Zeng et al. Chin. J. Mech. Eng.

(2018) 31:77
https://doi.org/10.1186/s10033-018-0269-7 Chinese Journal of Mechanical
Engineering

REVIEW Open Access

Overview of Rubik’s Cube and Reflections

on Its Application in Mechanism
Da‑Xing Zeng, Ming Li, Juan‑Juan Wang, Yu‑Lei Hou, Wen‑Juan Lu and Zhen Huang*

Abstract 
Rubik’s Cube is a widely popular mechanical puzzle that has attracted attention around the world because of its
unique characteristics. As a classic brain-training toy well known to the public, Rubik’s Cube was used for scientific
research and technology development by many scholars. This paper provides a basic understanding of the Rubik’s
Cube and shows its mechanical art from the aspects of origin and development, characteristics, research status and
especially its mechanical engineering design, as well as making a vision for the application in mechanism. First, the
invention and origin of Rubik’s Cube are presented, and then the special characteristics of the cube itself are analyzed.
After that, the present researches of Rubik’s Cube are reviewed in various disciplines at home and abroad, including
the researches of Rubik’s Cube scientific metaphors, reduction algorithms, characteristic applications, and mechanism
issues. Finally, the applications and prospects of Rubik’s Cube in the field of mechanism are discussed.
Keywords:  Rubik’s Cube, Scientific research, Mechanical art, Application and prospects

1 Introduction symmetry, which were treated as physical models or tools

Rubik’s Cube is a 3D combination puzzle invented in to study specific scientific issues or were studied by using
1974 by Hungarian sculptor and professor of architec- scientific theory or methods in some areas. All in all, the
ture Ernő Rubik [1] and was originally called the Magic principles of Rubik’s Cube are contained in numerous
Cube [2, 3]. This invention caused the widespread inter- scientific systems that involve permutations and combi-
est in the world owing to its unique characteristics, which nations, symmetries, and cyclicality. On the other hand,
exerted a profound impact on mankind. Rubik’s Cube is scholars began to explore the inner movement principles
listed as one of the 100 most influential inventions during of the Rubik’s Cube structure. The application prospects
the 20th century [4]. Additionally, it is widely considered of Rubik’s Cube have been discussed according to its
to be the world’s best-selling toy [5]. It won a German rotation characteristics.
Game of the Year special award [6] and won similar
awards for best toy in the UK, France, and the US. [7]. 2 Origin and Development of Rubik’s Cube
Although the Rubik’s Cube reached its height of main- The concept of Rubik’s Cube originated from the China
stream popularity in the 1980s, it is still widely known Luo Book [12], which can be simplified into a Jiugong
and used. It not only attracts Rubik’s Cube enthusiasts map, as shown in Figure 1.
conducting research into Rubik’s Cube reduction algo- Jiugong map is a zero-dimensional third-order cube.
rithms [8–10] but also draws the attention of scientists The n-order magic square is a certain configuration
and technical workers from various walks of life for its formed by a combination of numbers 1, 2, 3, …, n2 in an
sophisticated design and ideas [11]. On the one hand, n-order square, which makes the sum of the numbers in
the Rubik’s Cube structure has several features such as each row, column, and two diagonal lines n(n2 + 1)/2 .
rotation, permutation and combinations, and cycle and This is called a magic square constant. The magic square
constant of a third-order cube is 15 [13].
Rearrange Jiugong is a one-dimensional third-order
*Correspondence: [email protected] cube and is a game developed from the Jiugong map
School of Mechanical Engineering, Yanshan University, approximately during the Chinese Yuan Dynasty. This
Qinhuangdao 066004, China

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Zeng et al. Chin. J. Mech. Eng. (2018) 31:77 Page 2 of 12

4 9 2

3 5 7

8 1 6

Figure 1  Jiugong map Figure 3  Early Rubik’s Cube

game places eight movable pieces in the nine places in

the board by moving the pieces to create another pattern Figure 4. It can be seen that the shape of Rubik’s Cube
in order to complete the pattern change of Rearrange can be redesigned without affecting the rotation of the
Jiugong. cube structure.
Rearrange Jiugong spread to the west, and Sam Loyd A variety of modified cubes have been designed to
invented the 15 chess on its basis. The principle of 15 expand the cube family after Rubik’s Cube was invented
chess (to move the pieces to achieve pattern changes) [14]. Generally, the magic cube can be divided into two
is the same as that of Rearrange Jiugong. However, the categories: cubic cube and specially shaped cube. A
order of 15 chess is a four-order cube that is one order cubic cube refers to a cube in a box structure that is not
higher than Rearrange Jiugong. changed, but the cube’s order increases. There are dif-
After that, the development of the cube shifted from ferent variations of Rubik’s Cubes with up to 33 layers,
the order to the dimension. In the Qing Dynasty, Chi- with 2 × 2 × 2 (Pocket/Mini Cube), standard 3 × 3 × 3
nese scholars put forward the thought of using digital cube, 4 × 4 × 4 (Rubik’s Revenge/Master Cube), and
pieces of three-dimensional magic squares. In fact, this 5 × 5 × 5 (Professor’s Cube) the most well known. The
was a three-dimensional second-order cube prototype, as 17 × 17 × 17 “Over the Top” cube (available late 2011)
shown in Figure 2. was until December 2017 the largest (and most expen-
The three-dimensional magic square did not have a sive, costing more than US $2,000) commercially sold
rotational characteristic until Rubik designed a rotatable cube. A working design for a 22 × 22 × 22 cube exists
mechanics cube in 1974. Japanese Stonefur completed and was demonstrated in January 2016 [15], and a
the same design alone in 1976. The principle of moving 33 × 33 × 33 cube was introduced in December 2017
the pieces to achieve pattern changes is similar to Rear- [16]. Chinese manufacturer ShengShou has been pro-
range Jiugong, through moving pieces to achieve overall ducing cubes in all sizes from 2 × 2 × 2 to 10 × 10 × 10
changes. The core principle is that the movement path of (as of late 2013) [17], and also produced an 11 × 11 × 11
a piece is constrained by other pieces that are in contact model. Figure 5 lists six cases of the cube.
with the one. The specially shaped cube refers to the cube family
Rubik made the first three-order cube in the world, besides the cubic cube. The structural shape of specially
which looks like a sphere and is operated by constraints shaped cube is diverse, including polyhedron cubes,
between the components to achieve a particular rota- sphere cube, tetrahedron cube, mirror cube, gear cube,
tion. This is shown in Figure 3. Initially, taking security cake cube, and so on. Figure 6 lists six cases of specially
issues into account, the eight vertices of the cube were shaped cubes.
cut a bit. Later, it was changed into sharp corners and As early as 1959, a second-order cube whose rotation
became a cubic shape because its vertex did not affect relies on magnetism was invented. However, this cube
the appearance and the production process became is less popular than Rubik’s Cube, whose rotation relies
simpler. Today’s common third-order cube is shown in on mechanical in the later. On the one hand, the cube’s
cost is too high owing to its magnetic structure and
prevailing market economy factors. On the other hand,
the second-order cube is difficult to restore. Next,
3 5
3 5
Rubik invented the third-order cube, which has a com-
6 4 pact structure, clever design, and low cost, thus over-
4 5
6 coming the congenital deficiencies of the second-order
6 4 4
8 2 magnetic cube. In short, the special mechanical struc-
2
ture inside is the key to the Rubik’s Cube’s ingenuity.
1 7 7
1 7

Figure 2  Three-dimensional magic square

Zeng et al. Chin. J. Mech. Eng. (2018) 31:77 Page 3 of 12

3 Characteristics of Rubik’s Cube

3.1 Structural Rotational Characteristic
The structure of the Rubik’s Cube mechanism is the
most wonderful aspect of the Cube. At first, it seems
completely impossible for the Cube to work. Very few
people proposed a possible mechanism, and very few
Figure 4  Current Rubik’s Cube of these were practical. Later, many mechanisms of
Rubik’s Cube were based on mortise and tenon connec-
tions between pieces, as shown in Figure 7.
Rubik’s mechanism has connections as shown in
Figure  7 (c), which greatly simplify the shapes of the
pieces. The mortise and tenon methods can be used so
that the 26 exterior pieces of the Cube are held together
with no central piece at all. This connection is difficult
to make with sufficient accuracy so that the faces will
a Mini Cube b Rubik’s Revenge turn easily [18].
In Figure 8, the standard 3 × 3 × 3 cube consists of 26
unique miniature cubes, also called “pieces” or “cube-
lets” including a center shaft frame, 6 center pieces, 8
corner pieces, and 12 edge pieces. The various types of
c V-cube d 11-layer Rubik’s Cube pieces of Rubik’s Cube are shown in Figure  9. Each of
these includes a concealed inward extension that inter-
locks with the other pieces while permitting them to
move to different locations.
Figure 10 shows that the center piece can be split into
two parts. The center piece and the center shaft frame
are connected by spring-loaded screws, which are
shown in Figure 11.
e Pillow 13×13×13 IQ Brick f 17-layer Rubik’s Cube
Figure  12 introduces the process of assembling dif-
Figure 5  Models of Rubik’s Cube
ferent pieces one by one. The constraints on the edges
are formed by structural restrictions and the force lock-
ing of two adjacent centers. The constraints on the cor-
ner piece are formed by structural restrictions and the
force locking of three adjacent edges.
The contact modes between the centers and edges,
and the edges and corners, are shown in Figure 13. All
of them contact each other by a plane and a curved
surface.
a Polyhedron cube b Sphere cube The feet (inward extension) of corner pieces and edge
pieces are tightly hooked together. These form a chuck
that is similar to the clamping part of a machine, as
shown in Figure 14(a). On the one hand, nine small pieces
as shown in Figure 14(b) are tightly clamped so that they
cannot spread out. On the other hand, the Rubik’s Cube
layer can rotate around the shaft flexibly when force is
c Tetrahedron cube d Rubik’s Cube Mirror
applied.
The characteristic of Rubik’s Cube wherein small pieces
are joined together by a mutual mosaic is similar to the
Luban lock, which was invented based on the principle
of gossip metaphysics. The Luban lock is a traditional
Chinese intelligent toy. It originated from the skeletal
e Gear cube f Cake cube structures of Chinese ancient architecture. Its parts are
Figure 6  Specially shaped cubes held together by structural restriction without any nails
Zeng et al. Chin. J. Mech. Eng. (2018) 31:77 Page 4 of 12

or ropes. The relationship between different parts is

complicated.
Figure 15 introduces a ball Luban lock, which is assem-
bled by six wood can be fitted together. The six wooden
parts are shown in Figure 16. In the assembly, the wooden
parts are fastened together, leaving space for the insertion
Figure 7  Three kinds of mortise and tenon connections of Rubik’s of the rear components until the last part of the “keyhole”
Cube is placed. The entire Luban lock is firmly held together,
with the parts restraining each other and supporting
each other. The combined structure of the Rubik’s Cube
is derived from the squatting structure of the Luban lock.
Six cases of Luban lock structure are shown in Fig-
ure 17. The mortise and tenon structures are connected
by the joining method of concavo-convex treatment. This
shows the great creativity and achievements of ancients.
The stability of the mortise and tenon structure is
Figure 8  Rubik’s Cube affected by factors including the place of grooves, the
density of the patchwork, and the degree of trench-
ing tightness. The success of connecting a mortise and
tenon structure depends on how differently sized pieces
are placed together precisely. The entire lock will fall to
pieces when a wooden bar is removed. Both the Luban
lock and Rubik’s Cube use mosaic structures to achieve
overall stability. The difference between Rubik’s Cube and
a Center shaft frame b Center piece the Luban lock is that Rubik’s Cube can turn a layer by
exerting force on it, while the Luban lock cannot.

3.2 Permutation and Combination Characteristic

Combinatorics originated from the Eastern Luo book,
c Edge piece d Corner piece and the idea of permutation and combination was pro-
Figure 9  Unit structure of Rubik’s Cube posed to meet the need of human counts [13]. The
ancient Chinese eight diagrams, calendar of Heavenly
stems and Earthly branches, and some divination meth-
ods all contain the concepts of permutation and combi-
nation. Eight diagrams can describe the space coordinate
system of Rubik’s Cube, and correspond to the Cartesian
coordinate system one to one. These show that the rota-
tion transformation of Rubik’s Cube contains the ideas of
permutation and combination. Rubik’s Cube achieves the
desired state and all kinds of combinations of colors by
Figure 10  Disassembled center piece
rotating pieces.
The original (3 × 3 × 3) Rubik’s Cube has six faces. Ini-
tially, each face has the same color, and each face has nine
small outer surfaces. They are 54 outer surfaces in total.
Every side of Rubik’s Cube is composed of diversiform
color pieces after the random rotation of different sides
several times.
Figure 11  Spring-loaded screws The original (3 × 3 × 3) Rubik’s Cube has 8 corners and
12 edges. Corners can be arranged in 8! (40,320) ways,
and there are 3 ­7 (2187) possible orientations because
the orientation of the eighth (final) corner depends on
the preceding ones. Edges can be arranged by 12!/2
(239,500,800) ways, restricted from 12! because edges
Zeng et al. Chin. J. Mech. Eng. (2018) 31:77 Page 5 of 12

must be in an even permutation exactly when the corners

are. There are ­211 (2048) possibilities because 11 edges
can be flipped independently, with the flip of the 12th
depending on the preceding ones. The number of Rubik’s
Cube configuration species is about
8! × 37 × (12!/2) × 211 = 43252003274489856000
a Connection between six centers b Connection between two which is approximately 43 quintillion [19].
and center shaft frame centers and one edge The transformation among different configurations of
Rubik’s Cube can be used as a mode that uses the idea
of permutation and combinations to pursue the diver-
sity of answers. The characteristics of combination and
transformation inspire product design thinking, and have
practical application value especially in industrial prod-
uct modularization and structural design [20].
c Connection between three d Connection between three
centers and three edges edges and one corner
3.3 Cycle Characteristic
Figure 12  Assembly process of four types of pieces
Circulation is one of the basic characteristics of Rubik’s
Cube. If using an arbitrary operations sequence (rotation
sequence) to operate the cube cyclically, it will achieve
cycle status. The cycle characteristic of operation can be
divided into two categories: periodic and nonperiodic
[12].
Assuming that Rubik’s Cube is operated by certain
number operations and specified operations from the
a Contact mode between centers b Contact mode between edges original state back to the original state again, this means
and edges and corners the Rubik’s Cube achieves a cycle. The circulation period
Figure 13  Contact mode between different pieces is the number of times the Rubik’s Cube is rotated. If the
circulation period is a constant, the cycle is periodic. If
the circulation period is variable, the cycle is nonperi-
odic. The sequence of operations of a nonperiodic cycle is
based on both the sequence of periodic cyclic operations
and the “constant process” sequence of operations that
causes the cube’s pattern to exhibit a nonperiodic change.
The operation sequence of “constant process” refers to
the fact that all pieces can return to their original state
after this sequence of operations.
a Inner chuck form of Rubik’s b Inner structure of small pieces
Cube
Figure 14  Inner structure of Rubik’s Cube
4 Research Status of Rubik’s Cube
Following the successful invention of the first Rubik’s
Cube, a group of commercial cubes was made in Hun-
gary. Rubik’s Cube was rated as the best toy at the inter-
national fair in Nuremberg Germany in 1978, and its
inventor Rubik was awarded the “World’s Best Game
Invention Award.” Since then, the popularity of Rubik’s
Cube has spread around the world. At the same time, an
international mathematician representative conference
was held in Helsinki. Rubik’s Cube attracted great atten-
tion with the experts and researchers. After that, articles
and writings about Rubik’s Cube have been published
continuously, and the door to explore the mysteries of
Figure 15  Ball Luban lock after assembly
Rubik’s Cube was opened.
Zeng et al. Chin. J. Mech. Eng. (2018) 31:77 Page 6 of 12

Cube structure, including Ag/AgCl [25] and the ­TiO2

nanocage [26], as shown in Figure 18.
In addition, Rubik’s Cube also has some applications in
the field of psychotherapy [27]. Rubik’s Cube has gradu-
ally been taken seriously in the field of education because
it contains rich scientific knowledge. Some primary and
Figure 16  Ball Luban lock parts secondary schools carry out cube-based mathematics
courses to improve students’ learning ability. There are
also some relevant studies showing that the use of “play
cubes” as a teaching guide in primary school mathemat-
ics activities is conducive to stimulating students’ interest
in learning and guiding students to think abstractly and
develop spatial ideas [28]. Rubik’s Cube was viewed as a
tool in applying rather sophisticated mathematics to gen-
erate some solution algorithms [29].

4.2 Algorithm of Rubik’s Cube

Rubik’s Cube has been known as a classic educational toy
with a unique charm since it was invented. From general
recovery to quick speed and least step to restore, from
one hand twisted to blind recovery [30], more and more
Rubik’s Cube enthusiasts and racing players are keen on
the higher challenges of playing Rubik’s Cube.
Figure 17  Luban lock
There are many kinds of Rubik’s Cube solutions. The
“layer first law” was proposed by David Singmaster and is
used by the most people. First, restore the top layer, and
4.1 Scientific Metaphor of Rubik’s Cube then restore the middle layer, and finally restore the bot-
The scientific metaphor of Rubik’s Cube has two impli- tom layer as well. Mathematician Conway [31] at Cam-
cations. One is that the problem of the cube is studied bridge University proposed a six-stage reduction method
by using existing scientific theory or methods. David from the bottom of the cube to the middle and then to
[21, 22] put forward a set of standard symbols of Rubik’s the top, and from the edge pieces to the corner pieces
Cube with regard to combinatorics and group theory. gradually. Patrick [32] proposed a six-sided reduction
The rotation and cycle transposition of structure is method: first, restore the corner pieces and edge pieces
the best interpretation of the concept and theorem of of the top layer, then restore the bottom corner pieces,
group theory. Li [12] used crystallographic symbols and finally the edge pieces of the middle and bottom are
to establish a mathematical model that described an restored. Jessica invented the “Fridrich Method” which is
n-order cube based on the point group theory. A com-
puter program of solving the cube problem was pro-
duced on the basis of the mathematical model.
Rubik’s Cube is treated as an abstract tool to study
specific scientific issues. In the literature [12], Rubik’s
Cube was used as a model to study crystal electron
diffraction, chaos, genetic, and other scientific issues.
American mathematician Joyner David [23] discussed
group theory based completely on Rubik’s Cube and
other similar mathematical toys. Chen [24] studied
Rubik’s Cube rotation and defined the concept of the
Rubik’s Cube group.
According to the cube’s rotation law, many properties
of the Rubik’s Cube group are described in the group the-
ory system. Rubik’s Cube is used as a model to describe
the basic particles in physics. In addition, the structures
of some substances in nature are similar to the Rubik’s Figure 18 TiO2 nanocages with Rubik-like structure
Zeng et al. Chin. J. Mech. Eng. (2018) 31:77 Page 7 of 12

used by most of the racing players to quickly restore the

Rubik’s Cube. This method is used widely, inspires and
influences cube researchers, and has played a critical role
in the development of Rubik’s Cube [33].
The algorithm of Rubik’s Cube can be solved by com-
puter artificial intelligence as well. Richard E. Korf used
the “macro operator” technique to solve the algorithm
of Rubik’s Cube by a computer program, and obtained a
complete summary of the cube-side reduction process
[34]. Rokicki et al. proved that the maximum number of
moves to solve the cube is 20 [35].

4.3 Application of Rubik’s Cube Characteristics

In recent years, with the development of broadband net- Figure 19  Mapping of Rubik’s Cube and image
works and the arrival of the information age, the security
of data information and the protection of privacy rights
are becoming more and more important. When Rubik’s The rotation and permutation characteristics of the
Cube stays in the initial state, all patches of each face Rubik’s Cube structure increase the anti-attack capabil-
are in the same color and will become chaotic after sev- ity of a password. Thus, Rubik’s Cube is very useful in the
eral rotations. The Rubik’s Cube recovery can follow the field of encryption, and became an ideal experimental
reverse step of rotation or can follow the decomposition prop to verify whether the robot operator can meet the
steps of restoring the Rubik’s Cube. Thus, the rotated initial standard.
sequence can be regarded as an encrypted key to encrypt In Ref. [46], the recovery of Rubik’s Cube was used as
information or hide information. Otherwise, decryption a 3D operation task for a robot with different sensors
is very difficult [36]. (such as vision, force, torque, and tactile sensors). The
In Refs. [37–39], a chaotic sequence was used as controller performance of the robotic control system can
the transform parameter of the Rubik’s Cube, and the be tested by the operation of restoring the Rubik’s Cube
encryption method of the image was realized by a cyclic [47], as shown in Figure 21, including movement, accel-
shift algorithm. In Ref. [40], an efficient method for eration, delay, and orientation of the robot [48].
image encryption based on the Rubik’s cube principle There is a method to solve the Rubik’s Cube with a
with a chaotic Baker map was presented. The proposed robot based on a noninvasive brain–computer interface
technique enhanced the security level of the Rubik’s cube without using the hands and only thinking about the
encryption technique. Rubik’s Cube rotation. This method improves the speed
In addition, a chaotic mixing algorithm based on the of solving and also helps disabled persons who cannot
concept of the Rubik’s cube was proposed for water- solve the Rubik’s Cube with their hands [49].
marking images [41]. Ref. [42] used the matrix and three- Nowadays, with the intelligent development of science
dimensional structure of a Rubik’s Cube reference to and technology, a robot can restore Rubik’s Cube success-
achieve information hiding of grayscale images. fully, which means that intellectual technology is becom-
In Ref. [43], Tsai proposed multi-morphological image ing more and more mature. The design of an intelligent
date hiding based on the application of a Rubik’s Cube robot that can automatically restore the Rubik’s Cube
algorithm. An image can be partitioned into 54 units from an arbitrary disruption involves digital image pro-
and form a Rubik’s Cube. A total of 54 units is selected cessing, computer vision, pattern recognition technology,
sequentially and transformed into 6 faces according to the artificial intelligence, organization, and other disciplines
6 faces of a Rubik’s Cube by designating an index number, of technology. In the process of restoring the Rubik’s
as shown in Figure 19 and Figure 20. The encrypted data Cube, the performance of robot can be detected, and the
is scrambled by performing a Rubik’s Cube algorithm. lack of a mechanism can be reflected as well. An appro-
The Rubik’s Cube algorithm was applied in sensitive priate way can be put forward to make up for deficiencies
information transmission schemes to encrypt informa- of the robot in time, and will promote the development of
tion traffic on insecure physical channels [44]. There is robot for higher intelligence.
also a cloud-based data protection mechanism based on Some concepts related to mechanical design have
the fingerprint algorithm, which encrypts a file by con- emerged, and some products that use the characteris-
trolling the Rubik’s Cube rotation, which depends on the tics of the Rubik’s Cube structure were invented as well.
feature value of a user’s fingerprint [45].
Zeng et al. Chin. J. Mech. Eng. (2018) 31:77 Page 8 of 12

[55]. Although the Rubik’s Cube was invented just over

40 years ago, it has been popular with people around the
world, and an increasing number of cube enthusiasts and
scholars have become hooked on Rubik’s Cube’s charm.
The main reason is that Rubik’s Cube contains the eso-
teric mathematical principles and an all-encompassing
transformation, which attracts curious people to explore
the mysteries of Rubik’s Cube.
These researchers studied the description of rotation of
the Rubik’s Cube, explored recovery algorithms and the
mathematical principles of the Rubik’s Cube, and used
the Rubik’s Cube as a model to study the scientific prob-
Figure 20  Corresponding index of a Rubik’s Cube
lems in multidisciplines. As seen from the above stud-
ies, with the research and application of Rubik’s Cube,
it is not only an intellectual toy. It has changed from a
research object to an object of significance in multi-
disciplinary research. These studies and applications
are mainly based on the abstract characteristics of the
Rubik’s Cube structure. The research to explore the inter-
nal mechanism law of Rubik’s Cube has just begun. The
mechanism principle of Rubik’s Cube structure has yet to
have an in-depth study.

5.1 Toy Structure and Mechanism

Some new theories of the existing mechanism were
inspired by handicrafts or exquisite toys, and were inno-
Figure 21  Two-handed system manipulating Rubik’s Cube vated through relevant research.
Wei [56] analyzed the degree of freedom of the chro-
mospheric mechanism with a loop screw equation. In
Examples include a new password lock composed of a Ref. [57], the degree of freedom of the magic ball mech-
Rubik’s Cube structure with a chin [50]. In Ref. [51], a anism was analyzed based on the theory of structural
metamorphic mechanism was designed, which used the decomposition and the system of equivalent spiral. The
cube as a platform for the operation of a machine and theory of a multiloop coupling mechanism was proposed
could be used in a multistructure. In addition, there are by studying toys with coupling characteristics. Figure 22
some ideas on the application of the cube in aerospace, shows the chromospheric mechanism and the magic ball
such as a combination of the cube structure and a satel- mechanism.
lite, using the cube satellite to drive the cube unit loca- Ding [58–60] used the snake cube to study the math-
tion and orientation reconstruction in order to complete ematical expression of mechanism constituent elements,
a variety of tasks [52]. Zhao proposed an application the equivalence treatment of mechanism motion, the
design of deformable magic-square-type deep-space description of mechanism motion interference and iso-
exploration aircraft, applying the magic structural fea- morphism identification, and the sequence definition
tures of modularity and rotatability to a spacecraft, so of a reconfigurable mechanism that can achieve a target
that each box of the cube has a clear division of lab, and
then through cooperation to complete the deep space
exploration task [53]. Inspired by the ubiquitous Rubik’s
Cube toy, an equipment-free method was proposed for
fabricating paper analytical devices [54].

5 Application of Rubik’s Cube Structure

and Thinking in Mechanism
Rubik’s Cube, “Huarongdao” as invented by Chinese,
and “Independent diamond” invented by the French
Figure 22  Toys with coupling characteristics
are known as three major intellectual toys of the world
Zeng et al. Chin. J. Mech. Eng. (2018) 31:77 Page 9 of 12

configuration. In Ref. [61], the position solution of the

target configuration was calculated. Research on the
snake cube enriched the modular reconfigurable mecha-
nism theory, as shown in Figure 23.
Kuo [62] analyzed the reconfigurable cube mechanism,
as shown in Figure 24. It is a puzzle linkage made by eight
connected subcubes and is equivalent to a single-loop 8R
spatial linkage with eight different topological configura-
tions and changeable mobility.
Hsiao analyzed the structures of open-keyhole puz-
zle locks, which were widely used with plentiful types in
ancient China. Open-keyhole puzzle locks, as shown in
Figure  25, are reconfigurable mechanisms that have dif-
ferent topological structures in operation [63].
Dai et  al. [64, 65] proposed a theory of metamorphic
Figure 24  Reconfigurable cube mechanism
mechanism from research on origami handicrafts. This
has aroused the interest of academia and has become one
of the latest topics in the mechanics field.
A metamorphic mechanism has characteristics includ- The structure of the Rubik’s Cube is smart, simple,
ing a variable degree of freedom and topology, and can compact, and ever changing. To some extent, it goes
be applied to multiple operating conditions. Such mecha- beyond the traditional mechanisms of the concept of
nisms can be suitable for unstructured environments, topology and conventional institutional design meth-
variable conditions, and multitasking [66]. Lee and Herve ods. The Rubik’s Cube has been applied in daily life, and
proposed a discontinuous freedom link mechanism that scholars have conducted studies of the cube problem in
extends from the principle of the Rubik’s Cube, and has the field of mechanism. Only deep study and analysis of
the property of a variable number of bars and degrees of the cube structure can achieve the Rubik’s Cube mecha-
freedom [67]. nism topology theory systematically.
It was found that some properties of the Rubik’s Cube
mechanism are similar to metamorphic mechanisms
through the analysis of the Rubik’s Cube, and some 5.2 Application Outlook of Rubik’s Cube in Mechanism
properties are similar to multiloop coupling mecha- With the continuous improvement in the demand of
nisms. Examples include the characteristic of the cou- mechanical products, classical mechanisms are mov-
pling between the inner loop and the kinematic chain of ing forward to modern complex mechanisms, which
the multiloop coupling mechanism, and the movement changed from fixed topology to variable topology and
bifurcation characteristic of the change of the degree of from weak coupling to strong coupling. Variable topol-
freedom and the change of the motion after the special ogy and strong coupling of the cube body gradually
position. It can be seen that the Rubik’s Cube has a vari- attracted attention. Compared with a parallel mechanism
ety of mechanism characteristics and is a combination of and simple multiloop coupled mechanism, the structure
many kinds of mechanism characteristics, but this is not of Rubik’s Cube has a higher complex degree of freedom,
a simple superposition of the above mechanisms. the rack of Rubik’s Cube structure is connected to a num-
ber of end-effectors, and the connection between rod and
rod is noncontinuous. However, Rubik’s Cube has great

Figure 25  Open-keyhole lock

Figure 23  Structure of snake cube
Zeng et al. Chin. J. Mech. Eng. (2018) 31:77 Page 10 of 12

application potential in the industrial field for its fea- on specific static, friction, control, and other topics will
tures, including high space utilization, a large number of be involved.
combinations, sophisticated sports form, and multimod- With further exploration, potential applications of the
ule structure. Rubik’s Cube require the study of mechanism problems
The application of Rubik’s Cube in the machinery of the cube structure. This can lay a theoretical founda-
industry has the following three ideas: tion for applications of the cube mechanism and pro-
mote special cube mechanisms from educational toys to
(1) The multi-end effectors of Rubik’s Cube and the abil- machinery (such as robots, aerospace, etc.).
ity of permutation and combination can be applied
to mechanical design. The Rubik’s Cube mechanism
can be used as the main structure of multifunctional 6 Conclusions
mechanical products. The use of the rotation of the There are many types of Rubik’s Cube. Some achieve-
cube mechanism can achieve the desired position ments in theoretical research and application have been
or form of movement, so that different ends of the made. This paper systematically introduced the origin
actuator can complete a task in order in a certain and development of Rubik’s Cube, analyzed the charac-
position, or make different ends of the actuator work teristics of structure and performance of Rubik’s Cube,
together to complete a job with orderly cooperation. and examined the research status of Rubik’s Cube,
(2) According to the kinetic pair characteristics of the including science metaphors, restoration algorithms, and
Rubik’s Cube structure that are different from the characteristic applications.
common structure, the cube kinetic pairs can be The external characteristics of Rubik’s Cube have
integrated into the current industrial mechanism. If been studied and applied in multidisciplinary fields, so
such a clever design application can replace the robot the principles of the internal structure of Rubik’s Cube
spherical joint, the problem of a small rotation angle should be explored at the same time.
of the spherical joint being limited by the mechanical This paper described the relationship between Rubik’s
structure will be solved, thus expanding the robot’s Cube and the mechanism. The research into Rubik’s Cube
work space, especially that of the parallel mecha- in the field of mechanism is still in the initial stages. The
nism. If this design can be applied to a machine tool new problems of the Rubik’s Cube mechanism should
holder or the manipulator of a mechanical arm, the be studied, and a systematic theory of the Rubik’s Cube
flexibility of clamping and operation will be greatly mechanism should be formed. Some achievements of the
improved. research have a guiding significance in the development
(3) The Rubik’s Cube structure has high space utilization. of the Rubik’s Cube mechanism in mechanical engineer-
If this characteristic can be applied to other mechani- ing applications.
cal products, it will promote the miniaturization pro- It is of great significance to study the cube mechanism
cess of mechanical products. and to promote the development of the cube structure.
The topology theory of the cube mechanism has yet to be
In addition, with the development of the world’s aero- further studied. It can be believed that Rubik’s Cube will
space industry, there will be more and more deep-space have extensive prospects for applications in the machin-
exploration projects. Some features of the Rubik’s Cube ery industry based on its research status, and a spillover
structure including modular, rotating, multifunctional, effect in some scientific research including mathematics,
multipurpose, and recyclable functions can be applied physics, computers, and biology.
to the design of deep-space exploration spacecraft or
Authors’ Contributions
vehicles. D-XZ and ZH were in charge of the whole trial; ML and J-JW wrote the
According to the above application ideas, the applica- manuscript; Y-LH and W-JL assisted with sampling and laboratory analyses. All
tion of the cube structure also requires basic theoreti- authors read and approved the final manuscript.

cal research. The movement of the product to achieve a

certain direction involves the research of degrees of free- Authors’ Information
dom in order to achieve the required form of movement Da-Xing Zeng, born in 1978, is currently a professor at Yanshan University,
China. He received his PhD degree in mechatronic engineering from Yanshan
and specific state related to the structural mathemati- University, China, in 2008. His research interests include theory of mechanism
cal expression and the metamorphic properties. There and machine, parallel mechanism, type synthesis and image processing.
are some problems with the Rubik’s Cube mechanism, Ming Li, born in 1992, is currently a master candidate at Yanshan University,
China. His research interests include Rubik’s cube analysis, parallel mechanism
including a certain degree of flexibility, a large number and type synthesis.
of surface contacts, a number of movement directions of Juan-Juan Wang, born in 1991, is currently a master candidate at Yanshan
special locations, and many more. Subsequent research University, China. Her research interest is parallel mechanism.
Zeng et al. Chin. J. Mech. Eng. (2018) 31:77 Page 11 of 12

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