Geotechnical Testing Journal, Vol. 29, No.

3
Paper ID GTJ14125
Available online at: www.astm.org

Fernando A. M. Marinho1 and Orlando M. Oliveira2

The Filter Paper Method Revisited

ABSTRACT: The calibration curve for any device or method to infer suction is the most important characteristic to evaluate for reliable mea-
surement to be obtained. Some published literature 共e.g. Houston et al. 1994; Bulut et al. 2001; Leong et al. 2002兲 have presented results in which the
calibration for the filter paper method is not unique in relation to the type of suction 共i.e., total or matric兲. A review of the data from the literature is
presented, together with data showing the reason that justifies a unique calibration curve for the filter paper. It is also shown that it is necessary to
check the calibration curve by performing a quick calibration check. A procedure for calibrating the filter paper for this check is given. Fundamental
matters necessary for understanding the concept on which the filter paper method is based are also presented.
KEYWORDS: filter paper, suction, unsaturated soil, calibration

Introduction 1994; Leong et al. 2002兲 that there is a specific calibration curve for
total suction measurement. An analysis of data from the literature
The filter paper method has been used since 1937, when it was pre- and new data we have obtained will show that there is only one
sented by Gardner. Since then, many researchers have been in- calibration curve for the filter paper method, regardless of the type
volved in the use of filter paper for suction measurement. Although of suction being measured.
the filter paper method is simple, it requires extreme care and also a When determining a soil water characteristic curve 共SWCC兲 for
theoretical grounding in its principles for appropriate use to be a residual compacted soil using the filter paper method, suction
made of the suction values measured. Another important matter is plate and pressure plate, the authors found discrepancies in the suc-
the calibration curve used for the filter paper. Calibrations have tion measured using the filter paper technique. The results obtained
been performed using many different techniques and comparisons suggested that the calibration should be checked. An investigation
with other suction measurement techniques have shown reasonable of the calibration curve for the Whatman No. 42 filter paper was
agreement. The use of a unique, or almost unique, calibration curve then conducted to evaluate possible changes in the calibration
has been one of the main advantages of using the filter paper curve used. The calibration was carried out using suction plate,
method. The use of the filter paper method for measuring matric pressure plate, and NaCl solution. The results from the calibration
and total suction requires great attention to the phenomena in- of the batch used suggested that the equations obtained from the
volved in each type of suction. Aspects such as equilibration time, literature should be corrected on the basis of the new data. In order
quality of the contact between the filter paper and the soil water, to evaluate possible changes in filter paper characteristics, calibra-
and the transition from matric to total suction, have to be taken into tions were performed on four different batches of filter paper. When
account for analyzing the data presented in this paper. applying the appropriate calibration to the SWCC data, a much bet-
The definition of total suction that is usually accepted states that ter concordance was obtained between the different methods.
it is the sum of matric suction and osmotic suction. If there is no Calibration using filter papers from different batches showed re-
osmotic suction, the total suction should be equal to the matric suc- sults in agreement with the usual calibration curves, except for one
tion, regardless of the type of equipment or technique used. When batch. These results suggested that some differences may occur be-
filter paper is used, it is the type of contact between the filter paper tween batches. This study also aims to present a thorough review of
and the soil water that defines whether total or matric suction is the filter paper method, highlighting the concepts of the technique
measured. When the filter paper is in intimate contact with the soil and presenting the new calibration curve found. The authors also
water, the water absorbed by the filter paper has the same concen- make suggestions regarding the use of the filter paper technique
tration as for the soil water. In this way, the suction measured is and recommend a procedure for quickly verifying the calibration
matric suction. If the filter paper is not in intimate contact with the curve.
soil water, the transfer of water to the filter paper is made via vapor. The filter paper used in this work was the Whatman No. 42
In this case, the suction measured is total suction. On the basis of brand. The filter paper used was air-dry, not pretreated and was
these concepts, it is not possible to have two different calibration taken directly from the box 共the relative humidity in the laboratory
is approximately 60 %兲. As the initial water content of the What-
curves for the filter paper according to the type of contact or kind of
man No. 42 is approximately 6 %, this allows suction measurement
suction measured 共matric or total兲.
from 0 to approximately 29 MPa. Soil with suction higher than 29
It has been suggested by some researchers 共e.g., Houston et al.
MPa will make the filter paper work on the drying path, which is
not considered in most calibrations. This is the maximum soil suc-
Manuscript received April 20, 2005; accepted for publication December 22,
2005; published online February 2006.
tion with which the filter paper can absorb water. The filter paper
1
Associate Professor, Escola Politécnica da Universidade de São Paulo, C.P. can be used in an initially wet state, although specific calibration is
61548, São Paulo, SP 05424–970, Brazil. required for this procedure 共e.g., Gardner 1937兲.
2
Research Assistant, Escola Politécnica da Universidade de São Paulo, C.P. There are many absorbent materials that can be used as a sensor
61548, São Paulo, SP 05424–970, Brazil. 共e.g., Sibley and Williams, 1990兲. However, the ones most used are

Copyright © 2006 by ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959. 1
2 GEOTECHNICAL TESTING JOURNAL

Whatman No. 42, Schleicher & Schuell No. 589, and Fisher 9.54A.
This study presents new calibration data for the Whatman No. 42
and Fisher 9.54A filter papers.

The Filter Paper Method

History
Shull 共1916兲was probably the first researcher to use the absorption
phenomenon as a tool for measuring suction. On the basis of the
discovery of semipermeable membrane coats on seeds by Brown FIG. 1—Types of water flow from soil to filter paper.
共1907兲and Schröder 共1911兲, Shull 共1916兲used specially selected
seeds as an absorbent material. His intention was to measure “the
force with which particles of soils of varying fineness retain mois- rous material until equilibrium is reached. The operation of the fil-
ture at different degrees of dryness.” Shull 共1916兲pointed out that ter paper method is based on this principle. If the suction versus
the semipermeable characteristic of the seed is not important. This water content relationship is determined for the porous material,
was used during the calibration of the seeds. For seeds with a semi- the soil suction can be obtained by referring to the calibration
permeable membrane, the calibration was performed by osmotic curve. The equilibrium state gives the same suction in both materi-
means and for seeds without the semipermeable membrane, the als 共soil and porous material兲 but different water contents. The
vapor pressure method was used. equilibration time is very important in obtaining a correct measure-
The calibration of the seeds consisted essentially of measuring ment.
the equilibrium water content of the air-dried seeds over different Normally, an “ash-free quantitative filter paper,” such as What-
concentrations of sulfuric acid. Shull 共1916兲emphasized that the air man No. 42 or Schleicher & Schuell No. 589 white ribbon is used.
space left in the system to be brought into equilibrium with the so- The filter paper should be used directly from the box 共i.e., in an
lution vapor pressure was very small, and it seemed that the whole air-dry state兲 共e.g., Fawcett and Collis-George 1967; McQueen and
system of liquid, air, and seed came to an equilibrium within the Miller 1968; Chandler and Gutierrez 1986; Greacen et al. 1987兲.
period of the experiment 共15 days兲, except possibly in the case of The ASTM standard for the filter paper method 共D 5298-92兲 sug-
pure water. During the suction measurement, after the seeds and the gests that the filter paper should be dried in the oven for at least 16
soil had reached equilibrium, the seeds were weighed and the water h before use. This procedure may affect the absorption characteris-
content determined. By using a calibration curve, which related the tics of the paper, which may require appropriate calibration.
water content of the seeds to the vapor pressure, it was possible to
obtain the soil suction under particular conditions. The main source
of error was concluded to be evaporation during the handling of the Moisture Flow in Filter Papers
seeds after reaching equilibrium. All suction measurement techniques require an exchange of water
Using the absorption concept, Hansen 共1926兲made use of filter between the soil and the measurement system. The system can ab-
papers to obtain the soil suction. Filter papers saturated with sugar sorb water from the soil or lose water to the soil. Usually the filter
solution of previously determined vapor pressure were put in a paper method is used with the paper absorbing water. The absorp-
closed environment with the soil sample, but without contact with tion of water by the filter paper can occur in two ways: by vapor
it. After allowing time to reach equilibrium, the filter paper was flow or by liquid flow 共see Fig. 1兲.
weighed and depending on whether the paper loses or gains weight, In the vapor flow situation, the water molecules have to escape
the suction was higher or lower than the corresponding vapor pres- from the soil by overcoming the matric suction in the soil and also
sure of the sugar solution used. The method did not take into ac- the possible osmotic suction due to the presence of dissolved salts.
count the capillary effect in the filter paper and assumed that only The air space left between the soil water and the filter paper pro-
the vapor pressure of the solution, measured with a flat air-solution vides a barrier to the salts, allowing only water vapor to flow 共i.e.,
interface, gave the corresponding suction. It should be noticed that pure water兲.
the technique used by Hansen 共1926兲does not require a calibration Liquid flow occurs through the soil particles and filter paper fi-
of the filter paper, since it is the sugar solution that is the reference. bers, without the water breaking its continuity. The capillary flow
Gardner 共1937兲was probably the first researcher to use filter implies an interaction between the filter paper and the soil pore
paper as an absorbent material, without any solution previously ab- water 共i.e., with salts, etc.兲.
sorbed into it. The method adopted by Gardner was essentially the If the flow occurs by vapor transfer only, the filter paper mea-
same as that used by Shull 共1916兲. The use of filter paper as an sures total suction, since it incorporates the matric and osmotic
absorbent material gave more reliability to the measurement, since components that hold the water molecules. When the flow occurs
the industrial process involved in the production of the paper en- by capillarity, it is matric suction that is measured. In this case, the
sures that the absorption characteristics of the filter paper are essen- osmotic component does not act as an additional holding force for
tially the same and are independent of the box or batch used 共e.g., the water in its transfer to the filter paper.
Fawcett and Collis-George 1967兲. It is common when measuring total suction to place the filter
paper over a perforated inert disk or a mesh of inert material to
avoid contact with the soil water or with any other solution or sol-
Working Principles of the Filter Paper
ute. The flow of vapor through holes is studied by biologists who
When wet soil is placed in contact with a porous material with an are interested in diffusion through pores 共stomata兲 of plants. Figure
ability to absorb water, the water will pass from the soil to the po- 2 presents a schematic representation of vapor flow through holes.
 MARINHO AND OLIVEIRA ON FILTER PAPER METHOD 3

FIG. 3—Initial free energy and at equilibrium.

reaching equilibrium with time. At higher RH, there is more water

in the filter paper. The length of time for the whole system to reach
equilibrium depends, among other things, on the thickness and also
on the structure of the porous material.
When a system consisting of pure water with a flat surface and
FIG. 2—Vapor flow through holes 共modified from Coult 1973and Noggle and
air is considered, the water molecules are constantly leaving and
Fritz 1976兲.
returning to the water surface. If the same number of water mol-
ecules return to and leave the surface, an equilibrium condition ex-
In Fig. 2共a兲 共from Noggle and Fritz 1976兲, flow lines for water ists. In this way, the equilibrium relative humidity 共ERH兲 is
vapor from a circular water surface in an open environment are reached.
shown. The flow lines 共indicated by arrows兲 intersect surfaces of In order to better understand the meaning of the results obtained
equal water vapor concentration. The pattern shown in Fig. 2共a兲 is using the filter paper method, it is useful to use the Gibbs free en-
similar to that of vapor coming out from soil pores. In the particular ergy concept. The Gibbs free energy, ⌬f, can only be defined for a
case of a perforated disk, with different hole sizes, the pattern is system such that the temperature, T, and pressure, P, are uniform.
more complicated, as shown in Fig. 2共b兲 共from Coult 1973兲. The The free energy can be written as:
distance between the disk and a line of equal water vapor concen-
tration increases with increasing hole size for an open system. If a R̄T pB
⌬f = ln 共1兲
closed system is considered, the lines of iso-relative humidity M pA
should initially follow the same pattern as in the open system, since
the relative humidity is usually low inside the equilibration system, where M is the molecular mass of water vapor 共18.011 kg/ mol兲
and afterwards the relative humidity iso-lines should tend to be an and R̄ is the universal gas constant 共8.31432 J / 共mol K兲兲. In terms
equilibrium with time. This length of time will depend on factors of total suction 共␺兲, the expression is
such as the volume of the environment, initial relative humidity,
and temperature. When the time duration is less than the equilibra- R̄T pB
tion time for the whole environment, the filter paper water content ␺= ln 共2兲
␯ LM p A
will depend on its distance from the source of vapor. Marinho
共1994b兲has shown that increasing the distance between the filter where ␯L is the specific volume of water 共i.e., 1 / ␳w兲 and ␳w is the
paper and the water surface from 12 to 62 mm reduces the water density of water 共998 kg/ m3 at 20°C兲.
content for the same period of measurement by approximately 5 %. Equation 2 represents the total suction in terms of vapor pres-
sure above a free surface 共flat兲 of pure water 共i.e., water with no
salts or impurities兲. The ratio pB / pA is called relative humidity
共RH兲. At 20°C, Eq 2 becomes
Thermodynamics Concepts
␺ = − 135055 ln共RH兲 共in kPa兲 共3兲
Consider first the equilibrium between two pure substances, i.e.,
water and air. Relative humidity 共RH兲 governs the amount of mois- The free energy of the soil water is the total suction. It can be
ture contained in air at equilibrium with the environment. The mag- determined by measuring the relative humidity in the surroundings
nitude of the suction is almost independent of temperature. For of the soil mass.
pratical purposes a temperature variation control smaller than 3°C Considering the equilibrium of two substances, it is known that
is not feasible for most laboratories that intend to use the filter the pressure and temperature are the same in the two phases. It can
paper technique. In this way all considerations herein assumes that be demonstrated that the Gibbs free energy functions per unit mass
temperature variation is within ±1.5° C. Temperature fluctuation are equal in the two phases 共e.g., van Wylen et al. 1994兲. In this way,
does not interfere with the relative humidity but affects the speed it is only necessary to obtain the free energy of one phase in order to
that the water molecule escapes from the liquid state and this may determine the free energy of the other. Figure 3 illustrates this con-
interfere with the equilibrium time cept by showing the system with the initial free energy of each
Now, consider a porous material 共e.g., a filter paper兲 inside a component used for calibrating a filter paper and the equilibrium
system with air and water. The water content of the filter paper value that should be attained with time. It can be concluded that the
changes according to the relative humidity of the air around it, suction in the filter paper is controlled by the free energy of the
4 GEOTECHNICAL TESTING JOURNAL

TABLE 1—Techniques used for the calibration of filter papers.

Technique Range Used for Filter Paper Calibration Comments

Suction Plate 0–0.1 MPa Direct negative pore water pressure generation.
Field Samples 0–2 MPa Uses the ability of plastic soils to sustain the equivalent
mean effective stress when unloaded under undrained
conditions. The matric suction is assumed to be
numerically equal to the mean effective stress of the
sample in the ground. It is necessary to assume a value for
K 0.
Oedometer Samples 1 MPa–2 MPa Assumes truly one-dimensional and undrained unloading.
The average effective consolidation stress applied should
be numerically equal to the matric suction in the unloaded
sample. It is necessary to assume a value for K0.

Pressure Plate 0–1.5 MPa Uses the axis translation technique.

Desiccator 0.5 MPa–30 MPa A salt solution, with a known vapor pressure, is used. The
filter paper is placed in a closed environment with the
solution. The transference of water is by vapor. The
equilibrium is reached when the affinity for water of the
salt solution used and the filter paper are equalized.

solution used to impose the relative humidity. The RH of the air can sidered adequate. This equilibrium is a reference for any calibration
also be measured and, again, the free energy of the filter paper will that is performed. All the conditions used during the calibration
be determined. must be followed during the measurement, including the equilibra-
The reference point for the free energy of soil is pure water with tion time.
a planar 共flat兲 air-water interface. This means that the free energy of The calibration procedure for the filter paper consists of allow-
the pore water 共with or without salt, and with or without meniscus兲 ing it to reach equilibrium with a known suction. After reaching this
is measured relative to the free energy of pure water 共with a flat equilibrium, the filter paper is weighed and oven dried. The water
air-liquid interface兲. Hence, the absolute free energy of the water in content is then obtained and related to the suction generated. Sev-
an unsaturated soil is less than that of free 共flat gas-water interface兲 eral measurements are needed to cover the necessary range of suc-
pure water, and thus the absolute free energy of soil water in a dry tion. The choice of method for generating the suction depends on
soil is less than the absolute free energy of soil water in a wet soil. the level of suction required.
Most calibration curves for filter paper consist of two parts that
are clearly identified on the calibration curve. Fawcett and Collis-
Calibration Procedure for Filter Papers George 共1967兲presented results from calibration of Whatman No.
42 filter paper. In their work, the filter papers were treated with
The reliability of any method for measuring suction depends on its HgCl2 solution with the intention of stopping fungal and bacterial
calibration. The calibration requires the generation of suction. growth. The filter papers were calibrated from an air-dry condition
The calibration curve for the filter paper is the soil water reten- and, hence, the wetting path was used. Figure 4 presents the calibra-
tion curve for that porous material. Since the filter paper is an in- tion points obtained by Fawcett and Collis-George 共1967兲. It can be
dustrial material, made under rigorous quality control, the retention seen that the relationship is nonlinear and that a bi-linear relation-
curve should not change from batch to batch.
Several methods may be used to generate suction for calibration
purposes. The main techniques and their usual range of suction are
presented in Table 1.
From the methods presented in Table 1, the only one in which
the water is transferred to the filter paper by vapor is the desiccator
method. The main consequence of this is related to the equilibration
time, as will be shown.
The idea behind the technique is to generate relative humidity in
the closed environment where the filter paper is placed. Since the
relative humidity is known, the total suction generated can be ob-
tained using Eq 共2兲. Any material in the same closed environment
will establish a free-energy equilibrium. In other words, there will
be an exchange of moisture from the air to the material or vice-
versa, until equilibrium is attained.
Most devices for measuring soil suction require an exchange of
water between the soil and the instrument. This is the case for the
tensiometer, gypsum block, and filter paper, among others. In all
these techniques, the soil and the instrument must attain some kind
of equilibrium. The exchange of water between the soil and the sen-
sor must be reduced to a minimum, for the measurement to be con- FIG. 4—Calibration curves for Whatman No. 42 filter paper.
 MARINHO AND OLIVEIRA ON FILTER PAPER METHOD 5

ship can be adopted. Filter papers from different batches were ana- TABLE 2—Suggested equilibration time for total suction measurement as func-
lyzed and reasonable consistency in the results was observed. tion of the suction level for Whatman No. 42 filter paper.
Hamblin 共1981兲performed calibrations on two batches of What-
Total Suction Range 共kPa兲 Equilibration Time Suggested
man No. 42 filter paper. One of the batches was treated against bio- 0–100 Not determined, but certainly more than 30 days
logical decomposition and the other batch, obtained two years later, 100–250 30 days
was untreated. The calibration was performed using suction plate 250–1000 15 days
共up to 7 kPa兲, pressure plate 共up to 70 kPa兲, pressure membrane 共up 1000–30000 7 days
to 1.5 MPa兲 and desiccator 共for suctions higher than 5 MPa兲. The
maximum equilibration time reported by Hamblin 共1981兲was 36 h
for points obtained using the desiccator. They did not observe any
a surrounding insulation box. The PVC container was placed inside
differences in the calibration between batches. As can be seen in
the insulation box whose sides were 20 cm of polystyrene sheets
Fig. 4, the results obtained by Hamblin 共1981兲were in good agree-
which were covered with wood. The whole system was placed in a
ment with the calibration performed by Fawcett and Collis-George
room with temperature control of ±5 ° C. The filter paper was
共1967兲.
placed over a perforated disk and the gap between the filter paper
Chandler and Gutierrez 共1986兲presented a calibration curve for
and the vapor source was 8 mm. Marinho 共1994b兲showed that the
Whatman No. 42 filter paper that included their own results and
distance at which the filter paper is placed affects the moisture ab-
also those from Fawcett and Collis-George 共1967兲and Hamblin
soption at a given time. It is necessary to associate the gap and equi-
共1981兲. The technique used for generating their data was to consoli-
librium time used. The suction generated for vapor absorption was
date soil samples in the oedometer to a known effective stress and
469 kPa, 206 kPa, 115 kPa and 0 kPa. The suggested equilibration
to unload them under undrained conditions. The matric suction
times for total suction measurements is shown in Table 2.
generated was assumed to be equal to the mean effective stress. The
Due to difficulties in keeping the temperature constant, the
range of suction generated with this method was from approxi-
vapor equilibrium technique 共dessicator兲 should only be used for
mately 6 kPa up to 2000 kPa. However, for the purpose of deter-
suctions of more than 1 MPa. At this level of suction, the equilibra-
mining the calibration curve, only values of more than 80 kPa were
tion time is usually shorter than for lower values, as shown in Table
considered. At that time, they concluded that their results showed
2. Although the noncontact technique using salt solution for cali-
considerable variability at values of less than 80 kPa and the
bration is not usually used for low suction, it is important to under-
method used was unreliable at these lower stresses. Later, a calibra-
stand the phenomena involved, so as to be able to interpret the total
tion curve for suctions of less than 80 kPa was presented by Chan-
suction measurement at low levels of suction.
dler et al. 共1992兲. The calibration curves are shown in Fig. 4. This
One of the most important points for obtaining a good suction
calibration was obtained using pressure plate, triaxial samples,
measurement is to ensure that the filter paper, after equilibration, is
oedometer samples and, in the limit, by submerging the filter paper
removed from the closed environment without losing too much
in distilled water. The calibration also included points obtained by
moisture. The procedure used in this study followed the suggestion
Fawcett and Collis-George 共1967兲and Hamblin 共1981兲. Consider-
presented by Schreiner 共1988兲where flat plastic bags were used to
ing that all data used by Chandler and Gutierrez 共1986兲are from
weigh the filter paper after removing it from the soil environment,
many different batches, it can be concluded that the filter papers
and also when weighing the paper from the oven. This procedure
used had consistent and repeatable behavior.
would minimize the lost of moisture during the weighing process.
Leong et al. 共2002兲presented two calibration curves for What-
However, care must be taken to avoid electrostatic effects on elec-
man No. 42 filter paper. One was obtained using the pressure plate
tronic balances due to the plastic bag.
apparatus and the other using salt solutions as the source of suction
generation via relative humidity. The equilibration times used for
obtaining the calibration points were: 2 to 5 days for the pressure The Reasons for Only One Calibration Curve for
plate and up to 14 days for the salt solution. Figure 4 presents the Matric and Total Suction Measurement
calibration curve obtained by Leong et al. 共2002兲using the pressure
plate apparatus, hence the filter paper was in contact with the matric In all calibrations, it is necessary to know the magnitude that has
suction generated. The calibration using a salt solution will be con- been applied and, in filter paper calibrations, it is fundamental to
sidered later in this paper. know the actual suction generated in order to correlate it with the
filter paper water content. Duran 共1986兲, investigating the effect of
not having good contact between filter paper and London clay
Evaluation of the Equilibrium Time Using Vapor samples, presented some results in which the samples were consoli-
Equilibrium dated in the oedometer and unloaded under undrained conditions.
A filter paper was then placed, without contact with the soil, to ab-
The calibration of the filter paper used for this study has a basic rule sorb water by vapor transfer, hence measuring total suction. The
for the distance of the filter paper to the water source and the equi- equilibration time used by Duran 共1986兲was seven days. The filter
librium time allowed. It should be pointed out that the equilibrium paper water content obtained by Duran 共1986兲共non-contact, there-
time for measuring total suction is higher than for measuring matric fore measuring total suction兲 was directly compared with the mean
suction. effective stress applied in the oedometer 共matric suction in a satu-
The calibration points were obtained using fluid transfer 共suc- rated sample兲. However, it is clear that the suction measured with
tion plate and pressure plate兲 and vapor transfer 共using salt solu- the filter paper out of contact with the soil cannot be related to the
tion兲. mean effective stress applied in the oedometer. The mean effective
In order to evaluate the required equilibrium time for total suc- stress corresponds to the matric suction generated when the sample
tion measurement a series of tests were performed using salt solu- is unloaded, and does not consider any possible osmotic compo-
tion and pure water. The system consisted of a PVC container with nent. Measurements made by Marinho 共1994a兲suggested that the
6 GEOTECHNICAL TESTING JOURNAL

FIG. 6—Effect of equilibration time on the calibration curve 共Marinho

FIG. 5—Data interpretation for filter paper calibration based on results from 1994兲.
Duran 共1986兲.
Figure 7 presents the calibration curves obtained by Chandler
osmotic suction for London clay varies from 200 kPa to 500 kPa. and Gutierrez 共1986兲, Chandler et al. 共1992兲and Leong et al.
By assuming a constant value of osmotic suction for London clay 共2002兲, and also shows the lines of different curves for different
共e.g., 250 kPa兲 and adding it to the matric suction generated, the equilibration times. Leong et al. 共2002兲presented two calibration
results agree reasonably with the calibration curve obtained by curves; one obtained using the pressure plate apparatus 共PP兲 and
Chandler and Gutierrez 共1986兲, as can be seen in Fig. 5. It is impor- another where salt solutions 共SS兲 were used. It can be seen that the
tant to point out that the use of soil samples for calibration purposes SS curve suggests that the equilibration time is controlling the limi-
using a non-contact technique is not recommended, since the os- tation of water absorption by the filter paper.
motic component is usually unknown. Houston et al. 共1994兲presented a calibration for Fisher quantita-
This interpretation indicates that the differences found are not tive coarse 共9.54A兲 filter paper. Two procedures were used: one
due to the calibration curve, but due to a misunderstanding of the using salt solution and the other in which a pressure plate and ten-
suction generated. For some points, the equilibration time used by siometer were used to obtain the calibration curve. The two proce-
Duran 共1986兲for the level of total suctions measured was shorter dures were treated separately and it was assumed that they would be
than the one suggested in Table 2. It should be pointed out that representative of the calibration for total and matric suction. The
ASTM D 5298-92 mentioned a minimum of seven days for equilib- equilibration time for the procedure using the salt solution was
rium without referring to level or type of suction. seven days. The two calibration curves presented by Houston et al.
Many researchers have presented the filter paper calibration as a 共1994兲do not differ significantly for suction of more than 1 MPa. It
unique relationship between the suction and the filter paper water should be pointed out that the least suction generated using the salt
content. However, on the basis of their own data and also using data solution used by Houston et al. 共1994.兲was 3 MPa and the lowest
from the literature, 共e.g., Duran, 1986, El-Ehwany and Houston, suction generated that was used for non-contact calibration was
1990, Lee and Wray, 1992, Houston et al., 1994兲 Leong et al. zero, using water. For the case of zero suction, the equilibration
共2002兲 suggested that the calibration curve for total suction should time was seven days, which was much less than the suggested
be different from the calibration curve for matric suction. Bulut et equilibration time presented in Table 2.
al. 共2001兲also observed a drop in the calibration curve when non- Figure 8 shows the calibration points for Fisher brand filter
contact suction generation is used, but for suctions of less than 30 paper that were obtained for this study. The results suggested that
kPa. The filter paper used was Schleicher & Schuell No. 589. The the calibration curve is similar to the curve for Whatman No. 42
calibration curve for the filter paper was obtained using NaCl solu-
tion and the equilibration time used was two weeks.
Marinho 共1994b兲performed some tests with the Whatman No.
42 filter paper to investigate the equilibration time required for the
non-contact technique. A PVC container was constructed to ac-
commodate the filter paper over the solution, with a surrounding
insulation box. To minimize the temperature effect, the PVC con-
tainer was placed inside the insulation box, which had sides of 20
cm made of polystyrene sheets covered with wood. The gap be-
tween the filter paper and the vapor source was 8 mm. The volume
of liquid used was always 500 mL. Only one filter paper was used
per test; the suction was generated using NaCl solutions. Figure 6
presents the results from the tests performed, showing the tendency
of the water content of the filter paper to increase as the equilibra-
tion time is lengthened. The conclusion from these results is two-
fold: there is only one calibration curve for the filter paper regard-
less of the type of suction; and it may not be practical to measure
total suction lower than 100 kPa. FIG. 7—Effect of equilibration time and distance from the water source.
 MARINHO AND OLIVEIRA ON FILTER PAPER METHOD 7

FIG. 8—Calibration curves for Fisher filter paper obtained using capillary flow FIG. 10—>Comparison between calibrations from different batches.
and vapor flow.
therefore necessary to calibrate the filter paper of the batch that was
filter paper. Three points were obtained using the non-contact tech- in use, so as to verify whether the problem was related to differ-
nique 共two at 3 MPa and one at 700 kPa兲. The equilibration time ences in the filter paper batch.
used was seven days and the gap between the filter paper and the When a specific type of filter paper 共Whatman No. 42, Schle-
solution surface was 8 mm. As demonstrated by Marinho 共1994b兲, icher & Schuell No. 589, Whatman No. 1, etc.兲 is calibrated, it is
there is no difference between the calibration curves for total or assumed that all papers with the same specification will behave in a
matric suction. similar way. The industrial processing of the absorbent material
used has to be such that its ability to absorb water does not change
with batches. This matter has been investigated by Fawcett and
Calibration Data for Different Batches of Whatman Collis-George 共1967兲and, to some extent, by Hamblin 共1981兲. Their
No. 42 Filter Paper work showed that filter papers from different batches could be con-
sidered to have the same characteristics for suction measurement.
Figure 9 presents a retention curve for a compacted residual soil Sibley et al. 共1990兲performed a statistical analysis on a series of
derived from gneiss, for which the suction measurements were results in order to investigate the characteristics of Whatman No.
made by using different techniques 共i.e., suction plate, pressure 42 filter paper between boxes. The tests were performed using
plate, and filter paper method兲. Oliveira 共2004兲observed that, when boxes of filter paper from the same batches. No significant differ-
using the filter paper method associated with the calibration curve ences were detected on filter papers from the different boxes.
presented by Chandler et al. 共1992兲, the retention curve showed a Deka et al. 共1995兲performed calibration of several types of filter
discrepancy when the measurement method for the suction was paper and among them Whatman No. 42 filter paper. They cali-
changed from pressure plate to filter paper. This behavior could be brated filter papers from four different batches. From each calibra-
due to experimental errors during manipulation of the filter papers tion they presented an equation, which is shown in Fig. 10. The
or due to a difference in the calibration curve for that specific batch differences obtained between batches were considered significant
of filter paper. The experimental procedure was fully reviewed and and they concluded that it is necessary to calibrate every batch if an
more tests were performed, but the same behavior occurred. It was accurate measurement is required. They pointed out that the preci-
sion in this case is limited by the variability of each filter paper.
Deka et al. 共1995兲suggested that there may be some differences in
filter paper characteristics, such as cell-wall thickness or chemical
composition of cell walls, which may justify the differences found
between the calibration curves.
For the present paper, a study was conducted in order to evaluate
the differences found between measurements made in soil samples
using the filter paper and suction plate and pressure plate apparatus.
Differences were found only in one batch of Whatman No. 42 filter
paper. In order to evaluate possible microscopic differences, a scan-
ning electron microscope 共SEM兲 was used. Figure 11 presents
SEM micrographs of batches of Whatman No. 42 filter paper. The
micrographs are presented in columns according to the filter paper
batch. From top to bottom, the magnifications are 50, 300 and
1000. Analysis of the micrographs did not show clear differences
between batches. However, measurements of the dry weight of the
filter paper of the bath 920071 suggested that it is approximately
FIG. 9—Soil water characteristic curve obtained using different methods. 5 % lighter than the others batches.
8 GEOTECHNICAL TESTING JOURNAL

FIG. 11—>Electron microscopy images of three batches of Whatman No. 42 filter paper.

A number of calibration points were obtained for the batch that Performing a “Quick Evaluation of the Calibration
presented different behavior, and the results suggested that the cali-
bration curve was significantly different from those found in the
Curve
literature. To evaluate the calibration procedure, filter papers from Many techniques can be used to impose suction with the objective
different batches were then calibrated. Figure 12 presents the cali- of calibrating the filter paper. For safety reasons sodium chloride
bration points for four batches of Whatman No. 42 filter paper. Al- 共NaCl兲 is suggested for generating suction via vapor. For the par-
though most of the points plotted to the left of the calibration curve ticular case of verifying whether a particular batch of filter paper is
were from Chandler et al. 共1992兲, the most significant difference in agreement with the usual calibration curve 共e.g., Chandler et al.
was found in the batch 920071. The difference is most significant 1992兲, only one point on the curve needs to be obtained.
for suctions of more than 100 kPa. When using sodium chloride 共NaCl兲, the following equation
may be used to obtain the total suction 共in kPa兲 as a function of the
molarity 共Marinho 1994b兲.

␺ = 4598.95m1.00122 共4兲
The filter paper needs to be placed inside a chamber with the
NaCl solution. The distance between the filter paper and the liquid
surface is recommended to be at most 1 cm. That recommendation
is based on the results obtained using 1 cm gap. The system cannot
be subjected to temperature variation of more than 2°C. The suction
recommended for the evaluation of the calibration is 1 MPa. For
this suction, the equilibration time needs to be 15 days 共see Table
2兲.

Final Remarks
FIG. 12—>Calibration points for different batches of Whatman No. 42 filter The filter paper method is a simple and reliable technique for mea-
paper. suring soil suction. The method allows the measurement of either
 MARINHO AND OLIVEIRA ON FILTER PAPER METHOD 9

matric or total suction, although for high suction values a mixture pp. 1521–1535.
of both is probably what it is measured. Fawcett, R. G. and Collis-George, N., 1967, “A Filter-paper
The calibration curve used for correlating the filter paper water Method for Determining the Moisture Characteristics of Soil,”
content with the soil suction is considered to be unique. The data Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture and Animal
presented here show that, for one specific batch of Whatman No. 42 Husbandry, No. 7, pp. 162–167.
filter paper, there were some discrepancies in relation to the tradi- Gardner, R., 1937, “A Method of Measuring the Capillary Tension
tional calibration curve found in the literature. of Soil Moisture Over a Wide Moisture Range,” Soil Sci., Vol.
It is suggested that, before applying the filter paper method, 43, pp. 277–283.
verification of the calibration curve should be performed. A proce- Greacen, E. L., Walker, G. R., and Cook, P. G., 1987, “Evaluation
dure for performing such verification has been presented. The of the Filter Paper Method for Measuring Soil Water Suction,”
method suggested involves vapor equilibration. International Conference on Measurement of Soil and Plant
When the desiccator is used to generate specific suction in the Water Status, pp. 137–143.
sample 共i.e., using the vapor equilibrium兲, two hypotheses should
Hamblin, A. P., 1981, “Filter Paper Method for Routine Measure-
be considered:
ment of Field Water Potential,” J. Hydrol., Vol. 53, pp. 355–360.
1. If the sample or porous material has no salts, the suction Hansen, H. C., 1926, “The Water-Retaining Power of the Soil,” J.
generated is total suction and it is equal to the matric suc- Ecol., Vol. XIV, pp. 111–119.
tion. Houston, S. L., Houston, W. N., and Wagner, A. M., 1994, “Labo-
2. If the sample or porous material has some salts, the suction ratory Filter Paper Suction Measurements,” Geotech. Test. J.,
generated is total suction and the matric suction is unknown Vol. 17, No. 2 pp. 185–194.
if the osmotic suction is not known. Lee, H. C. and Wray, W. K., 1992, “Evaluation of Soil Suction In-
struments,” Proceedings, 7th International Conference on Ex-
These conclusions imply that the calibration of filter papers pansive Soils, Vol. 1, pp. 307–312.
using relative humidity is valid for both total and matric suction,
Leong, E. C., He, L., and Rahardjo, H., 2002, “Factors Affecting
since the filter paper has no initial osomotic suction.
the Filter Paper Method for Total and Matric Suction Measure-
ments,” Geotech. Test. J., Vol. 25. No. 3, pp. 1–12.
Marinho, F. A. M., 1994a, “Shrinkage Behaviour of Some Plastic
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