I. Da Riva and A.

Sanz: Condensation in Ducts © Hanser Publishers, Munich 1991

/. Da Riva and A. Sanz

Condensation in Ducts

Phase changing flows are being considered for thermal man-

agement in space platforms. The resulting flow patterns are
very complicated and extremely sensitive to gravity action.
Concerningfluidflowin ducts, the available evidence indi-
cates that although the pressure loss does not depend too
much on the fluid flow pattern,, the heat transfer (and result-
ing phase change) does.
A simple exercise to illustrate this point is presented in this a) b)
paper. It deals with condensing flow in straight circular Fig. 1. Flow geometry when gravity is (a) dominant, in a horizontal
cross-sectional ducts. tube, and (b) negligible. The void fraction (vapor fractional area in
Two extreme configurations are considered here, one cor- the figure) is the same in both cases
responds to a stratified flow and the other to an annular flow.
Both types offlow patterns have been extensively considered
in the past and from this point of view almost nothing is new A comparison of condensing flows inside ducts under
in the paper, but past results look conflictive and this could be normal and under reduced gravity conditions has been
due to the limitations and computational intricacies of the already attempted [3]. The basic difference between the two
models used. Thus the problem has been reformulated from cases results from the stratified condensate layer which
the onset and the results are presented as the evolution of the appears in horizontal ducts when gravity is dominant (fig.
vapor quality (vapor to total mass flow rate) along the duct, la) and which is almost inactive in the heat transfer pro-
in typical cases. cess, whereas the thin condensate film formed in the duct is
The results presented here indicate that within the validity very effective. When gravity effects are negligible (fig. lb)
of the present models and the assumed ranges of mass flow the annular flow pattern prevails and the much thicker layer
rate, duct diameter, thermal conditions and fluid characteris- is less effective than the thin condensate which appeared in
tics, the length of the ducts required to achieve complete fig. la.
condensation under zero gravity are an order of magnitude The present paper is organized as follows. The relevance
larger than in horizontal tubes under normal terrestrial condi- of two-phase flow for the thermal management systems of
tions. large space platforms is briefly introduced in sec. 2. This
will focus the present study on space applications.
Then a fairly general model of condensing nearly one-
1 Introduction dimensional fluid flow is introduced in sec. 3. Particular
attention is paid to the wall friction and heat transfer
The flow in ducts out of evaporators would be dominated phenomena.
by condensation. Normal gravity enhances condensation The mentioned general model is particularized to the
because body forces help drive the condensed liquid. stratified flow case in sec. 4. To this aim the work of Rujfer
Thence, condensation in ducts under reduced gravity is and Kezios [4] is followed except that gas friction at the wall
much less efficient than that inside horizontal ducts under (which is dominant at the high vapor quality end of the
normal gravity. tube) and gas momentum are taken into account. The
The flow patterns in either case differ substantially, fig. addition of these terms allows to avoid a singularity at the
1. Regarding this figure, it should be said that the stratified starting of condensation which appears in the model of
(fig. la) and the annular (fig. lb) flow patterns are the most Rujfer and Kezios.
common ones under normal and under reduced gravity The annular flow case is then worked out by use of well
conditions respectively and are taken here as typical. Other known heat transfer models [5] and [6] in sec. 5. A com-
flow patterns exist depending on the flow conditions. The parison between the results furnished by either model is
definition of these flow patterns and of their boundaries presented as a support in the selection of the seemingly
have been much debated. The reader should be addressed more appropriate model.
to basic texts on the field such as [1] or [2], among others. The evolution of the vapor quality, w, along the duct is
then calculated in either case for five typical fluids and
Mail address: Prof. A. Sanz, Laboratorio de Aerodinamica,
under thermal conditions close to those chosen in [3], but
E.T.S.I. Aeronauticos, Univ. Politecnica, Pza. Cardenal Cisneros, with much higher flow rates (as in [4]) closer to the values
s/n, E-28040 Madrid, Spain. relevant to the large space platforms requirements.

Microgravity sci. technol. IV/3 (1991) 179

 I. Da Riva and A. Sanz: Condensation in Ducts

The results presented in this paper seem to indicate that formed included different working fluids (either single or
the condensation enhancing effects of gravity are, at the two-phase), interfaces with the heat loads, pumping sys-
flow rates considered, much larger than those presented in tems, thermal storage, and radiators for heat rejection. In
[3]. these studies the degree of promise of the different options
is measured against comprehensive criteria.
2 Two-phase Flow in Large Space Platforms A comparison between single and two-phase ammonia
loops for a high power space platform is presented in [8].
The thermal management systems of future space platforms The fluid inventory, required flow rates, pumping power
will require the transfer of kilowatts of thermal energy at and pipe diameters are considerably reduced for two-phase
distances of over 50 m to remote radiators, with small systems, which on the other hand are intrinsically isother-
temperature differences. Many of the systems proposed to mal. However, when the radiator is included the two-phase
cope with these requirements employ a two-phase fluid loop systems show no significant advantages since the radiator
to transport the thermal energy. mass is the dominant term.
Using the latent heat of fluids, orders of magnitude more Although many investigations have been done to deter-
heat can be transferred, under nearly isothermal conditions, mine the criteria for the design of a two-phase flow system,
than is possible using the sensible heat of single phase one of the unknown areas is the behaviour of two-phase
fluids. flows in a reduced gravity environment. The nature of the
In recent years many possible candidate options have flow, the geometry of the flow system and the properties of
been considered in the literature [7, 8]. The trade-offs per- the fluids all have significant influence. Then the designer is

List of Symbols

AJ?L internal cross-sectional area of a duct [m2] V pressure [Pa]

AG gas filled part of the cross-sectional area of a duct Pmt liquid-vapor pressure [Pa]
[m2] 9 heat flux [W m- 2 ]
AL liquid filled part of the cross-sectional area of a IT
duct [m2] u* friction velocity [ms"'] u* = /—
D diameter [m] V C
u+ dimensionless velocity u + = —-
Fr P r r i i i n f i i n m n p r PV —
r I v J u u C IluilLLJCf JT f — r ^ r
u
elA2FTpg
h D IV vapor quality w — —
Nu liquid Nusselt number Nu = ~^—
k,
NTD Taitel and Dukler dimensionless group, eq. (10)' X axial distance to duct entry [m]
O JT ' 1 ^
z vertical distance above arbitrary datum plane
Pr liquid Prandtl number Pr = - ^ ^ [m]
kL n* wetted perimeter of a duct [m]
_ ,, , Am Lockhart-Martinelli pressure loss multiplier
Re Reynolds number Re =
7lDfla
a void fraction a — ~-
a h/K AFL
Sf Strfnn n i i m h r r
O l C l r t l l IIUIIIUCI
f
t>/ —
C
PL(.TMI - Tw) d annular film thickness [m]
T temperature [Kj du*
T liquid-vapor temperature [K] <5 + dimensionless film thickness <5+ = -—
* sal U
T w wall temperature [K]
* j" fluid dynamic viscosity [Pa s]
T+ dimensionless temperature [Kl T+ = •-—•; pL
V fluid kinematic viscosity [m2 s _l ]
K eT„, fluid density [kg m~33
V mean fluid velocity [m s _l ] average shear stress at the wall [kgm - 1 s -2 ]
cp constant-pressure fluid specific heat [J kg - 1 K~'] 0 polar angle of stratified flow interface [°]
f Fanning friction factor
g acceleration due to gravity fm s -2 ] Subscripts
K, average convective heat transfer coefficient
[Wm-2K-'] F liquid film
K heat of vaporization or condensation [J kg~'] G gas
h
'f8 heat of condensation corrected by partial subcool- L liquid
ing effect [J kg -1 ] eq. (3) SG gas flowing alone in the duct
k thermal conductivity [Wm _ l K"1] SL liquid flowing alone in the duct
m fluid mass flow rate [kg s"1] TP two phase

180 Microgravity sci. technol. fV/3 (1991)

 I. Da Riva and A. Sanz: Condensation in Ducts

forced either to operate in flow regimes where gravity is not and temperature are assumed to be constant along the duct
important, which results in obvious limitations, or to place for calculating fluid thermodynamic and transport proper-
the liquid in position at 1 g as it would be under reduced g ties.
conditions, in order to validate the ground-based test data. Fig. 2 summarizes the flow geometry. Although the
It has been determined from analysis and tests [9] that figure is particularized to the stratified flow case, it is
the trade-off between pipe size and pressure drop favors the sufficiently general for the present purposes.
transport of the liquid at mass flow rates per unit are near The conservation equations in the control volume, which
the boundaries of the stratified flow which would exist in a encloses liquid, L, and vapor, G, are:
horizontal pipe under normal g conditions. Mass preservation equation
It should be interesting to compare the condensing
stratified flows near the onset of interface instability (where (mL+mG) = 0.
transition to other configurations will appear) to the con- dx
densing annular flows, a situation which would prevail mL and mG are the liquid and vapor mass flow rates,
under reduced g, for the same fluid, flow rate and tempera- respectively.
ture level, in straight circular cross-sectional ducts.
Two accounts of already performed (and planned for the Momentum balance equation
near future) experiments on two-phase flow under reduced
gravity conditions, in the United States, are given in _d_
QLALV\+PGAGVI
[10,11].
dp A d
3 Condensing Flow Model {H-z)-^dz

In this paragraph a simple unified model of condensing flow -nLTwL~-nGzlpG. (i)

inside a duct is introduced. Later on this model will be
particularized to the two extreme cases which have been Q, A and V indicate density, effective cross-sectional area
sketched infig.1. and (average) velocity of the corresponding fluid phase,
The main simplifying assumptions of the model are: respectively. The left hand sides give the change in momen-
(3) The duct is horizontal. tum. The first term on the right hand side is the resultant of
(2) The static pressure is uniform in each cross section. the static pressure on the fluid (liquid or vapor) per unit
(3) The liquid flow is assumed to be uniform in each cross axial length of the control volume. AFL is the internal
section accounting for the effect of film thickening. cross-sectional area of the duct. The second term is the
(4) The vapor flow is also uniform in each cross section. resultant of hydrostatic pressures acting on planes x and
Regarding the particularization to the stratified flow case x + dx which enclose different liquid areas. This term dis-
two additional features of the model should be mentioned. appears in the reduced gravity (annular flow) case. The last
(5) Liquid film thickening implies an axial component of two terms are the wall friction of the liquid and vapor,
hydrostatic pressure. This effect is accounted for in a way respectively, per unit axial length, here xwL and xwG are
which resembles that in open channel hydraulics although average shear stresses at the wall, and Fl, and YlG are the
here the vapor pressure could change along the duct [4], corresponding wetted perimeters.
(6) The condensate formed in the film flows down the duct No force due to phase change at the interface is consid-
wall and joins the bulk liquid flowing along the bottom of ered. Condensation is assumed to take place in the periph-
the duct. The liquid film is so thin that it can be neglected eral liquid film.
both regarding gas flow area and liquid wall friction.
An additional simplifying assumption must be introduced Thermal energy equation
in connection with the fluid thermodynamic and transport
properties. dmG
(7) The wall temperature, Twi is kept constant. On the h«$J«n ~ T,M = ~h'fs (2)
dx
other hand, the pressure loss is very small compared to the
saturation pressure level. Then the fluid saturation pressure This equation merely indicates that the heat transfer to the
wall, the area of which is A = nD per unit length, equals the
enthalpy change form saturated vapor to condensate.
hm is an average heat transfer coefficient.
Tsa, is the saturated vapor temperature,
VAPOR T„, the wall temperature and
Kg the corrected value of the heat of condensation.
The film temperature is nonuniform and slightly below
LIQUID saturation temperature because of partial subcooling of the
liquid, then [4]:
l^dx —j (3)
Fig. 2. Geometry used in the model of stratified flow condensation where cpL is the liquid specific heat.

Microgravity sci. technol. IV/3 (1991) 181

 I. Da Riva and A. Sanz: Condensation in Ducts

3.1 Static Pressure Loss

ReL = (l ReG=w~Re.
In addition to the terms giving the friction at the wall,
Finally, the expressions of the wall friction per unit duct
which will be introduced in sec. 3.2, eq. (1) exhibits a term
length are, respectively:
which cannot be easily evaluated a priori. This term is the
static pressure gradient. 1 / 1 - w V m2A
The static pressure gradient is related in [4] to a friction
factor via a mixture approximation correlation. Different
approximations of the two phase flow based on the single (6)
phase flow of a liquid of average properties running full in QGAFl
the duct of diameter D have been suggested in [12]. In any Now the Reynolds numbers, Re, (i = L, G), and then the
case the pressure loss is related to the friction factor by friction factors,/,, will depend both on the geometry of the
[13]: cross sectional liquid-vapor configuration, through UL\U
dp _ 32m2frr or nG jll, on the vapor quality, w, and on the void fraction,
(4) a. It is convenient to express fL a n d / G as:
dx Q7P7l2D5 '
where fTP is a function of the mixture Reynolds number (of r
the Poiseuille, Blasius or other type) and the subscript TP
A n ^)-A[ k^)(\-w)^;
indicates two phase. The average single phase flow is con-
sidered as laminar when ReTP is less than 2,400 and turbu- Lo (7)
/ 0 7T^=/ C ?.» w
lent otherwise (as it occurs in the single phase flow). The n n
mixture Reynolds number, ReTP> is defined as: where L, = — 1 when the corresponding flow is laminar or
L, = —0.25 when it is turbulent (according to Poiseuille or
Am Blasius formulae) [13].
Re^ = -J^-Xe,
1tDyLTp flTp

where Re is the Reynolds number in terms of the gas

viscosity. QTP, \irP are defined as: 3.3 Dimensionless Momentum Equation

0 T P = ( l - a ) e i . + aaG> Bringing eqs. (4)-(7) to eq. (1) we reach:

\KTP = (1 - a)(iL + anG,
" ( 1 - w ) 2 , QL** , 1
D (H-z)-^ dz
a being the cross-sectional void fraction. dx 1—« QG a FrAFlD dz
The equations for the calculations of QTP and \iTP are *L

those of special case I in [12]. They correspond to the

no-slip restriction VLjVa = 1. The validity of this restric-
tion is very difficult to appraise but it gives the correct ~2eTPjTP n (l-a)2 A
U
behavior in the two extreme cases, namely, liquid only .QLnGw2^ (nG
(a = 0) and vapor only (a = 1).
Note that, in general, ReTP as well asfTP will depend on
QG n a2 \n (8)

a. where Fr is a Froude number defined as:

mJ
Fr = Q\AFLDg
3.2 Friction Terms
Several terms of eq. (8), which depend on the particular
In order to evaluate the friction terms in the right hand side model under consideration, are specified in table 1.
of eq. (1) we will introduce the usual friction factors at the
wall for the liquid and vapor. 3.4 Dimensionless Energy Equation

Eq. (2) in dimensionless form becomes:

*WL =26L * ^ ' %wG =
2 QG V
^ G
'
D dw _ _ ANu u,
_ — *-± (9)
where fL and fG will depend on ReL and ReG respectively.
dx Pr Re SfnG
The average liquid and gas velocities are:
where Nu is the liquid Nusselt number:
m, 1—w m
QLAL 1 - a QLAFL ' Nu = h.„D
k,
mG w m
Vf: = (5) Pr the liquid Prandtl number:
QGAG aQGAFL
w being the vapor quality. Pr=C-^,
The Reynolds numbers based on the respective hydraulic
diameters, DEL = 4ALjnL and DEG = AAG\UG, can be writ- Re is the, already introduced, Reynolds number based on
ten as: the gas viscosity, and Sf the Stefan number:

182 Microgravity sci. technol. IV/3 (1991)

 I. Da Riva and A. Sanz: Condensation in Ducts

Table 1. Geometry and flow-dependent terms in eqs. (10), (11), and (12)

type of flow stratified annular

configuration

" fa
\U
n —<p sin 2cp 25V
•K 2TT

ut\n

nGm i-^

16 ¥± — 1 16^-1
HGRe % fiGRe

*•> 0.079
\\iGRe
feJ-^"
n)
0.079 (t±±T
\ftGRe)

Re \ %

' # ' )
0.079

-0.25 -0.25

-0.25

&-'->*£dz
1 2 . , / sin 2<p
FrAP,D 1%Fr - s m - > - cosp I <?-•—-—

4JVu /ij. 4WM

(I-H-)
3^ V eJ W Pr2Re2Sf__ PrReLSf

3/4
sinl/3a> da)

comments on Nu h,„ has been expressed by means of a Nu=NUsL

modification of Nnsselt's result for the
outside of horizontal tubes [4], [ 15]

Microgravity sci. technol. IV/3 (1991) 183

 I. Da Riva and A. Sanz: Condensation in Ducts

h'u The model is no longer valid in the neighborhood of

Sf = w = 0 where, according to the results presented in fig. 3, the
CPL{T,UI - 7*„)
void fraction, a, does not vanish. Arriving at this final
Among these four dimensionless groups, Nu, Pr, Re, Sf,
situation would imply large pressure variations which will
only the Nusselt number, Nu, depends on the geometry and
on the model used (See table 1),

4 Stratified Condensing Flow Model

The particularization of the above equations to the

"---^ H
2°
o
stratified condensing flow model is quite straightforward.
_ FREON 11
w
The mathematical expressions given in the relevant column ' • • - . , .

of table 1 should be taken into account. \-a FREON 12

\
4.1 Variation of the Vapor Quality along the Duct in the ^ ^ -
Stratified Condensing Flow Model FREON 22
^ v _
AMMONIA ,
The autonomous system of differential eqs. (8,9) with
initial conditions
x = 0, w = 1, a = J ,
Fig. 3. Liquid fraction, 1 — a vs. vapor quality, w, for stratified
has been numerically integrated in typical cases using a condensing flow of several liquids along horizontal ducts. Solid line:
Newton-Raphson scheme. Numerical values for the compu- stratified smooth regime; dashed line: stratified-wavy regime
tations are given in tables 2 and 3 and the results are
summarized in figs. 3 and 4.

Table 2. Condensation in ducts. Typical fluid properties;

values: Tvl = 300 K, Tiat -T„= 10 K
assumed
o
K_J^
FREON 12
>X FREON 11
fluid1 (QCIQL)-™2 PLI^G Pr Sf
\ ^ FR EON 22
V \ \
Freon 11 4.42 37.6 4.21 21.0

Freon 12 29.9 16.5 3.05 14.7 \\ H2° \ ^

^
Freon 22 39.6 14.5 2.87 15.0 \ \ AMI 40NIA ^

water

ammonia
0.0258

13.8
94.3

12.3
5.86

1.42
57.2

24.7
40 80 \V x/O

Fig. 4. Vapor quality, w, vs. dimensionless distance along the duct,

120 160 200

1
Data for Freon 11,12, and 22 as well as for ammonia are from x ID, for stratified condensing flow of several liquids along horizontal
[16]. Those for water are from [17]. ducts

Table 3. Condensation in ducts. Parameters depending on m and D; assumed values mhfg = 103 W, D = 16.1 • 10 ' m; stratified case

fluid m 103 Fr 103 Re - 10- 3 4"« ^ 1 ( / NTD3

[kgs" 1 ] a((p)Pr Re Sf (iG

Freon 11 5.54 2.17 39.8 5.67 0.766

Freon 12 7.26 4.74 44.2 4.84 0.914

Freon 22 5 55 3.36 32 5 5.95 2.02

water 0.410 0.0259 3 56 33.5 10.6

ammonia 0.864 0.317 5.97 27.0 35 4

3/4
2
a(<p) s i n 1 ' 1 a> dco , a(0)=2.53

1
see eq. (10).

184 Microgravity sci. technol. IV/3 (1991)

 I. Da Riva and A. Sanz: Condensation in Ducts

conflict with simplifying assumption 7 in sec. 3. The effect is The momentum balance equation can be deduced from
purely local and has not been investigated further. eq. (8) with IjFr = FJG = 0. The gaseous friction terms have
not been retained because in annular condensation there are
4.2 Limits of Validity of the Stratified Model no contacts between gas and walls.

The stratified condensing flow model, which has been intro- D

duced, is based on the assumption of the stability of the dx 1- a QG a
liquid-vapor interface. This means that the points of coor-
Qi
dinates mGjAFL, mLjAFL representing any cross-section in
the flow-regime map must be enclosed in the domain corre- QTP n (i-cc)2 u\n ,u (ii)

sponding to that particular flow pattern [1,2]. The thermal energy equation is again eq. (10) although the
Among the flow maps which are available those in [14] heat transfer mechanism is different here.
are very convenient for the present purposes since the The average heat transfer coefficient h„, can be expressed
transitions between different regimes are given by means of as [15]:
analytical expressions.
The transition between the so-called stratified-smooth
and stratified-wavy regimes appears when the vapor veloc- where hSL is the heat transfer coefficient which would exist
ity is sufficiently large to produce small surface waves. if the liquid were flowing alone through the tube with the
The criterion given in [14] for the onset of instability same flow rate,
reads, in our variables, <Pt is the Lockhart-Martinelli pressure loss multiplier. In
w2(\ — w) the annular flow case [18]:
>NTD, (10)
a2(l-a)
where
Qa G\PI 1 Eq. (9) is still valid as thermal energy equation in dimen-
N:„ 4. -0- 0 ^ 1 - ^ I D E - sionless form, although in the annular flow case
is a dimensionless group already tabulated in table 3. Nu,
Nu =
1-a'
where NuSL is the Nusselt number if the liquid mass flow
rate were flowing alone through the tube.
This simple expression behaves correctly at both ends of
1-a
the process. When djD -4 1 the definition of the liquid
Nusselt number in terms of the hydraulic diameter of the
liquid annulus would be:

NuSL~
kL
then
NuSL
Nu =
43 '
1>
Fig. 5. The Taitel and Dukler limit for stratified smooth flow in the which agrees with the previous expression of Nu when
1 —a vs. wplane. Figures on the curves represent constant values of
the parameter w2(l — w)ja2(l — a) which appears in eq. (10) djD 4 1.
The agreement at the other end is obvious; when a -* 0,
Curves of constant values of the ratio w2(\ — w)j Nu -» NuSL.
a2( 1 — a) in the (1 — a) vs. w plane have been represented in
fig. 5. In order to assess the validity of the stratified-smooth 5.1 Heat Transfer Coefficient in Annular Flow
flow model we superimpose figs. 3 and 5 taking into ac-
count (10) and the values of NTD given in table 3. The Different correlations are available for calculating the heat
change of regime can be shown in fig. 3. transfer coefficient hm inside horizontal or slightly inclined
tubes in the annular flow regime. It would be interesting to
5 Annular Condensing Flow Model compare two of the most often used before selecting that
appropriate for our purpose.
In the case of the annular flow, the mathematical formula- (1) duct average heat transfer coefficient, hm:
tion is quite parallel to that in the previous paragraphs. Boyko and Kruzhilin [5] on the basis of their extensive
Now the geometrical parameter is the film thickness, 5. data with 1.2 106Pa to 9-10 6 Pa steam over a liquid
The mass preservation equation remains the same as in Reynolds number range of 6 • 103 to 3 • 105 suggest the
sec. 3. following correlation for the average Nusselt number, Nu

Microgravity sci. technol. IV/3 (1991) 185

 I. Da Riva and A. Sanz: Condensation in Ducts

Mi = , 1 °- 0 2 l g jy"Vte 0S ^i + vgI7g( (12) 10 p

: 1 i Hi 1 1 I II 1

(1 — w)0B - jr^
r
-
—a
This correlation is also recommended for other than steam- <i
P
Nu(l-o)wllh _5_,
S
! G°
water systems in the same (liquid) Prandtl number range Nu„
(0.9 to 3). - ^' S*
j S *
^, _^."
Eq (12) \,
(2) correlation for hSL: 10 -
E E
These correlations have been used widely in liquid flow - -
^S~ • A
heat transfer calculations. , Eq (IS)
10 =r <"'
Kosky and Staub [6] give the local Nusselt number in E>**"^ ;
the liquid-alone case in terms of the friction velocity - = • * - -
u
* = \AM7C?> a n d m terms of the dimensionless temperature
function T+(3+). The friction velocity, u*, becomes: 10
Re,

dp' Fig. 6. Liquid-atone Nusselt number, NuSL, vs. liquid Reynolds

number, ReL, as given by different correlations in typical cases
dW
whereas the dimensionless temperature, T + (S+), is defined
as:
Different curves of the liquid-alone Nusselt number, NuSL,
T+(d+) =QLU C L
P given by the above correlations are shown as functions of
K ReL for typical values of Pr and QT JQG and, when required,
+ of ( ! - « ) / ( ! - w ) 0 8 in fig. 6.
b = 8u*jv is a dimensionless film thickness.
This correlation is based on the Martinelli analogy be-
tween turbulent momentum and heat transfer.
T + (5 + ) is given by the following sequence of equations: FREON 22

- S +Pr, FREON )1 ,
<n>
^ ^
for S + < 5, '^S
= 5<Pr + In I + Pr ( —• - I H
\ FREON 12
2°/XV
T+(8+U
for 30 > <5 + > 5, (13)
AMMONIA ,

- 5 j p r + In (1 + 5Pr + 0.495 In (d +30] [,

for<5 + >30,
Fig. 7. Liquid fraction, 1 —a, as a function of vapor quality, w,for
+ annular flow of several liquids along ducts
whereas the dimensionless film thickness, 5 , is given by

for ReL< 3000,

5+ { (13a)
- 0.0504Pe£8 for ReL > 1000 .

The liquid-alone local Nusselt number, NuSL(x), can be \ H

!° NJN
FREON )2
n
^=y—
written as
FREON 22
1 ^ ^
NuSL(x)=PrRe (14)
T+(d+) V 2 '
• ^
where the liquid-alone friction factor is FREON 11 ^
AMMONIA^
16 s ^
for ReL < 1000 , 1000 5500 2000 2500
x/D
A
Fig. 8. Vapor quality, w., vs. dimensionless distance along the duct,
0.019Re-025 for 1000 < ReL < 105 x jD, for annular flow of several liquids along ducts

Microgravity sci. technol. IV/3 (1991)

 I. Da Riva and A. Sanz: Condensation in Ducts

4.2 Variation of the Vapor Quality Along The Duct in the Acknowledgements
Annular Model
This paper resulted from the work supported by the European
The autonomous system of differential eqs. (9) and (11), Space Agency in the preparation of the Spacecraft Thermal Con-
trol Design Data Handbook, ESA (TST-02), Rev. 4. 1988. ESA
with the mathematical expressions given in the column Contract (ESTEC/6115/84/NL/MA).
labelled annular of table 1 and in eqs. (13) and (13a), is
numerically integrated as in the stratified flow case (sec. 3.1). References
Results are given in figs. 7 and 8.
A difficulty could appear, however, near the origin 1 Govier, G. W., Aziz, K.: The Flow of Complex Mixtures in
(x = 0: w = a = 1), where the liquid is still absent and the Pipes, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, 1972.
vapor contacts the walls of the duct. Since the onset of 2 Hetsroni, G.: Handbook of Multiphase Systems, Hemisphere
condensation is not included in the model, the problems Publishing Corporation, Washington, 1982.
3 Keshock, E. G., Sadeghipour, M. S.; Acta Astronautica 10, 505
associated with the transition of UjJU from 1 to 0 are (1983).
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Aeronautics, Vol. 122, American Institute of Aeronautics and
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M i c r o g r a v i t y sci. t e c h n o l . I V / 3 (1991) 187

 J. A. Nicolas: Frequency Response of Axisymmetric Liquid Bridges g) Hanser Publishers, Munich 1991

J. A. Nicolas

Frequency Response of Axisymmetric

Liquid Bridges to an
Oscillatory Microgravity Field

2 General Inviscid Equations

The dynamical response of nearly-cylindrical liquid bridges
We consider a liquid bridge held by surface tension between
when subjected to an oscillatory microgravity field has been
two parallel, coaxial, equal-diameter solid disks, sur-
studied. The analysis has been performed by using a linear
rounded by a vacuum of gas with far lower density than the
three-dimensional model, valid for columns of arbitrary slen-
liquid, as shown in fig. 1.
derness. Theoretical results are presented and compared with
To study the frequency response of nearly-cylindrical
previous ones of a one-dimensional slice model showing that
liquid bridges to an oscillatory microgravity field, we as-
the validity of the slice model is restricted to slender columns.
sume the following: inviscid liquid, uniform and constant
liquid density, Q, as well as surface tension, o, and axisym-
metric configuration and perturbations.

1 Introduction

The liquid bridge problem has been extensively studied

either from a theoretical or from an experimental point of
view as is reflected in the number of publications on this
subject (see [1]).
Some theoretical models have already been developed
for studying the free oscillations of liquid columns (see [2]).
There are some important differences between the models
for infinite columns, based on the jet-stability theory [3-6]
and the models for finite columns [2, 7, 8], as pointed out in
[2]. The capillary jet models are unable to fulfil the
boundary conditions at the disks and the one-dimensional
models for finite columns are limited to slender columns.
In this paper we used a linear three-dimensional model
in order to study the frequency response of axisymmetric Fig. 1. Geometry and coordinate
system for the liquid bridge
liquid bridges to an oscillatory microgravity field. This
model is similar to that previously employed to obtain the
free frequencies of axisymmetric liquid columns [2]. Al- In the following, all physical quantities are made dimen-
though other analysis of dynamical response of liquid sionless using the disk radius, R, as characteristic length,
bridges to microgravity disturbances have been published and {QR^IOY12 as characteristic time. There are two dimen-
[9, 10], these studies are based on one-dimensional models sionless parameters: the slenderness of the liquid bridge,
and, therefore, restricted to slender columns, while the A = LJ2R, and the Bond number, B = QgR2/<r, which mea-
model here presented retains all the significant characteris- sures the microgravitational effects.
tics of the phenomenon (in the inviscid case), being also Under such assumptions, the flow is irrotational, there-
appropriate for short columns. Finally, the results obtained fore the velocity field can be considered to be derived from
have been compared with those of the above-mentioned a velocity potential, 0(r, z, t), that satisfy the Laplace equa-
theoretical models [9, 10], showing quite good agreement tion:
for slender columns.
A(j> = 0; (1)
and the pressure field is related to the velocity potential
Mail address: J. A. Nicolas, Departamenio de Fundamentos through the generalized Bernoulli equation:
Matematicos, E.T.S.I Aeronauticos, Universidad Politecnica,
E-28040 Madrid, Spain. P = -4>,-U^)2~SZ. (2)

188 Microgravity sci. technol. IV/3 (1991)