Programme 1 Frames Complex ow numbers 1 Learning outcomes When you have completed this Programme you will be able to: Recognize j as standing for V—1 and be able to reduce powers of j to 7 ors Recognize that all complex numbers are in the form (real part) + j (imaginary part) Add, subtract and multiply complex numbers Find the complex conjugate of a complex number Divide complex numbers State the conditions for the equality of two complex numbers Draw complex numbers and recognize the parallelogram law of addition Convert a complex number from Cartesian to polar form and vice versa Write @ complex number in its exponential form Obtain the logarithm of a complex number 419420 Engineering Mathematics Introduction Ideas and symbols Engineers and scientists use ideas about the physical world to explain observed events. A force is observed being applied to a mass and the mass is observed to accelerate. Isaac Newton said that: Force applied = mass x acceleration produced Linking the force applied with the acceleration produced in this way involves, ideas about space, time, mass, force, rates of change~a whole stack of ideas. In mathematics, symbols are used to represent these ideas. If symbol F represents ‘the force, m the mass and a the acceleration then we write: F=mxa So when you manipulate symbols you are often manipulating ideas. Take, for instance, the everyday numbers that are used for counting and measuring. “The numerals were originally devised to record ideas of quantity so when & symbol such as VT arises to which there Is no corresponding quantity we must ask ourselves why? Why does the symbol aise If there is no quantity associated with it? Often, the only way to answer a question such as thsi to accept the symbol and carry on manipulating with it to sce f any new ideas are forthcoming In an earlier Programme it was stated that there are some quadratics that cannot be factorized into two linear factors. In fact all quadratics can be factorized into two linea factors but with the present state of your knowledge you cannot always find them. This will now be remedied Read on and see how The symbol 7 Quadratic equations he solution of @ quadratic equation ax? +bx+¢=0 can, of course, be bat Vi aac obtained by the formula, x 2a For example, if 2s? + 9x +7 =0, then we have rordt vB .x=-fo 4 x=-lorComplex numbers 7 aat That was straightforward enough, but if we solve the equati S12 — 6x +5 ~0 in the same way, we get 64 V3O=100 _ 6 v= 10 10 and the next stage is now to determine the square root of ~64. Isit @ 8, ©) -8, (©) neither? neith B Its, of course, neither, since +8 and —8 are the square roots of 64 and not of 64, In fact /=64 cannot be represented by an ordinary number, for there is no real number whose square is a negative quantity. However, 64 = —1 x 64 and therefore we can write V—64 = V=1 x 64 = V-1V64 = 8V-1 ie, V—64 = 8V-1 Of course, we are still faced with Y=T, which cannot be evaluated as a real ‘number, for the same reason as before, but, if we write the letter j to stand for V=I, then ¥=64 = V-18 = j8. So although we cannot evaluate V=T, we can denote it by j and this makes ‘our working a Tot neater. V6 = V=IVG = 8 Similarly, V=36 = V=1V36 = j6 V7 = VAI = 2-646 So v—25 can be written as [s] a ‘We now have a way of finishing off the quadratic equation we started in Frame 2. Sx? 6 45=0 0x 64)8 70. X= 06+ j08 or x ‘We will talk about results like these later. For now, on to Frame §422 Engineering Mathematics Powers of j Because j stands for V=T, let us consider some powers of j. jeva j=val Pent fo P=P=V Pei f-PP=CP=1 fat Note especially the last result: j4 = 1. Every time a factor j* occurs, it can be replaced by the factor 1, so that the power of jis reduced to one of the four results above: es. P= ONI=OV=1i=1 P= =0)s=1 P= GP = AN = MY =-1 and 7§ = (4) = Uf) So, in the same way, > Because f= (= 1 =i Every one is done in the same way: f= GP =MP)=U-Y=-1 P=OPR=ID=F4 fay=ayrat So (a) = (b) 7? =.. (© Pan (@) WG 434-0, x= [ea oF oy ws ‘The working (d) is as follows: — 6x44 a0 = x 6H VSS TIS _ 64 V=T00 2 z 4 SH i10 2 + iS or =3+)5 iex= is So remember, to simplify powers of j, we take out the highest power of j* that wwe can, and the result must then simplify to one of the four results: j,~1,~j,1. ‘Move on now to Frame 8Complex numbers 7 423 Complex numbers ‘The result x — 3 +j5 that we obtained consists of two separate terms, 3 and iS. ‘These terms cannot be combined any further, since the second is not a real number (owing to its having the factor j). In such as expression as x = 3 +5: Bis called the real part of x 5 is called the imaginary part of x and the two together form what is called a complex number. So, a Complex number = (Real part) + (Imaginary part) In the complex number 2+)7, the real part = and the imaginary part = re pont = magn pat 27 oe @ ‘Complex numbers have many applications in engineering. To use them, we ‘must know how to carry out the usual arithmetical operations. 1. Addition and subtraction of complex numbers This is easy, as a few examples will show: (4415) +872) Although the real and imaginary parts cannot be combined, we can remove the brackets and total up terms of the same kind: (4.4/5) + (8-72) = 445 43—j2= (443) 415 =74h 2 Another example: (G4)7) ~(2—js) =44j7-24)5 = (4-2) +7 +5) S24 jl2 So in general, (@ jb) + (€-+ fd) = (a+) +)(b+ A) Now you do this one: (S+i7)+ (8-14) ~(6-j (25) @ since (5 +j7) + (3 -#4) - (6-73) +j7+3—j4—-6+)3 = (8 +3-6) +7443) =2 4/6 Now you do these in the same way: (@) (6 +18) -(4-)3) + (2-77) = and (b) (3+ )5) ~(S- 74) -(-2-23)424 Engineering Mathematics Ww @ 44j AZ Here is the wo 8: @ (6448)- (4-73) 42-77) 64j8—44 [842-7 = (6-442) 4) 43-7) =44) (b) (3 +95) — (8 —f4) — (-2-j3) B4jS—S+j4+2+73 (Take care with signs!) (3-542) +j(S+443) 04 12= 12 This is very easy then, so long as you remember that the real and the Imaginary parts must be treated quite separately — just like x’s and y’s in an algebraic expression. (On to Frame 12 12 2. Multiplication of complex numbers Take as an example: (3 + j4)(2 +15) ‘These are multiplied together in just the same way as you would determine the product (3x + 4y)(2x + 5y). Form the product terms of et, (@) the two left-hand terms 34 jd) (2+ () the two inner terms Rt AP TP) the eo cue tems er (@) the two right-hand terms = 64/84/15 +720 = 6523-20 (sine Likewise, (4 — j8)(3 + j2) (3) rl — (4—j5)(3 +72) 2 — j15 +j8 7210 =12-j7+10 (F=-1) =22-j7Complex numbers 1 425 If the expression contains more than two factors, we multiply the factors together in stages: (3-4 j4)(2—J5)(1 — j2) = (6 +8 — j15 — 720)(1 — 72) (6~j7 + 20)(1 ~j2) (26-j7(1 -j2) Finish it off ey sCD Because (26 —j7)(1 — j2) 26 ~ j7 ~js2+ 14 = 26 ~ 89-14 =12-js9 Note that when we are dealing with complex numbers, the result of our calculations is also, in general, a complex number. ‘Now you do this one on your own, (54 j8)(5 ~ 8) = [5] Gs) (8-+78)(S —j8) = 25 + j40—j40 — roa = 25464 89 In spite of what we said above, here we have a result containing no j term. The result is therefore entirely real. This is rather an exceptional case. Look at the two complex numbers we have just multiplied together. Can you find anything special about them? If so, what is it? When you have decided, move on to the next frame426 Engineering Mathematics ____ ie. (5 478) and (5 ~ 78) ‘A pair of complex numbers like these are called conjugate complex numbers and the product of two conjugate complex numbers is always entirely ral. Look at it this way: (a+ b)(a—b) =a? —b2 Difference of two squares Similarly (5 + 78)(S — 78) = S? — (j8)? = s? — 78? 48? (P=-1) = 25 +64 =89 Without actually working it out, will the product of (7 — j6) and (4 +j3) be (@) a real number (b) an imaginary number (©) a complex number? ww ‘A complex number since (7 —j6)(4 + j3) Is a product of two complex numbers which are not conjugate complex numbers or multiples of conjugates. Remember: Conjugate complex numbers are identical except for the signs in the middle of the brackets. (44j8) and (4—jS) —are_—_conjugate complex numbers (a+jb)and(a—jb) are _conjugate complex numbers but (6 +j2) and (2 +j6) are not conjugate complex numbers (5 —78) and (—5+)3) are not conjugate complex numbers, So what must we multiply (3 — j2) by, to produce a result that is entirely real? Gs) (3 +12) or a multiple of it because the conjugate of (3 — j2) is identical to it, except for the middle sign, .e, (3 + j2), and we know that the product of two conjugate complex numbers is always real. Here are two examples: (3 72)(8 +72) = - (2)? =9~ Pa 3 944 2 Gne 4449 = 53 (2+j7)(2-77) 4— pao and so on. ‘Complex numbers of the form (a-+jb) and (a—jb) are called complex numbers.Complex numbers 7 427 ere CD Now you should have no trouble with these: (a) Write down the following products (4-3) +13) Gi) (4+77)(4~ 7) Git) (2+ Fa— 78) Gv) (Hx +iy) (b) Multiply (3 — 5) by a suitable factor to give a product that is entirely real When you have finished, move on to Frame 20 @@ 4-4 +73)=4-73? =16+9= [25] @ (44 74-77)=8-P7? = 16449 [65] ii) (a + j)(a jb) = — 7p Wy) xi) =? FP (b) To obtain a real product, we can multiply (3 ~ j5) by its conjugate, Le. (3-+)5), giving: 53-448) = pst 925 -Lai Now move on to the next frame for a short revision exercise Revision exercise 21 1 Simplify @ 7? 7” OF 2. Simplify: @) (5-79) - (2-76) +(3~i4) (b) (6 ~ j3)(2 + 75)(6 — j2) o (4-73) (©) (5 —74)(5 +74) 3. Multiply (4—j3) by an appropriate factor to give a product that is entizely real. What is the result? When you have completed this exercise, move on to Frame 22 Here are the results. Check yours. 22 1 @ =o) =P-f] ©) 7° =F =1%-) -E 4] © P=GYP =P =i428 Engineering Mathematics 2 (a) (S—)9)— (2-76) + (3-74) =$-)9-2+j64+3-j4 = (5-243) +(6-9-4)= (©) (6-782 +45)(6—72) 12 — j6 + j30 — j*15)(6 —j2) (27 + j24)(6 — j2) = 162.4. f144 — js4-+48 =| 210 + 790 (o 4-737 16 — 24-9 (@ SAVE +H) 25 j16 = 25 1 16=[ai] 3 A suitable factor is the conjugate of the given complex number: (4 72)(4+ 18) = 16+9 = [25 All correct? Right. Now move on to the next frame to continue the Programme 23 1 let us deal with division, Division of a complex number by a real number is easy enougt 1-67 — 1-33 7-jAy eB But how do we manage with If we could, somehow, convert the denominator into a real number, we could divide out as in the example above. So our problem is really, how can we convert (4 +/8) into a completely real denominator ~ and this is where our last piece of work comes in. ‘We know that we can convert (4+j3) into a completely real number by multiplying it by its (4) nee .e, the same complex number but with the opposite sign in the middle, in this, case (4 73).‘Complex numbers 1 429 But if we multiply the denominator by (4/3), we must also multiply the ‘numerator by the same factor: 7-j4_(7-j(4—/8)_28~j87-12 47 G4~R\A- 7B) ‘16 +9 16,37 Fee = 064-148 and the job is done. To divide one complex number by another, therefore, we multiply numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the denominator. ‘This will convert the denominator into a real number and the final step can then be completed, is ‘us osm $= we sll lity pad stom ty the conjugate of the denominator, Le. (1 — 72) | @) If we do that, we get: 4-75 _ (4 j8)(1~j2)_4~/13-10 1¥72~ (1472-72) sd 13 3 3 =-12-)26 S iad - simptity 3222 Now here is one for you to do: Simplify | When you have done it, move on to the next fame 03 4jl1 Qe) Because B4j2_B4/2)(14/3)_ 3411-6 _-34 jl _ ; T-B (1-7/3) ——i149 10 oa Now do these in the same way: oF © @ SecA) ja When you have worked these, move on to Frame 27 to check your results Here are the solutions in detail: 4-j8 _(4—js(2+i)_8-j6+5 _13-j6 Oi Cancun ite oa glee yy SHS GH/9)S:418)_ 15 syst 15 _ B G-—AYS+B) 2519 i430 Engineering Mathematics (o (24002) _2-)+6_ 8-1 G+) 7 34 "347 _ (8-A3-7) GF AE= 18) 2435-4 20-]35 “ore 3 =[os-jr4 And now you know how to apply the four rules to complex numbers Equal complex numbers Now let us see what we can find out about two complex numbers which we are told are equal Let the numbers be a4 jbandc+]d ‘Then we have at jb=ctid Rearranging terms, we get a-c=jld~b) In this last statement, the quantity on the left-hand side is entirely real, while that on the right-hand side is entirely imaginary, ie. a real quantity equals an imaginary quantity! This seems contradictory and in general it just cannot be true. But there is one special case for which the statement can be true. That is when cach side Is zero a-c=jld~b) can be true only if a~¢=0,ie.a=¢ and if d—b=0.ie.b=d So we get this important result: If two complex numbers are equal @) the two real parts are equal (b) the two imaginary parts are equal For example, if x + jy = 5 +/4, then we know x and ifa +/b=6 —j3, then a= and b andy =4Complex numbers 1 431 (a= 6anab=—3| @) Be careful to include the sign! Now what about this one? If (+B) + fla~ b) =7 + 2 find the values of @ and b. Well now, following our rule about two equal complex numbers, what can we say about (a+b) and (ab)? a+b anda 2 Gy since the two real parts are equal and the two imaginary parts are equal. This gives you two simultaneous equations, from which you can determine So what are they? For a}b=7)2a=9 1. a=45 5 a-b=2 25 We see then that an equation involving complex numbers leads to a pair of simultaneous equations by putting (@) the two real parts equal (b) the two imaginary parts equal ‘This is quite an important point to remember. Graphical representation of a complex number Although we cannot evaluate a complex number as a real number, we can (33 represent it diagrammatically, as we shall now see. In the usual system of plotting numbers, the number 3 could be represented by a line from the origin to the point 3 on the scale, Likewise, a line to represent (~3) would be drawn from the origin to the point (~3). These two ines are equal in length but are drawn in opposite directions. Therefore, we put an arrowhead on cach to distinguish between them, 3 3 Saiaoete s A line which represents a magnitude (by its length) and direction (by the arrowhead) is called a vector. We shall be using this word quite a lot Any vector therefore must include both magnitude (or size) and432 Engineering Mathematics & [aieton | If we multiply (+3) by the factor (—1), we get (—3 effect of turning the vector through 180 i.e. the factor (~1) has the ‘Multiplying by (1) is equivatent to multiplying by 77, Le. by the factor j twice. Therefore multiplying by a single factor j will have half the effect and rotate the vector through, only ° ‘The factor j always turns a vector through 90° in the positive direction of measuring angles, ie. anticlockwise. 34 If we now multiply j3 by a further factor j, we get °3, Le. (—3) and the Giagram agrees with this result. 1f we multiply (~3) by a further factor j, sketch the new position of the vector on a similar diagram. The result is given in the next frame Ge) Let us denote the two reference lines by the X-axis and the Y-axis, as usual. You will see that (@ The scale on the X-axis represents real numbers. This is therefore called the real axis. The scale on the Y-axis represents Imaginary numbers. This Is there- fore called the imaginary axis. On a similar diagram, sketch vectors to represent: @5 w-4 OR W-j Results in the next frameComplex numbers 1 433 Check that each of your vectors (37 carries an arrowhead to show direc- tion. If we now wish to represent 3+2 as the sum of two vectors, we must draw them as a chain, the second vector starting where the first one finishes. 2 2 sts Sea-8 a ‘The two vectors, 3 and 2, are together equivalent to a single vector drawn from the origin to the end of the final vector (giving naturally that 3 +2 = §). Continue to the next frame If we wish to represent the complex number (3 + j2), then we add together the ‘vectors which represent 3 and j2. Notice that the 2 Is now multiplied by a factor j which turns that vector ‘through 90° ‘The equivalent single vector to represent (3+ 2) is therefore the vector from the beginning of the first vector (origin) to the end of the last one. ‘This graphical representation constitutes an Argand diagram. Draw an Argand diagram to represent the vectors: @1=2+8 a= On=4-B @u= Label each one clearly434 Engineering Mathematics 39 Here they are. Check yours. Note once again that the end of each vector is plotted very much like plotting x and y coordinates. ‘The real part corresponds to the x-value ‘The Imaginary part corresponds to the y-value. ‘Move on to Frame 40 Graphical addition of complex numbers 40 Let us find the sum of 2) = $+j2 and z: = 2 + j3 by an Argand diagram. If we are adding vectors, they must be drawn as a chain. We therefore draw at the end of 21, a vector AP representing zp in magnitude and direction, i.e. AP = OB and is parallel to it. Therefore OAPB isa parallelogram. Thus the sum of z, and zz isgiven by the vector joining the starting point to the end of the last vector, Le. OP. (a al a ‘The complex numbers 2; and z, can thus be added together by drawing the diagonal of the parallelogram formed by z; and 22 If OP represents the complex number a +b, what are the values of @ and b In this case?Complex numbers 1 435 ee @ op=2=74)5 You can check this result by adding (5 + j2) and (2 + j3) algebraically. So the sum of the two vectors on an Argand diagram is given by the of the parallelogram of vectors. How do we do subtraction by similar means? We do this rather craf without learning any new methods. The tick is simply this: eee) That is, we draw the vector representing z; and the negative vector of zz and add them as before. The negative vector of zx is simply a vector with the same ‘magnitude (or length) as z2 but pointing in the opposite direction, ‘eg. Iz, = 5+ [2 and zp vector OA = 71 = S42 OP = -2 = ~(2 +13) ‘Then 0Q = 21 + (-z2) =1-4 2473 Determine on an Argand diagram (4+ 12) + (-2+ 13) — (-1 +76) (a) Ok=n=4+72 OB= 2 =-24)8 OC =~23=1-j6 Then OP =z) +22 OQ =a + 22-23436 Engineering Mathematics Polar form of a complex number It Is convenient sometimes to expr complex number a+jb in a differer form. On an Argand diagram, let OP be a vector a + jb. Let r = length of the vector and @ the angle made with OX. Then =a? 4 and tane=2 Also a=reos@and b=rsin6 Since z= a+jb, this can be written zereosé +jrsind— ie.z 1(cos 6 + jsin®) This is called the polar form of the complex number a+ jb, where r= VEEP and ota Let us take a numerical example, 5 To express z First draw a sketch diagram (that always helps). We can see that: Paz Next frame +73 in polar form. ib So in this case z = $(cos36°S2! + jsin 36°52") r(cosé + jsiné) Now here is one for you to do. Find the polar form of the complex number (2 + /3). Wher you have finished tt, consult the next frameComplex numbers 1 437 {606(cos 56°19" + jsin $6"19’) (46) Here is the working: 2=24)3=r(cos + jsind) Padt9=13 1 =3-606 se1y 7 = 3:606(cos 56°19’ +jsin 56°19’) ‘We have special names for the values of r and @: 2=a4jb=1(cos0+jsin@) (2) ris called the modulus of the complex number z and is often abbreviated to ‘mod z' or indicated by |). Thus if z= 2.4/8, then lz) = V2 8 = V4¥25 = V3 (b) 6 is called the argument of the complex number and can be abbreviated to ‘arg z’ So if z=24j5, then argz = 6812" +8. Then argz = @ = tan” ‘Warning: In finding 6, there are of course two angles between 0° and 360, the the i b tangent of which has the value °. We must be careful to use the angle correct quadrant. Always draw a sketch of the vector to ensure you have the right one. eg. Find arg z when z = 34 6 Is measured from OX to OP. We first find £, the equivatent acute angle from the triangle shown: 4 tank =4 = 1.333 E=s38 Then in this case: 6 = 180° } = 233°8' arg 2=233°8 Now you find arg (—S +2) Move on when you have finished438 Engineering Mathematics ws) aigz= 18812 z=-5 4) i Z| tanz=2=04 B= 21°48" eect In this particular case, @ = 180° ~ E 5 = 18812) Complex numbers in polar form ate always ofthe same shape and differ only in the actual values of r and @ We often use the shorthand version rlg to denote the polar form. eg. Iz -$.4j2, r= V2544 = V2 — 5385 and from above 15612" ‘The full polar form is z = 5-385(cos 158°12’ + jsin 1$8°12') and this can be shortened to 2 = 5385[158°12 Express in shortened form, the polar form of (4 ~j3) Do not forget to draw a sketch diagram first. ww) aor r=VPLR tanE=0-78 = 36°52 6= 360° — F = 3238" = 5{cos 323°8' + jsin323°8') = (3238, OF course, given a complex number in polar form, you can convert it into basic form a}-jb simply by evaluating the cosine and the sine and multiplying by the value of r e.g. 2=5(cos38° + jsin 35°) = 5(0-8192 + j0-S736) 24-0960 + j2:8680 Now you do this one. ere mctene UaMtcsete ac Go) [ares Bae] Because 2 = 4(cos 65" + sin 65°) (0-426 + f0-9063} 1.6905 + 73-6252 If the argument is greater than 90°, care must be taken in evaluating the cosine and sine to include the approptiate signs.Complex numbers 1 439 eg. I z= 2{cos210" + jsin210*) the vector lies in the third quadrant. 0s 210° = ~cos30' sin210° = sin 30" ‘Then z= 2(--cos30° —jsin30*) 2(-0-8660 ~ j0'S) -1732-j Here you are. What about this one? Express 2 = $(cos 140° 4. jsin 140°) in the form a + jb What do you make it? 8300 + j3-2140 & Here are the details: os 140° = ~ cos 40" sin 140° = sin 40° z= (cos 140" + jsin 140°) = 5(~cos40° + sin 40°) 5-0-7660 + j0-6428) 8304/8214 Fine. Now by way of revision, work out the following: (a) Express -5 +-j4 in polar form (b) Express 3300" in the form @ + jb When you have finished both of them, check your results with those in Frame 52 Here is the working: @) Pad 45 = 16425=41 16-408 tanE=08 2 B=38°40' 4120) ~5 | A = 6-403(cos 14120’ 4. jsin 141-20'440 Engineering Mathematics (©) 3[300" = 3(c0s300° + jsin 300°) cos 300° = cos 60° - Lal sin300° = ~sin 60 31300° = 3(cos 60 ~ jsin 60°) 3(0'500 - 70-866) (00 — j2:598] ten cos % ‘Move to Frame $3 53 ‘We see then that there are two ways of expressing a complex number (@) in standard form z=a+jb (©) in polar form 1(c0s8 4 where r= Vee in) and ont? If we remember the simple diagram, we can easily convert from one system to the other: ‘So on now to Frame $4 Exponential form of a complex number There ssl another way of xpresingacomplx number which we must dal ih, fort to has suse We shal ave a tis ay: Many fanctons can be expressed sere. for example, tee? atatst singe x Fe See corn = 1-% 4% coxa ort a art You no doubt have hazy recollections of these series. You had better make a note of them since they have tuned up here.Complex numbers 1 aa If we now take the series for e* and write j0 in place of x, we get: 55 oh a1 40 OE OO Oe = 140+ 2@ Pe Te =40-§ ew 7 ee = (1-9 §- ) +i(o ats ) = cose +jsine Therefore, r(cosé + jsin@) can now be written as rel”, This is called the exponential form of the complex number. It can be obtained from the polar quite easily since the r value is the same and the angle 0 is the same in both. It is important to note, however, that in the exponential form, the angle must be in radians. ‘Move on to the next frame Tee tee mys egeesigaconpiernonberacthentos —D (@) z=atjb (b) z=1(cosé-+jsin@) Polar form (© z=re* Exponential form Remember that the exponential form is obtained from the polar form: (a) the r value is the same in each case (b) the angle is also the same in each case, but in the exponential form the angle must be in radians So, knowing that, change the polar form 5(cos60° + jsin 60°) into the exponential form. Because we have 5(cos60° +jsin60’) r=$ 0= 60 radians *. Exponential form is Se And now a word about negative angles: We know e! = cos +jsind If we replace 6 by —@ in this result, we get ® = cos(—0) + jsin(—@) = cos —jsind >442 Engineering Mathematics So we have e? = cost + jsin8 ©? = cos —jsiné ‘Make a note of these ‘There is one operation that we have been unable to carry out with complex numbers before this. That is to find the logarithm of a complex number. The exponential form now makes this possible, since the exponential form consists only of products and powers. For, if we have: re® then we can say: Inz=Inr+i6 eg. If z= 64257 then Inz=In6-42 + 1-57 1.8504 4 j1-57 and the result is once again a complex number. And if z= 38¢-P26, then Inz= 59 ; Finally, here is an example of a rather different kind. Once you have seen it done, You will be able to deal with others of this kind. Here itis. Express e?/"/ in the form a+ jb 1n38 — j0-236 =[1-3350 — j0.236 ‘Well now, we can write: Obi as clehit = e(cosn/4 —jsinn/4) 3-13} va. £a- aap This brings us to the end of this Programme, except for the Can You? checklist and the Test exercise. Before you do them, read down the Revision summary that follows in the next frame and revise any points on which you are not completely sure. Move to Frame 60Complex numbers 1 443 mn summary 1 Powers of j j=V51, P=-1, P=-j t=1 ‘factor j tums a vector through 90° in the positive direction. 2. Complex numbers @-=real part b imaginary part 3. Conjugate complex numbers (a +jb) and (a — jb) The product of two conjugate numbers is always real: (a4 jb\a—jb) = 2 +P 4 Equal complex numbers MWatjb=c-jd, then a=cand b= 4. 'S Polar form of @ complex number a4jb = r(cos6-+ jsiné) “i Vet +B also a =reos6; b=rsiné = the modulus of z written ‘mod 2' or 2 the argument of z, written ‘arg 2" 6 Exponential form of a complex number z= r(cos! =r loos Oot Jan @in radians and r(cos6 — jsin 6) = re-* 7 Legarithon of a complex number zen Inz=inr+j0 orif z=re* Inz=Inr—jo444 Engineering Mathematics &% Can You? Checl 1 Check this list before and after you try the end of Programme test. On a scale of 1 to 5 how confident are you that you can: Frames ‘« Recognize j as standing for V—T and be able to reduce the powers of j to 4) or £1? aw Yes Oo a o oO o No ‘ Recognize that all complex numbers are in the form (real part) + j(imaginary part)? Bw vs O O C O no ‘Add, subtract and multiply complex numbers? wow vs O O OF O OD wo «Find the complex conjugate of a complex number? = vs O O O O OD WN # Divide complex numbers? a Yes Qo C C a o No « State the conditions for the equality of two complex numbers? (ie SH) Fes el age OM) oe ele Draw complex numbers and recognize the parallel law of addition? ea Pepe le aE) eC: 2) No « Convert a complex number from Cartesian to polar form and vice versa? Sea Yes: L oO a No « Write a complex number in its exponential form? eo Yes ao oO oO oO a No # Obtain the logarithm of a complex number? BS You ge) Ge Gl @i.dNoComplex numbers 1 445 & Test exercise 1 You will find the quest & 1 Simplify:@) # fF ©f? Wi. 1S quite straightforward and. 2 Express in the form a+ jb: @ @-j72+/) (1497 © S+2)4-j)2+8) — @ ay 3. Find the values of x and y that satisfy the equation: (ty) +i —y) = 148-4562 4 Express in polar form: (@ 34j5 b) -6+73 © SG] S Express in the form a +jb: § 6 (a) 5(c0s225° +jsin225°) (6) 4|330° Express in exponential form: (@) 2 = 10/3718’ and (b) z= 1032248" Hence find Inz; and Inzz. eS 7. Express z =e!"/"/? in the form a + jb. Now are you ready to start Part 2 of the work on complex numbers & Further problems 1 1 Simp 7 - (2-/Y3+12) cose +fsin3x @ BHM HMA-H) — ¢) STE (ae yan aja 2 , 2 express -2 734 2 in the form a + jb. PS Fa 18) 7 e ep 1 OR) 8 Mma lg typ pres zim the form a+ jb 4162-24) find the seal and imaginary parts of the complex number 1 z+} Simpy (2+ j97°+ SYP) (aj), expressing the result i the form atjb. >»446 Engineering Mathematics 12 @” 4 16 18 20 11 . May =2+), 2=-2+)4and +=" +>, evatuate 2s in the form a+ jb. % a If 21, 22, 23 are represented on an Argand diagram by the points P, Q, R, respectively, prove that R is the foot of the perpendicular from the origin on to the line PQ. Points A, B,C, D, on an Argand diagram, represent the complex numbers 9+ j, 4+ j13, ~8 + j8, ~3 ~ j4 respectively. Prove that ABCD is a square. If (2 + j8)(3— j4) =x + jy, evaluate x and y. If (a+b) + j(a~ b) = (2 +75)? +j(2— 3}, find the values of a and b. If.x and y are real, solve the equation: sti Tp ay if2= 421 merce by cand dare real quantities show that (@) if 2s eal +i aa then $= £ and 2s ertely imaginary then Given that (a+b) +ia—b) = (1+)? +12 +)), obtain the values of a and b. Express (—1 +) in the form re where ris positive and — <0< x. Find the modulus of 2 = (2 — j)(S-+/12)/(1 + j2)° If x is real, show that (2 + Je!“ + (2— je" is also real. Given that 2) =Ri +R jl 22 = Roi z 1 1 jagy Wd a= Rates and also that 2123 = 2224, express Rand Lin terms ofthe real constants Ri, Re, Rj, Cy and Cy Iz =x by, where x and y are real, and if the real part of (z+ 1)/(z+/) is equal to 1, show that the point z lies on a straight line in the Argand diagram, Zaza When 7 =2+(3, 22=3-j4,23=-8 4/12, then z= 2) +222. hen 71 =2+3, = 3-j4, 23=-S 4/12, th +s E =z, find E when I= 5 +6. Ritiol Re RR RRs CRT If z and Z are conjugate complex numbers, find two complex numbers, z2= 2 and z= 2, that satisfy the equation: 327+ 2(2—7) = 39 +/12 ‘On an Argand diagram, these two numbers are represented by the points P and Q. IFR represents the number j1, show that the angle PRQ is a right angle. I where Ri, Ro, Rs, Ry, ws Land C are real, show thatProgramme 2 i Frames Complex feat] numbers 2 Learning outcomes When you have completed this Prograntme you will be able to: Use the shorthand form for a complex number in polar form Write complex numbers in polar form using negative angles Multiply and divide complex numbers in polar form Use DeMoivre’s theorem Find the roots of a complex number Demonstrate trigonometric identities of multiple angles using complex numbers Solve loci problems using complex numbers a7448 Engineering Mathematics Introduction In Patt 1 of this programme on complex numbers, we discovered how to manipulate them in adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing. We also finished Part 1 by seeing that a complex number a + jb can also be expressed in polar form, which is always of the form r(cos@ +-jsin#). You will remember that values of r and 6 can easily be found from the diagram of the given vector: Pa@+P ra Vere and tan o=tant® a To be sure that you have taken the correct value of @, always draw a sketch diagram to see which quadrant the vector is in. Remember that is always measured from [0%] sc. me postive aes OX. Right. As a warming-up exercise, do the following: Express = 12 — 5 in polar form Do not forget the sketch diagram. It ensures that you get the correct value for 0 When you have finished, and not before, move on to Frame 3 to check your result 13(cos 337-28 + jsin3 Here it is, worked out in full Pa 12? 45? = 144 4-25 = 169 r=13 8 9 tan E= 75 =0-4167 -. B= 22°37! In this case, 6 z 160" — E = 360° — 22°37" ». @ = 37°23" 1(c0s6 + jsin#) = 13(cos337°23' + jsin337°23') Did you get that right? Here is one more, done in just the same way: Express ~$ — j4 in polar form, Diagram first of all! Then you cannot go wrong. When you have the result, on to Frame 4Complex numbers 2 a9 6-403(cos 218°40' + jsin218°40/) Here is the working: check yours. y P=5?4+4 =25+16=41 7 = Vii = 6-403 4 =08 , E= 38°40) =218°40) 6-403(cos 21840’ + jsin 218°40') tanE= a In this case, 0 = 180° + Soz=-5~} Since every complex number in polar form is of the same shape, ic. 1(cos8+-jsin6) and differs from another complex number simply by the values of r and 6, we have a shorthand method of quoting the result in polar form. Do you remember what it is? The shorthand way of writing the result above, Le. 6-403(cos218°40' + jsin218°40') Is. 6403} Correct. Likewise: 5:72(cos322'15' +jsin 32°15’) is written 5-72|322°15' (cos 105° + sin 105") is written 5\10s 3.4(cos 2+ jin) is written 34[2 They are all complex numbers in polar form. They are all the same shape and differ one from another simply by the values of and 7] ana Now let us consider the following example, Express z= 4 — j3 in polar form, First the diagram: : tan =3-078 -, B=3652 6 = 360° — 36'S 323°8" 4 — j3 = S(cos323°8' + jsin323°8') or in shortened form.z =450 Engineering Mathematics In the previous example, we have: (cos 323°8' + jsin 323°8') But the direction of the vector, measured from OX, could be given as ~36°52', the minus sign showing that we are measuring the angle in the opposite sense from the usual positive direction. z 16°52!) + jsin|-36°52'). But you alreay know that sin?. We could write 2 = S(cos[-: cos{-6) = cosé and sin|-é) 2 = S(cos 36°52! — jsin 36°52") i.e. very much like the polar form but with a minus sign in the middle, This ‘comes about whenever we use negative angles. In the same way: 2 = 4(cos250° + jsin250") 4{cos[-110"] + jsin{-1107) =4. 4(cos 110° ~ jsin 110°) since cos( -110° and sin(—110 cos 110 sin 110 It iy sometimes convenient to use this form when the value of 6s greater than 180°, Le. in the 3rd and 4th quadrants. Here are some examples: aS 2 = 3(cos230" + jsin 230°) = 3{(c0s 130° —jsin 130°) 30" Similarly: = 3(cos300* + jsin 300") = 3(cos 60" — jsin60") 2= 4(c0s290° + jsin290°) = 4(c0s 70° — jsin 70°) 2(cos 215° + jsin 215°) = 2(cos 145° — jsin 145°) and = 6(cos310' + jsin310°)Complex numbers 2 451 ‘6{c0s50° — jsin 509) | Because 0s 310° = cos $0 and sin310° = ~sin SO” ‘A moment ago we agreed that the minus sign comes about by the use of negative angles. To convert a complex number given in this way back into proper polar form, i. with a ‘+’ in the middle, we simply work back the way ‘we came. A complex number with a negative sign in the middle is equivalent to the same complex number with a positive sign, but with the angles made negative. eg, 2 4(c0s30° —jsin 30°) = 4(cos|-30" + sin|-30")) (cos 330° + jsin 330°) and we are back in proper polar form. You do this one: Convert z = $(cos 40° ~ jsin 40°) into proper polar form. Then on to Frame 10 Because (cos 40° — jsin 40°) = 5(cos|~40"] + jsin|~-40")) (cos 320° + jsin 320°) Here is another for you to do. Express z= 4(cos 100° ~ jsin 100°) in proper polar form, Do not forget, it all depends on the use of negative angles. 2 = 4(cos260° + jsin 260°) Ga Because = 4(c0s 100° ~ jsin 100°) = 4(cos|-~100"] +-jsin{—100%)) = 4(cos 260° + jsin 260°) ‘We ought to see how this modified polar form affects our shorthand notation,452 Engineering Mathematics Remember, 5(cos 60° +jsin 60°) is written 5|60" How then shall we write 5(cos 60° ~ jsin 60°)? We know that this really stands for S(cos|-60'| + jsin|~60")) so we could write 560°. But instead of using the negative angle we use a different symbol, ie. 5|—60" becomes 5160" Similarly, 3(cos 45° — jsin 45°) = 3|_45° = Bw ae ‘This Is easy to remember, for the sign [resembles the first quadrant and indicates measuring angles “> Le. in the postive direction, wie the sian “[ J" resembles the fourth quadrant and incates measuring angles __/ ie. in the negative direction. e.g, (cos 15° + jsin 15*) is written [15° but (cos 15° ~ jsin 15°), which is really (cos{~15"] +jsin{-15°)) is written [TS So how do we write (a) (cos 120° + jsin 120°) and (b) (cos 135° —jsin 135") In the shorthand way? w @ (b) 1135" The polar form at first sight seems to be a complicated way of representing a complex number. However it is very useful, as we shall see. Suppose we ‘multiply together two complex numbers in this form: Let 21 =1(c0s6; + jsin6s) and z = r2(cos 62+ jsin&) ‘Then 27 = n(cos6 + jsin&4)re(cos 62 +jsin 2) = rira(c0s 6 cos &y + jsin.®y COs b+ cos 6; sin + j?sin6; sin@) Rearranging the terms and remembering that j? = 1, we get 222 = My2|(C086; Cosby ~ sin sin 6) + j(sin By cos02 + cose sin &)] ‘Now the brackets (cos 1 cos 2 ~ sin sin 62) and (sin 6 cos62 + c0s6 sin 6) ‘ought to ring a bell. What are they?Complex numbers 2 453 C08 6; COS 6 — sin 6 sin 6 = cos(#, + 2) Ga) sin 64 cos 62 + COs @ sin 6 = sin(64 + 6) Inn that case, 2172 = rir2[cos(01 + 62) +jsin(O1 + 6) Note this important result. We have just shown that 14(cos 6; + jsin61).ro(cOS@> + jin #2) = ritalcos( 61 + @2) + jsin(Ar + 2)] i.e. To multiply together two complex numbers in polar form, (a) multiply the r’s together, (b) add the angles, 6, together. It is just as easy as that! €.g, 2(c0830° + jsin 30°) x 3(cos 40” + jsin 40") = 2.x 3(cos/30° + 40] + jsin{30° + 40°) = 6(c0s 70° + jsin70*) So if we multiply together $(cos 50° + jsin 0°) and 2(cos6S° +jsin 65°) we get 1O(cos 115" jsin 15") Gs) Remember, multiply the r’s; add the 6's. Here you are then; all done the same way: (@) 2(cos 120° + jsin 120°) x 4(cos 20° + jsin 20°) = 8(cos 140° + jsin 140°) (b) a(cos6 + jsin 6) x b{cos¢ + jsin é) = abjcos|@ + 4] + jsinfe+ 4) (©) 6(c0s210" + jsin 210°) x 3(cos80° + jsin 80") = 18(c0s 290° + jsin 290°) (@) 5(cos50" + jsin $0*) x 3(cos{-20+] + jsin|-204) 15(cos 30° + jsin 30°) Have you got it? No matter what the angles are, all we do is: (@) multiply the moduli, (b) add the arguments. So therefore, 4(cos 35° +jsin 35°) x 3(cos 20° + jsin 20”) 12(cos 55° + jsin 55°) (is) Now let us see if we can discover a similar set of rules for division. S4i6 af entirely real by multiplying top and bottom by We already know that to simplify 2*/° we first obtain a denominator that is454 Engineering Mathematics wa the conjugate of the denominator be 34 (cos + fsingi) za{c0s 2 + jsin@2) isin@s)(cos02 ~jsind2) 120s 6 + jsin®2) in 62) =r (60864 6056s 8; C0s jn @» -sin sin és) a (cos? 62 + sin? 6) _ 11 [(0861 cos x + sin 6 sin G2) + j(sin® Cos 62 ~ cos® sin 2)] on 1 = Bicos(o1 ~ &2) + jsin(0r ~ 6] Right. Then let us do the same with ry(cos +/sin@) $o,frdvson, the ui Gs) divide He 7s and subuact te angle That is correct. 6(cos 72° jsin 72°) _ om ee gag 7 Meosat: Fisingt*) ‘So we now have two important rules: If 21 = m1 (cos@; +jsin 6) and zz = r2(cos @ + jsiné2) then (a) 2122 = rre[cos(#; + 62) + jsin(@, + 62)] and (6) 3 = Hicos(oy ~ 62) + jsin(ts ~ 6] The results are stil, of course, in polar form. Now here is one for you to think about. If 21 =8(cos65° + jsin 65°) and z2 = 4(cos 23° + jsin 23°) then (a) 217: w n= co ae) we a and (o) A=, n 2{cos 42° + jsin 42")Complex numbers 2 455 Of course, we can combine the rules in a single example: 5(c0s 60° + jsin 60°) x 4(cos 30: +-jsin 30°) 2 TT 2icos 50 jsinS0) 20(c0s90" + jsin90°) ~"2{ 0s 50° + jsin 50") = 10(c0s.40: +-jsin 40") What does the following product become? (cos 20° + jsin 20°) x 3(cos 30” + jsin 30°) x 2(cos 40" + jsin 40°) Result in next frame (20) 24(cos90° + jsin 90°) Le. (4x3 x 2)[cos(20° + 30° + 40°) + jsin(20* +30" + 40°)] 4(c0s 90" +-jsin90") ‘Now what about a few revision examples on the work we have done so far? Move to the next frame Revision exercise Workall these questions and then turn on to Frame 22 and check your results. 1. Express in polar form, z= —4 +-j2. 2 Express in true polar form, z ~ S(cos $S° ~ jsin $$°), 3 Simplify the following, giving the results in polar form: (a) 3(cos 143° + jsin 143°) x 4(cosS7° + jsin $7”) (py 1O(c0s:126° + jsin 126°) 2(cos 72° + jsin 72) 4 Express in the form a + jb: (a) 2(cos30° + jsin 30°) (b) 5(cos 57° —jsin 57") Solutions are in Frame 22, Move on and see how you have fared 1 y Pa? 44#=4416=20 ; r= 4472 | tank=05 » B= 26°34 i 3 1 0= 15326 7 oe —4 + j2 = 4-472(cos 153°26' + jsin 153°26!) S(cos55° — jsin 55°) = S|cos(—55°) + jsin(~8S")} 5(cos 305° + jsin 305") >456 Engineering Mathematics 3 (@) Acos 149° + jsin 143") x 4(cos 57" +jsin $7") = 3 x dleos(143* + 57°) + jsin(143° + 57°) = 12{c0s200° + jsin 200°) (py 1O(e08126" jsin126)) 2cos72°+ jsin 72) 10 cogaze’—72) +fsini26" 729) = eoss4°4jsinse) 4 a) 20530" + sin (0866 +03) = 1732+) 0) S(c0ss7—fsins7) (05446 8387) 728-188 Now continue the Programme in Frame 23 ‘Now we are ready to go on to a very important section which follows from our ‘work on multiplication of complex numbers in polar forrn, We have already established that: if 2 = n(c0s6 +jsin@r) and 2 = ra(cosee + jsinés) then 2122 = nte|cos(Or + 62) +isim(61 +62) Soif 2) =19(cos6s +jsin ds) then we have Zi22t5 = rin[cOs(Oh + &2) + jsin(Oy + @2)}rs(c0s8s + jsin 6s) By) 21z223 — rarara[c0s(0y + 62 +04) + jsin(O; + B+ 6)] because in multiplication, we multiply the moduli and add the arguments Now suppose that 2, 22, 25 are all alike and that each is equal to 7=1(cos@+jsin8). Then the result above becom nats = 2 =rr.s\cos(0-+0+6) + isin(6 +6-+6)) 5(cos36 + jsin3é¢) or = [r(cos0-+jsino))* = r(cos + jsino)? = F(cos36 + jsin30) That is, if we wish to cube a complex number in polar form, we just cube the modulus (r value) and multiply the argument (6) by 3. Similarly, to square a complex number in polar form, we square the modulus (r value) and multiply the argument (@) byComplex numbers 2 457 2] iei(r(cosé + jsin@)]? = r°(cos 20 + jsin 28) Qs) Let us take another look at these results: [r(cos6 + jsin@))” = (cos 26+ jsin 26) [r(cos0 + jsin#)|* = 79(cos30 + jsin 36) Similarly: [r(cos@ +jsin 6)]* = r4(cos 40+ jsin 46) [r(cose +jsin@)}° = r5(cosS0-+jsinSé) and so on In general, then, we can say: [r(cose + jsin 6)" = [x(cos# + jsin @)" =[r*(cosnd + jsin nd) (G6) ‘This general result is very important and is called DeMoivre’s theorem. It says that to raise a complex number in polar form to any power n, we raise the r to the power 1 and multiply the angle by 1: eg. [4(cosS0" + sin $0°}? = 4fcos(2 x 50°) + jsin(2 x S0°)] = 16{c0s 100° + jsin 100°) and [3(cos 110° +jsin 110° = 27(cos 330° + jsin 330°) and in the same way: (2(cos37° + jsin 37°) 16(cos 148° + jsin 148°) @ ‘This is where the polar form really comes into its own! For DeMoivre's theorem also applies when we are raising the complex number to a fractional power, i.e. when we are finding the roots of a complex number. e.g. To find the square root of z= 4(cos 70° +-jsin 70°) We have V7= 2! = [A(cos70°+jsin70)# i.e. n=} = (cos? jin" = 88 (cos + jn? = 2(c0838" + jin 38°) It works every time, no matter whether the power is positive, negative, whole number or fraction. In fact, DeMoivre’s theorem is so important, let us write it own again, Here goes: If z=1(cos6 + jsin6), then 2" =458 Engineering Mathematics (a) 2 ees jsnd), then = Peer] for any value of n. Look again at finding a root of a complex number. Let us find the cube root of 2 =B(cos 120" + jsin 120°). Here is the given complex number shown on an Argand diagram: = 8|120° Of course, we could say that @ was ‘I revolution + 120" the vector would stil be in the same position, or, for that matter (2 revs + 120°), (3 revs + 120°) etc. ie. 7 =8|120" or 8[480° or 8[840° or 8[1200: etc. and if we now apply DeMoivre's theorem to each of these, we get: a or 83/480" og or etc, 3 If we simplify these, we get: 74 = 240" o 2|160° or 2{280° or 2|400"ete. If we put each of these on an Argand diagram, as follows: wwe see we have three quite different results for the cube root of z and also that, the fourth diagram would be a repetition of the first. Any subsequent calculations merely repeat these three positions. Make a sketch of the first three vectors on a single Argand diagramComplex numbers 2 459 Here they are. The cube roots of z = 8(cos 120° +, We see, therefore, that there are 3 cube roots of a complex number. Also, if you consider the angles, you see that the 3 roots are equally spaced round the Giagram, any two adjacent vectors being separated by degrees. ‘That is right. Therefore all we need to do in practice is to find the first of the roots and simply add 120° on to get the next ~ and so on. ‘Notice that the three cube roots of a complex number are equal in modulus, (rin an equal spc at inten #2 e120 Now let us take another example, On to the next fiame To find the three cube roots of z = $(cos225° + jsin 225°) 32 ‘The first root is given by sy =H = (coe + jn) a =171(cos 75° +jsin75°) 4 = L775" We know that the other cube roots are the same length (modulus), ie. 1-71, and separated a intervals of ©, be 20 So the three cube roots are: a = VIDS = 17195" 25 =1-71|315° It helps to see them on an Argand diagram, so sketch them on a combined diagram,460 Engineering Mathematics Here they ar We find any roots of a complex number in the same way: (@) Apply DeMoivre’s theorem to find the first of the 1 roots, (b) The other roots will then be distributed round the diagram at regular inter o 32, A complex number, therefore, hi 2 quae roots, separated by 2 ne, 180" 360) 3 cube roots, separated by 28° i. 120° 4 forth rots separa by 3" e, 0 St ots sept by ‘There would be 5 fifth roots separated by And now: To find the § fifth roots of 12| 300" Oy = 18/8 We now have to find the value of 12). Do it by logs 2130 1260" Let A= 124, Then log A Hog i2= 2 0792) = 0.2188 50: An 164s ‘The first of the 5 fifth roots is therefore 21 = 1-644[60" ‘The others will be of the same modulus, ie. 1-644, and equally separated at ie. 72° intervals of. ee So the requited 5 fifth roots of 12[300° are: z= V6HLGO? 29 = 16441132" 2 = 1.644208" 24 = 1648276 75 = 16441248 Sketch them on an Argand diagram, as before.Complex numbers 2 461 a 644|_60" 2q = 1-644|132" 25 = 1644|204" 74 = 1644|276° 1-644|348" Although there are $ fifth roots of a complex number, we are sometimes asked to find the principal root. This is always the root whose vector is nearest to the positive OX axis In some cases, it may be the first root. In others it may be the last root. The only test isto see which root is nearest to the positive OX axis. Ifthe first and last root are equidistant from the x-axis, the principal root is taken to be the first root. In the example above, the principal root is therefore 25 = 1-644 (348° G6) Good. Now here is another example worked in detail, Follow it. We have to find the 4 fourth roots of z = 7(cos80* + jsin 80°) (20° Now find 7: by logs. Let A= 74 1 then toga = Hog? = Host) =02118 and a= 1607 2 = 1-627 (20° ‘The other roots will be separated by intervals of 3&2 90° ‘Therefore the 4 fourth roots are: 21 =1-627|20° m= 1-627|110° 25 = 1-627(200° 4 = 1-627|290° And once again, draw an Argand diagram to illustrate these roots.462 Engineering Mathematics a1 = 1-627|_20" = 1627\110" | % z= 1:627|200° 24 = 1627|290° And in this example the principal fourth root is w since It is the root nearest to the positive OX axis. Now you can do one entirely on your oven, Here itis. Find the three cube roots of 6(cos 240° +-jsin 240"). Represent them on an Argand diagram and indicate whieh is the principal cube root. When you have finished it, move on to Frame 39 and check your results 1 = 1817 80" 22 1817|200" 25 = 1817(320 Principal root: 23 = 1:817|320° Here is the working: 620 2, — 68/24 = 817/80" Interval between roots = 35°. — 120: ‘Therefore the roots are: A= 1817/80 = 1817200 73 = 1817/320° The principal root is the root nearest to the positive OX axis. In this case, then, the principal root is z5 = 1-817|320 On to the next frameComplex numbers 2 ae3 SSeS SS a By DeMoivre’s theorem, we know that: cosn0 +. jsin nd = (cos6 +jsiné)" ‘The method is simply to expand the right-hand side as a binomial series, after, which we can equate real and imaginary parts. ‘An example will soon show you how it is done: To find expansions for cos30 and sin 36. We have: 0s 38 + jsin 39 = (cos + jsin6)® =(c iis? where ¢ = cosé s=sin@ Now expand this by the binomial series ~ like (a + b)* so that cos 36+ jsin 36 = Opes ke ww Because cos30 + sin 30 = 3 + 3c2(js) + 3cUf) + Gs)? =@ 4/823 — Bes? — je = (Bes?) + 18s — st) Now, equating real parts and imaginary parts, we get and sin 30 = 3cos? @sing— sin*@ If we wish, we can replace sin? by (1 — cos? 6) and cos@ by (1 ~ sin?) so that we could write the results above as: cos 30 = {all in terms of cos) sin 30 = (all in terms of siné)464 Engineering Mathematics (3) cos 80 = 4cos'#—3cos0 sin30=3sing—4sin*6 Because €08 36 = cos? 6 3cos4(1 — cos? #) = cos" #~ 3c0s0+3c0s'e = 4¢0s" 9 — Sc0s6 and sin 30 = 3(1 — sin? )sin@—sin*@ = 3sino—3sin®0— sine ~3sino—4sin*@ ‘While these results are useful, i is really the method that counts. So now do this one in just the same way: Obtain an expression for cos4# in terms of cosé. When you have finished, check your result with the next frame Working: cos 40+ jsin 40 = (cos +-jsina)* =(ctis)" = cf 4 de (js) + 67 (js)? + des)? + (is)* + Hes 62s? — jes? 4st (E628 4st) 4 id's — des!) Equating real parts: cos40 = c4 — 62s? + st =e 620-2) 4 -2F 62 + 6c4 41-27 +4 = 88 — 8? +1 = 8c0s" 6 ~8cos? +1 ‘Now for a different problem. On to the next frame465 Complex numbers 2 Expansions for cos’? and sin’ in terms of sines and cosines cos 8+ jsing = cos —jsing Also, by DeMoivre’s theorem: 7" = cosnd-+jsinnd a zw” 1 aller 243, =2cosnd and 2 ~ J, = j2sinno and cos né — jsinind Let us collect these four results together: z = cos -jsin8 vata teose a+ a 2cosnd a Make a note of these results in your record book ‘Then move on and we will see how we use them We shall expand cos*@ as an example Ge i From our results: 247 = 2cosd (econ? = (c+) =2 r32(2) +32 1 =2+3r434) 22 Now here is the trick: we rewrite thls, collecting the terms up in pairs from the ‘two extreme ends, thus: cons = (+5) +3(2+3) And, from the four results that we noted:466 Engineering Mathematics (20s)? = 2.083043 x 2cos@ Bos? = 20838 + 6c0s8 4cos' 8 = cos 36+ 3086 costo = }(c0s38 + 30080) Now one for you: Find an expression for sin’ 4, Work in the same way, but, this time, remember that 1, 1 2-3 =/2sind and 2 ~ 5 = j2sin ao. When you have obtained a result, check it with the next frame sint@ =} {cos 40 ~ 40520. al goasing, 2 Gasino*=(e-!)" -#-02(2) 16¢(3)-0(3) +4 (+2) (+3) *6 1 Now: 74h =2c pn 2080 Because we have: 1 L6sin* 6 = 2c0s46~ 4 x 20826 +6 sin*6= | [cos46 ~ $0829.13] 8 ‘They are all done in the same way: once you know the trick, the rest is easy. Now let us move on to something newComplex numbers 2 467 Loci problems We are sometimes required to find the locus of a point which moves in the (49) Argand diagram according to some stated condition. Before we work through one or two examples of this kind, let us just revise a couple of useful points. You will remember that when we were representing a complex number in polar form, i.e. 2= a +-jb = r(cos0 +jsin6), we said that: (a) ris called the modulus of z and is written ‘mod z’ of |z| and (b) is called the argument of z and is written ‘arg z’ te} Also r= Va? 1B and 6 = tar so that |= Vee TPE and age = tan-"{2} Simla, 2 =x-+jy then a= andarg7 = a= yoe-+y? and argz = tan“ a Keep those in mind and we are now ready to tackle some examples. Example 1 . If z=x+4)p, find the locus defined Loces [2] = 5. as [7 =5. lest ty as Now we know that in this case, b= vate The locus is defined as yx? +y? =$. stay? =25 This is a circle, with centre at the origin and with radius 5. That was easy enough. Move on for Example 2468 Engineering Mathematics GD care2 it So the locus ange ~ Zs therefore the stright tne y= x andy > 0, All locus problems at this stage are fundamentally of one of these kinds. Of course, the given condition may look a trifle more involved, but the approach is always the same. Let us look at a more complicated one. Next frame GD eames ——(i‘“‘SOSOSOS™S™SO™C™C;C~™ If z=. + jy find the equation of the locus [21 2-1 Since z= x4 jy: zt+laxsivtlatD+pveniaaa z-Lextiy-1=(-1 +i a All that now remains is to multiply across by the denominator and tidy up the result. So finish it off in its simplest form.Complex numbers 2 469 Grey 4 Gy We haa & +) (1 +y Sotherefore (+1)? 4? = afer +} 2 +axt ty mA? 241+) = 4x2 — 8x44 4 ay? 32 1043-432 =0 This is the equation of the given locus. Although this takes longer to write out than either of the first two examples, the basic principle is the same. The given condition must be a function of either the modulus or the argument. ‘Move on now to Frame 54 for Example 4 Example 4 (3) If = x +p, find the equation of the locus arg(z2) xtiy= gz = 0 = tant{” =xtiv=rle -. argz=0=tan-"{7} tno=2 By DeMoivre’s theorem, 22 = 2 [24 arg(2’) = 26 2tane 1 tan?@ 2tand = tan? 9— vet aay By=P-2% 3 Pax 4dy In that example, the given condition was a function of the argument. Here is one for you to do: But tané= If 2.x 4) find the equation ofthe locus angle 1) = 2 Do it carefully; then check with the next frame470 Engineering Mathematics BS Here is the solution set out in detail. I 2x 4p, find the locus are +1) =2. xy 2 ab laxtipe lett fy Ye poe wewt{aa}-3 = daci-8 y= Vi(x+1) for y>0 {And that is all there isto that, argz +1 ‘Now do this one. You will have no trouble with it. It + iy, find the equation of the locus |z~ 1] = 5 When you have finished it, move on to Frame S6 GD teres: 04, given tos ie 11 =x biy-1=(e- Iti z-i=Ve-1% +7 (x-17 +? x24 14 yt =25 2x? Every one is very much the same. ‘This brings us to the end of this Programme, except for the final Can You? checklist and Test exercise, Before you work through them, read down the Revision summary (Frame 57), just to refresh your memory of what we have covered in this Programme. So on now to Frame 7 57) Revision summary Polar frm ofa complex nuanber a+ jb = r(cosé + jsin8) mod z= |2| = Va +e? argz = tan-?{2} Negative angles 2 rleos|-)+-jsin{-0) cos|-6] = cos sin(-6) 2=1(cos6—jsin6) = rl6 6 sinoComplex numbers 2 am 3 Multiplication and division in polar form Wo = nlOs m= nlle then Zitz = Nr2|1 + Or 21 M6 ~ op non 4 DeMoivte’s theorem If z= r(cos6 + jsin0), then 2" = r"(cosnf + jsinnd) S Exponential form of a complex number z=atib standard form =r(cosd +jsin®) polar form =re® (in radians] exponential form Also el = cos + jsin? € = cose —jsind 6 Logarithm of @ complex number zor! 2 Ing =Inr+j0 7 Loci problems I zaxtiy, lel yoe ee age = tan-2} ‘That's it! Now you are ready for the Cam You? checklist in Frame 58 and the Test exercise in Frame 59 Can You? Checklist 2 ww Check this list before and after you try the end of Programune test. On a scale of 1 to § how confident are you that you can: Frames «Use the shorthand form for a complex number in polar form? Do Yes Oo C { t u No ‘© Write complex numbers in polar form using negative angles? Go) Yes o Oo Oo O UO WN472 Engineering Mathematics Frames ‘¢ Multiply and divide complex numbers in polar form? a vs O O O O CO Ww ‘+ Use DeMoivre's theorem? ea Yes 1 oO oO a No ‘ Find the roots of a complex number? ep vy O O 0 O O Ne ‘* Demonstrate trigonometric identities of multiple angles using complex numbers? aa Yes oOo GC Nn ‘Solve loci problems using complex numbers? @-e wY% O O O 40 No & Test exercise 2 59 gy 1 Express in polar form, z= —$ ~ 73. 2 Express in the form a+ jb (@ 286° ) 887° 3 Uz, = 12(c0s 128° + jsin 125°) and By) > Sccza +yan72, od 2c and) 2 ging the usin polar form. ” If 2=2(c0s25° + jsin25°), find 2 in polar form. 5. Find the three cube roots of 8(cos 264° +-jsin 264°) and state which of )} them is the principal cube root. Show all three roots on an Argand diagram, Expand sin 46 in powers of sin@ and cos6. 7 Express cos* in terms of cosines of multiples of 8. 8 Ifz=2-+/y, find the equations of the two loci defined by: (@ e-41=3 ©) ange +2)=FComplex numbers 2 & Further problems 2 2 m3 k WO 6 8 9 10 & A Mfz=x-+iy, where x 1 are real, find the values of x and y when 32 4 1-7 7-3-7 In the Argand diagram, the origin is the centre of an equilateral triangle and one vertex of the triangle is the point 3 + jV3. Find the complex numbers representing the other vertices. Express 2.4-j3 and 1 ~ j2 in polar form and apply DeMoivre's theorem to cevatuate 2 +73)" express the result inthe form a jb and in exponential form. 1-7? Find the fifth roots of ~3 + j3 in polar form and in exponential form. Express 5-+/12 in polar form and hence evaluate the principal value of YGF), giving the results in the form a + jb and in the form re!’ Determine the fourth roots of ~16, giving the results in the form @ + jb. Find the fifth roots of —1, giving the results in polar form. Express the principal root in the form re. Determine the roots of the equation »* + 64 =O in the form a + jb, where a and b are real. Determine te the ae roots of 2! ging then im md! argument form. Eres the principal ot in he fm a+ Show that the equation z3 = 1 has one real root and two other roots Which are not real, and that, if one of the non-real roots is denoted by the other is then u. Mark on the Argand diagram the points which represent the three roots and show that they are the vertices of an equilateral triangle. Determine the fifth roots of (2—j$), giving the results in modulus/ argument form. Express the principal root in the form a+b and in the form re. Solve the equation z+ 2(1+)z+2=0, giving each result in the form a4 jb, with @ and b correct to 2 places of decimals. Express e!~#/? in the form a+b. Obtain the expansion of sin 76 in powers of sin#. Express sin®x as a series of terms which are cosines of angles that are multiples of 2. 473474 Engineering Mathematics 16 22 If z= x+y, where x and y are real, show that the locus Risa Fal ice and determine sete ard as z= F isa circle. Find its centre + sow hat eos} If z= x- jy, determine the Cartesian equation of the locus of the point z 0, les i? 4 le 72h If z=x+ jy, determine the equations of the two lock: wo EHes ant Oy onft2} ot defined by: +2 zt (a) 2-1)" and (b) e{25}-3 Prove that (fas +2 =e, — the ference ofthe arguments of and 2s ©) tare {2 +2} =} then [21] = zal fz =x+jy, determine the loci in the Argand diagram, defined by: (@) (e+ 72)? — 2 ja? = 24 (b) [z+ jki? + [2 — jk? = 10K (k > 0)