within the extinguisher. The gas cartridge is punctured by the release action the
method of operation, maintenance and discharge rate of this type is similar to those of a soda-acid extinguisher.
CHEMICAL FOAM EXTINGUISHER (no more used in merchant navy ships)
A jet of water would be Ineffective in' fighting an oil fire. Thus foam is used to fight such fires. The chemical foam
extinguisher consists of a cylindrical Inner container within a larger cylindrical outer container (The inner container
is made of polythene or is lead-coated copper sheet, and is filled with thirteen percent aluminum sulphate
solution which acts as a weak acid. The outer container contains eight percent sodium bicarbonate solution with
about three percent Stabilizer (spooning, licorice, turkey red oil may be used as stabilizer). The stabilizer
strengthens the wails of the individual bubble of foam. The mixing of the two chemical solutions produces
aluminum hydroxide, sodium sulphate and carbon dioxide.
AI2(SO4)3 + 6NaHCO3 = 2AI(OH)3 + 3Na2SO4 + 6CO2
The extinguisher fulfills the same pressure requirements as a soda-acid type extinguisher. A six meters jet must be
maintained for a period of 30 seconds and the discharge of the expellable foam must complete In 90 seconds.
Foam solutions are electrically conductive and, therefore, are not recommended for use on electrical fires. If foam
is used as a spray it is less conductive than a straight stream. However, because foam is cohesive, and contains
materials that allow water to conduct electricity, a spray of foam is more conductive than a water fog.
METHOD OF OPERATION:
1. Remove the extinguisher from the socket.
2. Pull the plunger, rest It on 'the notch provided and turn the extinguisher over shaking well, to ensure the mixing of
the two liquids, with a finger blocking the outlet nozzle.
3. Where a liquid on fire is in a container, direct the jet at the far inside edge of the container, Or at an adjoining
vertical surface above the level of the burning liquid. This breaks the jet and allows the foam to build up and flow
across the surface of the liquid.
4. Where this is not possible, stand well back, direct the jet in an arc and with a gentle sweeping movement allow
the foam to drop down and lie on the surface of the liquid. The jet from a foam extinguisher should have a length
of at least six meters.
5. Do not direct the jet directly into the liquid because this will drive the foam beneath the surface and render It
Ineffective. In addition it may splash burning liquid on to the surroundings and spread the fire.
CHEMICAL FOAM EXTINGUISHER
CARE AND MAINTENANCE
At least once a week polish, the painted portions with a colorless polish and the brass/chromium parts with
brass/silver polish. Check the nozzle outlet and vent holes on the threaded portions of the cap for clogging. Check
that the plunger can be raised to the fully extended position and that it is clean. Return it to its normal position.
Once in a quarter, dismantle the components; check for any damage, clean and grease them as required, stir the
solution in the Inner and outer containers with separate clean and dry sticks.
Top up with clean fresh water as necessary. Do not use the same stick for stirring both solutions and do not pouring
solutions into any receptacle for stirring.
Annually, operate 50% of the extinguishers and check that it projects a jet to a distance of not less than 6 metersfora
minimum period of 30seconds. Clean the extinguishers thoroughly and examine their inside for rust and corrosion.
Subject rusty or corroded extinguishers to pressure test even If they are not due for it and their performance is
otherwise satisfactory. Recharge the tested extinguishers.
Once discharged this extinguisher should be recharged carefully. The following points will have to be taken care of:
1. Wash all parts thoroughly, remove any solid matter.
2. Blow through the nozzle and ensure it is not blocked.
3. Dissolve the powders supplied.
4. Use fine strainers when filling the liquid.
5. Do not over fill the containers.
6. Fill outer container first, then inner container.
7. If provided with sealed 'type inner unit then withdraw plunger to open position.
8. Secure the plunger, if fitted, in the closed position.
SELF ASPIRATING FOAM EXTINGUISHER (LIGHT WATER)
In this type of extinguisher, foam concentrate is stored as a solution in water. A gas cartridge is' provided, which
when pierced provides the pressure to discharge the foam solution. The solution is carried upwards through the dip-
tube due to the gas pressure above it.
The solution is aerated at the discharge nozzle to form foam. The construction of the body and method of operation
of this extinguisher is similar to that of a water-carbon dioxide type extinguisher but its discharge rate is same as that
of a chemical foam extinguisher. Once discharged these, extinguishers should be recharged as per manufacturer's
instructions with their appropriate charge. The following general guidelines should be borne in mind:
1. Clean the extinguisher thoroughly including the hose and branch pipe, clean all holes provided.
2. Ensure springs, locking/sealing arrangements area in order before recharging it.
3. Grease cover lightly.
4. Use same manufacturers' refills only and if using pre-mix type do not. Increase/decrease the proportion of mix as
it would affect the efficiency of the extinguisher.
DO not allow foam to strike the surface of the burning liquid. Direct the foam to some nearly vertical surface so that
the foam runs down the side and blankets the liquid where no vertical surface is available then adjust the distance
such that the discharged foam fails gently on the liquid surface.

Weekly clean exterior, check nozzle outlet and vent holes and ensure plunger is clean, and, fully extended.
1. Quarterly check internal, check gas cartridges intact, stir the solutions in both containers and see if any sediment is
there.
2. Annually or at fixed shorter Intervals operate 50% extinguishers observe its performance; it should project its
contents to a distance of 6 meters for a period of 30 seconds.
DRY CHEMICAL POWDER EXTINGUISHER (D.C. P.)
These extinguishers are mainly used on low flash point liquid fires and high pressure gas fires. They have little or no
cooling effect. Dry powder type fire extinguishers are suitable for tackling petroleum fires, gas fires. Fires in electrical
equipment and for controlling surface fires in textile fibers. These extinguishers are noted for, the speed with which
they put out fires. The chemical powders employed are usually sodium based and when applied to a fire, undergo a
chemical reaction. The free radicals which are responsible for sustaining any fire is put out of action by the dry
chemical powders and because of this, the fire dies out very fast. Special dry powders containing mixtures of sodium,
potassium and barium compounds have been found useful in extinguishing fires in metals such as sodium and
magnesium.
There are two types of ordinary dry powder extinguishers available viz. (1) Gas Cartridge type and (2) Stored Pressure
type. The first type being the most common will be discussed here. These extinguishers are available in 1, 2, 5 and 10
kg capacities.
GAS CARTRIDGE TYPE DRY CHEMICAL POWDER EXTINGUISHER
The construction of this type of fire extinguisher is shown in the figure The chemical powder is contained in the main
shell of the extinguisher and carbon dioxide gases is held under high, pressure in a sealed partridge. When the
extinguisher is operated, the cartridge is broken allowing the C0 2 gas to escape to the main shell and push out the
powder in the form of fog.
1. Carry the extinguisher to the place of fire and keep it upright.
2. Remove the safety clip and strike the knob located in the cap to actuate the piercing mechanism which in turn
breaks the sealing disc of the cartridge.
3. Direct the stream of escaping powder at the base of the flame. For effective result stand about 1.5 to 2.5 meters
away and direct the stream near the seat of the fire.
4. Progress forward, moving the nozzle rapidly with a side to side sweeping motion.
5. When using on outdoor fires always operate the extinguisher from the upwind side of the fire to extend the
effective range of the spray.
Following maintenance schedules are recommended for effective performance of the extinguisher.
ONCE A WEEK:
1. Clean the exterior of the extinguishers; polish the painted portion with a little colorless wax polish the brass and
chromium plated parts.
2. Check the nozzle outlet and vent holes in the threaded portion of the cap for clogging.
3. Check that the plunger is clean and is in fully extended position ONCE IN THREE MONTHS:
4. Withdraw the gas cartridge and check if the sealing disc is intact. Weigh the cartridge and compare its weight with
that stamped on its body. If a loss of 10% or more of the contents is noted, replace it with a fully charged one.
5. Check the piercing mechanism for its proper functioning. Remove the inner shell and clean port holes if necessary.
Also check the port holes in the cartridge holder and clean them if necessary.
6. Check the powder for granulation and caking. If caking/granulation is observed remove and replace with fresh
charge once in a year.
One third of the total number of extinguishers of this type should be put into operation for evaluating their
satisfactory performance. In the event of poor performance of any one of them, the balance will also have to be
tested once in 3 years:
Every extinguisher should be discharged. It should be hydraulically pressure tested at 17.5 kg/cm 2. However, if there
is any indication of mechanical damage or corrosion to the extinguisher shell it should be pressure tested
immediately. Before recharging, the extinguisher should be done dry the extinguisher body contains a receptacle
holding the powder. Attached to the head securing assembly is a C02 cartridge under high- pressure, held with the
piercing mechanism. To operate the extinguisher, the cartridge is pierced which allows the C0 2 gas to escape. This in
turn pushes the powder out in a cloud.
CARBON DIOXIDE TYPE FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
Carbon dioxide(C02) is effectiveas an extinguishing agent primarily because it reduces the oxygen content of air to a
point where combustion cannot continue. C02 is non-combustible and does not react with most substances. Being a
gas it can penetrate and spread to all areas affected by air.
Carbon dioxide fire extinguishers are used for putting out fires in oils, petroleum products, gaseous substances under
pressure, and on sophisticated electrical and electronic apparatus.
Carbon dioxide extinguishers are not to be used in:
1. Fires involving chemicals that contain their own oxygen supply (such as cellulose nitrate).
2. Fires involving reactive metals such as sodium, potassium and magnesium.
CONSTRUCTION
The principal parts of the extinguisher are carbon dioxide is retained in the cylinder as liquid under pressure. The
cylinder is filled with the charge to about two-thirds by weight of its total water capacity.
METHOD OF OPERATION
Carry the extinguisher to the place of fire. Remove the safety pin and operate the discharge device or unscrew the
valve depending on the design. Carbon dioxide is delivered by means of discharge horn through a high pressure
flexible hose.
Direct the Jet at the base of the fire, starting at one edge and sweeping across the surface of the burning material.
When used in open air, the operator should stand on the up-wind side of the fire and should apply the gas in a down
wind direction as close, as possible to the fire" on fires in electrical equipment first switch off the current". Then
direct the Jet or horn straight at the fire. The gas at the time discharge makes considerable noise.' The user should
therefore be well conversant with. Its operation to prevent the jet from being misdirected during the first few vital
seconds.
CARE AND MAINTENANCE
At least once a Week, polish the painted portions with a little colorless wax polish. The brass/ chromium parts are to
be polished with brass/ silver polish. Check that the nozzle outlet is free from clogging.
Once a month weigh the extinguisher and if a weight difference of 10% or more (of that of a fully charged
extinguisher) is observed it should be sent out for recharging. Every time the extinguisher is sent for recharging, the
cylinder should be pressure tested at 210 kg/cm2 before recharging. Other points which may be mentioned in
connection with the use of carbon dioxide extinguishers are:
1. The gas makes a considerable noise during the short period of its discharge and if the person has not used such an
extinguisher before.
2. The unexpected sound may take him off his guard and cause him to misdirect the jet for the first vital seconds.
3. Carbon dioxide issues from the extinguisher in the form of a very dense vapour which, in a confined space, will
impair visibility considerably.
4. Owing to the fact that carbon dioxide extinguishes a fire without any substantial cooling effect on the burning
materials, it cannot be too strongly emphasized that a C02 extinguisher must always be backed up with additional
C02 extinguisher foam or water spray in suitable circumstances. This is particularly so when it is being used on a
fire such as that in a chip pan since, if sufficient carbon dioxide Is not available, a flashback from the heated flue is
almost Inevitable an no good will have been done by its use. If for any reason the orifice at the sealing disc should
freeze, thus Preventing the discharge of the gas, the control valveshould bereturned to the closed position and
again operated; in some modes this will clear the stoppage.
HALON EXTINGUISHERS
These extinguishers are similar in construction and operations to the carbon dioxide
extinguishers, which have been explained previously. The extinguishing medium contained in these extinguishers is
hydrocarbons in which one or more hydrogen atoms have been placed by atoms from halogen series; fluorine,
chlorine bromine or iodine the substitution confers not Only non-flammability but flame extinguishment properties to
any or the resulting compounds. Halon 1211 (BCF) pressurized extinguishers are found in use commonly for use on
electrical/ electronic equipment. The extinguishers are charged with Bromo-Chloro-Dlfluro-Methane vapourizing
liquid stored at a pressure of 10Kg/ cm2. A booster charge of nitrogen is usually added to ensure proper operation.
This type of extinguisher is effective on Class A, B and D fires. It leaves no residue to clean up. It is virtually non-
corrosive and non-abrasive, It is not affected by wind as much as carbon dioxide, being, heavier than it. It is artiest
twice as effective on Class B fires as carbon dioxide, compared on weight of agent basis. It does not have the cooling
effect of carbon dioxide when issuing out initially. Its main disadvantage is its relative toxicity. Inhalation of 4% to 5%
of this gas is the maximum that can safely be inhaled for one minute. When Halon 1211 is used on a fire the
decomposition products include hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride, hydrogen bromide and traces of free
halogens. Normally only small quantities of these chemicals are formed, as a warning of their presence they give off
acrid odors. This extinguisher must be operated an applied to fires in the same way as a carbon dioxide extinguisher.
FIRE MAIN SYSTEM
Water is readily available in unlimited quantities and thus the fire main should form the backbone of the fire fighting
systems in the ship. The water system should be capable of efficient operation and arranged to deliver water through
hydrants located so that a minimum of two powerful jets of water from hoses and nozzles can reach all parts of the
ship normally accessible to the passengers and crew and any part of any cargo space when empty. One of the Jets of
water must be available from a single length of hose.
FIRE PUMPS
Water is to be supplied by at least three independently driven fire pumps in passenger ships and two in cargo ships,
although this requirement may be reduced in smaller vessels of both types. In cargo ships not less than two
designated fire pumps are to be located in the main machinery space. In addition in cargo ships one of the general
pump, bilge and ballast pump or other similar pump is to be connected to the fire main. However, this connection is
required only if one of these pumps already has the required capacity and discharge pressure. The total capacity of
fire pump in passenger and cargo ships should be two third of the quantity required for bilge pumping but in cargo
ships the total capacity need not exceed 180 m 3/hour. Sanitary, bilge, ballast and general service pumps can be used
for fire-fighting purpose, providing they are not normally used for pumping oil. Occasional duty for pumping or
transfer of oil with suitable changeover arrangements is permissible.
The fire pumps should be arranged so that a fire in any one compartment will not, put all the required pumps out of
action in passenger ships this Is achieved by locating at least one pump in a separate compartment but in cargo ships,
which normally have only one engine room, a fixed independently driven emergency fire pump located outside the
engine room should also be provided the emergency fire pumps Is to be capable of supplying two satisfactory Jets of
water through the available hoses and nozzles and .have a capacity not less than 40% of the total required capacity of
the fire pumps and in any case not less than 25m3/hour. Whether electrically or diesel powered, the emergency fire
pump should be situated so that It will not be readily affected by smoke or fire from the space containing the main
fire pumps. If diesel driven, the power sources should be capable of being readily started by hand down to an
ambient temperature of 0°C. If necessary, heating arrangements should be installed. Where batteries are the sole
means of starting, two sets should be provided each set being capable of six starts within 30 minutes and at least
twice with the first
minutes. One of the sets of batteries should be on constant trickle charge and a hand started battery charger is to be
provided. The Service fuel tank for diesel drivers would normally be in the same compartment and must contain
sufficient diesel to run the pump for three hours on full load. A reserve tank holding sufficient diesel for a further 1 5
hours at full load is also to be provided. Air Inlets to the space containing the pump should be arranged to minimize
the possibility of engine failure due to Ingress of smoke or water. If electrically driven the source of power should be
the emergency generator. Electric cables from the generator to the emergency fire pump should not pass through the
space containing the main fire pumps. The emergency fire pump should preferably have an independent sea suction
located outside the space containing the main fire pumps.
Where the pump is located in a space, such as above the after peak and the sea suction requires to be fitted inside
the engine room then the sea inlet valve should be controlled from a position adjacent to the emergency fire pump.
The valve should remain in the open position at all times and be controlled by an extended spindle or hydraulic
operation such that in the event of power failure the valve stays opens. Any suction pipe located inside the engine
room is to be encased in a substantial steel trunk or alternatively be heavy gauge pipe. The sea suction should be
located such that efficient operation will be maintained in all condition of list and trim likely to be encountered. The
space containing the fire pump is considered a "control station" for the purpose of determining the fire insulations
direct access between the machinery space and emergency fire pump compartment should not generally be
permitted but, where necessary, may be by means of an air lock with two self closing door so through an approved
type of watertight door capable of remote operation from a space not likely to be cut off in the event of fire In the
engine room or emergency fire pump space. In the latter case a second means of access to the space containing the
emergency pump must be provided. In tankers, fire pumps are not to be situated in pump rooms, cofferdams and
other spaces liable to contain explosive vapours or in spaces immediately adjacent to cargo oil or slop tanks. It should
be ensured that door and ventilator openings to the compartment and any air inlets fort he pump are situated, in
relation to cargo tank openings such as vent pipes and PV. Valves, to the possibility, of drawing dangerous vapours
into the compartment.
When the emergency fire pump is situated in a compartment forward of the cargo tanks of an
oil tanker and below the level of the cargo tank deck and having access onto that deck, It should be ensured that
flammable vapours cannot be drawn into the space. In such case the opening onto the cargo tank deck is to be fitted
with an air lock with two self closing, doors and the compartment mechanically ventilated with the air inlet glutted
remote from any hazardous area in deep draught ships, to overcome the difficulty In achieving an adequate delivery
from the emergency fire: pump into the fire main, a hydraulic pump driven by a diesel pump situated at deck level is
fitted at a low level in the ship. The hydraulic pump will raise the water to the diesel pump which then delivers it into
the fire main at the required rate.
The water supply on passenger ships of 1000 tons grass and over is to be such that one effective jet of water from
any interior hydrant is readily available, the continuation of the output of water being ensured by automatic starting
of a fire pump. In cargo ships with an unmanned machinery space or when only one person is on watch, immediate
water delivery from the fireman system at a suitable pressure Is required either by remote starting of one of the main
fire pumps from the navigating, bridge or fire control station, if any, or permanent pressurization of the fire main
system by one of the main fire pumps.
PIPING:
Materials readily rendered ineffective by heat should not be used for mains and hydrants. Steel pipes are to be
galvanized both internally and externally. Cast iron pipes are not acceptable. Butterfly and diaphragm valves with soft
seating are not accepted for isolating purposes unless certified as have passed a fire test as specified by the
administration or equivalent. The pipes and hydrants should be located so that the fire hoses may be easily coupled
to them. Where deck cargo is carried care should be taken to guard against damage to the fire main, Relief valves
must be placed in the fire main if the fire pumps could develop a pressure In excess of the design pressure of the
main. Unless one hose and nozzle is provided for each hydrant in the ship there should be complete Interchange
ability of hoses and nozzles.
Isolating valves are to be fitted to segregate the rising main within the machinery space containing the main fire pump
or pumps from the rest of the fire main. These valves must be fitted outside the machinery space in area easily
accessible and tenable position, the fire main should be arranged so that when the machinery space isolating valves
are shut: all hydrants in the ship can be, supplied with water from pipes which do not re-enter the machinery space.
The fire main should be available for fire-fighting purposes at all times and permanent connections to other services
are not generally permitted. It is however, permissible to fit branches for such low demand services as hose pipe
cleaning, and fore peak and chain locker bilge educators. The topside water ballast tanks in vessels carrying low fire
risk cargoes may be filled through flexible hose connected to the fire main. This hose should be immediately removed
after use and a notice to this effect prominently displayed at each connection point.
HOSES AND NOZZLES
Fire hoses are to be of an approved material, of which there are several, most common being constructed from
synthetic woven textiles, lined with rubber and coated with RV.C. These hoses are very strong; not affected by oils,
most chemicals, mildew and extremes of climate. This type has largely replaced earlier canvas hose which was very
susceptible to mildew, especially if properly dried after use.
Hoses should have a length not exceeding 18 meters, although for ease of 12 meters in machinery spaces Is often
preferred. In a passenger ship there is to be at least one fire hose for each required hydrant. In cargo ships over 1000
tons gross there is .to be one for each meters length of the ship plus one spare, but in no case less than five in That
number does not include hoses required in engine or boiler rooms cargo ships less than 1000 tons gross not less than,
three hoses are required.
Nozzles should be 12 mm, 16 mm and need not exceed 19 mm and be dual purpose type incorporating a shut off.
Nozzles may be manufactured from brass, aluminum and copper alloy, or suitable plastic.
An international shore connection should be provided with facilities for use either side of the ship to enable the deck
main to be supplied by water from ashore.
INTERNATIONAL SHORE CONNECTION
1) Ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards shall be provided with at least one international shore connection
complying with the provision of paragraph 3.
2) Facilities shall be available enabling such a connection to be used on either side of the ship.
3) Standard dimensions of flanges for the international shore connection shall be in accordance with the
following table.
Description Dimension
Outside 178 mm
diameter
Inside diameter 64 mm
Bolt circle 132 mm
diameter
Slots in flange 4 holes, 19 mm in diameter
spaced equidistantly on a bolt
circle of the above diameter,
slotted to the flange periphery
Flange thickness 14,5 mm minimum
Bolts and nuts 4, each of 16 mm diameter, 50
mm in length
4) The connection shall be of steel or other suitable material and shall be designed for 1.0N/mm 2 services. The flange
shall have flat face on one side and on other shall be permanently attached to the coupling that will fit the ship
hydrant and hose .The connection shall be kept aboard the ship together with the gasket of any material suitable
for 1 .ON/mm2 services together with four 16 mm bolts 50 mm in length and eight washers.
FIREMAN'S OUTFIT
To enable fire-fighting teams to approach at fire and to carry out rescue duties they should have adequate protection
against the effect of smoke and heat. Thus every ship should carry fireman's outfits each consisting of a breathing
apparatus water-resisting protective clothing of material to protect the skin from heat radiating from the fire and
from burns and scalding by steam, boots and gloves of rubber or other electrically nonconducting material, rigid
helmet, an electric intrinsically, safe hand lamp with . A minimum of 3 hours duration, an axe with a short insulated
handle, a strong fireproof lifeline and a belt for carrying the ancillary equipment.
The breathing apparatus should consist of either a self-contained apparatus of approved type or a smoke helmet or
smoke mask, supplied with air from an air pump and a length of flexible hose sufficient to reach from the open deck
any part of the holds or machinery spaces. If In order to achieve this the length of the hose would exceed 36 meter, a
self-contained breathing apparatus must be substituted or provided in addition.
The self-contained breathing apparatus provides total flexibility to the wearer, whereas, the air hose is subject to
damage 1 restricts the wearer's mobility and is dependent on a second person supplying the air to the user.
The self-contained breathing apparatus has various designs of equipment but the basic principle is the same for all
types; the apparatus should consist of a face mask attached by a flexible hose to one or two cylinders containing air
and supported on a frame and harness. The capacity of the apparatus is to be not less than 1200 liters to give a
nominal functioning time of 30 minutes, but this depends on the breathing rate of the user.
The arrangement of a typical apparatus should be as follows:
(i) The cylinders are connected to a reducing valve which reduces the pressure of the air passing through to about 4
bars the air then passes through a "demand valve" which further reduces the pressure and passes air to the
wearer as he inhales and closes when he exhales. An automatic valve releases exhaled air from the face mask.
(ii) When about 10 minutes air supply remains in the cylinder a whistle sound continuously, warning the user.
(iii) The face mask is made of molded rubber with a series of adjustable rubber straps to secure to the head of the
wearer and fitted with quick release arrangements. The visor should have a good field of vision so that the wearier
does not need to turn his head constantly.
CABA harness with back plate and back mounted "wing" buoyancy compensator
1) DV/Regulator first stage.
2) Cylinder valve.
3) Shoulder straps.
4) Buoyancy compensator bladder.
5) Buoyancy compensator relief and lower manual dump valve.
6) DV/Regulator second stages (primary and "octopus").
7) Console (pressure gauge, depth gauge & compass).
8) Dry-suit inflator hose.
9) Back plate.
10) Buoyancy compensator inflator hose and inflation valve.
11) Buoyancy compensator mouthpiece and manual dump valve.
12) Crotch strap.
13) Waist straps.
(iv) Agauge should be provided to indicate the pressure of the air in the cylinder.
(v) Spare cylinders should be provided for each self-contained breathing apparatus, (The provision of a small
air compressor to charge the cylinders is encouraged).
(vi) Equipment using compressed oxygen or closed circuit regenerative apparatus is not acceptable for use on
board ships.
(vii)All ships, irrespective of age, should carry at least two' fireman's outfits. Passenger ships and tankers,
irrespective of age, have additional requirements for fireman's outfits.
EXPLAINED BELOW IS THE OPERATION OF A COMPRESSED AIR BREATHING APPARATUS
Premier Mark II Positive Pressure Compressed Air Breathing Apparatus.
The apparatus consists of a cylinder mounted on a formed stainless steel back plate secured by two quick
release cylinder straps and supported on the wearers back by an adjustable shoulder harness and waist belt.
On opening the cylinder valve, high pressure air passes via flexible hose to a pressure reducer, from which
high pressure air Is fed to the whistle warning unit and via a stainless steel flexible hose to a contents gauge
positioned on the shoulder harness. Low pressure air from the reducer is fed via a stainless steel flexible hose
to a demand valve incorporating a positive pressure mode.
The reflex face mask, to which the demand valve is connected, incorporates inner mask speech transmitter and fresh
air valve together with a microphone port for communication equipment, The air supply from the demand valve on
inhalation first passes across the visor to prevent, misting and into the inner mask, On exhalation, expired air passes
out through the positively closed exhalation valve situated in the front port.
The set should be thoroughly inspected externally after use and at regular Intervals of not more than one month
when not in use for external damage. On completion, carry out the tests as stated below. All the necessary
information to enable this Inspection and maintenance to be carried out after use can be obtained from the
Illustrations together with the instructions in the manual.
DURATION FROM CYLINDER
The endurance O4 test depends on the amount of work carried out. Slowdeep breathing is important for maximum
efficiency and endurance. Fitness of the wearer is important, as a fit man will use less air. It is emphasized that the set
permits the wearer to work and breathe exactly as he wishes; Inefficiency In his breathing will result in reduced
duration.
The set is extremely efficient, that Is to say, the resistance to breathing is kept as low. As possible to reduce breathing
effort, and hence Increase capacity for useful work. It must be understood that an efficient set will allow the wearer
to work at a higher rate than if an inefficient set is worn. High work rates are sometimes essential and it is Important
that the set should be efficient enough to permit them. To make the most economic use of air available, work rates
should be moderate.
The whistle warning unit will operate when a pro-determined pressure remains in the cylinder.
This means that If the wearer Immediately makes his way to fresh air at a moderately fast pace, he has approximately
10 minutes in which to reach It, if the wearer considers that it will take him longer he must constantly refer to his
pressure gauge and be aware of the relationship between the pressure remaining and the breathing time available.
CONSUMPTION AND DURATION FIGURES
Degrees of Work Air Consumption 1200 liters duration (liters / 1800 liters duration (min)
(liters / min) min)
Resting 8-12 150-100 225-15
Light Work 12-20 100-60 150-90
Moderate Work 20-40 60-30 90-45
Heavy Work 40-60 30-20 45-30
Nominal Safe Working Duration
Fully charged cylinder capacity

= Working Duration = min us 10 min s.
40
PREPARATION FOR USE
Fit cylinder buffer into rubber boot at base of apparatus ensuring that valve lies horizontally. Ensure '0' ring fitted to
cylinder connector is not damaged. Tighten the connector nut into the cylinder - hand tight. Place cylinder straps
around cylinder, fit swing bolts into forks on cylinder straps and tighten.
Adjust shoulder straps and waist belt to their full extent. Adjust face mask harness straps to their full extent leaving
centre strap pre-adjusted (date tamp centralized).
Switch off demand valve positive pressure facility, by pressing red button to prevent damage to the positive pressure
mechanism it is important that the lever is not depressed without the rubber shroud being in positions.
OPERATIONAL CHECK
1. Check cylinder pressure
Open cylinder valve slowly but fully, read off pressure of the contents gauge 200.
2. High pressure leak test.
Close cylinder valve and observe pressure gauge. The pressure indicated shall not drop more than 10 Bar in one
minute.
3. Check whistle warning unit.
Switch on the positive pressure facility by hand; to do so, seal outlet with ball of hand and apply pressure briefly
on the centre of the protective cap of the demand valve. Vent apparatus by carefully lifting ball of hand.
Whistle must sound at a pressure appropriate to the cylinder fitted.
Deactivate by depressing the red button.
PUTTING ON THE APPARATUS
Don the apparatus with all the straps loose and tighten by pulling on the free ends of the shoulder straps until the
apparatus sits securely and comfortably. Clip the waist-belt clip together and adjust waist-belt; do NOT over-tighten
the waist-belt. To loosen the waist-belt, hold buckle at right angles to belt and pull outwards at the same time check
that the demand valve is deactivated by depressing the red button (Auto Demand Valve) open the cylinder valve
slowly but tally and don the face mask.
MASK LEAKAGE TEST
Close cylinder valve, breath normally until the air in the system is exhausted. The mask should pull onto the face; if it
does not, open cylinder valve, adjust head harness, and repeat test.
NOTE: The snug fit of the mask is only achieved if the mask seal makes close contact with the skin, I.e., it must be
certain that there is no facial hair, stubble, side burns or the like in this area.
CHECKING THE FUNCTION OF THE APPARATUS
Open cylinder valve slowly but fully. Check functioning of the demand valve and exhalation valve by breathing deeply
several times. Hold breath, the unit shall be balanced, i.e., no audible leak. Continue breathing, It must be possible for
the expired air to flow easily out of the exhalation valve. Check the function of the supplementary supply by
depressing fully the centre of the protective cap.
PAY ATTENTION TO APPROACH AND ESCAPE TIMES
Take pressure gauge reading from time to time whist apparatus is worn: When the compressed air supply has fallen
to a residual pressure of between 35 and 70 bar, the whistle warning unit sounds. START ESCAPING AT THE LATEST
WHEN THE SIGNAL SOUNDS. Given an average air consumption of 40 liters/mm, approximately 10 minutes are
available for escape.
END OF USE
Take off the mask.
Shut off the, supply at demand valve by pressing red button.

PROCEDURE FOR FITTING PREMIER DEMAND VALVE TO FACE MASK
STEP-1 : This illustration shows the final correct alignment of the demand valve hose and mask. To achieve this, the
following procedure should be applied.
STEP-2 : To ensure correct alignment of the demand valve and hose, don the set with the face mask disconnected
and hold the demand valve in palm of the hand. There should be no strain on the hose when the demand valve outlet
is laid flat against the cheek. If this is not correctly aligned, please contact designated maintenance personnel.
STEP-3 : When wearing the set, hold the face mask as illustrated, allow the demand valve and hose
to hand free. Present the face mask to the demand valve, ensuring that the hand wheel of the
demand valve spins freely prior to connecting the demand valve to the face mask.
STEP-4 : Screw the demand valve hand wheel into the side port on the face mask. The hand wheel
should be screwed in sufficiently until resistance of rotation is felt between the sealing face on the
demand valve in relation to the rubber seal in the face mask port.
STEP-5 : Checks that the demand valve and hose are aligned with the screw in
the base of the front port.
STEP-6 : Lock the demand valve securely in position by using two thumbs to rotate the hand
wheel a minimum of one castellation. It should not be possible to rotate the demand valve in the
port.
By lifting buckles in vertical direction, and removing life time if used put apparatus down (DO NOT THROW DOWN /
OR DROP DOWN). Close cylinder valve.
VENTING THE APPARATUS
Vent the apparatus by activating the positive pressure facility of the demand valve, Switch positive pressure facility
off again by pressing the red button.
REMOVE CYLINDER
To remove cylinder, loosen the wing bolts. Swing the cylinder straps clear and unscrew the cylinder connector. Lift
the cylinder clear of back plate.
PRECAUTIONS WHEN USING CABA
Breathing apparatus must always be donned and started upon FRESH AIR. The practice of men rigging up in fresh air
and not putting on their face mask till they reach smoky atmospheres and then starting up their sets is EXTREMELY
DANGEROUS AND MUST NOT BE PERMITTED.
The face mask is designed to prevent any external atmosphere from entering the respiratory system and it is
exceedingly dangerous for the face mask to be removed when the wearer is in smoky or toxic atmosphere. IF THE
FACE MASK IS DISLODGED WHIST THE WEARER IS IN A SMOKY OR TOXIC ATMOSPHERE, IT IS VITAL THAT THE
WEARER SHOULD HOLD HIS BREATH AND IMMEDIATELY REPLACE THE DISLODGED MASK. It for any reason, there is
likelihood of delay In doing so, the wearer should contact the other members of the team IMMEDIATELY and he
should be evacuated to fresh air at the earliest, even though he may not feel any III effects from the few breaths of
contaminated air which he has been forced to inhale.
Whenever possible, working in pairs engenders confidence and contact should be made by physical touch and
speaking. When In strange surroundings and unable to see, the only course is to work by touch and to follow the
elementary precautions of shuffling along with the feet and feeling with the back of the hand for obstructions and
falling down openings In floors or stairways will be minimized. It the leading man halts for any reason, then men
following will become aware of this by contact and the reason for the halt should be communicated as far as possible
to the others.
If the wearer is entrapped and unable to withdraw, then he must first raise an alarm by signal on the line or portable
radio equipment (if being carried) and then he should relax in as comfortable a position as possible, breathe shallowly
and await assistance.
While working in areas where high expansion foam exists, it should be remembered that this foam being opaque,
visibility is nil; also the audibility is greatly reduced. Immersion in high expansion foam may therefore give a feeling of
complete isolation and have effects similar to claustrophobia. Men should always maintain physical touch and use the
safeguards by guidelines.
CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF CABA
The care and maintenance of all CABA is relatively simple. Adjustments are seldom necessary, especially if the sets
are regularly used and serviced. Dismantling, assembling, testing and renewal of any of tile component parts should
be carried out accordance with the manufacturers recommendations for each type of set. After use the apparatus
should be cleared as necessary. The face mask should be washed and disinfected. The whole apparatus should be
thoroughly dried before assembly. If the cylinder pressure is less than 5/6th of the maximum, then the cylinder
should be replaced by a fully charged one.
Washers or other parts found defective during tests should be renewed. "0" rings and other seals should be renewed
not less frequently than recommended by the makers. When tightening nuts, excessive force should be avoided as
this may damage the threads.
FORCED AIR BREATHING APPARATUS
This apparatus consists of a face mask with an Integral speech diaphragm. Rubber breathing tube, terylene harness
assembly with shackle, hemp covered wire rope life-line, signal plate, air hose and double acting foot operated
bellows. Fresh air is drawn up the hose by the wearer's own aspiratory effort. An exhaling valve allows the escape of
excess and vitiated air. The apparatus is connected to a set of bellows which can be pedal, hand or power operated.
This bellow should be situated in fresh air. With the effort, of a second person, continuous supply can be provided.
The disadvantages of this apparatus are:
Constant supply of air is dependent on the second person.
Air tubing has to be trailed behind the wearer thus restricting movement's and limiting his circle of operation.
-- The air tubing can be cut or damaged.
-- The apparatus is bulky.
Care and maintenance of the apparatus requires bellows to be kept in good un-punctured condition.
5.5 The participant should be able to operate the equipment described above practical circumstances.
5.6 The participant should be able to recharge, repair and maintain portable fire extinguishers.
CHAPTER 6
PROCEDURES FOR FIRE FIGHTING
6.1 SHIP AT SEA
6.1.1 When the fire alarm is given, the fire procedure and the emergency stations procedure are put into effect; for
example:
The crew assembles at the designated fire station as given on the muster list.
The fire parties assemble, on orders from the bridge, and carry out their tasks aimed at containing the fire.
The ship's course and speed are altered as necessary to assist in reducing the fire.
The pumps are prepared to dispose of extinguishing water for engine-room fires, the ship is stopped.
6.1.2 The master decides the most appropriate method for fighting the fire and this is implemented by the
Emergency Teams, Technical Team & Support Team.
- For engine-room fires, early preparations are made to launch lifeboats.
6.1.3 When the fire is extinguished, a fire-watch is kept, the requirement for emergency stations is canceled and
an investigation into the fire.
6.2 SHIP IN PORT
6.2.1 When the fire alarm is given, the fire procedure and the emergency stations procedure are put into effect, as
indicated In Section 6.1.
6.2.2 The following additional procedures must be followed:
1. Call the port fire brigade.
2. Inform the appropriate authority.
3. Confirm with harbour master that the master of the ship will remain in overall charge.
4. Confirm with harbour master that the fire brigade will take charge of the fire-fighting operations, assisted
by the crew as required.
5. Confirm with harbour master that he will keep the master Informed of any hazards to thedock
Installation and any actions required.
6. Check who Is on board make preparations for ship to leave port If required, either by own power or with
help of tugs.
7. Evacuate non-essential personnel.
6.2.3 When the fire has been extinguished, a fire-watch is kept, the requirement for emergency stations is
cancelled and an investigation into the fire, as indicated in Section 10, is begun.
6.3 SHIP HAVING CARGO OF DANGEROUS GOODS

6.3.1 The stowage plan should be marked to show the position and class of dangerous goods.
6.3.2 A fire-fighting plan should be prepared showing which fire-fighting media and appliances can safely be used.
6.3.3 The dangers and the consequent risk to the crew should be assessed when the cargo is loaded.
6.3.4 When the fire alarm is given, the emergency procedure is put into effect, as indicated in Section 6.1.
6.3.5 It is dangerous to rush into action without knowing the nature of the cargo.
6.3.6 When the fire has been extinguished, a fire-watch is kept, the requirement for emergency stations is
cancelled and an investigation into the fire, as indicated in Section 10, is begun.
6.4 OIL TANKERS
6.4.1 When the fire alarm is given, the emergency procedure is' put into effect, as Indicated in Section 6.1.
6.4.2 The additional requirements for fire prevention and fire-fighting on a tanker Include.
- A fixed fire-extinguishing system in the pump-room.
- Foam monitors on the deck.
- An Inert gas-system for the cargo tanks.

Isolation valves fitted in the fire main at the poop front and at specified distances forward of the poop
front to allow.
Control of the water supply to the foam monitors in the event of damage to the fire main.
Control of the water supply if the emergency fire pump is in use.
A division into gas-dangerous and gas-free spaces strict segregation between cargo spaces and systems
and machinery accommodation spaces and systems.
6.4.3 When the fire has been extinguished, a fire-watch should be kept, the requirement for emergency stations is
cancelled and an investigation into the fire is begun.
6.5 EXAMPLES OF CARGO FIRES
LNG FIRES
Natural gas contains numerous component gases but by far the greater percentage is methane (CH4), which
represents between 60 and 95 percent of the total volume. This fact is important when considering the safety
aspects for firefighters tackling an LNG fire.
During the initial period of vaporization of the gas, ignition may be accompanied by a flash of varying
proportions However, because the velocity of propagation of a flame is lower in methane than in' other
hydrocarbon oases, It Is unlikely that further Ignition will have flash effect.
The fire-fighting plan should be well thought out in advance and a concentrated effort made rather than 'hit and run'
tactics, as these will only consume, the vessel's extinguishing facilities without extinguishing the fire. Before
attempting to tackle a large fire, 'you should seriously consider allowing the fire to burn it out.
Should an attempt to extinguish the fire be made, extensive use of 'dry powder' should be employed from as many
dispensers as can be brought to bear. Fire-fighters should be well- protected against heat radiation and possible flash
burns, and approach the fire from an upwind direction. Powder dispensers should sweep the entire area of the fire,
but direct pressure of powder jets on to the surface of the liquid should be avoided.
Should dry powder guns be used, fire-fighters should be well practiced in their use and be prepared for some kick-
back effect. They should also be made aware that there is no cooling effect from the use of dry powder, and that
resignation after a fire has been extinguished is a distinct possibility.
In the initial stages it is always preferable to isolate the fire by shutting of f the source of fuel. This may not, however,
always be possible.
A final warning when tackling an LNG fire is that water should not be used directly, as this will accelerate vaporization
of the liquid. This is not to say that surrounding bulkheads and decks cannot be cooled down with water sprays
provided that water running off is not allowed to mix with burning LNG.
COTTON FIRES
Cotton is a cargo liable to spontaneous combustion and one which is extremely difficult to bring under control.
Cotton cargoes are such that they are shipped in of 227 kg or 318 kg. Cotton is a heavy cargo; It is often stowed in
lower holds for stability reasons and to form a base for later cargo. It is a cargo where the prevention of the fire
initially is preferable to knowing how to tackle it, should it occur.
Cotton bales should be dry and free of oil marks, tightly bound and seen to be in good condition at the onset of
loading. Stringent observation of no smoking' in and around cargo holds should be observed by stevedores and ship's
personnel. Bare metalwork in holds should be covered to prevent moisture contact with cargo and spar ceiling should
be inspected to ensure that at bales do not come into contact with the shell plate.
Should an outbreak of fire occur, the only sure way of extinguishing It Is to dig out the affected area. This practice is
not at all easy for crew members, who are in experienced at handling heavy bales for any length of time. Deviation to
a port for discharge may become the only alternative, depending on the size of the fire at the time of discovery and
the ability to extinguish
If successful in digging out burning or smothering bales of cotton jettison them overboard Reignition of cotton bales
can occur, even after they have been totally immersed in water. Bottles which appear to be extinguished will all too
easily flare up after a thorough hosing down.
If breathing apparatus air supply is limited and for other reasons it proves Impossible to tackle the fire, direct
containment should be the next consideration. This is probably best achieved by the battening down of the
compartment and the injection of C02 while heading for a port with the necessary facilities. Boundary cooling should
be carried out on as many of the six sides of the fire as are accessible.
COAL FIRES
All coal cargoes give off an inflammable gas, and when this mixes with critical proportions of oxygen, and then
explosion and/or fire may be the end result. The gas given off by the coal is lighter than air and during the voyage it
will work its way to the upper surface of the cargo. It is essential that it is therefore provided with 'surface ventilation'
to clear away and build-up of accumulated gas. Surface ventilation is achieved during the voyage by entrance
hatches. Steel hatch-covers should be raised on their wheels, provided that weather permits such action. Ventilators
should always be properly trimmed.
All types of coal, whether of the 'anthracite, lignite or brown coal' varieties, are subject to spontaneous combustion,
A close watch should be maintained on hold temperatures during passage and correct ventilation allowed to reduce
temperatures in the event of over-heating. It is worth to note that coal Increases its temperature by its absorption of
oxygen. Correct ventilation for this cargo must therefore be considered to the surface ventilation only, for a limited
period.
Should fire break out, early positive hose action will probably be the best way of containing it. However, personnel
may not be able to spend much time on fire-fighting because of the excessive heat or the amount of smoke, within
the space. Breathing apparatus will be essential and the air supply in bottles may further restrict conventional means
of fighting the fire.
The injection of C02 must be considered at an early stage, should conventional methods become Impractical. It will be
totally dependent on the size of the fire whether C02 smothering is effective. At the very best It will contain the blaze
to a degree arid will certainly buy time for the Master to investigate safe port options.
Alternatively, the final option would be to flood the space with water, Close investigation of the ship's damage
stability should be made before taking this action, with particular attention to the free surface effect of flooding such
a large space, though in a compartment filled with coal there would be little free surface effect.
Hold preparation before loading coal will play a major part in averting a fire, and the following points are
recommended:
1. Clean the hold space of residual debris.
2. Remove spar Ceiling.
3. Remove any dunning Clear off the space.
4. Make provision for obtaining temperatures at different 'levels of the cargo'.
5. Trim the cargo throughout and on completion flooding.
FISH MEAL FIRES
Fish meal isa bagged cargo which is probably most likely to catch fire while the ship is on passage from the loading
port, due to spontaneous combustion. Experience has shown that vessels employed in the charge of 'fish meal' must
take stringent precautions when loading. Extensive ventilation channels must be allowed for at the onset of loading
and these channels must not be allowed to get blocked by falling, bags of cargo.
Officers should be provided with injection thermometers for testing bags during loading. Any batch with excessively
high temperatures should also be rejected. Temperatures during the voyage should be taken at least twice a day.
Provision should be made for positioning thermometers at all levels of cargo, in all' spaces containing fish meal. If
there is an outbreak of fire, close off all ventilation as soon as possible. Make an immediate assessment, of the fire
area, and attempt to extinguish small fires, preferably by use of dry powder.
If it is found that a major fire is already well established, ensure that all ventilation is cut off and inject C0 2. If this
action' fails to extinguish the flame, then hose action may be the only alternative. Should hoses have to be brought to
bear, then they should be as close to the fire as possible before being turned an. All bags of fish meal that are soaked
by the hose action should be jettisoned as soon as the fire has, been extinguished.
Hoses should not be used except as a last resort to save the bulk of cargo and the ship itself. Considerable spoilage of
the bags will occur with hose action, and the like hood of further probable outbreaks of fire increasing, rather than
decreasing. Correct stowage in the first instance, with continual checks on temperature conditions throughout the
passage, will limit the chance of fire, and give, ample warning should it occur.
CHAPTER 7
FIRE APPLIANCES AND EQUIPMENT
7.1 FIRE ALARMS
7.1.1 For fire-alarms and the actuating switches:
• A plan should be available which shows their positions.
• A schedule should be prepared that shows dates when surveys,
• Inspections, maintenance and testing should be carried out. A record should be kept of defects found
and of repairs carried out the manufacturer's Instruction manuals should be a basis for the schedule referred
to above, which should include at least inspection for damage or omissions in wiring and equipment cleaning
of electrical contacts and switches testing of the system and proving that all equipment operate correctly.
7.2 FIRE DETECTION EQUIPMENT
A scheme similar to that in section 7.1 should be prepared and operated.
Additionally the maintenance schedule should include:
Testing the correct operation of each head or probe, as appropriate, for
• Smoke (ion) detectors.
• Flame detectors (infrared or ultraviolet rays from the flames).
• Heat detectors (thermal contact).
• Rate-of-change-of-temperature detector.
• Bursting temperature of sprinkler bulb in a sprinkler system.
- Cleaning checking of contacts and other components in the control I box and ensuring that , connection to
the fire-alarm system operates correctly.
METHODS OF FIRE DETECTION
One effective way of minimizing the effects of an unwanted fire is to detect It before it has chance to grow too large
or spread too far this is the objective of a fire detection System.
Combustion products detectors which operate when an electric current flowing through an ionized atmosphere is
changed flame detectors which react to radiation from flame.
HEAT DETECTORS
Heat detectors are the oldest type of automatic fire detectors. The existing systems were improved and refined
during early years of 20th century. Heat detectors are the least expensive of the three major types and are usually
used to protect large areas where safety of life and early warning are not the major concern; they also have the
lowest unwanted alarm rate and are the slowest to respond, generally requiring minutes instead of seconds.
HEAT DETECTORS - FIXED TEMPERATURE (BIMETAL TYPE)
Fixed temperature detectors may be bimetallic devices, or those using two metals with different coefficients of
thermal expansion. When bonded together and heated, the metal with the higher expansion rate bends or flexes
towards the metal having the lower expansion rate, and this action closes a normally open circuit. Such devices are
generally of two types, the bimetal strip and the bimetal snap disc. Each detector can protect an area of 36m 2.
HEAT DETECTOR - FUSIBLE LINK TYPE
These detectors are based on the fact that certain metal-alloys melt at relatively low temperature. The general range
available is from 55°C to 180°C. As the metal used predetermines the temperature at which the alarm will sound it
will be chosen after due consideration of the type of risk to be protected. This detector consists of a fixed contact
blade (1) and a pair of spring contact (2) & (3) held under tension by a fusible alloy link. In this condition the electric
circuit is in complete and the alarm is not activated when the surrounding air reaches the predetermined melting
point of the fusible link the spring contacts separate and (2) makes contact with (1). This completes the circuit and
sounds the alarm.
HEAT DETECTOR - FUSIBLE ALLOY TYPE
This detector comprises a thin walled metal case fitted with heat collecting fins at its lower end. A conductor extends
through the core and the metal casing is lined with fusible alloy which acts as a second conductor. Heat from a fire
will melt the fusible alloy at the predetermined temperature and cause it to make contact with the central conductor.
This completes an electric circuit to sound the alarm. The range of operating temperature for this detector 57°C to
102°C and each detector head will protect about 36 m2. Fusible detectors are not self-righting. Once they have
operated, the link fusible alloy needs replacing although for most cases this is a reasonably straight forward operation,
It needs to be remembered that the detector Is ineffective until replacement takes place.
Bi-metal strips are also used as the heat sensitive elements in some rate-of-rise detectors.
Two similar composition bi-metal strips are used but one is suitably shielded and protected to reduce Its rate of
expansion if there is rapid rise in temperature strip which is not shielded will expand more rapidly than strip and as a
result, where there is a slow rate of expansion in both strips, keep them relatively the same distance apart. In other
words the movement of strip compensates for the gradual rise in ambient temperature which light be quite, normal
in certain locations.
It is undesirable however for this situation to continue too long when a slow burning fire might be the cause of the,
temperature rise. For this reason a fixed temperature device is fitted in rate of rise detectors. This will stop the
movement of strip when a predetermined temperature is reached and thus allow strip 11) to catch up and make the
necessary contact to raise an alarm. "Pyrene" heat detector is an example of rate- of rise bimetallic heat detector see
Fig. 7.6a. In this detector two bi-metal strips are curved to fit inside cylindrical container, the, top half of which is
thick plastic and bottom half aluminum. The plastic base molding effectively shields the upper Strip while the lower
strip is subjected to greater heat through the thin aluminum cover. With a rapid rise in temperature the strips expand
within the circumference the container. Because of Its greater rate of expansion the lower strip quickly makes
contact with the upper strip arid the alarm is raised. In the slow burning fire situation the fixed temperature stop will
eventually halt the expansion of the upper strip and thus allow the lower strip to catch up and make contact with it to
raise the alarm.
The fixed temperature stop can be designed to operate at 57°C or I00°C 'depending on the requirements of the user.
It to make contact with the central conductor. This completes an electric circuit to sound the alarm. The range of
operating temperature for this detector 57°C to 102°C and each detector head will protect about 36 m1. Fusible
detectors are not self-righting. Once they have operated, the link fusible alloy needs replacing although for most
cases this is a reasonably straight forward operation, It needs to' be remembered that the detector Is ineffective until
replacement takes place.
HEAT DETECTOR (RATE OF RISE)
Bi-metal strips are also used as the heat sensitive elements in some rate-of-rise detectors.
Two similar composition bi-metal strips are used but one is suitably shielded and protected to reduce its rate of
expansion.
If there is a rapid rise in temperature strip which is not shielded will expand more rapidly than strip and as a result,
where there is a solid rate expansion In both stripe, keep them relatively the same distance apart In other words the
movement of strip compensates for the gradual rise in ambient temperature which might be normal in certain
locations.
continue too long when a slow burning fire might be the cause of the, temperature rise. For this reason a fixed
temperature device is fitted in rate of rise detectors. This will stop the movement of strip when a predetermined
temperature is reached and thus allow strip 11) to catch up and make the necessary contact to raise an alarm.
"Pyrene" heat detector Is an example of rate-of rise bimetallic heat detector see. In this detector two bi-metal strips
are curved to fit inside cylindrical container, the, top half of which is thick plastic and bottom half aluminum. The
plastic base molding effectively shields the upper Strip while the lower strip is subjected to greater heat through the
thin aluminum cover. With a rapid rise in temperature the strips expand within the circumference the container.
Because of Its greater rate of expansion the lower strip quickly makes contact with the upper strip arid the alarm is
raised. In the slow burning fire situation the fixed temperature stop will eventually halt the expansion of the upper
strip and thus allow the lower strip to catch up and make contact with it to raise the alarm.
The fixed temperature stop can be designed to operate at 57°C or 100°C depending on the requirements of the user.
This era began in the late 1940's when a Swiss physicist D Ernest Meili, who was engaged in research using ionization
chambers to detect combustible gases in mines, realized that the ionization chamber used in the laboratory for
testing microscopic particles could be used to detect the invisible particles present in combustion products from fires
or thermal decomposition. The challenge was to condense the necessary electronics into a package, small and
economical enough to make it practical. His solution was the development of a unique cold cathode tube that could
amplify the tiny electrical signal received when products of combustion entered the ionization chamber this invention
made possible a whole new Industry. At first, the fire protection community was rather slow to accept this new
concept; however it is by far the most widely used of all types of fire detectors. Of course, these devices have been
improved and refined over the years as the explosive development of electronics made possible changes that
significantly lowered the cost and improved reliability.
SMOKE DETECTORS - IONIZATION TYPE
Modern smoke detectors respond to minute particles generated by fire. In general, ionization detectors respond
more rapidly to the smaller particles of smoke (0.001 to 1 micron) created by fast-flaming tires while photo-electric
detectors respond to larger particles of smoke In fires. Ionization detectors consist of one or two chambers
containing a small radioactive source. (Radiation generated by these devices is infinitely less than that received from
sunlight or soil; the amount of radiation that escapes from a detector would be only a fraction of that amount). Alpha
or beta rays emitted from the radioactive source ionize the air between two electronically charged plates in the
sensing chamber and cause a current to flow. Particles entering the chamber change the impedance, cause a voltage
shift, and trigger an alarm.
Most ionization detectors have two chambers, one that allows the smoke to enter freely and a second virtually sealed
reference chamber. The two chambers stabilize the unit, making it less sensitive to unwanted alarms caused by any
changes in humidity, temperature, and pressure. In addition to responding rapidly to fast-flaming fire, ionization
smoke detectors have a sensitivity unrelated to this type of smoke (light or dark). Newer models feature low-current
consumption and are a good choice to protect combustibles, the working principle of this type of smoke detectors is
explained below;
An atom is made up of protons, electrons and neutrons, the protons and electrons being in balance.
If the atom is subjected to radiation from a radioactive source some electrons are knocked off. As a result the atom
becomes positively charged, the 'free' electron quickly links up with another atom' which becomes negatively
charged. These 'new' atoms are called 'Ions' and the process that creates them is Ionization'.
If the atoms of air in a container are subjected to radiation, ionization takes place in the same way but the ions will be
moving about haphazardly.
If we then introduce a positively charged plate and negatively charged plate to the container a more orderly and
predictable movement of Ions takes place, the positive Ions are attracted to the negative plate and the negative ions
are attracted to the positive plate. The movement of ions between the plates in the chamber reduces the resistance
of the air so that a small electric current flows in the external circuit. The current is small and is amplified so that it
can be readily monitored.
In fire condition smoke particles become attached to the ions because of electrostatic attraction and slow their
movement. This causes a reduction in the flow. When the current falls below a predetermined level the amplifier
senses It and initiates an alarm. That is the basic concept of the ionization detector.
Most of the detectors of this type use two ionized chambers in series; one of the chambers is open to the
surrounding atmosphere while the other is enclosed. The atmosphere in both chambers 'is ionized by a radioactive
source, elements such as americium and radium being used. The ionization of the atmospheres in the two chambers
under normal conditions permits minute current to flow, caused by the positive and negative Ions, created by the
radiation, moving in opposite directions. The supply voltage across the two chambers is therefore divided, a common
connection being taken from the central point to a cold cathode tube in the products of combustion, which may even
be' too small to be seen by the naked eye, entering the outer chamber the tendency is for them to collect ions by
collision and as the "aerosols" as they are known, are much larger than the ions, the latter are virtually stopped by
trio collision. A reduction in the Ion flow obviously means a reduction in the voltage across the chamber and hence a
change in the voltage at the common terminal. The latter, as stated, is connected to the trigger electrode of a cold
cathode tube, so arranged that on a predetermined voltage level being reached, the tube 'fires' and permits the
passage of a small current, sufficient to activate an alarm relay. The alarm will continue to sound until such time as
the electrical power is removed, this will permit the tube to return to its Initial state.
The sensitivity of this type of detector can be varied by altering the levels of radiation in the chambers or by altering
the voltage necessary to "fire" the cold cathode tube.
Such a detector is most suitable for us. In machinery spaces and can be adjusted to a high level of sensitivity
especially when unmanned operation is required and where detection of fire is Imperative However, this very feature
Is to some extent advantage as false alarms can occur when the sensitivity is too high; too many false alarms produce
a loss of confidence in the equipment . It is worth while noting here that this type of detector does not depend on the
combustion products being visible; it is the number of particles that Is important. Thus, a large number of particles,
although they may be Invisible, will cause the indicator to the alarm condition while a smaller number of particles
which may be in the form of smoke, may not necessarily do so. From a more practical point of view, the presence of
steam, in the over chamber will activate this type of detector and it important to site them well clear of any steam
leak-off, e.g. turbine glands. In order to overcome the handicap of time lag of smoke detectors in case of high value
Items like computer installations a new type of highly sensitive detector has been developed known as VESDA'. it Is
an acronym for 'Very Early Smoke Detection Apparatus' arid this reportedly has reduced the time lag over convention
smoke detectors by virtue of Its operating principle which is based upon continuous analysis of air samples. Air
samples from a protected area are continuously drawn through piping in a variety of configurations by a fan and
monitored in detector enclosure using air particle concentration technology, an electronic technique first developed
to detect air pollution. Another smoke detector whose use is somewhat limited although effective certain
applications, is that which uses the cold chamber principle. This is usually a sampling-type of system, in which an air
pump draws sample of air from the protected areas into a high-humidity chamber. It smoke particles are present;
moisture condenses on them, forming a cloud whose density is measured by photoelectric principle. When the
density is greater than a predetermined level the detector responds.
SMOKE DETECTORS - PHOTOELECTRIC
Photoelectric smoke detectors operate by responding to the reflection (scattering) or absorption (obscuration) of
light by smoke particles. The most common type uses the light- scattering principle. A light source, usually a light
emitting diode (LED), is mounted on one side of the device, and a light receiver, usually a photodiode, on the other
side so that the receiver is not directly exposed to the LED. Smoke particles entering the detector reflect light on to
the receiver, changing its conductivity and causing the device to alarm.
The light-obscuration or projected-beam type electrically measures the reduction in the transmission of light caused
by the smoke particles. In this case, the photo diode is directly opposite to the LED so that light is continually
received. The voltage change that occurs when smoke particles interrupt the light beam generates an alarm.
Photoelectric smoke detectors respond more rapidly to shouldering fires such as those generated by overheated PVC
wire insulation. The light-scattering detector is more responsive to light, visible smoke: black, sooty smoke will
produce a slower response. These detectors are less likely to be adversely affected by air currents or dust and may be
used, for example, in the under floor of a computer room.
LIGHT-SCATTER TYPE - PHOTOELECTRIC SMOKE DETECTOR
The light source and photo-electric cell are mounted in alight proof housing which is designed to allow strike to flow
into it unimpeded. In the 'non-fire' condition light from the light source does not fall on to the photo-electric cell.
When smoke particles enter the housing, some light is deflected upward onto the photo electric cell. The light falling
onto the cell will either create an electrical current in the detector circuit or allow more current to flow through it.
The small increase in current is normally amplified by a transistorized circuit in order to energize a relay which
controls the alarm. The alarm also switches on an indicator lamp on the detector, thus identifying the head that has
operated. Should there be a failure in the power or light in the detector, a special relay will signal this at a central
point and also illustrate the indicator lamp on the detector head, an actual fire signal is not produced in these
conditions.
The area protected by a detector head will vary depending on the risk Involved, the floor plan and other variables.
A schematic diagram of a photoelectric smoke detector which is based upon the light-scatter principle is as seen
above. This type of detector is fitted on cargo ships. As a sampling apparatus designed to analyze air samples drawn
from each cargo space arid detect a fire condition by smoke detection. An electrically ''driven exhaust fan draws air
samples from each of the protected spaces by fixed piping. The air Samples pass through a chamber, the inside of
which is painted matt black, and is discharged into the wheelhouse or to the outside atmosphere. In the chamber a
parallel beam of light is caused to pass through inwardly facing photo-electric ceils. The light beam also falls upon an
end cell mounted obliquely to the beam the output of the end cell is balanced by a balance adjuster to obtain a
balance at the micro-ammeter relay. On smoke entering the chamber, the intensity of light falling on the end cell
decreases whereas the light Received by the inwardly facing cell increases by virtue of the deflection of the light
beam by smoke particles, the circuit becomes Imbalanced. The circuit imbalance triggers an alarm.
LIGHT-OBSCURATION TYPE - PHOTOELECTRIC SMOKE DETECTOR
The obscuration type optical detector works on the reverse of the principle just described - the light is obscured by
the smoke. The resultant reduction in' the Intensity of the light falling on the photo-electric deli causes an alarm to be
actuated. The light obscuration type smoke detectors have been largely superseded. By light scatter type described
earlier.
FLAME DETECTORS
Fire releases radiant energy in the form of:
1. Infrared radiation.
2. Visible light.
3. Ultra-violet radiation:
These forms of energy travel in waves radiating from their point of origin. Radiation detectors are designed to
respond to this radiation. Obviously the use of the visible light, band to activate a detector would present many
problems because the detector would not be able to differentiate between the various legitimate sources of visible
light and those created by afire. In practice, therefore, these detectors are designed to respond specifically to either:
1. Infrared radiation OR
2. Ultra-violet radiation using a photo-electric cell which is sensitive to one of these sources.
INFRARED FLAME DETECTOR
Schematic diagrams of infra-red detectors are shown in the accompanying figures. The main components of this type
of detector are a lens and filter, photoelectric cell, filter/amplifier, Integrator/timer and audible-visual alarm. It is
obviously necessary to protect the photo-electric cell and electrical components from dirt and moisture but the
protective covering must allow the infra-red radiation to pass through it. Not ail material is transparent to infra-red
but quartz is transparent. Quartz is commonly used as the protective shield in these detectors.
The lens and filter will allow only infra-red radiation to fall on to the photo-electric cell. On being struck by radiation,
the bell will transmit a signal to the filter amplifier. Flame, however, may not be the only producer of infra-red
radiation In the protected area; there 'may be limited number of other producer e.g. sunlight or heaters, but flame
has a distinctive flicker, normally in the frequency range of 4 Hertz - 15 Hertz. The, function of the filter/amplifier,
therefore, is not, only to amplify but also to filter out signal not in this range. If the signal Is In this range (4 Hertz-15
Hertz) it is then fed to the Integrator/ timer which will activate the alarm circuit only If the signal persists for a pre-set
period (normally 2-15 seconds) while this small delay may slightly off set the quick response time of the detector, It is
necessary if false alarms are to be kept to a minimum. Once any signal is rejected the detector goes back on standby.
The detector has a neon flasher to indicate which head has been activated.
As an Infrared detector must 'see' a flame before it will raise an alarm, the detector as illustrated is useful where, the
risk is divided into compartments. Individual detector head can protect each compartment or be placed in strategic
positions in the congested area.
For larger areas, free of congestion and with a more open plan a scanning infrared detector is available. The deflector
continually scans the protected area every 20 seconds. This enables the detector to monitor 3600 in the horizontal
plane and a wide angle on the vertical plane. Immediately the photoelectric cell is struck by deflected Infra-red
radiation and the characteristic 'flicker', is identified by the filter/ amplifier, the integrator stops the motor in order
that the deflector can 'view' the flame source directly and allow the radiation to fall continuously on photo electric
cell.
The timer can then check whether tire flame flicker persists for the 2-1 5 seconds.
Where the infra-red source is present beyond this period the alarm is raised, If It Is not present the integrator restarts
the deflection motor putting the detector back on standby.
The infra-scan detector has an amber fault light which will light up a few seconds after a fault is detected, the red
alarm light illuminates once the integrator activates the alarm. The domed cover is thermally insulated and the cell
and deflector are shielded by quartz globe. Theoretically there is no limit to the range of the infra-scan detector but
for quick detection in the early stages of a fire the radius of detection should be limited to about 80 meters. A much
greater area of coverage can be obtained from the scanning type than from the static type but which type is used In
any particular situation will depend on the Interior plan and use of the protected area.
Infra red detector can provide rapid detection in risk areas where flame is likely to develop at an early stage of
combustion This Is because of the most instantaneous transmission of radiation. This detector is equally efficient
inside or outside. The detector should see the flame .This latter factor makes the infra-red detector (especially the
scanning type) useful for protection of open storage areas.
ULTRA-VIOLET DETECTORS
Like the infra-red detector, this detector also needs to be able to 'see' the flame before it will operate, but since
legitimate sources of ultraviolet radiation are very limited, flicker is not needed.
Basically the ultra-violet detector consists of an amplifier and a photo-electric cell or gas-filled tube sensitive to ultra-
violet radiation.
The principle of operation is very similar to that of the ionization detector. When ultra-violet radiation strikes the gas
filled tube it ionizes the gas in the tube. A small current is set up between the two electrodes and the tube becomes a
conductor of electricity. When the current flow is greater than the set point of the amplifier the alarm relay closes
immediately and causes the alarm to sound. The circuit can also have an Integrator incorporated in it which will
effectively delay the alarm for 10-15 seconds. This can reduce false alarms from legitimate external sources of ultra-
violet radiation like lightning.
The detector is not affected by sunlight or artificial Light but is sensitive to electrical arcs and is not therefore be
recommended for areas in which welding is being done.
Usually ultra-violet detector installation has an amplifier to cater for as many as four detector heads which can be
mounted up to 300 meters from it. The detector has a 90° angle of vision and will detect 1.8m 2 of flame at a distance
of 12 meters. Radiation detectors have a quick response capability and as they are not dependent on combustion
products actually reaching the detector head, they can be used out of doors. They do, however, need a clear 'view' of
the protected area. Any lenses or covers must be kept clean if efficiency is not to be impaired. Early warning will
obviously only be achieved if the goods or materials being protected are readily flammable. The relative amount of
smoke likely to be produced by the goods is another important factor in smoky fire infrared detectors may be
preferable to ultra-violet types because Infra-red radiation can penetrate smoke better, but where goods are likely to
smolder and produce smoke for a long period before flanges appear, radiation detectors are obviously of little value.
FUTURE SYSTEMS
What the future holds is a refinement of the existing systems. Substitution by fiber optics of copper wiring for signal
transmission to eliminate electrical interferences, RF systems may also eliminate much wiring and associated
expense. Entire systems, including fire protection systems, will most probably be integrated into one Intelligent
Management System. In the detector field, chemical field effect transistors (Chem. FETs) may came into general use.
These are semiconductor devices whose electrical properties are altered by the presence of various substances. For
Instance, most materials release small quantities of hydrogen when they are burned. Being a very light gas, hydrogen
reaches ceiling-mounted detectors very quickly.
A Chem. FET that detects hydrogen could thus be valuable in the very early detection of a fire.
These devices are still in the experimental stage, but they have possibilities. In fact, Chem. FETs which can detect one
part per million of hydrogen in air have already been developed. When one realizes that burning paper produce a
hydrogen concentration of several hundred parts per million, one begins to understand just how significant the
possible impact of Chem. FETs may be. These detectors can report back to a control panel individually, identifying
themselves and their condition .As plants install detection systems, they must recognize that no system is perfect and
that detection and protection are not synonymous. Detectors without alarms or extinguishing systems are useless; a
detection system alone is not intended to put out a fire. Conversely, too many fires can kill people without even
triggering a sprinkler head. Once the limitations are recognized, the advantages and applications of detection systems
should be apparent. Sleeted and Installed with care; smoke, heat, and flame detectors can add an immeasurable
degree of safety of life and property protection.
SOLAS REGULATION 13 FIXED FIRE DETECTION AND FIRE ALARM SYSTEMS
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
Any required fixed fire detection and fire alarm system with manually operated call points shall be capable of
immediate operation at all times.
Power supplies and electric circuits necessary for the operation of the system shall be monitored for loss of power or
fault conditions as appropriate. Occurrence of a fault condition shall initiate a visual and audible fault signal at the
control panel which shall be distinct from a fire signal. There shall be not less than two sources of power supply for
the electrical equipment used in the operation of the fire detection and fire alarm system, one of which shall be an
emergency source. The supply shall be provided by separate feeders reserved solely for that purpose. Such feeders
shall run to an automatic change-over switch situated in or adjacent to the control panel for the tire detection
system.
Detectors and manually operated call points shall be grouped into sections. The activation of any detector or
manually operated call point Shall initiate a visual and audible fire signal at the control panel and indicating units, If
the signals have not received attention within two minutes an audible alarm shall be automatically sounded
throughout the crew accommodation and, service spaces, control stations and machinery spaces of category A. This
alarm system need not be an integral part of the detection system.
Indicating units shall denote the section in which a detector or manually operated call point has operated. At least
one unit shall be so located that it is easily accessible to responsible members of the crew at all times, when at sea or
in port except when the ship is out of service. One Indicating unit shall be located on the navigating bridge if the
control panel is located in the main fire control station.
Clear Information shall be displayed on or adjacent to each indicating unit about the spaces covered and the location
of the section. No section covering more than one deck within accommodation, service and control station shall
normally be permitted except a section which covers an enclosed stairway. In order to avoid delay in identifying the
source of fire, the number of enclosed spaces included in each section shall be limited as determined by the
administration. In no case shall more than fifty enclosed space be permitted in any section.
In passenger ships a section of detectors shall not serve spaces on both sides of the ship nor on more than one deck
and neither shall it be situated in more than one main vertical zone except that the Administration, If It Is satisfied
that the protection of the ship against fire will not thereby be reduced, may permit such a section of detectors to
serve both sides of the ship and more than one deck. Section of fire detectors which cover a control station, a service
space or an accommodation space shall not include a machinery space of category A. Detectors shall be operated by
heat, smoke or other products of combustion, flame, or any combination of these factors. Detectors operated by
other factors Indicative of Incipient fires may be considered by the Administration provided that they are no less
sensitive than such detector& Flame detectors shall only be used in addition to smoke or heat detectors.
Suitable Instructions and component spares for testing and maintenance shall be provided. The function of the
detection system shall be periodically tested to the satisfaction of the Administration by means of equipment
producing hot air at the appropriate temperature, or smoke or aerosol particles having the appropriate range of
density of particle size, or other phenomena associated with Incipient fires to which the detector is designed to
respond. All detectors shall be of a type such that they can be tested for correct operation and restored to normal
surveillance without the renewal of any component.
A The fire detection system shall not be used for any other purpose, except that closing of fire doors and similar
functions may be permitted at the control panel.
FIRE DETECTOR INSTALLATION REQUIREMENTS
• Manually operated call points shall be installed throughout the accommodation spaces, service, spaces and
control stations. One manually operated call point shall be located, at each exit. Manually operated call
points shall be readily accessible in the corridors of each deck such that no part of the corridor is more than
20 m from a manually operated call point.
• Smoke detectors shall be installed in all stairways, corridors and escape routes within accommodation
spaces. Consideration shall be given to the Installation of special purpose smoke detectors within ventilation
ducting.
• Where a fixed fire detection and fire alarm system is required for the protection of spaces other than
those specified in the previous paragraph at least one detector operated by heat, smoke, or other products
of combustion shall be installed each such space. Detectors shall be located for optimum performance.
Positions near beams and ventilation ducts or other positions where patterns of air flow could adversely
affect performance and positions where impact or physical damage is likely shall be avoided in general
detectors which are located on the overhead shall be a minimum distance of 0.5 m away from bulkheads.
Type of Detector Maximum floor area per Maximum distance apart Maximum distance away from
detector between centers bulkheads
2
Heat 37m 9m 4.5m
2
Smoke 74m 11m 5.5m
The administration may require or permit other spacing based upon test data which demonstrate the characteristics
of the, detectors. Electrical wiring which forms part of the system shall be so arranged as to avoid galleys, machinery
spaces of category A, and other enclosed spaces of high fire risk except where it is' necessary to provide for fire
detection or fire alarm In such spaces or to connect to the appropriate power supply.
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
• The system and equipment shall be suitably designed to withstand supply voltage. Variation and transients,
ambient temperature changes, vibration', humidity, shock, Impact and corrosion normally encountered in ships.
• Smoke detectors enquired to be installed in stairways, corridors and escape routes shall be certified to operate
before the smoke density exceeds 12.5% obscuration per meter, but it until the smoke density exceeds 2%
obscuration per meter.
• Smoke detectors to be Installed In other spaces shall operate within sensitivity limits to the satisfaction of the
Administration having regard to the avoidance of detector insensitivity or over-sensitivity.
• Heat detectors shall be certified to operate before the temperature exceeds 78°C but not until the temperature
exceeds 54°C, when the temperature is raised to those Limits at a rate less than 1°C' per minute. At high rates of
temperature rise,, the heat detector shall operate within temperature limits to the satisfaction of the
Administration having regard to the avoidance of detector Insensitivity or over sensitivity.
• At the discretion of the administration, the permissible temperature of operation of heat detectors may be
increased to 30°C above the maximum deck head temperature in drying rooms and similar spaces of a normal
high ambient temperature.
SOLAS Regulation 13-1
SAMPLE EXTRACTION SMOKE DETECTION SYSTEMS
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
• Wherever in the text of this regulation the word "system" appears, 'it shall mean 'sample extraction smoke
detection system"
• Any required system shill be capable of continuous operation at all times except that systems operating on a
sequential scanning principle maybe accepted, provided that the Interval between scanning the' same position
twice gives an overall response time to the satisfaction of the administration.
• Power supplies necessary for the operation of the system shall be monitored for loss of power. Any loss of power
shall initiate a visual and audible signal at the control panel and the navigating bridge which shall be distinct from
a signal indicating smoke detection.
• An alternate power supply for the electrical equipment Used in the operation of the system shall be provided.
• The control panel shall be located on the navigating bridge or in the main fire control station; the detection of
smoke or other products of combustion shall initiate a visual and audible signal at the control panel and the
navigating bridge.
• Clear information shall be displayed on or adjacent to the control panel designating the spaces covered.
• The sampling pipe arrangements shall be such that the location of the fire can be readily identified.
• Suitable instructions and component spares shall he provided for the testing and maintenance of the system.
• The functioning of the system shall be periodically tested to the satisfaction of the Administration. The system
shall be of a type that can be tested for correct operation and restored to normal surveillance without the
renewal of any component.
• The system shall be designed, constructed and installed so as to prevent the leakage of any toxic or flammable
substances or fire-extinguishing media into any accommodation and service space, control station or machinery
space.
INSTALLATION REQUIREMENTS
• At least one smoke accumulator shall be located in every enclosed space for which smoke detection is required.
However, where a space is designed to carry oil or refrigerated cargo alternatively with cargoes for which a
smoke sampling system is required, means may be provided to isolate the smoke accumulators in such
compartments for the system. Such means shall be to the satisfaction of the Administration.
• Smoke accumulators shall be located for- optimum performance and shall be spaced so that no part of the
overhead deck area is more than 12 meter measured horizontally from an accumulator. Where systems are used
in spaces which may be mechanically ventilated, the position of the smoke accumulators shall be considered
having regard to the effects of ventilation.
• Smoke accumulators shall be positioned where impact or physical damage is unlikely to occur .Not more than
four accumulators shall be connected to each sampling point.
• Smoke accumulators from more than one enclosed space shall not be connected to the same sampling point.
• Sampling pipes shall be self-draining and suitably protected from Impact or damage from cargo working.
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
• The system and equipment shall be suitably designed to withstand supply voltage variations and transients,
ambient temperature changes, vibration, humidity, shock, Impact and corals normally encountered in ships and
to avoid the possibility of Ignition of flammable gas air mixture.
• The sensing unit shall be certified, to operate before the smoke density within the sensing chamber exceeds
6.65% obscuration per meter.
• Duplicate sample extraction fans shall be provided. The fans shall be of sufficient capacity to operate with the
normal conditions or ventilation in the protected area and shall give an overall response time to the satisfaction
of the Administration.
• The control panelshall permit observation of smoke in the individual sampling pipe.
• Means shall beprovided to monitor the airflow through the sampling pipes so designed as to ensure that as far
practicable equal quantities are extracted from each inter connected accumulator.
• Sampling pipesshall be a minimum of 12mm internal diameter except when used in conjunction with fixed gas
fire- extinguishing systems when the minimum size of pipe should be sufficient to permit the fire extinguishing
gas to be discharged within the appropriate time.
• Sampling pipes shall be provided with an arrangement far periodically purging with compressed air.
SOLAS REGULATION 14 FIXED FIRE DETECTION AND FIRE ALARM SYSTEMS FOR
PERIODICALLY UNATTENDED MACHINERY SPACES
• A fixed fire detection and fire alarm system of an approved type in accordance with the relevant
provisions of regulation 13 shall be installed in periodically unattended machinery space.
• This fire detection system shall be so designed and the detectors so positioned as to detect rapidly the
onset of fire in any part of those spaces and under any normal conditions of operation of the machinery
and variations of ventilation as required by the possible range of ambient temperatures. Except In spaces
of restricted height and where their use is especially appropriate, detection systems using only thermal
detectors shall not be permitted. The detection system shall initiate audible and visual alarms distinct in
both respects from the alarms of any other system not indicating fire. In sufficient places to ensure that
the alarms are heard and observed on the navigating bridge and by a responsible engineer officer. When
the navigating bridge is unmanned the alarm shall sound in a place where a responsible member of the
crew is on duty.
• After installation the system shall be tested under varying conditions of engine operation and ventilation.
CARBON DIOXIDE SYSTEMS
Carbon dioxide, on account of its fire extinguishing efficiency, cleanliness and ease of application, is the most
common fire smothering gas used in a fixed system on board ship. C0 2 is a nonflammable, colorless, odorless,
slightly acidic gas and is approximately one-and-half times as dense as air. Its specific volume at 21.1°C and 1
bar is 0.562m3/kg, and its critical temperature Is 31°C.
It is non-combustible, it does not react with most substances and it provides its own pressure for discharge
from the container. Being In gaseous form and heavier than air, it can penetrate and spread to all parts of the
fire area, while It will not conduct electricity making it suitable for fires on energized electrical circuits. It is
easily liquefied by compressing.
A typical discharge of liquid carbon dioxide has a white cloudy appearance due to finely divided ice particles
carried along with the flash off vapour. Because of the low temperature, the water vapour in the atmosphere
will also condense creating additional fog.
The density of carbon dioxide is one-and-half times that of air and this leads to an effective smothering effect
over the fire, and replaces the air near the fire very rapidly.
The main extinguishing properties which render it effective as an extinguishing agent are that it reduces the
oxygen content of the atmosphere by diluting it to. A point where it will no longer support combustion under
suitable conditions of control and application, the available cooling effect is also helpful, especially where
carbon dioxide is applied directly on the burning material.
There are two basic methods of applying carbon dioxide to extinguish fires. One method is to discharge
enough agents into an enclosure to create an extinguishing atmosphere throughout the enclosed volume;
this is called "TOTAL FLOODING". The second metal to discharge the agent directly on the burning material,
this is called "LOCAL APPLICATION".
In Total Flooding system the carbon dioxide is applied through nozzles, designed and located to develop a
uniform concentration of carbon dioxide in all parts of the enclosure, thus a fire in any part of the room will
be subjected to the same extinguishing atmosphere. The quantity of carbon dioxide required to achieve an
extinguishing atmosphere is easily calculated based on the volume of the room and the concentration
required for the combustible material in the room. The integrity of the enclosure itself is very important. If
the extinguishing atmosphere is lost too rapidly, glowing embers which might remain may cause reigniting
when air is re-introduced.
CARBON DIOXIDE CYLINDER SYSTEMS

The cylinders most commonly used nowadays are those made of "Manganese Steer'. The cylinders have
internal pipes fitted which permit the C02 to pass through the distribution pipe work to the nozzles In the
liquid state and it only evaporates on discharge from the nozzle. The 'internal pipe therefore prevents
evaporation of the liquid taking place on operation of the system, as the resultant drop In pressure and
temperature would cause the vapour to freeze and deposit as snow in the valve and pipe work.
The cylinders are grouped together in banks in the C02 room. The outlet valve of each cylinder discharges
through a connecting pipe into a common manifold, a non-return valve being incorporated into the
connecting pipe in order that the cylinder may be disconnected from the header, for replacement purposes,
without loss of pressure. The connecting pipes are usually of copper but increasing use is being made of
flexible connections on account of ease of installation. The C0 2 in the header thin passes to sector valves
situated in a control cabinet, supplying the machinery space distribution pipe work and may also be
connected to a series of 3-way cocks, or double-seated valves, supplying the various cargo holds. This part of
the system is described later. For machinery space extinguishing systems, speed of operation and a fast rate
of delivery are essential and hence the cylinders which are to be used for this purpose are arranged for
simultaneous operation of the cylinder valves in all but the smallest systems."Pilot" or "master" gas cylinders
shown may be used to activate a gang release system. A bank of cylinders with the head valve levers
connected together, usually by phosphor bronze wire, the free end of the latter being attached to the piston
in a gang release cylinder. The handle of the head valve of the pilot gas cylinders is similarly connected, the
free end of that connecting wire terminating in a handle in the control cabinet referred to above. The control
cabinet door is usually locked, the key being sited adjacent to it in a glass fronted box. The control cabinet
door incorporates a switch controlling an alarm in the machinery spaces, personnel therein therefore
receiving prior notice on any intention to discharge gas into the space. In the interests of safety it is most
desirable for the sector valve or cock within the control cabinet to be so arranged that it is impossible to close
the cabinet door with the valve or cock in the open position. The gas discharge from the pilot cylinders is led
to the operating cylinder above the working piston. To operate the system, the control cabinet door is
opened thus sounding the machinery space alarm. The machinery space sector valves and starting valves are
opened and the operating handle pulled to open the head valves on the pilot cylinders. Gas from the latter,
on entering the operating cylinder, pushes the working piston down thus operating all the cylinder head
valves coupled to the wire then flows Into the machinery space via the C0 2 main, sector valve various
distributors.
A diagrammatic arrangement is shown of a pressure operated C02 system designed for the protection of
machinery spaces .The control cabinet door, as before, has an alarm switch Incorporated Into it, but Instead,
of concealing a manual pull control it now conceals or more gas cylinders and two control valves and pressure
gauge enables the operator to check that adequate pressure available for starting the system. Operation is as
follows, assuming cylinder valve is open. On opening valve, the pilot cylinder pressure operated release
mechanism is caused to operate, which open pilot cylinder head valves by means of connecting wire Valve
also opens simultaneously permitting the gas pressure in main activate the main battery manifold on opening
valve to open sector valve which is held shut by the gas pressure. In the unlikely event of this valve not
opening, a manual means is provided for jacking valve open. Gas then flows to the distribution paper working
the machinery space precautions should be taken before the gas is released in both. The above systems to
ensure that all skylights and ventilators are closed and fans and oil pumps are stopped for these are one shot
systems. No chances can be taken of the gas being dispersed or re-ignition taking place. It imperative to
ensure that all personnel are evacuated from the space before the gas is released on account of its
suffocating effect. Although only required by statute in specific circumstances, the C0 2 system using cylinders
to holds and storage space usually has a detecting system incorporated. The pipes used to convey the carbon
dioxide to the various spaces are interrupted, at convenient places, and especial double seated valve or cock
referred to previously is played in each line. A pipe leading from the space above the valve is taken with
similar pipes from other lines to a detecting cabinet and thence to an extractor fan. When the valve screwed
down the fan extracts samples of air from each cargo or storage space, and this is passed through the cabinet
where.
Lighting is so arranged that smoke coming through any line is easily detected. If required, alight sensitive cell
can be arranged to ring an alarm when the smoke Interrupts the light falling on It. Should a fire be detected,
the appropriate double seated valve is opened to its full extent- this closes the pipe to the detector cabinet
and opens the line from the storage bottles to the space concerned. Gas can then be supplied as required by
opening individual bottles by hand until the atmosphere in the space has been made sufficiently Inert to
extinguish the fire. Provided' that the gas can be retaining the space, it is very effective but again all
ventilation and dispersal the gas should be prevented.
It is important, in the case of a fire in a hold, not, to discharge at the outset the contents of all or even too
many cylinders. The manufacturer's instructions should be followed factors which have to be taken into
account include permeability of the space, i.e. how densely is the cargo packed and how much space can be
occupied by the gas and what Is on fire, e.g., baled cotton or loose rubber tyres. The distance and estimated
time to reach a suitable port with shoe fire-fighting facilities dictates the time Inter lay between discharges of
the number of cylinders labia for topping up purposes. Topping-up with gas is absolutely essential because
inevitably there is, in spite of a rigid control of ventilation, Slight leakage' of gas which has to be replaced.
The system should be checked through periodically when the holds are empty; some ships have an air
connection allowing each line to be blown through in turn; or a single bottle of gas can be used to prove that
all the lines are clear. The detecting unit can be checked by holding a smoke generator or shouldering a piece
of rag beneath a diffuser in each space in turn, and: having someone check that the smoke can be seen at the
right position in the cabinet. It is usual to weigh the bottles regularly to see that they held the correct amount
of liquid; a new method has been developed using a radio-active isotope and a detector which can show. The
difference In the amount of radiation passing through the liquid as 'opposed to that passing through the gas
space above, and thereby indicating the level of the liquid inside. Its operation is limited to temperatures the
critical temperature of CO2 as it is impossible to change the gas to liquid above this temperature as stated
earlier; in practice its use is restricted to a temperature of 27°C (80°F). After the fire is extinguished, open all
doors, hatches, vents and other openings to thoroughly ventilate the space before allowing anyone to enter.
Do not approach the space with an open flame or a lighted cigarette as the possible presence of flammable
vapours may cause an explosion. The cylinders have to be removed and the empty ones' have to .be
recharged at the next port, wherever it is possible reset the cable leading to the pull box and work the cable
back and forth a few times to ensure that it does not bind. Close valve to its normal position inspect any
nozzle orifices to make certain that they are free and clear of any foreign matters. Inspect the safety discs in
any safety outlets at the ends of the manifolds.
PRESSURE OPERATED CARBON DIOXIDE RELEASE SYSTEMS
The main components of this system area CO2 cylinder, battery connected by pilot pressure hose to pilot cylinders
and by seamless, galvanized steel pressure pipes to nozzle outlets in the protected space, via main valve. From
downstream of the main valve (except in accommodation areas) low pressure, heavy weight, welded, galvanized
steel pipe is generally, acceptable.
The CO2 cylinder battery and manual release arrangement is located in a storage room. The CO 2 cylinder storage
room is situated at a safe and readily accessible position and is effectively ventilated. Any entrances to be from the
open deck, the room is to be Independent of the protected space. Access doors are gas tight as are bulkheads and
decks which form the boundaries of such rooms. The room is adequately insulated to prevent a rise in compartment
temperature in excess of 54°C.
Each cylinder in the CO2 battery is provided with a pressure auto /manual release valve. The pressure/manual release
valve for CO2 System was developed as a compact horizontal servo- assisted: valve to replace the out-molded and
cumbersome wire-operated: type of CO2 system. Pressure/manual release valve offers several advantageous
features. Each valve is fitted with a pressure/manual actuator which is simply 'clipped on'. The manual release lever is
fitted with a safety pin device. The pilot pressure hose is connected to each of the pressure/manual release valves.
The manual actuator can be easily removed without disconnecting the pilot hoses, so that any actuator may be
removed for regular- maintenance without affecting the operational integrity of the system.
Pilot pressure is provided by two 22Kg CO2 cylinders. The CO2 master control release box contains 22Kg CO2 pilot
cylinders fitted with a manually operated valve which is connected to small bore flexible tube terminating in a self-
sealing quick connect coupling.
To operate the system the master CO2 cylinder is: opened. CO2 gas is thus fed through small bore tubing to the main
CO2 valve and it actuates the individual pressure / manual release valve at each cylinder in the CO 2 battery. CO2 is
then released into the distribution piping.
The pilot CO2 system has a small control box and it is so designed that the box door cannot be closed after pilot
cylinder valve is opened. Door operated switches are flitted inside the box.
They initiate an audible alarm in the protected space and trip ventilation system and machinery shutdown circuits.
BULK CARBON DIOXIDE SYSTEMS
A bulk C02 fire extinguishing system consist essentially of one or more pressure tanks, refrigerating machinery and
the appropriate network of pipes for distributing the gas around the machinery or cargo spaces. It is of Interest to
note that when used for the latter spaces, the system does not usually incorporate a fire detection system as is
possible, and usual, with the cylinder system. However, there is reason why such a facility could not, be adapted into
the system required.
The pressure vessel used for storage of bulk CO2 is of low temperature steel. All, welds are fully radio graphed.
The tank is heavily Insulated and covered with metal cladding, the working temperature and pressure being -20°C and
21 bars. Internal cooling coils are connected to dual refrigerating units, the latter being controlled automatically by
pressure switches. Filling and vapour return lines are provided for dock side servicing; blanks are fitted over the end
flanges of these lines on completion of tilling and carefully checked to ensure they are gas tight. Instrumentation In
addition to the usual pressure gauges includes a double means of ascertaining the contents, 'a loss of capacity alarm
and alarms to detect leakage past the main liquid discharge valves.
The means for warning personnel in the machinery spaces that gas is about to be released has not 'been shown but
does not differ from that provided in the cylinder system, e.g. alarm switches on control cabinet doors, limit switches
on machinery space sector valves etc. Operation of the system In case of fire is self evident and merely requires the,
appropriate valves to be opened in the correct sequence.
The tank and its instrumentation should be examined regularly and once per day is suggested. Contents gauges
should be checked to ensure no leakage has taken place since the last inspection, the means for checking the
tightness of the relief valves usually being to secure rubber balloons over the ends of the waste pipes. Any inflation of
the balloon tells its own story. The relief valves are usually designed especially for use with CO 2 Contrary to normal
steam practice, any means for lifting the valve off or turning it on. Its seat are usually omitted since frequent and
conscientious testing of the valves not only loses gas but may result in the valves actually leaking because of ice
crystals becoming jammed between valve and seal It goes without saying that any noticeable loss of tank contents, or
operation of one of the built-in safe-guards, should be ceaselessly investigated until such time as the cause Is
positively ascertained and rectified, If possible.
SOLAS REGULATION FIXED GAS FIRE FIGHTING SYSTEM
1.1 The use of fire extinguishing medium which in the opinion of the administration.
Either by its self or under the expected condition of use gives off toxic gases in such a quantities as to endanger
persons shall not be permitted.
1.2 The necessary pipes for conveying fire extinguishing medium into protected spaces shall be provided with
control valves so marked as to indicate clearly the spaces to which the pipes are led. Suitable provision shall be
made to prevent inadvertent admission of the medium to any space. Where a cargo space fitted with gas fire
extinguishing system is used as a passenger space the gas connection shall be blanked during such use.
1.3 The piping for the distribution of fire extinguishing medium shall be arranged and discharge nozzles so
positioned that a uniform distribution of medium is obtained.
1.4 Means shall be provided close all openings which may air to or allow gas to escape from protected space.
1.5 Where the volume of free air contained in air receivers in any space is such that if released in such space in the
event of fire such release of air within that space would seriously affect the efficiency of the fixed fire
extinguishing system the administration shall require the provision of an additional quantity of fire
extinguishing medium.
1.6 Means shall be provided for automatically giving the audible warning of the release of fire extinguishing
medium into space in which the personnel normally work or to which they have access the alarm shall operate
for a suitable period before the medium is released.
1.7 The means of control of any fixed gas fire extinguishing system shall be readily accessible and simple to operate
and shall be grouped together in as few locations as possible at position not likely to be cut off by a fire in a
protected space .At each location there shall be clear instructions regarding the operation of the system having
regard to safety of personnel.
1.8 Automatic release of fire extinguishing medium shall not be permitted except as permitted by paragraph
3.3.5 and in respect of local automatically operated units referred to in paragraph 3.4 and 3.5.
1.9 Where the quantity of extinguishing medium is required to protect more than one space the quantity of
medium available need not be more than the largest quantity required for any one space so protected.
1.10 3.4, 3.5 pressure containers required for storage of fire extinguishing medium other than steam shall
be located outside protected space in accordance with paragraph 1.13.
1.11 Means shall be provided for the crew to safely check the quantity of medium in the containers.
1.12 Containers for the storage of fire extinguishing medium and associated pressure components shall be designed
to pressure codes of practice to the satisfaction of the administration having regard to their location and
maximum ambient temperature expected in service.
1.13 When the fire extinguishing medium is stored outside a protected space it shall be situated in safe and readily
accessible position and shall be effectively ventilated to the satisfaction of the administration any entrance to
such a storage room shall be preferably be from the open deck and in any case shall be independent of the
protected space. Access doors shall open outwards and bulkheads and deck including doors and other means of
closing any opening therein which form the boundaries between such rooms and adjoining enclosed spaces
shall be gas tight .For the purpose of the application of the integrity table in regulation 26,27,44,58 such storage
rooms shall be treated as control station.
1.14 Spare parts for the system shall be stored on board and be to the satisfaction of the administration.
CARBON DIOXIDE SYSTEM
2.1 For cargo spaces the quantity of carbon dioxide available shall unless otherwise provided be sufficient to give a
minimum volume of free gas equal to 30% of the gross volume of the largest cargo space so protected in the
space.
2.2 For machinery spaces the quantity of carbon dioxide carried shall be sufficient to give a minimum volume of
free gas equal to the larger of the following volume either.
1) 40% of the gross volume of the largest machinery space so protected the volume to exclude that part of the
casing above the level at which the horizontal area of the casing is 40% or less of the horizontal area of the
space concerned taken midway between the tank top and the lowest part of the casing.
2) 35% of the gross volume of the largest machinery space protected including casing.
Provided the above percentage may be reduced to 35% and 30% respectively for cargo ships of less than 2000
gross tonnage provided also that if two or more machinery space are not entirely separate they shall be
considered as forming one space.
2.3 For the purpose of this paragraph the volume of free carbon dioxide shall be calculated at 0.56m 3/ kg.
2.4 For machinery space the fixed piping system shall be such that 85% of the gas can be discharged into space
within 2 min.
2.5 Carbon dioxide system installed on or after 1 October 1994 shall comply with the following requirement.
1) Two separate controls shall be provided for releasing carbon dioxide into a protected space and to ensure
the activities of the alarm. One control shall be used to discharge the gas from its storage containers. A
second control shall be used for opening the valve of the piping which conveys the gas into the protected
space.
2) The two controls shall be located inside a release box clearly identified for the particular space .If the box
containing the control is to be locked a key to the box shall be in a break glass type enclosure conspicuously
located adjacent to box.
Question
Example of typical calculation for cargo ship hold / machinery space protection by fixed carbon dioxide gas
extinguishing system is given in the following page.
Particulars of the ship and equipment available :
CO2 capacity per cylinder 45.4 kg (100 lbs)
Water capacity per cylinder 65.1 Itrs
1) Engine room gross
volume (upper deck) 4658 m3
2) Engine room gross volume to 5358 m3
casing top
3) Volume of largest cargo hold 6849 m3

4) Volume of air reservoir 375 m3
(comp. Air cyl)
Answer
Calculation for number of CO2 bottles required as per regulations :
1) {4658+375)0.4}/0.56 divided by 45.4 = 80 cyl
2) {(5358+375)0.35}/0.56 divided by 45.4 = 79 cyl
3) {(6849  0.3)}/0.56 divided by 45.4 = 81 cyl
Total requirements as per regulation = 81 cylinders
HALOGENATED HYDROCARBON SYSTEMS (not used due to depletion of ozone layer)
Halogenated extinguishing agents are hydrocarbons in which one or more hydrogen atoms have been replaced by
atoms from the halogen series fluorine, chlorine, bromine or Iodine. This substitution confers not only non-
flammability but flame extinguishing property to many of the resulting compounds.
The use of halogenated hydrocarbon as fire extinguishing media is only permitted, in machinery spaces, pump-
rooms, and In cargo Spaces Intended solely for the carriage of vehicles which are not carrying any cargo. The various
halogenated fire extinguishing agents known are:
Halogen (104) Carbon Tetrachloride
Halogen (1001) Methyl bromide
Halogen (1011) Chiorobromomethane
Halogen (1202) Dlbromo-dlfluoro-methane
Halogen (1211) Bromochlorodifluorometbane
Halogen (1301) Bromotrifluoromethane
Halogen (2402) Dibromotetrafluoroethane
Halogen (10001)Methyl iodine

But some of these being highly toxic are not used. The ones used are detailed in the later part of this section. The
three halogen elements commonly found in extinguishing agents are fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl) and bromine (Br).
Substitution of a hydrogen atom in a hydrocarbon with these three, Influences the relative properties in the following
manner:
Fluorine: Imparts stability to the compound, reduces toxicity, and reduces boiling point increases thermal stability.
Chlorine: Imparts fire extinguishing effectiveness, Increase boiling point, increases toxicity and reduces thermal
stability.
Bromine: Same as Chlorine but to greater degree Consequently compounds containing combinations of fluorine,
chlorine and bromine can possess varying degree of extinguishing effectiveness, chemical and thermal stability,
volatility and toxicity.
These agents are most suitable for electrical fires because they do not become electrically conductive in the presence
of water. Moreover being either gases or liquids vapourising rapidly in fire, they leave no corrosive or abrasive
residue, after use.
The extinguishing mechanism of the halogenated agents is a chain reaction which interferes with the combustion
mechanism; they act by removing the active chemical species Involved In the flame chain reactions.
The extinguishing effectiveness of Halon agents depends on whether portable extinguishers or fixed systems are
being considered arid particularly in tests 'on portable units: whether the agents were being used at optimum super
pressurization with nitrogen. In total flooding systems, the effectiveness of the halogenated agents on flammable
liquids and vapour fires is very dramatic. Rapid and complete extinguishment is obtainable with low concentration of
agent. On a weight-of-agent basis, Halos are approximately two-and-half times more effective than carbon dioxide.
The effectiveness of Halogenated agents on Class A fires is less predictable. It depends upon. The specific burning
material, its configuration and how early in the combustion cycle the agent is applied. Most plastics can be
extinguished rapidly and completely with 4% to 6% concentration of Halon 1211 or 1301. Other materials like
cellulosic products which form deep seated tires may need as much as 18% to 30% concentration of Halon for
complete extinguishment; such high percentages of concentration are however not allowed for shipboard fire
fighting.
The toxic and irritant effects of Halons can be quite serious on human beings. The table below will give some idea
Approximate Lethal Concentration for 15 mm Exposure :
Halon No. Appropriate lethal concentration in PPM
Natural Vapour Decomposed Vapour

1301 832000 14000
1211 324000 7650
co2 658000 658000
2402 126000 1600
CCI4/104 28000 300
Animals exposed to below lethal concentrations exhibit toxic effects like.
1. Central nervous system changes including tremors convulsions, lethargy and unconsciousness.
2. Cardiovascular effects including hypertension and decreased heart rate.
HALOGENATED AGENTS ARE USEFUL FOR THE FOLLOWING REASONS:
1. It Is a clean agent.
2. It Is ideal for electrical circuits.

3. Can be used for flammable liquids or gases.
4. Can be used for surface burning flammable solids as thermoplastics.
5. Can be used for costly objects and where use of conventional extinguishing agents could cause extensive damage
and where availability of water or space for using other systems is less.
HALOGENATED AGENTS ARE INEFFECTIVE FOR
Fuels which contain their own oxidizing agent such as gunpowder, rocket propellants, cellulose nitrate, organic
peroxides etc reactive metals as sodium, potassium, magnesium, etc metal hydrides such as lithium hydrides.
SOLAS REGULATION - HALON SYSTEMS
The use of halogenated hydrocarbons as fire-extinguishing media is only permitted in machinery spaces, pump-rooms
and in cargo spaces intended solely for the carriage of vehicles which are not carrying any cargo. When halogenated
hydrocarbons are used as the fire- extinguishing media in total flooding systems:
The system shall be arranged for manual initiation of power release only;If the charge of halogenated hydrocarbon is
required to supply more than one space, the arrangements for its storage and release shall be such that compliance
with the quantity of Halon required for each of the compartment is fulfilled.
• Means shall be provided for automatically stopping all ventilation fans serving the protected space before the
medium is released.
• Means shall be provided for automatically stopping all ventilation fans serving the protected space before the
medium is released for the purpose of the above paragraphs, specifying the quantity, the volume of Halon 1301
TABLE
HALON MINIMUM MAXIMUM
1301 5% 7.0%
1211 5% 5.5%
3 3
2402 0.23 kg/m 0.30 kg/m
shall be calculated at 0.16m3/kg and the volume of Halon 1211 shall be calculated at 0.14m 3/Kg only Halon 1301
may be stored within a protected machinery space. Containers shall be individually distributed throughout that
space and the following requirements shall be compiled with a manually initiated power release, located
outside the protected space, shall be provided. Duplicate sources of power shall be provided for this release
and, shall be located outside the protected space and be immediately available except that for machinery
spaces, one of the sources of power may be located inside the protected space .Electric power circuits
connecting the containers shall be monitored for fault conditions and loss of power. Visual and audible alarms
shall be provided to indicate this. Pneumatic or hydraulic power circuits connecting the containers shall be
duplicated. The sources of pneumatic or hydraulic pressure shall be monitored for loss of pressure. Visual and
audible alarms shall be provided to indicate this. Within the protected space, electrical circuit's essential for the
release of the system shall be heat resistant e.g. mineral, insulated cable or equivalent. Piping systems essential
for the release of systems designed to be operated hydraulically or pneumatically shall be of steel or other
equivalent heat-resisting material to the satisfaction of the administration. Each pressure container shall be
fitted with an automatic over-pressure release device which, in the event of the container being exposed to the
effects of fire and the system not being operated, will safely vent the contents of the container into the
protected space.
The arrangement of containers and the electrical circuits and piping essential for the release of any system shall be
such that in the event of damage to any one power release line through fire or explosion in a protected space, I.e. a
single fault concept at least two-thirds of the fire extinguishing charge required by these rules for that space can still
be discharged having regard to the requirement for uniform distribution of medium throughout the space. The
arrangements In respect of systems spaces requiring only one or two containers shall be the satisfaction of the
Administration. Not more than two discharge nozzles shall be fitted any pressure container and the maximum
quantity agent in each container shall be to the satisfaction the administration having regard to the requirement
uniform distribution to medium throughout the space. The containers shall be monitored for decrease pressure due
to leakage and discharge. Visual and audible alarms in the protected area and on the navigating bridge or in the space
where the fire control equipment is centralized shall be provided to indicate this condition, except that for cargo
spaces, alarms are only required on the navigating bridge or the space where the fire control equipment is
centralized. Local automatically operated fixed fire-extinguishing units containing Halon 1301 or 1211, fitted in
enclosed areas of high fire risk within machinery spaces, In addition to, and independent of any required fixed fire-
extinguishing system may be accepted subject to compliance with the following:
The space in which such additional local protection provided shall preferably be on one working level and on the
same level as the access. At the discretion of the administration more than one working level 'may be permitted
subject to an access being provided on each level. The size of the space and arrangements of accesses thereto and
machinery therein, shall be such that escape from anywhere in the space can be effected in not more than 10
seconds. The operation of any unit shall be signaled both visually and audibly outside each access to the machinery
space and at the navigating bridge or in the space where the tire control equipment is centralized.
A notice indicating that the, space contains one or more automatically operated fire-extinguishing units and stating
which medium is used shall be displayed outside each access. Discharge nozzles shall be so positioned that the
discharge does not endanger personnel using the normal access ladders and escapes serving the compartment.
Provision shall also be made to protect, personnel engaged in maintenance of machinery from inadvertent discharge
of the medium.
The fire-extinguishing units shall be designed to operate within a temperature range to the satisfaction of the
Administration.
Means shall be provided for the crew to safely check the pressure within the containers. The total quantity of
extinguishing medium provided In the local automatically operated units shall be such that .a concentration of 7% in
respect of Halon 1301 and 5.5% In respect of Halon 121 I at 20°C based on the net volume of the enclosed space is
not exceeded. This requirement applies when either a local automatically operated unit or a fixed system fitted in
compliance with the requirement for cargo and machinery spaces, has operated but not when both have operated.
The volume of Halon 1301 shall be calculated at 1 6m3/kg and the volume of Halon 1211 shall be calculated at
0.14m3/kg. The time of discharge of a unit, based on the discharge of the liquid phase, shall be 10 seconds or less.
The arrangement of local automatically operated fire extinguishing units shall be such that their release does not
result in loss of electrical power or reduction of the maneuverability the ship.
Automatically operated fire-extinguishing units, as described above, fitted in machinery spaces over equipment
having a high fire risk, in addition to and Independent of any required fixed fire- extinguishing system may be
accepted subject to compliment with the requirements for working temperature range, visual and audible discharge
alarm, duration of discharge, and capability of operation, in power loss circumstances, with the following:
• The quantity of medium provided in local automatically operated Units shall be such that a vapour in air
concentration not greater than 1.25% at 20°C based on the gross volume of the machinery space is
obtained in the event of their simultaneous operation.
• The volume of Halon 1301 shall be calculated at 0.16m 3/ kg and the volume of Halon 1211 shall be
calculated at 0.14m3/kg.
NOTE : IMO RESOLUTION A.719(17) STATES:
The use of Halons In Installations of fire-extinguishing systems on board ships except those falling in the category of
"essential use" shall be prohibited on ships of which the keel is laid or which are at a similar stage of construction on
or after 1 July 1992.
The use of Halons in such new Installations on other ships shall be prohibited by I July 1992.
Full-scale tests of Halon fire extinguishing systems on board' ships shall be prohibited by 1 January 1992.
FOAM FIRE-FIGHTING SYSTEMS
Fire-fighting foam is an aggregate of air bubbles formed by various methods from aqueous solutions of specially
formulated concentrated liquid foaming agents. Since foam is lighter than the aqueous solutions from which it is
formed and lighter than flammable liquids, it floats on all flammable or combustible liquids. It produces an air
excluding, cooling, continuous layer of vapour sealing, water bearing material for purposes of halting or preventing
combustion. Some foam is thick and viscous, forming tough heat resistant blankets over burning liquid surfaces and
vertical areas. Some foam is thinner and more rapidly spreading. Some are capable of producing a vapour sealing film
of surface active water solution on a liquid surface. Some foam's are meant to be used as large volumes of gas cells
for inundating surfaces and filling cavities.
Foam concentrate, as received from manufacturer, is a concentrated aqueous solution of carefully selected foaming
agents and surfactants. In addition to surfactants they contain certain additives like preservatives for preventing
growth of bacteria, iron salts in protein foam concentrates to make the foam fire resistant, anti-freeze agents,
corrosion inhibitors, solvents to reduce viscosity, substances to stabilize foam bubbles and certain dyestuffs for brand
recognition. Due to these various additives and various characteristics foams are classified in two ways by their
expansion and by their principal constituents.
CLASSIFICATION BY EXPANSION:
Low expansion foam has an expansion ratio upto 50:1; usually ranging in between 5:1 to 15:1; this is typically
produced by self-aspirating branch pipes or supplied premixed with water, foam being formed at the monitor. This is
the type of expansion ratio of foam supplied on ships, for the protection of the cargo deck area of oil and chemical
tankers.
Medium expansion foam has an expansion ratio between 50:1 to 500:1, but usually between 75:1 and 150:1. This is
produced by self-aspirating branch pipes or supplied pre-mixed from a foam control station, but the nozzle has
especially enlarged outlets with nets allowing more expansion to take place Its application for shipboard use is
limited to specific trade ships only, being not generally suitable for open spaces.
High expansion foam has an expansion ratio in between 500:1 to 1500:1. This is produced by foam generators with
air fans, nets, and ducts.
TYPES OF FOAM CONCENTRATES PROTEIN FOAM
This foam is derived from natural protein solids. These concentrates contain high molecular weight natural
proteinaceous polymers derived from a chemical digestion and hydrolysis of natural protein solids. The polymers-give
elasticity mechanical strength and water retention capability to foams generated from them. These concentrates are
available for proportioning to a final concentration of either 3% to 6% by volume using either fresh water or sea
water. These concentrates produce dense viscous foams of high stability, high heat resistance and good resistance to
burn back. They are non-toxic and biodegradable after dilution. This type of foam is the cheapest available and most
commonly supplied for Shipboard use, on oil tankers for protecting the cargo deck area. (Typical Expansion 7:1 to
9:1).
FLUORO-PROTEIN FOAM
This type of foam, contains the same properties as protein foam, but in addition to protein polymers they contain
fluorinated surface-active agents that confer a "fuel shedding (resistant to fuel contamination) property to the foam
is generated this makes this type of foam particularly effective for fighting fire in conditions where foam becomes
coated with fuel, such as in the method of sub- surface injection of foam for tank fire fighting. This type of foam is
more compatible with dry chemical powders: These concentrates are available for proportioning to a final
concentration of either 3% or 6% by volume using either fresh or sea water. They are non-toxic and bio-degradable. It
is more expensive than protein foams but is ideally suited for handling fires in refineries and for shore storage tank
installations. (Typical expansion 7:1 to 10:1).
FLUORO-CHEMICAL (AFFF) FOAM
This type of concentrate comprises of synthetically produced foaming agents similar to foams produced by protein
based foams. Additionally these agents are capable of forming water solution films on the surface of flammable
liquids.
Hence it is termed "Aqueous Film Forming Foam" (AFFF). They contain fluorinated, long chain synthetic hydrocarbons
with particular surface active with properties. They are non-toxic, and bio-degradable in their diluted form. They can
be stored for longer periods of time without degradation in their characteristics. The undiluted concentrate may
affect skin if not washed off immediately, and may strip off paint.
The air foam generated from AFFF solutions possess low viscosity have fast spreading and leveling characteristics and
act as surface barriers to exclude air and halt fuel vapourisation as all foams do. These foams develop a continuous
layer of solution under the foam with surface activity which maintains a floating film on hydrocarbon fuel surfaces to
help suppress combustible vapours and cool the fuel substrate. The result of the double action of AFFF is to yield a
highly efficient foam extinguishing agent in terms of the quantity of concentration needed and the rapidity with
which it acts on fuel spills and flaming surfaces.
These concentrates are available for proportioning to a final concentration of either fresh or sea water. It is more
expensive than the other types of foam concentrates available but its effectiveness overshadows this criterion from
safety point of view.
(Typical expansion 9:1 to 11:1 usual concentration 36%). Other than the above mentioned main foam concentrates
available there are other foaming agents available for specialized requirements, found in various shore applications
and specialized chemical carriers.
SYNTHETIC HIGH EXPANSION FOAMING AGENTS
It is formed synthetically for control of class A and B fires particularly as a total flooding agent in confined spaces. The
foam is an aggregation of bubbles mechanically generated by passage of air or other gases through a net, screen or
other porous medium that is wetted by an aqueous solution of surface active foaming agent. This type of foam a
unique vehicle for transporting wet foam masses to inaccessible places, for total flooding of confined spaces and for
volumetric displacement of vapour heat and smoke.
This concentrate is mixed with water in 1 % to 6% concentrations and depending on equipment being used to
generate foam, can produce expansion ratios upto 1000:1.
ALCOHOL RESISTANT FOAM
These special foaming liquids are developed for use in fires where the fuel involved is water soluble. Examples of this
type of liquids are alcohols, enamel ad lacquer thinners, methyl ethyl ketones, isotones, Isopropyl ether, acrylonitrile,
ethyl and butyl acetate, amines and anhydrides. Even a small amount of these substances when mixed with common
hydrocarbon fuels (as in gasohol- gasoline and alcohol blends) may cause rapid breakdown of ordinary fire-fighting
foams. These concentrates are proprietary compositions of several types containing protein, fluoro-protein or
aqueous film forming foam base. The application rates are much higher. Regulations require chemical tankers to be
provided with 3.33 times the foam solution required for oil tankers, to protect the cargo deck area.
CHEMICAL FOAM
These foam producing materials have been obsolete for use in larger fires because of superior economics and ease of
handling of the other liquid foam forming concentrates. Chemical foam is formed from the temperature sensitive
chemical reaction in an aqueous solution of aluminum sulphate and sodium bicarbonate. Foam bubbles are formed
by the generation of carbon dioxide gas from the chemical reaction. This foam is quite stable and heat resistant, but
generally it is very stiff and slow moving. It cakes under flame attack and will form open fissures in the foam layer
which exposes the underlying fuel.
Nowadays it is used in portable extinguishers only (shipboard applications), which in time to come may also be
replaced by the new products.
The method by which foam extinguishes a liquid fuel fire is not clearly defined. A number of contributory factors are
quite evident. They are:
• Prevention of the radiant heat from the flames reaching the fuel surface and evaporating further fuel.
• Formation of a sealing blanket over the fuel surface to prevent vapour escaping;
• Cooling of the fuel;
• Isolation of the fuel from the oxygen of the air; and

• Dilution of the air with water vapour from the evaporated foam.
Various factors of foam concentrate will influence the performance of the team-these include physical properties,
application rates and methods of application.
The first two have been dealt with already and we now deal with the methods of application.
FOAM SYSTEMS
Foam is suitable for use on Class B fires, i.e. fires involving flammable liquids or liquefiable solids. A fixed high
expansion foam system may be fitted in machinery spaces and cargo pump room where accumulation of oil fuel and
cargo oil could occur. A fixed low expansion system is to be used for fighting fires on the decks of ships carrying liquid
cargoes of a flammable nature, such as may be caused by deck spillages or In cargo tanks which have been ruptured
by collision or explosion.
LOW EXPANSION FOAM SYSTEM
The risk of deck spillage during loading and discharging and the rupture of the tanks by collision or explosion require
the entire cargo tanks deck area to be protected by a fixed low expansion foam system.
To produce low expansion foam for fire fighting on board ships, the following equipment is essential pumps for
imparting energy to the water piping & hoses for delivering the water where required means of introducing foam
concentrate into the water stream; and means of aerating the mixture and apparatus for projecting the resulting
foam on to the fire. The system of pumps, piping and hoses for supplying water Incorporated on ships, has been
discussed in module 5. There are two methods of mixing foam concentrate with water and aerating the solution. One
system incorporates portable twenty liter foam concentrate drums and the other a large capacity fixed tank. The
requirements and equipment for each of these systems is discussed in detail below.
PORTABLE LOW EXPANSION FOAM SYSTEMS
In this system the foam solution is contained in portable 20 liter containers either metallic or synthetic. The foam
concentrate has to be taken near the location of the fire and then, by means of specially designed applicators, the
foam concentrate is induced into the applicator nozzle .The induction is achieved by simple Ventura effect. Hence,
the pressure of delivered water will govern the quality of foam available. The limitations of this portable
arrangement is that foam containers have to be carried to the location of the fire, It requires constant monitoring
because when a container runs dry, no foam will be delivered and the sudden delivery of water only shall hamper
and adversely affect fire-fighting in that space. It is not useful to tackle large petroleum fires but could be used to
handle fires In paint rooms, lamp rooms, fuel or diesel operated machinery areas, etc. Its only advantage lies in the
fact that it is portable and provides more coverage than a portable extinguisher. It also does not need an elaborate
foam concentrate mixing and foam generating apparatus as it is all incorporated in the applicator nozzle itself.
1 illustrates a flow of water 2 through hose 4 . Thickener suspension 6 is educated into water 2 at educator 8.
Surfactant 10, optionally and preferably a concentrate in solution or admixture with other desired ingredients, is
educated into water 2 at educator 12. (While FIG. shows education of thickener suspension 6 upstream from
concentrate 10, the surfactant and thickener may be added in any order.) Addition of thickener suspension 6 and
concentrate 10 to water 2 provides a foaming composition 14, containing non-hydrated thickener. Foaming
composition 14 flows to and through aerator 16, where it is aerated to form foam 18. The non-hydrated thickener
may or may not be uniformly dispersed in foaming composition 14, but aeration of the foaming composition will
substantially uniformly dispersed the thickener into the resulting foam. Foam 18 initially contains non-hydrated
thickener which becomes hydrated over time to stabilize the foam.
FIXED LOW EXPANSION FOAM SYSTEM
Foam concentrate is kept stored in a specially designed tank in the foam away from the cargo deck area and
machinery spaces. The foam concentrate from the tank is mixed with the water from the ship's pumps; the resulting
foam solution is aerated at the foam monitor or foam applicator.
Foam solution is delivered to the monitor by one of two methods:
The foam solution (i.e. foam concentrate with water added) is formed in a foam room located aft of the cargo tank
area adjacent the accommodation spaces in a position not likely to be untenable by a fire in the spaces or areas
protected by the system. The foam room contains the supply of foam concentrate, controls ancillary equipment. The
foam solution is formed by either following methods:
The foam concentrates pump and the main water deliver the foam and water to a proportion roughly the correct
proportions. The proportionator works similar principles to a carburetor, provides adjustment of the mixture and
makes allowances fluctuating supply conditions.
The water supplied from the main fire pumps educts solution from the foam tank through the proportioning educator
before delivering the foam solution to the main.
The foam solution is delivered through a pipeline to monitors and hydrants located at interval along the tank deck.
Air is induced by the solution jet the monitor barrels, or hand operated applicators, where expansion take and
aerated foam is projected. The foam main must not be used for any purpose. Isolating valves are to be provided in
the foam main immediately forward of each monitor position. A cross connection to the fire main with isolating valve
is provided. The foam concentrate is stored in the foam room located as above and delivered to the monitors and
hydrants through diameter pipeline where it admixes with water supplied from the main, air is induced, expansion
takes place and the aerated projected. Isolating valves are provided in the fire main immediately forward of each
monitor position.
REGULATION 61: FIXED DECK FOAM SYSTEMS
(1) The arrangements for providing foam shall be capable of delivering foam to the entire cargo tanks as well as
into any cargo tank the deck of which has been ruptured.
(2) The deck foam system shall be capable of simple and rapid operation. The main control station for the system
shall be suitably located outside the cargo area, adjacent to the accommodation spaces and readily accessible
and operable in the event of fire in the areas protected.
(3) The rate of supply of foam solution shall not be less than the greatest of the following:
1) 0.6 l/min per square meter of cargo tanks deck area, where cargo tanks deck area means the maximum
breadth of the ship multiplied by the total longitudinal extent of the cargo tank spaces;
2) 6 l/min per square meter of the horizontal sectional area of the single tank having the largest such area; or
3) 3 l/min per square meter of the area protected by the largest monitor, such area being entirely forward of
the monitor, but not less than 1,250 l/min.
(4) Sufficient foam concentrate shall be supplied to ensure at least 20 min of foam generation in tankers fitted
with an inert gas installation or 30 min of foam generation in tankers not fitted with an inert gas installation
when using solution rates stipulated in paragraphs 3.1, 3.2 or 3,3, whichever is the greatest. The foam
expansion ratio (ie. the ration of the volume of foam produced to the volume of the mixture of water and
foam-making concentrate supplied) shall not generally exceed 12 to 1. Where systems essentially produce low-
expansion foam but an expansion ratio slightly in excess of 12 to 1 expansion ratio systems. When medium-
expansion ration foam (between 50 to 1 and 1 50 to 1 expansion ratio) is employed, the application rate of the
foam and the capacity of the monitor installation shall be to the satisfaction of the Administration.
(5) Foam from the fixed foam system shall be applied by means of monitors and foam applicators .At least 50% of
foam solution supply rate required in paragraph 3.1 and 3.2 shall be delivered from each monitor. On tankers
of less than 4000 tones deadweight the administration may not require installation of monitors but only
applicators.
However, in such a case the capacity of each applicator shall be at least 25% of the foam solution supply rate
required in paragraph 3.1 and 3.2.
(6) 1. The number and position of monitors shall be as to comply with paragraph 1. The capacity of any monitor
shall be at least 3 l/min of foam solution per square of deck area protected by the monitor such area being entirely
forward of monitor. Such capacity shall not be less than 1250 l/min.
2. The distance from the monitor to the farthest extremity of the protected area forward of the monitor
shall be not more than 75% of monitor throws in still air condition.
(7) A monitor and hose connection for foam applicator shall be situated both port and starboard at
front of the poop or accommodation spaces facing the cargo tank deck. On tanker of less than 4000 tones
deadweight a hose connection for foam applicator shall be situated both port and starboard at the front of
poop or accommodation spaces facing the cargo tank deck.
(8) Applicators shall be provided to ensure the flexibility of action during fire fighting operations and to cover the
areas screened from the monitors. The capacity of any applicators shall be not less than 400 l/min and the applicator
throw in still air condition shall be not less than 15 m .The number of foam applicator provided shall be not less than
15 m .The number and disposition of foam main outlets shall be such that foam from at least two applicators can be
directed on to any part of the cargo tanks deck area.
(9) Valves shall be provided in the foam main and in the fire main when this is an integral part of the deck foam
system immediately forward of any monitor position to isolate damage sections of those mains.
(10) Operation of a deck foam system at its required output shall permit the simultaneous use of minimum
required number of jets of water at the required pressure from the fire main.
HIGH EXPANSION FOAM SYSTEM
High expansion foam systems are only suitable for use in enclosed spaces. The high expansion foam generator
consists essentially of a power driven fan, a net or gauze, a supply of high expansion foam concentrate, and a spray
nozzle arrangement. Foam solution is uniformly sprayed over the net, which is usually made of nylon, and air is blown
through It. Foam of uniform size having an expansion ratio of 1000:1 is produced and ducted away to the protected
space.
The foam is tough and persistent and is an excellent Insulator and absorber of radiant heat. When such foam reaches
a fire, unit volume of water in the foam is turned into approximately 1700 volumes of steam, the resulting
atmosphere now contains approximately 7.5% by volume of oxygen, far less than the percentage required to sustain
combustion. At the same time, the surrounding foam prevents access to further oxygen to the fire.
High expansion foam is generated by units capable of rapidly discharging through fixed discharge outlets a quantity
sufficient to fill the greatest space to be protected at a rate of at least 1 meter in depth per minute with a maximum
filling time of 10 minutes. If the gross horizontal area of the protected space exceeds 400 m at least two foam
generators are provided. Sufficient foam concentrate is provided to produce foam for five fillings of the largest space
protected. The expansion ratio of the foam should not exceed 1000 to 1.
Ducts made of steel or other suitable material are arranged to deliver the foam quickly to high risk areas. The ducts
include means, such as an automatic flap, so that a fire in the protected space will not affect the foam generating
equipment.
The foam generator, its source of power supply, foam concentrate and means of controlling the system should be
readily accessible 1 simple to operate and grouped in as few locations as possible at positions not likely to be cut off
by fire in the protected space.
The water supply is from a source outside the protected space and can be from the emergency fire pump provided
the capacity is sufficient to satisfy the requirements for the foam system and the demand for two hydrants at the
required pressure.
High expansion foam will not flow against pressure much above atmospheric pressure and arrangements are to be
provided for venting the protected space whist it is being filled with foam.
High expansion foam has the disadvantage that once an engine room fire has developed it cannot be supplied from
above because it is carried away by convection currents. Also heat radiation from above rapidly destroys the foam
surface. Thus it can be argued that for machinery space such a high filling rate would be required as to render this
medium Impracticable.
MEDIUM EXPANSION FOAM
Medium expansion foam with an expansion rate between 50 to 1 and 1 50 to 1 could be used but it is generally
restricted to vessels constructed for domestic use in Eastern bloc countries.
EXAMPLE OF CALCULATION OF FOAM REQUIRED ON AN OIL TANKER
Question
Calculate the quantity of 3% foam concentrate required on board an oil tanker, equipped with LGS, having the
following relevant dimensions:
Cargo tanks deck area 1800 m2
Horizontal sectional area of the largest single tank 700 m 2
Are protected by the largest single tank 750 m2

Quantity of foam solution required per minute = Regulation Spread Age Rate  Area
That is greatest of :
1. 0.6 liters/min/m2 x 1800 m2= 1080 liters/min.
2. 6.0 liters/min/m2x 700 m2 = 4200 liters/min.
3. 0 liters/min/m2 x 750 m2 = 2250 liters/min.
The applicable quantity of foam solution required per minute to protect the tanker is 4200 liters/min.
Quantity of foam solution required.
For the duration of 20 minutes.
Stipulated by the regulation = 20 x 4200 liters = 84000 liters.
Quantity of 3 % foam solution concentrate required = 03 x 84000 liters = 2520 liters.
FIXED FIRE -EXTINGUISHING EQUIPMENT
7.3.1 A scheme similar to that in section 7.1 should be prepared and operated for each type of fixed fire-
extinguishing equipment.
7.3.2 The maintenance schedule for a sprinkler system should also include:
- Checking that the water level and, air pressure in the pressure, vessel are correct and, if not, adjusting as
required.
- Checking that the sprinkler pump starts if pressure is reduced to the correct level.
- Checking that all zone and stop valves are workable and are in the correct position for service.
- Checking that all sprinkler bulbs are unobstructed.
7.3.3 The Carbon dioxide, system should also include: Testing the level of liquid gas in the cylinders by
- The isotope method.
- The weighing method.

Checking that the siren that gives warning that gas is about to be released operates correctly.
• Checking that, the gas outlets in the spaces protected are unobstructed.
7.3.4 The maintenance schedule for a Halon system should also include the items for a carbon-dioxide system
should also include the items for a carbon dioxide system.
7.3.4 The maintenance schedule for a fixed-pressure water-spraying system should also include:
• Checking that the nozzles are unobstructed.
• Checking that the valves operate correctly.
7.3.5 The maintenance schedule, for a foam system should also include:
• Checking that the foam making chemical on Concentrate is viable and that the expansion rate is
satisfactory when water Is added.
• Checking (on tankers) that the deck monitor operate correctly checking that for engine room
applications the foam outlets and spreaders are clear and that, the pipes are free of corrosion products.
7.4 Fire Main, Hydrants, Hoses and Nozzles.
7.4.1 A scheme similar to than in section 7.1 should be
prepared and operated.
7.4.2 The inspection and maintenance of the fire main and its associated piping should include:
Testing the system for leaks.
• Inspecting the pipes for corrosion.
• Keeping hydrants and coupling tugs movable attending to leaks.
• Having alternatives in place when shutting down or removing a part of the system.
• Inspecting relief valves.
• Keeping adequate spares of hand wheels, spindles, gaskets, coupling lugs, washer's and valves.
7.4.3 Inspection and maintenance of fire hoses and nozzles should include:
• Pressure-testing hoses.
• Moving spray nozzles through their operating range keeping coupling tugs movable.
• Checking on washers.
• Keeping adequate spares for hoses, coupling tugs, washers and nozzles.
Measures that: have to be taken in Icy conditions to keep, the fire-main system free of Ice is:
• Shut down the pump and close valves as required.
• Drain water from pipes.
• Keep checking that the system remains empty of water.
• Put up warning notices on the bridge that the fire main has been drained of water.
7.4.5 The practice of opening one or more, hydrant valves does not prevent the system.
• From becoming frozen in icy conditions.
7.5 PORTABLE SAND MOBILE FIRE-EXTINGUISHING EQUIPMENT
7.5.1 As scheme similar to that in section 7.1 should be prepared and operated.
7.5.1 When a portable or mobile fire extinguisher, been discharged: it should be prepared for further 'use as
follows:
— On an extinguisher with a trigger handle, depress the handle to ensure that the cylinder is not
pressurized.
Remove the top-cap including the cartridge and then clean the cylinder and inspect for any corrosion of
the colluder is made of steel check when the cylinder is due for a pressure test which is normally done by
the suppliers check that the discharge pipe and nozzles are clear check the operation of the trigger valve
to ensure it is fluid-tight and operates freely. Check the operation and tightness of other valves if fitted.
Reassemble the extinguisher, using the correct media and cartridge after the cap has been fitted, fit the
safety pin.
Write the date of refilling, on a record label on the cylinder. Replace the extinguisher in its previous:
position or put it in store, as required.
7.5.2 Neither a partially discharged extinguisher nor an empty one should be placed in its previous'
position before being refilled.
7.6 FIREMAN'S OUTFITS
7.6.1 A' scheme similar to that in section' 7.1 'should be prepared and operated.
7.6.2 In addition, the inspection 'and maintenance schedule should include checking:
— That all outfits are. In their correct stowage positions.
— That the personal equipment is undamaged and complete.
— That the battery of the electric safety lamp (hand lantern) is fully charged.
— That the breathing apparatus is ready for use that the compressed air bottles, including all spar are kept
fully charged that, after any use, the breathing apparatus is dismantled to ensure that all parts are clean
and all valves are operating correctly.
— That the fireproof lifeline is undamaged.
7.7 Fire-Control Plans
7.7.1 The fire-control plans must be checked periodically to ensure they are legible and up-to-date.
7.7.2 The duplicate set of fire control plans or the booklet containing them, which are for the assistance of shore
side fire-fighting personnel, are checked to confirm that they are in good condition.
7.7.3 The guide signs to the duplicate plans are Intact and distinct.
CHAPTER 8
FIRE-FIGHTING PROCESS HAZARDS
8.1 DRY DISTILLATION
8.1.1 Dry distillation is a combustion process in which a flammable material burns with insufficient oxygen to
achieve complete combustion of the material.
8.1.2 An example of dry distillation is the making of charcoal.
8.1.3 The following sequence of events is an example of the danger of dry distillation:
- Fire is in a closed space.
• Heat building up but there is Incomplete burning.
• The opening of an access introduces fresh air.
• The result Is a flash towards the access opening.
- Persons in the process of entering will be injured or burned unless they are protected.
8.1.4 Dangers of dry distillation may be mitigated by:
- Cooling the compartment externally hosing it with water.
- Entering the access in a crouched position behind a water screen (spray nozzle).
- Directing water towards the ceiling of the space on fire.
8.1.5 Because of the above, It is inadvisable to take hurried action when smoke is seen issuing from a closed cabin.
8.2. Chemical Reactions 8.2.1 Chemical reactions are the effect of the addition of one or more of the following
substances to a chemical:
• Water
• Heat
• Steam
• Oil
• Foam
• Carbon Dioxide Sand
8.2.2 Some of the effects of a chemical reaction are:
• Explosion from the development of flammable gas.
• Spontaneous combustion.
• The development of toxic fumes.
• The generation of smoke.
8.2.3 Chemical reactions during fire fighting are more likely to occur with fire in cargoes and in accommodation
areas.
8.2.4 Some examples of chemical reactions causing or exacerbating fires, are:
• The production of acetylene when calcium carbide comes into contact with water.
• The decomposition of steam when applied to coal fires.
• The production of hydrogen when Direct Reduced Iron (DRY) comes Into contact with water.
• Oxidizing cargoes, such as some fertilizers, sustaining a fire even blanketed In an extinguishing gas.
• Cargoes spontaneously igniting In air, e.g. phosphorus when Its packaging gets damaged
• Self-heating of cargoes such as grain when wet.
• Production of methane in coal cargoes to dangerous levels when ventilation is restricted.
8.2.5 The correct response to fire in dangerous goods is given In the Emergency Procedures for Ships Carrying
Dangerous Goods.
8.2.6 The correct response to fire in bulk materials possessing chemical hazardous given In the Emergency Schedules
of the Code of Sate Practice for Solid bulk Cargoes.
8.2.7 With the aid of the General Index of the IMDG Code and the Emergency Procedures for Ships Carrying
Dangerous Goods, the response action for a fire in a given substance can be determined.
8.2.8 With the aid of the Code of Safe Practice for Solid
Bulk Cargoes, the response action for fire in a given bulk cargo can be determined.
8.3 BOILER UPTAKE FIRES
8.3.1 Boiler uptake fires are those occurring in:
• Uptakes, economizers and air heaters of steamships.
• Exhaust pipes, economizers and waste-heat boilers of ships propelled by internal combustion engines.
8.3.2 The usual cause of such fires is an accumulation of carbon deposits, with without oil, which become
overheated and catch fire.
8.3.3 The difficulties and hazards of fighting these fires are:
• Inaccessibility of all sections of the uptake in the upper section of the engine-room.
• The possibility of explosion if access doors to the economizer are opened.
• The possibility of the economizer tubes reaching a temperature of 700°C when the following can take
place.
• The iron in the tubes will burn in steam.
• The reaction will be self-sustaining and will generate heat.
• The products of combustion will be black oxide of iron and free hydrogen.
• The burning of iron in steam will be independent of a supply of oxygen.
• The hydrogen produced will burn if air is introduced.
• Explosion.
8.3.4 A procedure for containing and extinguishing the fire is to:
• Shut down the boiler and/or main engine.
• Spray the external surfaces in way of the fire with water to keep the temperature down.
• Close necessary dampers and boiler change- valve to exclude air from fire.
• Protect essential electrical and other equipment below the fire zone against water damage.
to open the economizer for examination and thorough cleaning on the fire side.
8.4 FIRES IN WATER-TUBE BOILERS
8.4.1 Iron-in-steam fires can occur in water-tube boilers due to:
• Shortage of water in the boiler causing overheating of the tubes above the water level and undue delay in
shutting down the boiler.
• An uncontrollable soot fire in the furnace after a boiler has been shut down in a port could with a shortage
of water in the boiler causing overheating of the tubes above the water level.
8.4.2 If fire is discovered before the temperature of the tube has reached 700°C, the preferred method of fire
fighting is:
• To direct through burner apertures, or equivalent, the maximum amount of water available as solid jets
and through feed pumps to the source of the fire, assuming boiler tubes have fractured or burned.
• To keep air casings 1 and uptakes cool by hosing them with water.
• To avoid using tire pray nozzles, foam appliances or carbon dioxide directly on the fire.
8.4.3 The fire-fighting procedures in section 8.3 must be used if the Iron-ln-steam fire has developed.
CHAPTER 9
FIRST AID
Cardiovascular effects including hypertension and decreased heart rate.
HALOGENATED AGENTS ARE USEFUL FOR THE FOLLOWING REASONS:
• It is a clean agent.
• It Is ideal for electrical circuits.
• Can be used for flammable liquids or gases.
• Can be used for surface burning flammable solids as thermoplastics.
• Can be used for costly objects and where use of conventional extinguishing agents could cause extensive damage
and where availability of water or space for using other systems is less.
HALOGENATED AGENTS ARE INEFFECTIVE FOR:
Fuels which contain their own oxidizing agent such as gunpowder, rocket propellants, cellulose nitrate, organic
peroxides etc reactive metals as sodium, potassium, magnesium, etc. metal hydrides such as lithium hydrides.
SOLAS REGULATION - HALON SYSTEMS
The use of halogenated hydrocarbons as fire- extinguishing media is only permitted in machinery spaces, pump-rooms
and in cargo spaces intended solely for the carriage of vehicles which are not carrying any.
Cargo when halogenated hydrocarbons are used as the fire-extinguishing media in total flooding systems.
• The system shall be arranged for manual initiation of power release only.
• If the charge of halogenated hydrocarbon is required to supply more than one space, the arrangements for its
storage and release shall be such that compliance with the quantity of Halon required for each of the
compartment is fulfilled.
The main hazards arising from fires far the health of personnel are:
• Asphyxiation
• Poisoning
• Burns (skin & damaged tissues)
• Pain
• Shock
Asphyxiation may be the result of:
• Fires causing oxygen shortage.
• An extinguishing gas replacing air. Poisoning may be caused by carbon monoxide, which is produced in most fires.
• Toxic combustion products of fire.
• Damaged tissue may lead to loss of function of parts of the body.
• Infection.
• Mutilation / scarring / disfigurement.
• Burnt skin may interfere with breathing function, which may cause death.
• Secondary shock is a serious condition, caused by the collection of body fluids in blisters, and must always be
suspected except with minor burns.
ASPHYXIATION
In layman's terms this is called suffocation. Asphyxia is a condition in which the lungs do not get sufficient supply of
air for breathing. If this continues some minutes, breathing and heart action stops, and death occur. In a fire
circumstance, asphyxia can be caused by air-borne toxic and asphyxiating gases which may be the products of the fire
reaction. A casualty who has been overcome by asphyxia should be immediately administered resuscitation. It is
commonly termed as artificial respiration and is necessary when as a result of some accident; a casualty cannot
breathe normally or has ceased to breathe.
POISONING
Some substances when taken into the body in fairly large, quantities can be dangerous to health or can cause death,
such substances are called poisons. A poison may enter the body by ingestion, injection, inhalation or absorption.
Fumes or gases from a fire may be poisonous. These airborne toxins usually are likely to enter the body by absorption
or Inhalation. A casualty overcome by an airborne toxin should be immediately shifted to fresh air and resuscitated.
BURNS AND SCALDS
Burns are injuries that result from dry heat like fire, flame, a piece of hot metal, or the sun, contact with Wire carrying
high tension electric current or by lightning or friction. Scalds are caused by moist heat due to boiling water, steam,
oil, hot tar, etc.
Chemical burns are caused by strong acids (example Sulphuric acid, Nitric acid) or by strong Alkalis (Caustic Soda,
Caustic Potash, quick lime or strong Ammonia).
A Nuclear burn is caused by the instantaneous flash of intense heat given off by a nuclear explosion. It is capable of
causing superficial burns on the exposed skin of persons several miles away.
The degree of burns indicates the degree of damage to the tissues. There are three degrees of burns:
FIRST DEGREE : When the skin is reddened.
SECOND DEGREE : When there are blisters on the skin, &
THIRD DEGREE : When there is destruction of deeper tissues and charring.

The danger from burns depends on the area of the burns rather than the degree. Superficial burns over a large area
of 'the body is more dangerous than the complete charring of a part of a limb, it must be noted that in the same
person, different parts of the body may show different degrees of burns. For purposes of determining the percentage
of area burnt the body is divided into several parts. Each part is allotted percentages as follows:
Any burn of over 30% - irrespective of deep degree- should be hospitalized at the earliest opportunity.
PAIN
Injury by fire is likely to create intense pain. In the care of such casualties, attention must be given to the treatment of
pain.
SHOCK
Shock is a manifestation of changes in which the circulation falls because blood pressure or blood volume has fallen
to dangerously low levels! The chief cause of shock is a loss of body fluids. Shock can occur in patients with more than
20% burns. It can happen externally, as visible, from bleeding or "weeping" from, burned areas;
or internally case of internal bleeding as blood loss into tissue themselves is an Important causes hock. Exposure, fear
and pain will make shock worse and hinder the body's natural efforts to recover.
General symptoms of shock are:
0. Patient lies still taking scant notice of surroundings;
1. Breathing is rapid and shallow;
2. Patient gives occasional deep sighs;
3. Pulse is rapid and weak;
4. Body is pale cold and clammy;
5. Patient feels weak, faint and thirsty or may vomit.
6. Lips and ears may be blue.
7. As his condition gets worse he may lapse into unconsciousness.
9.3 It is important to follow up first-aid measures with medical treatment.

9.4 The first-aid measures in cases of asphyxiation and poisoning are:
1. Removal of victim from danger area; thereafter
2. If unconscious, placing victim in the recovery position
3. In the absence of breathing, applying artificial respiration
4. In the absence of a pulse and breathing, applying Cardio Pulmonary Resuscitation.
RESUSCITATION
This is commonly termed as Artificial Respiration (medically termed as respiratory resuscitation and is necessary
when as a result of some accident, a casualty cannot breathe normally or has apparently ceased to breathe. Its
importance lies in the fact that if brain cells are deprived of oxygen for more than four minutes irreversible changes
take place in it. The aim of artificial respiration therefore is immediate oxygenation of the blood in order to forestall
such changes. To ensure artificial respiration is effective it is essential that the air passage from mouth to lungs is
dear and open. Refer to the accompanying figures. In the first figure the person is conscious and in upright position.
The air passages is clear, in the. Second figure the casualty is unconscious and lying on its back. In this, the air passage
is restricted and normal breathing and or artificial respiration wilt be ineffective unless the passage is cleared by
placing the casualty in a more comfortable natural position to afford a clear passage for air. In the third figure the
neck is extended, head pressed backwards to provide a clear passage for air to flow in to the lungs and out. There are
three popular methods of providing artificial respiration and each of them is discussed in details in order of
preferences. The methods are:
a) Mouth-to-Mouth (or Mouth-to-Nose);
b) Holger Nielson Method; and
c) Schafer's Method
Mouth-to-mouth artificial respiration has many advantages namely:
1. It gives the greatest ventilation of the lungs and oxygenation of the blood;
2. It can be easily and effectively applied;
3. The chest movement can be watched and inflation of the lungs assessed.
4. It is less tiring and does not require strength to apply it.
In practice the mouth-to-mouth method of artificial respiration should be attempted in the following sequence.
Establish that the airway is clear; if a casualty is unconscious, the airway may be narrow or blocked making breathing
noisy or impossible. This may occur for several reasons: the head may tilt forward narrowing the air passage;
muscular control in the throat will be lost, which may allow the tongue to sag back and block the air passage; and,
Because the reflexes are Impaired, saliva or vomit may lie In the back of throat blocking the airway. Any of the afore-
mentioned situations can cause fatality. Care must be exercised in ensuring the air passage is clear. Remove any
foreign objects from the air passage. Especially if the casualty uses dentures.
Lay the casualty on its side and strike three to four sharp blows between shoulders to clear the windpipe. Remove
any debris is using fingers. Take up a convenient position such as kneeling or standing and work from the side. Place
the casualty on its back. Hold the head in your hands as Illustrated In the figure. One hand presses forehead
downwards the other the jaw upwards and forward. (This will ensure air passage is open). With your mouth open
take a deep breath and seal your mouth on lips of the casualty and breathe out Pinch the nose of the casualty. Blow
steadily and watch for inflation of the lungs (rising or chest).Inflations should be at the rate often per minute. The
first six inflations should be given as quickly as possible.
Sometimes the casualty may be in a state of spasm 'or convulsion and mouth cannot be opened. In such a situation,
mouth to nose method of artificial respiration may have to be resorted to. Ensure your own lips do not obstruct the
casualty's nostrils. Press the lip of the casualty with your thumb when blowing in and part its lips to allow air to
escape after inflation is completed. The value of artificial respiration is greatly reduced if oxygen cannot be carried
rapidly by circulation of the blood to the brain. This becomes evident if after 10-12 inflations no physical signs of
Improvement are visible and such change in colour of face and lips from bluish to pink. Check for pulse at side of the
neck or on wrists and listen carefully with ear pressed onto heart. If no heartbeat can be felt or heard and if the pupils
of the eye diluted (large) or beginning to dilate, external cardiac massage will have to resorted to. Cardiac massage
combined with artificial respiration, is administered to revive the heart muscles it has its dangers and should only be
resorted to if it evident that heart functioning has ceased. It is advantageous, to have two persons give such
resuscitation, one taking care of the mouth-to-mouth mouth-to-nose resuscitation and the Other applying external
cardiac massage.
Follow the under-mentioned sequence and administer external cardiac massage:
1. Place the casualty on shard surface.
2. Locate lower half of sternum or breast bone.
3. Place the ball of the hand on it covering with the other hand.
4. After each inflation, of the lungs apply six to eight sharp presses at the rate of one per second. Each depression
should depress the sternum about one inch and force applied should be no more.
5. If two persons are available, then the one giving respiration can feel the pulse with each depression near the
neck. If only one person is performing this resuscitation then he should feel for the pulse after completing one
cycle.
6. With two persons, 10 to 12 inflations with a depression every second should continue till normal activity of the
casualty is resumed.
7. With one person, apply 10 inflations and five depressions in each interval between inflations continue this cycle
till the normal response is obtained by the casualty.
ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION HOLGER NIELSON METHOD
This method of artificial respiration can be performed, but it needs a little, skill and proper timing it is more
appropriate in cases of drowning and resultant suffocation due to lungs being full. The position of operator and the
casualty is clearly detailed.
Lay the casualty on its chest with arms raised above shoulders. Place head to ones side on top of hand' placed one
above another. Place yourself with left knee (Inner side in line with casualty's cheek) six to twelve inches above
casualty's head. Place the right foot heel in line with casualties loft elbow. Place your hands on the casualties back
with palms pressed on lower part of' shoulder blades and thumbs alongside the spine.
MOVEMENT OF OPERATOR
STEP ONE:
Once In position with arms straight rock gently forward until the operators arms are vertical oral most vertical. Do not
use special fore, the body weight (roughly a pressure of 24-30 lb. only) is sufficient to cause expiration from the
casualty. Count ONE TWO (allowing 2 seconds time for this step in all).
STEP TWO:
The operator now rocks backward counting up to three (allowing one second for this motion). While rocking
backwards operator slides his hands all decks and other places of work should be kept free of temporary obstructions
and substances likely to cause accidents. All areas which become dangerous due to rain, snow, ice, oil or grease,
spilled cargo a combination of these, are to be rendered sent as quickly as possible Loose gear, tools and other
equipment should be removed from working areas when not in use, and safely stowed Always coil runners, guy ends,
preventers, pendants, etc. in a seaman like manner, as near as practicable to their securing points.
BEHAVIOR
Do not indulge in careless or reckless behavior that may result in accidents of yourself or other persons.
HYGIENE, HEAT ILLNESS
Do not touch dead rats with your hands but remove them with tongs or other suitable means.
If you have been handling harmful substances, thoroughly wash your face and hands with soap or other suitable
cleansing agent before taking any food or drink, or follow, any special personal cleansing Instructions which you have
been given.
After painting especially, you should always clean your hands and finger nails.
Working conditions of high temperature, and especially where humidity is excessive, may lead to heat stroke which
can be fatal, or to heat exhaustion. In these circumstances at least 4.5 liters (8 pints) of coot.
But not iced drinking water, should be taken daily in small quantities, frequently. Salt tablets are provided and two
should be taken in plenty of water four times a day; if table salt Is preferred to the tablets, take a Level teaspoon full
dissolved in plenty of water morning and night. Keep enclosed spaces as well ventilated as possible and take the rest
periods allowed.
Similar rests will be allowed and should be taken if you are employed in other abnormal environments or where you
have to wear respiratory equipment.
If you are regularly in contact with mineral oil, maximum personal cleanliness should be observed; never put oil
soaked rags in boiler suit pockets, launder boiler suits and clothes frequently and carefully wash any skin that has
been exposed to contact with oil.
Backwards along casualty's shoulders until they grip the casualty's upper near elbows.
STEP THREE:
That operator raises and pulls on the arms until tension for .a period of two seconds counting "Four -Five" This
movement causes inspiration (Inhalation) for the casualty. Care should be taken that during the entire cycle the
operators arms should remain straight, and the casualty's chest should not be raised from the ground.
STEP FOUR:
Counting "six" for one second the operator should lower arms of the casualty and take his hands back to commence
step one. This whole cycle occupies six seconds and should be rhythmic in character and continued till breathing is
resumed normally by the casualty. When casualty begins to show signs of breathing the operator should continue
"STEP TWO" only raising and lowering arms counting "one" two "three - four" for expiration (with casualty's arm
down) and counting "three" "four" (with casualty's raised) for Inhalation.
Artificial Respiration Schafers Method This is yet another alternate method of providing artificial respiration suited to
cases of drowning and requires skill in timing and positioning the casualty in the prone position face downwards with
arms above shoulders and face resting on both hands, turned towards the side. The nose and mouth must remain
unobstructed. The operator kneels on one side of the casualty, with knees placed together Just below the position of
the casualty ship
The operator should sit back on his heels to allow free sway. Place hands the loins of the casualty, one on each side of
the backbone, wrists almost touching, and thumbs as far as forward without .straining. The fingers should close
together at the side of the and bent over the flanks in the natural hollows just above the brim of the pelvis, but clear
of it, finger tips pointing the ground. The elbows should be kept straight.
METHOD OF MOVEMENT
STEP ONE:
Without bending elbows, swing slowly forward on bending knees till thighs are almost in an upright position, and
shoulders vertically above the hands. This allows the weight of the operator's body to communicate to the casualty's
loins. This causes the abdominal organs to compress against the ground and up against the diaphragm. Air is forced
out of the lungs thus expiration takes place. The approximate weight be applied should not exceed 25 kg (60 lbs). This
movement should occupy second duration only.
STEP TWO:
The operator should slowly swing backwards towards initial position. This movement will cause the abdominal organs
to fall back in place and diaphragm to drop thus inducing inspiration. This step should last about three seconds. The
total procedure should take about five seconds and thus can be repeated twelve times a minute. When the casualty
responds to the artificial respiration and commences natural respiration, the timing of the operator should match
natural respiration of the casualty. It may be needed till the casualty is completely revived. Artificial respiration must
continue perseveringly until natural breathing is restored or unless it has been ascertained beyond all doubts that any
further efforts will be of no avail.
9.5 The participant should become familiar with the methods of putting a person in the correct recovery position.
1. The application of artificial respiration (mouth to mouth/nose).
2. The application of cardiopulmonary resuscitation.
9.6 The treatment for burns can be summarized as extended flushing with water or submerging the affected parts in
water Injection of morphine if the victim is in great pain.
9.7 Bandaging and treatment for shock are equally important but should not be done as a first-aid measure.
General guidelines for treatment of shock are:
1. Stop any bleeding.
2. Lay the casualty flat with feet raised.

3. Loosen tight clothing about the neck and chest.
4. Make patient comfortable with blankets;
5. Give the patient plenty of fluid in divided doses (no alcohol).
6. Relieve has pain; and
7. Cheer him up, avoid, deep discussions.

Dangers due to Fire
Helping a person whose clothes have caught fire.
1. Put out the flames by water.
2. Do not allow the person to run about these only fans the fire and makes 'the flame spread.
• Use personal fire protection suits or at least a fire blanket or equivalent, while approaching a man whose
clothing has caught fire.
• Any him (lawn quickly on the ground.
• If the clothes in front of the body have caught fire, lay him on his and vice versa, tills water or other non-
flammable materials are brought to quench the flame.
RESCUING PERSONS FROM FIRE
• In rescuing persons from a space which has caught fire, speed clear thinking are required.
• Remember, clean air is at ground level. So crawl along the floor pull out a person who is lying unconscious or is
disabled. Ensure that the rescuer uses breathing apparatus to avoid being next casualty.
• When there is a fire in a space in which the doors and windows closed, do not open the windows and doors to let
in air, the rush air will increase the fire and it will burn more intensely.
Results of Burns Immediate
— Intense pain
— Shock
Later
• There may be infection in the damaged area.
• After healing, it will leave causing disfigurement and / or restriction of movements,
Management of Serious Burn and Scalds
Immediate attention that is required in serious burns is:

• Keep the casualty quit and reassures him.
• Cover the casualty with a clean cloth.
• Do not remove adhering particles of charred clothing.
• Cover burnt area with sterile or clean dressing and bandage.
• In case of burns covering a large part of the body covering a large part of the body. It is sufficient to cover the
area with a clean sheet or towel.
If eyes are affected by the chemical, attend to. It urgently; flushes eyes with copious amounts of water and
avoids rubbing eyes.
ELECTRICAL BURNS
Electrical burns are caused by a high current or voltage passing through the body.
High voltage industrial (Power) current can jump 16-18 metres and kill the rescuer. Therefore do not approach the
casualty till the switch has been turned off. These currents not only cause local damage but affect the respiratory and
cardiac centers. They produce superficial or deep burns including charring, but also pause stoppage of breathing and
heart beat.
Treatment of Electrical Burns
• Separate the casualty from the cause of Injury.
• Cover the burn.
• Treat the shock.
• If breathing or heart beat has stopped, resuscitate.
• Put in recovery position.
• Treat the casualty after removal to sick bay.
If any materials similar to those listed above become damp they should be dried or cleaned and dried before being
stowed away if soaked in oil they should be cleaned or destroyed. Oil impregnated sawdust or
• The actions taken and the time of each action.

• The facts concerning the fire, including its site, materials and ignition.
• The fire-extinguishing appliances required for fighting the fire and the numbers of each type used.
• The number of crow and shore firemen (if appropriate) engaged in fighting the fire.
• The number of fireman's outfits and CABA used
• The damage caused by the lire.
• The danger caused by the fire-extinguishing media.
• The extent to which the ship or its services were immobilized by the fire.
Chapter 10
FIRE INVESTIGATION AND REPORTING
INVESTIGATE AND COMPILE REPORTS ON INCIDENTS INVOLVING FIRE
Required performance
1 Fire investigating and reporting (2 hrs)
a) States that the investigation into the fire should
include recording the following:
— How fire was discovered.
— The time at which the fire alarm was given.
— How the fire alarm was given.
— The time at which the master and other staff where informed.
— The position and nature of the fire.
— Who was first on scene.
— What action were taken for the initial attempt to extinguish the fire.
— How many fire fighters outfit with compressed air operating breathing apparatus were used.
— What appliances were used both portable and fixed.
— What man power was used.
— At what time the fire was extinguished.
— The number of casualties with details of those injured and nature of injuries.
— What damages was caused including any to the structure and fitting of the ship.
— An estimate of what proportion of the damage was caused by the fire extinguishing media e.g the engine
room was immobilized because of the fire.
— An analysis of the fire the materials which were burning the known or portable source of ignition and cause.
— Conclusions on the cause of fire and recommendation for avoiding recurrence.
(b) States that the report on the investigation will include these details of the fire fighting procedures:
— The occurrence and time table of the fire.
— The action taken and thetime of each action.
— The fact concerning the fire including its site materials and ignition.
— The fire extinguishing appliances required for fighting the fire and the numbers of each type used.
— The number of crew and shore fireman engaged in fire fighting.
— The number of fire fighters outfit and CABA used.
— Damage caused by the fire.
— Damage caused by fire fighting material.
— The extent to which ship or its service was immobilized by the fire to which.
(c) States that the report should also contain conclusions from the facts established including.
An analysis and discussion of the facts.
The conclusions reached from this analysis and discussions.
Recommendation if any to improve fire prevention and fir fighting procedures.
Trainee's experience of fires on ship
(a) Describes details of fire experienced
— Their causes.
— The fire fighting procedures .
— The results.
Documented report of fire on ships and lessons learned.
1) describes after being given the particulars of ship and its cargo and how the fire was discovered the initial action.
2) Describe after being qiven the results of that action what further measures if any are required.
3) describes after being given th>? particulars of the whole incident how his actions compared with those actually
taken on board the ship concerned.
The report should also contain conclusions from the facts established, Including:
• An analysis and discussion of the facts.
• The conclusions reached from this analysis and discussion.
• Recommendations on the actors required to avoid recurrence recommendations, if any, to improve fire
prevention and Fire-fighting procedures.
ELECTRICAL FITTINGS IN ACCOMMODATION
Never interfere with electrical fittings in accommodation. Personal electric apparatus such as radios and electric
shavers must not be connected to the supply without the approval, and under the supervision of the electrical officer,
or the responsible engineer officer.
Never place clothing or other articles over electric heaters, nor so close to electric heaters or electric bulbs as to
restrict the flow of air, and thus lead to overheating and fire.
On no account should personal electric space-heating appliances be used.
Report any faulty fittings or wiring immediately to the head of department, who will report them to the responsible
officer.
AEROSOLS
Take care when using aerosols. The spray may ignite on contact with a naked flame, heated surface or even a lighted
cigarette. They should be stored in a cool place and out of the sun rays. Always obey the manufacturers warning
notices printed on the containers.
PRECAUTIONS TO BE OBSERVED WHEN WORKING ALOFT
You should wear safety harness when working aioft.
Before work is commenced in the immediate vicinity of the ships whistle, the officer in charge should be informed so
that Instructions can be given for the power to be shut off, and suitable warning notices posted, both on the bridge
and in the machinery spaces.
Before chairs or stages are rigged, or other duties are undertaken on top of the funnel, the chief engineer officer
should be informed so that arrangements can be made to prevent steam safety valves being lifted or boiler tubes
being blown until the work is completed.
Before work is done on masts or other places in close proximity to radio aerials, the radio officer should be informed
so that he refrains from transmitting or can give adequate warning to those working before transmitting.
APPENDIX I GENERAL SAFETY GUIDELINES
Relevant excerpts from the Code of Safe Working Practices for the safety of merchant seamen. Are given herein
which have relevance to the course.
This Code provides a sound basis upon which those concerned can establish and maintains safe working conditions
on board ship at sea and in port, and is designed to reduce the number of accidents. It reflects the better working
practices adopted on merchant ships at the present time and its provisions should be followed to the fullest extent by
all.
In its application to a particular ship it may be found that strict compliance with some recommendations is
impracticable. In such circumstances every Endeavour should be made to observe the intent of the recommendations
and it follows that the, utmost care should be taken' in the operation concerned, with the full awareness of the risk
that may be 'Involved.
A compilation of this kind cannot include safeguards covering every single aspect of safety both at work and in off-
duty periods aboard ship. It has to be accepted that no human activity is free, from some measure of risk, but even
so, many accidents are caused, In part anyway, by unnecessary chances being taken and by lack of foresight in often
quite simple things. It should become a matter of habit to look for and pay heed to the hazardous elements in any
situation, including ordinary everyday situations. To do this , and to adhere to the advice given in this Code, is to act
in a seaman-like fashion, prudence and foresight are natural characteristics of the good seaman at work.
SAFETY, INSTRUCTIONS AND APPLIANCES
1. Make yourself familiar with and obey all safety instructions pertaining to your work.
2. Always make use of protective clothing, safety devices and other safeguards supplied for your protection and for
the protection of others. If Working outboard, e.g. securing the gangway or accommodation ladder or working
outboard of lifeboats, wear a safety, harness and life-line.
3. Your life may depend upon safety equipment examine it before use and maintain it in good condition repair
whether it is personal property or ship’s equipment.
4. Report immediately to the officer in charge any defect or damage observed in the ship's equipment 4. or at
your place of work.
5. All decks and other places of work should be kept free of temporary obstructions and substances likely to cause
accidents. All areas which become dangerous due to rain, snow, ice, oil or grease, spilled cargo or a
combination of these, are to be rendered snow as quickly as possible.
6. Loose gear, tools and other equipment should be removed from working areas when not in use, and safely
stowed.
7. Always coil runners, guy ends, preventers, pendants, etc. in a seaman like manner, as near as practicable to
their securing points.
BEHAVIOR
1. Do not indulge in careless or reckless behavior that may result in accidents to yourself or other persons.
HYGIENE, HEAT ILLNESS
1. Do not touch dead rats with your hands but remove them with tongs or other suitable means.
2. If you have been handling harmful substances, thoroughly wash your face and hands with soap or other
suitable cleansing agent before taking any food or drink, or follow, any special personal cleansing Instructions
which you have been given.
3. After painting especially, you should always clean your hands and finger nails.
4. Working conditions of high temperature, and especially where humidity is excessive, may lead to heat stroke
which can be fatal, or to heat exhaustion. In these circumstances at least 4.5 liters (8 pints) of cool but not iced
drinking water, should be taken daily in small quantities, frequently. Salt tablets are provided and two should
be taken in plenty of water four times a day; if table salt is preferred to the tablets, take a level teaspoon full
dissolved in plenty of water morning and night. Keep enclosed spaces as well ventilated as possible and take
the rest periods allowed.
5. Similar rests will be allowed and should be taken if you are employed in other abnormal environments or
where you have to wear respiratory equipment.
6. If you are regularly in contact with mineral oil, maximum personal cleanliness should be observed; never put oil
soaked rags in boiler suit pockets, launder boiler suits and clothes frequently and carefully wash any skin that
has been exposed to contact with oil.
PERSONAL CLOTHING
Working clothes should be close flitting with no loose flaps or strings; pockets should be kept to a minimum. Loose
clothes are particularly dangerous when you are working ropes and wires on drums and other deck machinery. Short
sleeves are preferable to sleeves that are rolled up. It is better not to wear finger rings when you are working.
It is usually sensible to wear working gloves while handling wires and ropes, but bear in mind that whist they protect
hands 1 e.g. from catching. In jags of wire etc., they create additional hazards when working near moving parts of
machinery such drum ends. Take special care when wearing gloves at work. Wet or oily gloves can be slippery. Loose
fitting gloves age designed to allow hands to slip out.
Clothing should not be dried in any machinery space.
SMOKING
Notices prohibiting smoking posted in dangerous areas of the ship should be obeyed at all times.
Smoking in bed is an extremely dangerous practice which can imperil the safety of the ship and all on board, and
should therefore be avoided. Many seamen die each year through falling asleep whist smoking in their bunks.
Fires are often caused by the indiscriminate discarding of burning cigarette ends, particularly at sea, where a lighted
cigarette thrown over side may be blown back on board. Always extinguish cigarettes properly and deposit them and
used matches in the containers provided in areas where smoking is authorized.
SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION IN SHIPS STORES
Strict vigilance, careful stowage and suitable ventilation are the basic precautions against spontaneous combustion.
Most seamen are aware of the dangers of spontaneous combustion in cargoes. Materials in ships stores are also
liable to ignite by spontaneous combustion when damp or soaked in oil, especially vegetable oil. For this reason
cotton waste, canvas, soiled or damp linen, blankets or similar absorbent materials, when in bales or bundles, should
not be stowed in close proximity to oil or paints, or on or near to steam pipes.
Before work is commenced in the vicinity of the radar scanner, the officer in charge should be informed so that the
radar can are Isolated and a warning notice posted at the set to prevent its use.
Immediately before beginning work, you should check that the appropriate, officers have been warned.
Boys and inexperienced seamen should not work aloft unless accompanied by an experienced seaman are adequately
supervised.
MANUAL LIFTING AND CARRYING
Size up the load to be lifted, and look for sharp edges or protruding nails which may cause injury. Take special care
with loads having greasy, slippery surfaces or which, present other hazards affecting you grip. Wear sensible shoes,
preferably with protected toe caps. Take up a firm and balanced stance with your feet not too wide apart, allowing as
straight a lift as possible with comfort. Get close to the load; the further away you are the harder the lift is. Bend the
knees and crouch down (bent knees and a straight back will ensure that the legs do the Work), and keep the chin
tucked in. Get a good grip on the load with the palms of your hands. Don't use fingers only. Try the weight for a trial
lift and be sure you can manage it. It at all doubtful, get help. Lift the load by straightening the legs, keeping it close
to the body.
Lift to a high level in two stages by using a bench or other support and then adjusting your grip to complete the high
lift.
To put the load down, reverse the lifting procedures and make sure your legs do the work of lowering. Bend the
knees; keep the back straight with the load close to the body.
Never carry a load which obscures your vision and that you are unable to seethe area over which you are walking.
Make sure that there is no flammable material, especially foam plastic rubber type insulation, beneath or behind
plating being worked upon. Guard against the danger of sparks failing into open hatchways or ventilations or upon
any cargo or dun age near to the scene of operations. Never commence such repair work on oil, lamps without
written authorization from a 'responsible officer.
FIRE HAZARDS GENERAL SMOKING
1. Conspicuous warning notices should be displayed in any part of the ship where smoking is forbidden. Particular
attention should be paid to areas such as certain machinery spaces, store rooms, holds, pump rooms, lamp
rooms, paint rooms) tanks, cofferdams, etc. and also to deck areas near open hatches, when hazardous cargo Is
'being loaded, carried or discharged.
2. In places where smoking is authorized, suitable containers should be made available for extinguishing cigarettes,
etc. and for the disposal of matches.
SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION
a) Materials In ships stores are liable to ignite by spontaneous combustion when damp or soaked in oil; 'especially
vegetable oil. Strict vigilance, careful stowage and suitable ventilation are the basic precautions against
spontaneous combustion.
b) Cotton waste, canvas, soiled or damp linen, blankets or similar absorbent materials, when in bales or bundles,
should not be stowed in close proximity to oil or paints, or on or near to steam pipes.
c) If any materials similar to those listed above become damp they should be dried or cleaned and dried before
being stowed away. If soaked, in oil they should be cleaned or destroyed. Oil. Impregnated sawdust or rags
should be dispersed of as early as possible.
ELECTRICAL FITTINGS AND APPLIANCES IN ACCOMMODATION
• Personal portable electric space-heating appliances should not be used and notices to this effect should be
displayed on notice boards.
• Notices should also be posted on notice boards prohibiting Interference with electrical fittings by unauthorized
persons and warning Seamen that personal electrical. Apparatus should be connected to the ships supply only
with the approval, and under the supervision of, the electrical officer or the responsible engineer officer.
AEROSOLS
The spray from some aerosols may ignite on contact with a naked flame, heated surface or even a cigarette. They
should be stored at a cool place and out of the sun's rays. The manufacturer's warning notices printed on the
containers should always be followed.
WELDING
Great cares should be taken when carrying out welding repairs or cutting operations to ensure that there is no
flammable material beneath behind the plating of the repair. Steps should be taken to prevent sparks dropping down
open hatchways or ventilators. Where necessary, cargo and dun age should be moved to a safe distance before the
operation is commenced, Oil tanks must be certified free of flammable gases before any such repair work is begun on
them.
FIRE HAZARDS IN MACHINERY SPACES

1. The seriousness of fire in machinery spaces cannot be over stressed. All personnel should, be fully aware of the
precautions necessary for its prevention and of the immediate action to be taken should fire break out.
2. Ensure that fire-fighting appliances are kept free of obstruction at times.
3. Prohibitions of smoking must be observed at all times.
4. Cleanliness and good housekeeping are the best precautions against fire. Suitable metal containers should be
provided for the disposal used cotton waste, cleaning rags or similar material. Such containers should be emptied
at frequent intervals and the contents safely discarded.
5. If a hot bearing is suspected in a closed crankcase, the crankcase must not be opened until the bearing has cooled
down otherwise the entry of air could possibly create an explosive vapour/air mixture.
6. All oil spills should be wiped up as soon as possible.
7. Oil should not be allowed to accumulate in boiler registers, tank tops, bilges, near hot pipes or other heated
surfaces.
8. Save all and drip trays should be kept free from oil and any leakage should be given immediate attention.
9. Any oil found in bilges should be pumped out and the bilge
washed out at the earliest opportunity, providing that the relevant pollution regulations are observed. The
source of leakage to the bilge should be located and repaired. Tank tops and bilges could be painted a light
colour kept clean and well illuminated, in the vicinity of pressure oil pipes so that leaks are readily located.
10. Engine room bilges should at all times be kept clear of rubbish and other substances so that strums are not
blocked and the bilges may be readily and easily pumped.
Extreme caution is required when filling any settling or other oil tank to prevent it overflowing, especially in
engine rooms where the exhaust pipe or other hot surfaces are directly below. Particular care should be taken
when filling tanks which have their sounding pipes in the machinery spaces, to ensure that the weighted cocks
are closed. In no case should a weighted cock on a fuel or lubricating oil tank sounding pipe, or on a fuel or
lubricating oil tank gauge, be secured in the open position.
11. Boiler casing ventilating arrangements should be kept clear and open, to prevent overheating and the resultant
danger of fire.
12. In no circumstances must a source of ignition or a portable lamp, except flameproof lamps, be brought near to
the opened crankcase or gear case of an engine until it has been well ventilated and all explosive gases have
been expelled.
13. Remote controls for stopping machinery or pumps, or for operating fuel tank quick-closing valves in case of fire,
fitted outside the spaces occupied by such equipment, should be tested once a month or when the ship is in
port, to ensure that they are functioning satisfactorily.
FIRE HAZARD IN BOILER SPACES LIGHTING
1. Blow backs will occur if the correct flashing-up procedure is not followed. The following, practices will help to
minimize the risk of a blow back.
2. Check the furnace floor and see that there is no oil on it. A blow back will occur if an attempt is made to light the
burner with oil or oil vapour in the furnace.
3. Check that the oil is at the correct temperature for the grade of oil being used. If not, the temperature of the oil
must be regulated before attempting to light the boiler.
4. Blow through with air to clear the furnace of any oil vapour.
5. The torch, specially provided for the purpose, should always be used to light a burner unless an adjacent burner in
the same furnace is already lit. Never try to light it by any other means, e.g. by introducing loose burning material
into the furnace. Never attempt to relight a burner from the hot brickwork of the furnace; a violent explosion
result.
6. If all is in order, stand to one side, insert the lighted torch and turn on the fuel. Care should be taken that there is
not too much oil on the torch, which could drip and possibly cause a fire.
7. If the oil does not light immediately, turn off the fuel supply and ventilate. The furnace by allowing air to blow
through for 2 or 3 minutes to clear any oil vapour before attempting to relight it. During this pause, remove the
burner and inspect the atomizer and tip.
CLEANING
8. Never enter any boiler, boiler furnace or boiler flare, until it has been cooled sufficiently to make work in such
places safe.
9. Every boiler, boiler furnace, or boiler flue should be adequately ventilated before anyone enters and while
persons remain inside attendant should always be standing by outside while persons remain inside the boiler.
10. When hand-cleaning tubes, scaling boilers, or

cleaning back end should wear suitable goggles. Where there is an identifiable safety risk, protective clothing,
including dust masks, should be available and be worn. . -
GAUGE GLASS COVERS
14. Where fitted, gauge glass covers should always be in place when glass is under pressure. Any defective gauge
glass or gauge cover should be reported to the engineer officer who should ensure that gauge is shut off and
drained before authorizing the removal of cover.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Marine Engineering Practice; Vol. 1; Part 5; Fire- Fighting Equipment and Its use in ships - by G. Victory and L.H.
Owen; The Institute of Marine Engineers.
2. Manual of Fireman ship:
3. Book 1; Elements of Combustion and Extinction. HMSO
4. Book. 3; Fire-Extinguishing Equipment HMSO
5. Book 6; Breathing Apparatus and Resuscitation HMSO
6. Book 9; Fire Protection of Buildings HMSO
7. Book-11; Practical Fireman ship Part-I
8. Book 12; Practical Fireman ship Part-ll
9. Book 13; Fire Boat and Ship Fires.
10. NFPA Handbook.
11. Papers of Seminar on "Management of Fire Risk" of Institution of Engineer (India) February, 1989.
12. Fire-Fighting Training Films, Study notes -Video tel
r
13. The Chemistry of Oil Tanker Fire and LGS - Capt. G.S. Heredia.
14. Safety Information Chart - Loss Prevention Ass. Of India Ltd.
15. Fire Safety Aspects of 1981 Amendments to SOLAS 74- LRS Technical Paper No. 91, March, 1985.
16. Manual for "Dry Chemical Fire Extinguishing System". Helen Larssen.
17. Instruction Manual for"C02 Fire Extinguishing System (Fixed)", Namyang Kidde.
18. Instruction Manual for "C02 Fire Extinguishing System for Engine Room and Halon 1301 Fire Extinguishing
System for Compressor Room", Namyang Kidde.
19. I.M.O. Module Course 2.03.

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ADVANCED FIRE-FIGHTING COURSE

We wish you safe voyages............

CHAPTER MODULE MODULE PAGE NO.

1.0 INTRODUCTION, SAFETY AND PRINCIPLES OF FIRE

2.0 THEORY OF FIRE

3.0 FIRE CONTROL ABOARD SHIPS

4.0 SHIP FIRE-FIGHTING ORGANIZATION

5.0 TRAINING OF SEAFARERS IN FIRE FIGHTING

6.0 PROCEDURES FOR FIRE-FIGHTING

7.0 FIRE APPLIANCES AND EQUIPMENT

8.0 FIRE-FIGHTING PROCESS HAZARDS

10.0 FIRE INVESTIGATION AND REPORTING

GENERAL SAFETY GUIDELINES

PLANS OF SHIPS MOCK UP

INTRODUCTION, SAFETY AND PRINCIPLES

1.1 The main aims of annex 2 of resolution A. 437(XI) are :

• Training them in the maintenance and inspection of fire extinguishing equipment.

1.3 The principles of survival in relation to fire are;

• Knowledge of theory of fire and fire precautions

• Regular training and drills

• Preparedness for any fire emergency

• Knowledge of dangers of smoke and toxic fumes

• Regular inspection and maintenance of

a) Fire detection equipment.

b) Fixed Fire extinguishing equipment.

c) Portable fire extinguishers.

d) Mobile fire extinguishers.

e) Compressed air operated breathing apparatus

2.1 CONDITIONS FOR FIRES

2.1.1 Conditions required for fire to occur are:

- The presence of material which act as a fuel

- A source of ignition, e.g. chemical, biological or physical;

- The presence of oxygen, as air or from oxidizing agents.

The following reactions are examples of combustion:

Reaction with atmospheric oxygen:

Many organic materials will burn readily in halogen gases.

C1OH1O+8CI2= 16HCI + 10C

The combustion process can be said to be occurring in two modes:

- The flaming type (including explosions) and

and these are extremely reactive. Combustion is a chain reaction.

HAZARDS OF OXIDIZING AGENTS

Here chlorine is the oxidizing agent.

NITRIC ACID AND THE INORGANIC NITRATES

NH3NO4 = N2O + 2H2O

2KCIO3 = 2KCI + 3O2

CHROMATES AND DICHROMATES

2Na2O2 +2H2O= O2 +2NaOH

2Na2O2 + 2CO = 2NaCO3 +O2

ORGANIC OXIDIZING AGENTS

ORGANIC PEROXIDES AND HYDRO PEROXIDES

1. All except mercury.

3. They are good conductors of heat and electricity.

4. They have relatively high melting points.

5. They can form alloys.

6. Many of them combine with oxygen.

7. The oxides and hydroxides are basic.

8. They usually dissolve in mineral acids, often releasing hydrogen.

Metal Chemical Formula Occurrence Reaction with water