K.K.

Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

Chapter 5: PL /SQL, Database Object and Security (24 Marks)

INTRODUCTION
 PL/SQL stand for Procedural Language / Structured Query Language
 An extension to SQL with design features of programming languages.
 Allows user to write a program to do the various operations on databases.
 PL/SQL is a combination of SQL statements with the programming Language.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SQL AND PL/SQL

 SQL is a nonprocedural language. When you issue a SQL command, your command tells
the database server what to do. However, you cannot specify how to do it.
 PL/SQL integrates control statements and conditional statements with SQL. This gives
you better control of your SQL statements and their execution.

ADVANTAGES OF PL/SQL
1) Procedural Language Capability
 PL/SQL consists of Procedural language such as conditional statement (if statement )
and loops like (FOR loop).

2) Modularized Program Development

 The basic unit in a PL/SQL program is a block. All PL/SQL programs consist of blocks.
 These blocks can be thought of as modules and can be “modularized” in a sequence or
nested in other blocks.
 You can break your application into smaller modules. If you are designing a complex
application, PL/SQL allows you to break down the application into smaller, manageable,
and logically related modules.
 You can easily read, maintain, and debug the code.

3) Improved Performance
 PL/SQL allows you to logically combine multiple SQL statements as one unit or block.
 PL/SQL engine Processes multiple SQL statements simultaneously as a single block,
thereby reducing network traffic, and provides high performance for the application.

4) Portability
 Applications written in PL/SQL are portable to any computer hardware and operating
systems.
 You can write portable program packages and create libraries that can be reused on
Oracle databases in different environments.

Prepared By:
Ms. M. V. Upasani
Lecturer
Computer Technology
K.K. Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

5) Exception Handling
 An exception is an error that occurs in the database or in a user‟s program during
runtime.
 Examples of errors include: hardware or network failures, application logic errors, data
integrity errors, and so on.
 You can prepare for errors by writing exception handling code.
 Exception handling code tells your program what to do in the event of an exception.
 PL/SQL allows you to handle database and program exceptions efficiently. You can
define separate blocks for dealing with exceptions.

PL/SQL BLOCK STRUCTURE

PL/SQL blocks contain three sections

1) Declare section
2) Executable section and
3) Exception-handling section.

Declare Section - This is optional section starts with key word „declare‟. Declare section is used
to declare variables, constants, cursor etc.

Execution Section – This Section is Compulsory (mandatory). This section is starts with
keyword „begin‟ and ends with „end‟. The Program‟s Logic is written in this section.

Exception Handling Section- This section is optional and starts with the keyword „exception‟. It
is used to write the code for handling the errors in the program.

DECLARE (Optional)
/*Variables, cursors, user-defined exceptions

BEGIN (Mandatory)
/* SQL statement, PL/SQL statements

EXCEPTION (Optional)
/* Actions to perform when errors occur

END; (Mandatory)
Prepared By:
Ms. M. V. Upasani
Lecturer
Computer Technology
K.K. Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

PL/SQL EXECUTION ENVIRONMENT

PL/SQL BLOCK OF CODE ORACLE ENGINE

DECLARE
Procedural Statements;
BEGIN
Procedural Statements; PL/SQL ENGINE
SQL Statements;
EXCEPTIONS
SQL Statements: SQL STATEMENT EXECUTOR
END;

VARIABLES AND DATATYPES

Variables are entities which stores certain type of values.
Variables must be declared before its use.
PL/SQL Variable Types
1.Scalar (char, varchar2, number, date, etc.)
2. Composite (%rowtype)
3. Reference (pointers)
4. LOB (large objects)

PL/SQL DATATYPES
1. Char(size): This data type is used to store strings values of fixed length. The size in
brackets determines the number of characters the cell can hold. It can hold maximum 255
characters.
Example : char(50)
2. varchar (size)/varchar2(size): This data type is used to store variable length
alphanumeric data. The maximum this data type can hold up to 4000 characters.
Example : varchar2(80)
3. Date: This data type is used to represent date and time. The Default format is :
DD-MM-YY
Example : ‘20-oct-14’
Prepared By:
Ms. M. V. Upasani
Lecturer
Computer Technology
K.K. Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

4. Number(p,s): This data type is used to store fixed or floating point numbers. P is the
precision & S specifies scale. The maximum precision is 38 digits.
Example : number(5,2) , number(5).
5. Long: This data type is used to store variable length character strings containing up to 2
GB. Only one long Column allowed per Table.
6. RAW :- This data type is used to store Binary Data such as Digitized, Picture or Image
Maximum storage up to 255 bytes.
7. RAW LONG : - This data type is used store Binary data such as as Digitized, Picture or
Image Maximum storage up to 2 GB.

TYPES OF LARGE OBJECT

1. BLOB –This Data type is used to store Binary Character Like songs, videos, Images
maximum size up to 4 GB.
2. CLOB – This data type is used to store character value with size up to 4 GB.

REFERENCE VARIABLES
 Reference variables directly reference specific database column or row
 Reference variables assume data type of associated column or row
 %TYPE data declaration syntax:
variable_name tablename.fieldname%TYPE;
 The (%TYPE) reference data type specifies a variable that references a single Database
field.
Example:
Empid emp.empno%TYPE;
the empid variable assumes a data type of VARCHAR2(30), because this is the data type of the
empno in the EMP table.

GENERATING OUTPUT
SET SERVEROUTPUT ON;
Put the command at the beginning of the program, right before the declaration section.

DISPLAYING OUTPUT
Syntax:
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(<string>);

In which PUT_LINE is the procedure to generate the output on the screen, and
DBMS_OUTPUT is the package to which the PUT_LINE belongs.

Example: DBMS_OUTPUT_PUT_LINE(„My age is „ || num_age);

Prepared By:
Ms. M. V. Upasani
Lecturer
Computer Technology
K.K. Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

HINTS AND GUIDELINES

All variables must be declared before their use.
Variable_name datatype(size);
Variable_name datatype(size) :=value;
The assignment statement
:=
Is not the same as the equality operator
=
All statements end with a semi-colon (;).
To run the PL/SQL block, you may need to Type „/‟ at the End of PL /SQL block.
When PL/SQL is executed it prompts, the output.

EXAMPLE OF A PL/SQL PROGRAM

SQL > SET SERVEROUTPUT ON;

BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line(„Welcome To PL/SQL Programming‟);
END;
/
Output:
Welcome To PL/SQL Programming
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Prepared By:
Ms. M. V. Upasani
Lecturer
Computer Technology
K.K. Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

1) Program for addition of two numbers

SQL > SET SERVEROUTPUT ON;
SQL> declare
2 a number;
3 b number;
4 c number;
5 begin
6 a := &a;
7 b:= &b;
8 c:= a+b;
9 dbms_output.put_line('Addition is'||c);
10 end;
11 /
OUTPUT
Enter value for a: 2
old 6: a := &a;
new 6: a := 2;
Enter value for b: 3
old 7: b:= &b;
new 7: b:= 3;
Addition is 5
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

2) Program for calculating area of a circle

SQL> declare
2 radius number(3);
3 pi number:=3.14;
4 area number(8,3);
5 begin
6 radius:=& radius;
7 area:= pi * power(radius,2);
8 dbms_output.put_line('area of circle is' || area);
9 end;
10 /
OUTPUT
Enter value for radius: 2
old 6: radius:=& radius;
new 6: radius:=2;
area of circle is12.56

Prepared By:
Ms. M. V. Upasani
Lecturer
Computer Technology
K.K. Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

3) Program to increase the salary of employee from emp table

SQL> declare
2 newsal emp.sal%type;
3 val number;
4 begin
5 val:=& val;
6 update emp set sal= sal + val;
7 dbms_output.put_line( 'the salary is increased by' || val);
8 select sal into newsal from emp where ename= 'ajay';
9 dbms_output.put_line('salary of ajay is'|| newsal);
10 end;
11 /

OUTPUT
Enter value for val: 200
old 5: val:=& val;
new 5: val:=200;
the salary is increased by200
salary of ajay is12900
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

4) Write PL/SQL program to display square of any number.

declare
no number(10);
sqr number:=1;
begin
no:=&no;
sqr:=no*no;
dbms_output.put_line(„Square of a number „ ||no||‟is‟||sqr);
end;

Prepared By:
Ms. M. V. Upasani
Lecturer
Computer Technology
K.K. Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

CONTROL STRUCTURES
Control structure is used for decision making and changing the control flow of the program.
1) Conditional Control
1. IF - THEN
2. IF – THEN- ELSE
3. IF –THEN –ELSE –IF

2) Iterative Control
1. LOOP
2. While LOOP
3. FOR LOOP

3) Sequential Control

1. GOTO Statement

1) Conditional Control
1. IF -THEN
 An IF-THEN statement allows you to specify only one group of actions to take.
 The simplest form of IF statement associated a condition with a sequence of statement
enclosed by the keyword THEN and END IF
 If condition is TRUE then statement get execute, if False then if statement does nothing.
Syntax:
IF <condition> then
Statements;
End IF;

1. Program to find out whether second number is larger from two given
numbers.
SQL> declare
2 a number:=10;
3 b number:=20;
4 begin
5 if b > a then
6 dbms_output.put_line(' B is Big ');
7 end if;
8 end;
9 /
B is Big
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
Prepared By:
Ms. M. V. Upasani
Lecturer
Computer Technology
K.K. Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

2. IF – THEN- ELSE
 If the value of condition is true, the statements run; otherwise, the else_statements run
Syntax:
IF <condition > then
statements;
Else
statements;
End if;

1. Program to find out the largest between two numbers

Declare
A number(3);
B number(3);
Begin
A:=&A;
B:=&B;
If (A>B) then
Dbms_output.put_line(„ Greater number=„||A);
else
Dbms_output.put_line(„ Greater number=„||B);
End if;
End;
/
OUTPUT
Enter value for a: 10
old 5: A:=&A;
new 5: A:=10;
Enter value for b: 20
old 6: B:=&B;
new 6: B:=20;
Greater number=20
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed

2. Program to find out if the entered character is a vowel or a consonant.

SQL> declare
2 ch varchar2(30);
3 begin
4 ch:='&ch';
5 if (ch=„a' or ch='i' or ch='e' or ch='o' or ch='u')
6 then
Prepared By:
Ms. M. V. Upasani
Lecturer
Computer Technology
K.K. Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

7 dbms_output.put_line(ch||'is a vowel');
8 else
9 dbms_output.put_line(ch||'is a not vowel');
10 end if;
11 end;
12 /
OUTPUT
Enter value for ch: i
old 4: ch:='&ch';
new 4: a:=„i';
i is a vowel
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

3.IF –THEN–ELSE –IF

 The IF THEN ELSE IF statement runs the first statements for which condition is true.
Remaining conditions are not evaluated.
 If no condition is true, the else_statements run
Syntax :
IF < condition 1> Then
statements;
ELSE IF < condition 2> Then
statements;
ELSE IF < condition n> Then
statements;
ELSE
statements;
END IF;
END IF;
END IF;

1. Program to find out the largest among three numbers.

SQL> declare
2 A number;
3 B number;
4 C number;
5 begin
6 A :=&a;
7 B :=&b;
8 C :=&c;
9 if ( A > B) and (A >C) then
10 dbms_output.put_line(' A IS BIG ');
11 else if ( B > A) and (B >C) then
Prepared By:
Ms. M. V. Upasani
Lecturer
Computer Technology
K.K. Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

12 dbms_output.put_line(' B IS BIG ');

13 else
14 dbms_output.put_line(' C IS BIG ');
15 end if;
16 end if;
17 end;
17 /

OUTPUT
Enter value for a: 20
Enter value for b: 30
Enter value for c: 40
C IS BIG
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

2) Iterative Control
 Iterative control Statements are used when we want to repeat the execution of one or
more statements for specified number of times.
1) LOOP
2) WHILE LOOP
3) FOR LOOP

1. LOOP
 A Simple Loop is used when a set of statements is to be executed at least once before the
loop terminates.
 An EXIT condition must be specified in the loop, When the EXIT condition is satisfied
the process exits from the loop.
Syntax :
LOOP
statements;
EXIT WHEN condition;
END LOOP;

Prepared By:
Ms. M. V. Upasani
Lecturer
Computer Technology
K.K. Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

FLOWCHART OF LOOP

1. Program to print numbers from 1 to 5.

SQL> declare
2 i number:=1;
3 begin
4 loop
5 dbms_output.put_line(i);
6 i:=i+1;
7 EXIT WHEN i >5;
8 END LOOP;
9 end;
10 /
OUTPUT
1
2
3
4
5
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Prepared By:
Ms. M. V. Upasani
Lecturer
Computer Technology
K.K. Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

2. Program to print numbers from 20 to 15 in reversed order.

SQL> declare
2 i number(10):=20;
3 begin
4 loop
5 dbms_output.put_line(i);
6 i:=i-1;
7 exit when i<15;
8 end loop;
9 end;
10 /
OUTPUT
20
19
18
17
16
15

3. Program to print even numbers from 1 to 10.

SQL> declare
2 i number:=1;
3 begin
4 loop
5 if (mod(i,2)=0) then
6 dbms_output.put_line(i);
7 else
8 null;
9 end if;
10 i:=i+1;
11 exit when i>10;
12 end loop;
13 end;
14 /

OUTPUT
2
4
6
8
10
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed
Prepared By:
Ms. M. V. Upasani
Lecturer
Computer Technology
K.K. Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

2. While Loop
 A WHILE LOOP is used when a set of statements has to be executed as long as a
condition is true.
 The condition is evaluated at the beginning of each iteration. The iteration continues
until the condition becomes false
Syntax:
WHILE <condition> LOOP
statements;
END LOOP;

FLOWCHART FOR WHILE LOOP

1. Program to print numbers from 1 to 5

SQL> declare
2 a number :=1;
3 begin
4 while a <= 5 loop
5 dbms_output.put_line(a);
6 a:=a+1;
7 end loop;
8 end;
9 /

Prepared By:
Ms. M. V. Upasani
Lecturer
Computer Technology
K.K. Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

OUTPUT
1
2
3
4
5
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

2. Program to find the factorial of a number

SQL> declare
2 i number(10):=1;
3 fact number:=1;
4 num number(10);
5 begin
6 num:=&num;
7 while (i<=num) loop
8 fact:=fact*i;
9 i:=i+1;
10 end loop;
11 dbms_output.put_line(fact);
12 end;
13 /

OUTPUT
Enter value for num: 5
old 6: num:=&num;
new 6: num:=5;
120
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

3. For Loop
 A FOR LOOP is used to execute a set of statements for a predetermined number of
times.
 Iteration occurs between the start and end integer values given.
Syntax:
FOR counter IN [reverse] val1..val2 LOOP
statements;
END LOOP;
val1 - Start integer value.
val2 - End integer value.
Prepared By:
Ms. M. V. Upasani
Lecturer
Computer Technology
K.K. Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

FLOWCHART of FOR LOOP

1. Program to print numbers from 1 to 5

SQL> declare
2 a number :=1;
3 begin
4 for a in 1..5 loop
5 dbms_output.put_line(a);
6 end loop;
7 end;
8 /

OUTPUT
1
2
3
4
5
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Prepared By:
Ms. M. V. Upasani
Lecturer
Computer Technology
K.K. Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

2. Program to print sum of numbers from 1 to 10.

SQL> declare
2 i number(10);
3 ans number(20):=0;
4 begin
5 for i in 1..10 loop
6 ans:= ans + i;
7 end loop;
8 dbms_output.put_line(ans);
9 end;
10 /

OUTPUT
55
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

3. Program to print numbers from 1 to 10 in reversed order.

SQL> declare
2 i number(10);
3 begin
4 for i in reverse 1..10 loop
5 dbms_output.put_line(i);
6 end loop;
7 end;
8 /

OUTPUT
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

Prepared By:
Ms. M. V. Upasani
Lecturer
Computer Technology
K.K. Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

3)Sequential Control
 The Goto to statement immediately transfer Program control unconditionally ( Without
checking Conditon ) to Label( Jump Location) Statement .
 Goto to statement can not Branch into IF Statement, Loop statement.
 Changes the flow of control within the block.
 Entry point is marked using tag:
<<userdefined name>
 GOTO Statement is used to jump to this label.
Syntax:
Begin
Statements;
GOTO Lablel_1;
Statements;
<<Lablel_1>>
Statements;
END;

Write a program to print the numbers 1 to 5 , and then print ,message as number is 5 label
is displayed
SQL> declare
2 i number;
3 begin
4 for i in 1..10 loop
5 dbms_output.put_line(i);
6 if (i=5) then
7 goto label1;
8 else
9 null;
10 end if;
11 end loop;
12 <<label1>>
13 dbms_output.put_line('As i=5, label1 is displayed');
14 end;
15 /
OUTPUT
1
2
3
4
5
As i=5, label1 is displayed
Prepared By:
Ms. M. V. Upasani
Lecturer
Computer Technology
K.K. Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

EXCEPTION HANDLING

 Exception is nothing but an error.

 When the system throws a warning or has an error it can lead to an exception.
 Such exception needs to be handled and can be defined internally or user defined.
 The Exception section start with the keyword „EXCEPTION‟ and it is optional.
 Any ERROR in the program are handled in this section.
Syntax:
DECLARE
Declaration section
Begin
Executable statement;
EXCEPTION
WHEN ex_name1 THEN
-Error handling statements/user defined action to be carried out;
END;
Types of Exception
1) Predefined Exception Or System Defined Exceptions
2) User Defined Exception

1) Predefined Exception Or System Defined Exceptions

 System exception are automatically raised by Oracle, when a Program violates a RDBMS
rules.
 The most common errors that can occurs during the execution of PL/SQL i.e. no data
found, zero divide and too many rows etc.

Prepared By:
Ms. M. V. Upasani
Lecturer
Computer Technology
K.K. Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

1. ZERO_DIVIDE Exception
 The ZERO_DIVIDE Exception (ORA-01476) occurs when a program attempts to
divide a number by zero

Handling of Zero Divide Exception

SQL> declare
2 a number;
3 b number;
4 c number;
5 begin
6 a:=&a;
7 b:=&b;
8 c:= a/b;
9 dbms_output.put_line(c);
10 exception
11 when zero_divide then
12 dbms_output.put_line('divisor is zero');
13 end;
14 /

OUTPUT
Enter value for a: 6
old 6: a:=&a;
new 6: a:=6;
Enter value for b: 0
old 7: b:=&b;
new 7: b:=0;
divisor is zero
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Prepared By:
Ms. M. V. Upasani
Lecturer
Computer Technology
K.K. Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

Table ‘course’ for demonstration of further examples.

CID SUB DU48RATION SID

C001 RDM 48 1
C002 VB 45 2
C003 DSU 34 3
C004 PIC 40 4

2. NO_DATA_FOUND Exception
 It is raised when a SELECT INTO statement returns no rows.
Handling NO_DATA_FOUND exception.
SQL> declare
2 c_id course.cid%type;
3 begin
4 select cid into c_id from course where sub='VBS';
5 Exception
6 when NO_DATA_FOUND then
7dbms_output.put_line(' Data is No Found by Select Query');
8 end;
9 /
OUTPUT
Data is No Found by Select Query
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

3. TOO_MANY_ROWS Exception
 It is raised when s SELECT INTO statement returns more than one row.
Handling TOO_MANY_ROWS exception.
SQL> declare
2 c_id course.cid%type;
3 begin
4 select cid into c_id from course;
5 exception
6 when TOO_MANY_ROWS then
7 dbms_output.put_line(' Many Rows are Fetched.... ');
8 end;
9 /
OUTPUT
Many Rows are Fetched....
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Prepared By:
Ms. M. V. Upasani
Lecturer
Computer Technology
K.K. Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

USER DEFINED EXCEPTIONS

 A user Define exception has to be defined by the Programmer.
 User Define exception is declared in the Declaration section with their type as
 Two Method to Define user define Exception .
1. Raise
2. RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR

Syntax:
DECLARE
<exception_name> exception ;
BEGIN
<SQL Sentences>;
if <condition> Then
Raise <exception_name>
End if;
EXCEPTION
WHEN <exception_name> THEN
-Error handling statements/user defined action to be carried out;
END;

E.g. Program to Check the Duration if it is Less than 40 then raise user defined
exception

SQL> declare
2 my_exe Exception;
3 D1 course.duration%type;
4 begin
5 select duration into d1 from course where sid=3;
6 if d1 <40 then
7 raise my_exe;
8 end if;
9 exception
10 when my_exe then
11 dbms_output.put_line(' Duration is less than 40');
12 end;
13 /
OUTPUT
Duration is less than 40
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Prepared By:
Ms. M. V. Upasani
Lecturer
Computer Technology
K.K. Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR
 To display your own error message one can use the bulit in
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR.
 Use negative number between -20000 to -20999 for the Error_number and the error
message should not exceed 512 character.
Syntax :
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR( error_number,’error message‟);

Example- IF data is not found for SID=6 then use Raise_application_error to Display
message
SQL >declare
1 dur course.duration%type;
2 begin
3 select duration into dur from course where sid=6;
4 Exception
5 when NO_DATA_FOUND then
6 Raise_application_error(-20100,'NO Data Found');
7 end;
8/
Output:
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-20100: NO Data Found
ORA-06512: at line 6
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Example- IF divisor is zero then use Raise_application_error to Display message .

SQL> declare
b number;
begin
b:= 5/0;
exception
when zero_divide then
raise_application_error(-20202,'divisor is zero');
end;
/

ERROR at line 1:
ORA-20202: divisor is zero
ORA-06512: at line 4
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Prepared By:
Ms. M. V. Upasani
Lecturer
Computer Technology
K.K. Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

CURSORS

 PL/SQL Cursor is Pointer that Points the results set of the SQL Query Against
database Table
 Cursor is a temporary work area created in the system memory when SQL statement
is executed.
 It is used to store the data retrieved from the database and manipulate this data.
 The data stored in the cursor is called as Active Data Set.
 A cursor can hold more than one row but can process only one row at a time.
 Cursor is used with select Statement and store result.

Types of Cursor.
1)Implicit
2) Explicit

1) Implicit Curcors
 Implicit cursors are created for every query made in Oracle Like Delete ,Update, Insert
,Select etc .
 When we write command ,we use implicit cursors.
 They are system generated cursors.
 Oracle will perform the open, fetches, and close for you automatically.
 Implicit cursors are used in statements that return only one row.
o The most recently opened cursor is called the “SQL%” Cursor.

ATTRIBUTES OF IMPLICIT CURSOR

Attribute Description Format

%FOUND If SELECT statement return one or more rows or DML SQL%FOUND

statement (INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE) affect one or
more rows . IT return TRUE otherwise return FALSE.

%NOTFOUND No rows found then Return TRUE Else Return SQL%NOTFOUND

False .
%ISOPEN Oracle engine automatically open the cursor SQL%ISOPEN
If cursor open return TRUE otherwise return FALSE.
%ROWCOUNT Count the Row Affected by DML operations SQL%ROWCOUNT

Prepared By:
Ms. M. V. Upasani
Lecturer
Computer Technology
K.K. Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

Consider table student1;

NO NAME MARKS
---------- -------------------- ----------
1 akash 85
2 nikita 65
3 puja 75
4 nisha 35

1. Count the No of Row Deleted from table using rowcount.

SQL> begin
2 delete from student1 where name='puja';
3 dbms_output.put_line('Number of rows deleted:='||sql%rowcount);
4 end;
5 /
Number of rows deleted:=1
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

2. Implicit cursors with update statement

SQL> begin
2 update student1 set marks=55 where no=4;
3 dbms_output.put_line('Number of rows updated:='||sql%rowcount);
4 end;
5 /
Number of rows updated:=1
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

3. Use of sql%found and sql%notfound attribute

SQL> declare
2 rowcnt number(11);
3 begin
4 update student1 set marks=marks+1;
5 if (sql%found) then
6 rowcnt:=sql%rowcount;
7 dbms_output.put_line('Number of rows updated:='||rowcnt);
8 else if (sql%notfound) then
9 dbms_output.put_line('no rows updated');
10 end if;
11 end if;
12 end;
13 /
Number of rows updated:=4
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
Prepared By:
Ms. M. V. Upasani
Lecturer
Computer Technology
K.K. Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

2) Explicit Cursor.
 Cursors can be declared by a programmer within PL/SQL
 They must be created when you are executing a SELECT statement that returns more
than one row.
 Even though the cursor stores multiple records, only one record can be processed at a
time, which is called as current row.
 When you fetch a row the current row position moves to next row.
 Cursor Is First Declared then Open, Once the Cursor open Fetch Data From Cursor,
Finally Close the Cursor.

Steps for Creating Explicit Cursors

1) Declare Cursor
 Defines name and structure of cursor.
Syntax:
Cursor <cursor_name> IS Select statement ;
Example:
Cursor c1 is select name,marks from student1;

2) Open
Syntax:
Open <Cursor_name>;
Example:
open c1;

3) Fetch Data from cursor

Syntax:
fetch <Cursor_name>into <Variable_name>;
Example:
fetch c1 into var1;

4) Close
Syntax:
close <Cursor_name>;
Example:
close c1;

Prepared By:
Ms. M. V. Upasani
Lecturer
Computer Technology
K.K. Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

General Syntax :
declare
Variable Declaration;
cursor <name_cursor> IS select statement ;
begin
open <name_cursor>;
fetch <name_cursor > into <Variable_name>;
Close <name_cursor>
end;
/
Consider table student1;
NO NAME MARKS
---------- -------------------- ----------
1 akash 85
2 nikita 65
3 puja 75
4 nisha 35

1) Display name and marks from student1 table using cursors

SQL> declare
2 cursor cs1 is select name,marks from student1;
3 info cs1%rowtype;
4 begin
5 open cs1;
6 loop
7 fetch cs1 into info;
8 exit when cs1%notfound;
9 dbms_output.put_line(info.name || info.marks);
10 end loop;
11 close cs1;
12 end;
13 /
akash 85
nikita 65
puja 75
nisha 35
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Prepared By:
Ms. M. V. Upasani
Lecturer
Computer Technology
K.K. Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

PROCEDURE
 A procedure is named PL/SQL block perform one or more specific task .
 Procedure consist of Header and Body .
Header – Contain name of Procedure and Parameter Passed to it.
Body - Contain Declaration ,Execution, Exception section Same AS PL/SQL

Syntax :
Create OR Replace Procedure < name_Procedure>
[ Parameter name [IN | OUT | IN OUT] Data_type ]
[ IS | AS ]
Variable declaration;
Constant declarations;
Begin
Pl/sql subprogram;
END < name_Procedure> ;

Passing Parameter to Procedure by Following Way :

1) IN - This Parameter are used to send the Value to Procedure .
2) Out - This Parameter are used to Get the Value From Procedure .
3) IN OUT - This Parameter are used to get and send the Value to Procedure if IN and OUT
data type is same

Prepared By:
Ms. M. V. Upasani
Lecturer
Computer Technology
K.K. Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

1) Write a program to insert the record into table through procedure

SQL> create or replace procedure ins21(no1 in number,name1 in varchar2,marks1 in number) as
2 begin
3 insert into student1 values(no1,name1,marks1);
4 dbms_output.put_line(„record inserted‟);
5 end ins21;
6 /
Procedure created.

Calling of procedure
SQL> exec ins21(12,'punam',75);
record inserted
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed

2) Write a program to delete the record from table through procedure

SQL> create or replace procedure select3(name1 in varchar) as

2 begin
3 delete from student1 where name=name1;
4 end select3;
5 /
Procedure created.

Calling of procedure
SQL> exec select3('puja');
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed

3) Write PL/SQL procedure to calculate factorial of a given number.

SQL> create or replace procedure Factorial(n in number)
is
v number :=1;
begin
for i in 1..n
loop
v :=v * i;
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line(v);
end;
Procedure created

Execution of procedure

SQL> Begin
Factorial(5);
End;
Prepared By:
Ms. M. V. Upasani
Lecturer
Computer Technology
K.K. Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

Deleteting a Proceduer
 To delete Procedure use Following Command
DROP Procedure <Procedure_name>;

FUNCTION
 Function is named PL/SQL Block that accept the value and Return only one value .
 It is used for code reusability.
Syntax:
create or replace function <Function_name>(Parameter in Data type )
return Data Type
[IS | AS]
Variable declaration;
Constant declarations;
Begin
Pl/sql subprogram;
return Value ;
end <Funcation_name >;

1) Write a program to Find Square of a number using function in PL/SQL

SQL> create or replace function sqr( no in number ) return number

2 AS
3 begin
4 return no*no;
5 end sqr;
6 /
Function created.
Calling of function through program

SQL> declare
2 val1 number;
3 begin
4 val1 :=&val1;
5 dbms_output.put_line(„Square‟ || sqr(val1));
6 end;
7 /
Enter value for val1: 4
Square 16
Prepared By:
Ms. M. V. Upasani
Lecturer
Computer Technology
K.K. Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

2) Write a program area of circle using function in PL/SQL

SQL> create or replace function area20(r1 in number) return number as

2 pi number :=3.14;
3 area number(10);
4 begin
5 area:=pi*r1*r1;
6 return area;
7 end area20;
8 /
Function created.
Calling of function through program
SQL> declare
2 a number(10);
3 begin
4 a:=area20(2);
5 dbms_output.put_line('area is'||a);
6 end;
7 /
area is13
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

3) Write a program for addition of two numbers using function in PL/SQL

SQL> create or replace function add1(a in number,b in number) return number as

2 c number(10);
3 begin
4 c:=a+b;
5 return c;
6 end add1;
7 /
Function created.
Calling of function through program
SQL> declare
2 result number(20);
3 begin
4 result:=add1(10,30);
5 dbms_output.put_line('addition is'||result);
6 end;
7 /
Prepared By:
Ms. M. V. Upasani
Lecturer
Computer Technology
K.K. Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

addition is 40
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

4) Write a function which will count the number of rows deleted

SQL> create or replace function del(name1 in varchar2)return number as
2 no number(10);
3 begin
4 delete from mp1 where name=name1;
5 no:=sql%rowcount;
6 return no;
7 end del;
8 /
Function created.
Calling of function through program
SQL> declare
2 a number;
3 begin
4 a:=del(„manas');
5 dbms_output.put_line(„number of rows deleted :‟||a);
6 end;
7 /
number of rows deleted :1
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Difference between procedures and functions

Functions Procedures
A function must return a value back to caller. Procedure may or may not be return the value.

A function return only one value to the By defining the OUT parameters multiple values
calling PL/SQL block can be passed to the procedure.

Will compiled at run time Stored in database in compiled format.

ADVANTAGES OF USING A PROCEDURE AND FUNCTION

Advantages of Function:
1. Code reusability feature can be used.
2. It saves time and cost.
3. Increases flexibility of the program.
4. Memory space required is less.
Prepared By:
Ms. M. V. Upasani
Lecturer
Computer Technology
K.K. Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

5. It can return value to the calling program.

Advantages of Procedure:
1. Security: Procedures offer more security.
2. Productivity: Avoids redundant code for common procedures in multiple applications.
3. Memory savings: Requires only one copy of the code for multiple users.
4. Performance: Precompiled code hence no compilation is required to execute a code.
5. Integrity and accuracy: As procedure is needed to be tested only once hence guarantee of
accurate result.

DATABASE TRIGGER

 Database Trigger is PL/SQL Block that is executed on an Event in the Database.

 It is fired when DML statement like insert,update,delete executed.
 Event - Data Manipulation of a Table such as Inserting, Deleting or Updating a Row of
Table.
 Trigger is automatically fire (executed) before or after an INSERT, DELETE, and
UPDATE etc.

Types of PL/SQL Triggers

There are two types of triggers based on the which level it is triggered.

1) Row level trigger - An event is triggered for each row upated, inserted or deleted.
2) Statement level trigger - An event is triggered for each sql statement executed.

Syntax for Creating a Trigger

CREATE [OR REPLACE ] TRIGGER <trigger_name >
{ BEFORE | AFTER}
{ INSERT [OR] | UPDATE [OR] | DELETE }
[OF col_name]
ON <table_name >
[FOR EACH ROW]
WHEN (condition)
BEGIN
--- sql statements
END;
/

Prepared By:
Ms. M. V. Upasani
Lecturer
Computer Technology
K.K. Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

 CREATE [OR REPLACE ] TRIGGER trigger_name - This clause creates a trigger

with the given name or overwrites an existing trigger with the same name.
 {BEFORE | AFTER } - This clause indicates at what time should the trigger get fired.
i.e for example : before(validation purpose) or after updating a table.
 {INSERT [OR] | UPDATE [OR] | DELETE} - This clause determines the triggering
event. More than one triggering events can be used together separated by OR keyword.
 [OF col_name] - This clause is used when you want to trigger an event only when a
specific column is updated.
 [ON table_name] - This clause identifies the name of the table to which the trigger is
associated.
 [FOR EACH ROW] - This clause is used to determine whether a trigger must fire when
each row gets affected ( i.e. a Row Level Trigger)
 WHEN (condition) - This clause is valid only for row level triggers. The trigger is fired
only for rows that satisfy the condition specified.

1. Write a program which display pass or fail after insert, update of new marks
into student table using trigger
SQL> create trigger studtrigger
2 after insert or update on student1
3 for each row
4 begin
5 if(:new.marks<40) then
6 dbms_output.put_line('fail');
7 else
8 dbms_output.put_line('pass');
9 end if;
10 end;
11 /
Trigger created

SQL> insert into student1 values(10,'neha',30);

fail
1 row created.

SQL> insert into student1 values(10,'neeta',80);

pass
1 row created.

SQL> update student1 set marks=46 where marks=20;

pass

Prepared By:
Ms. M. V. Upasani
Lecturer
Computer Technology
K.K. Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

EXAMPLE:
The price of a product changes constantly. It is important to maintain the history of the prices of
the products.
So we can create a trigger to Maintain the price history into 'product_price_history' table
when the price of the product is updated in the 'product' table.

1) Create 'product' table in which new value is update

CREATE TABLE product
(product_id number(5), product_name varchar2(32), supplier_name varchar2(32),
unit_price number(7,2) );

2) Create the 'product_price_history' table which maintain the history of Price from
‘Product ‘ table ......
CREATE TABLE product_price_history (product_id number(5), product_name varchar2(32),
supplier_name varchar2 (32), unit_price number(7,2) );

3.Create the price_history_trigger and execute it.

CREATE or REPLACE TRIGGER price_history_trigger
BEFORE UPDATE OF unit_price
ON product
FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN
INSERT INTO product_price_history
VALUES
(:old.product_id,
:old.product_name,
:old.supplier_name,
:old.Unit_price);
END;
/ <- Used to execute the Trigger

Prepared By:
Ms. M. V. Upasani
Lecturer
Computer Technology
K.K. Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

4.Lets update the price of a product.

UPDATE PRODUCT SET unit_price = 25 WHERE product_id = 1;
Once the above update query is executed, the trigger fires automatically and updates the
'product_price_history' table.

Use of database triggers

1. Triggers can be used to prevent invalid transaction and to apply complex security
authorization.
2. It can be used to various integrity constraint.
3. It can be used to check data modifications.

Comparison of procedures and triggers

Database Trigger Procedure

Triggers are fired when particular SQL Procedures are executed when they are
command(DML) is executed called
Triggers have event and actions Procedures do not have event and
actions
Triggers are called implicitly Procedures are called explicitly

Remove the Trigger

SQL> Drop Trigger <Trigger_name>;
Example
SQL> DROP TRIGGER studtrigger ;
Trigger dropped.

Prepared By:
Ms. M. V. Upasani
Lecturer
Computer Technology
K.K. Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

LOCKS

 Lock are mechanism used to ensure data integrity while allowing maximum concurrent
access to data.
 DML locks help to prevent damage caused by interference from simultaneous conflicting
DML or DDL operations.

Levels of lock:
1) Row level Lock
 In this type of Lock Particular Row is Locked.
 Row-level locks serve a primary function to prevent multiple transactions from
modifying the same row.
 With row level locking only one row on the page is locked, the other rows are accessible.

2) Table level Lock

 In this type of lock complete table is locked
 It Prevent concurrent users from making schema changes (DDL operations)
simultaneously or while records within the table are being changed.
 For example, if you are updating a customer's home phone number, you do not want
another user to drop the telephone number column at the same time. If the other user was
allowed to drop the telephone number column before you were finished, your transaction
would try to write an updated telephone number to a column that no longer exists, thus
resulting in data corruption.

3) Page level lock

 When where clause is executed for some set of rows in a same page.
 With page level locking the whole page, and therefore all rows on that page, is locked
when a data row on the page is accessed.

Types Of Lock ( Shared and Exclusive )

1) Exclusive Lock
 Exclusive locks avoid the resource from being shared. Exclusive lock mode is
used to modify the data. Using exclusive lock single transaction at a time.
 Placed on a resource when write (insert, update, delete) operation is performed.
 There can be ONLY ONE EXCLUSIVE LOCK at a time
Syntax:
lock table <table_name> in exclusive mode;
Example:
lock table student in exclusive mode;

Prepared By:
Ms. M. V. Upasani
Lecturer
Computer Technology
K.K. Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

2) Shared Lock
 Shared lock allows the resource to be shared.
 This sharing of resource depends on the operations that are involved.
 Many users at a time can read the data. Share locks are used to avoid concurrent access
to the writers.

 There can MULTIPLE SHARED LOCK at a time

Syntax:
lock table <table_name> in share mode;
Example:
lock table student in share mode;

LOCKING STRATEGY
There are Two types of LOCKING Strategy :
1) Implicit Locking
2) Explicit Locking

1) Implicit Locking :
 Oracle locking is fully automatic does not require user involvement .
 Oracle Automatically lock table data while executing SQL statement .This type of
locking called Implicit Lock
 Oracle Automatically lock the rows whenever user performs DML operation such as
INSERT ,UPDATE,DELETE .

2) Explicit Lock :
 In this technique of lock on a table or its resources is given by a user is that‟s why it is
explicit Locking.
 It‟s provided by user.
.

Question Bank:
1. Define cursor. List any two types of cursor. [2M] [Definition 1M, Types 1M]
2. Explain cursor with example. [4M] [4M explanation]
3. Which statement is used in PL/SQL to display the output? [2M] [2M Explanation]
4. Draw and explain in brief PL/SQL block. [4M] [ 2M Diagram,2M explanation]
5. Describe shared and exclusive lock in detail. [4M] [2M each]
6. What is database trigger? Compare database trigger and procedure and explain the use of
database trigger. [4M] [2M Explanation, 1M comparison, 1M use]
7. Explain following with syntax : a) Function b) Procedure [4M] [ 2M each]
8. Write PL/SQL program to display largest of 3 numbers. [4M] [4M Program]
9. Explain conditional control of PL/SQL. [4M]
10. Explain for loop in PL/SQL with Example. [4M] [2M explanation,2M Example]

Prepared By:
Ms. M. V. Upasani
Lecturer
Computer Technology
K.K. Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

11. Explain loop in PL/SQL with Example. [4M] [2M explanation,2M Example]
12. Explain while loop in PL/SQL with Example. [4M] [2M explanation,2M Example]
13. Explain sequential control of PL/SQL. [4M]
14. Write PL/SQL program to display largest of 2 numbers. [4M] [4M Program]
15. What are exceptions? Explain its types. [4M] [2M explanation,2M Types]
16. What are cursors? Explain its types. [4M] [2M explanation,2M Types]
17. Write PL/SQL program to print the numbers from 1 to 15 using for loop. [4M]
[4M Program]
18. Explain triggers with the example. [4M] [2M explanation,2M Example]
19. What is trigger? List its types. (Definition - 1 Mark, Types -1Mark)
20. How to create triggers? State any two advantages of triggers. [4M] [2M explanation,2M
advantages]
21. Write PL/SQL program which handle zero_divide exception. [4M] [4M Program]
22. Write PL/SQL program which handle no_data_found exception and too_many_rows
exception. [4M] [2M each]
23. What is user defined exception? Write PL/SQL program which handle any user defined
exception [4M] [2M Explanation,2M Program]
24. What are the advantages of PL/SQL? [4M] [1M each]
25. What are the data types in PL/SQL? [4M] [1M each]
26. Write PL/SQL program and procedure to calculate factorial of the given number. [4M]
[4M Program]
27. Differentiate between function and procedure. [4M] [2M each]
28. What are various control structures statements used in PL/SQL. [4M] [1M each]
29. Write step by step syntax to create, open and close cursor in PL/SQL block. [4M]
[1M each]
30. List two advantages of each of following: a) functions b)procedures [4M] [2M each]
31. Write PL/SQL program to display square of any number. [4M] [4M Program]
32. Write PL/SQL program to display print even and odd number from given range.(Accept
range from user) [4M] [4M Program]
33. Write and explain the syntax of creating trigger. [4M] [2M each]
34. What is lock? Explain types of lock . [4M] [2M each]
35. Explain Locking strategy-Implicit &Explicit. [4M] [2M each].

Prepared By:
Ms. M. V. Upasani
Lecturer
Computer Technology