Proceedings of the International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS) Symposium 2009, Valencia

Evolution and Trends in Design, Analysis and Construction of Shell and Spatial Structures
28 September – 2 October 2009, Universidad Politecnica de Valencia, Spain
Alberto DOMINGO and Carlos LAZARO (eds.)

Construction methods and quality control for concrete

shell roofs
Mircea MIHAILESCUa, R. SUNDARAM*

* Member of the IASS Advisory Board,

President of Structural Engineers World Congress [SEWC] Inc.
Sundaram Architects Pvt. Ltd.
19 Kumara Krupa Road, Bangalore-560 001, India
[email protected]
a
The late Prof. Mihailescu (1920-2006), Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Romania, and
Honorary Member of IASS, was the first author for the initial drafts of this paper

Abstract
Concrete shells are moldable to any shape and can be made aesthetically beautiful. This
paper discusses the suitability of various methods of concrete shell roof construction,
necessary precautions and quality guidelines. Good construction practice for concrete shell
roofs is also highlighted.

Keywords: concrete shell roofs, construction methods, formwork, precasting, prestressing,

quality control, waterproofing, thermal insulation.

1. Introduction
Concrete shells are aesthetically pleasing, structurally efficient, construction-wise
challenging, and are optimized structures. Shells derive their structural action through their
form and are unique in their behavior and many other ways. Hence, shells are used in
multi-various situations as coverings of convention centers, exhibition places, industrial
buildings, etc. (Figs. 1a, 1b, & 1c). They look light and beautiful.

Figure 1(a): Example of cast-in-place shell

177
Proceedings of the International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS) Symposium 2009, Valencia
Evolution and Trends in Design, Analysis and Construction of Shell and Spatial Structures

Figure 1(b): Asymmetric hyperbolic shell

Figure 1(c): Conoidal shells for a depot

The analysis of a concrete shell using the latest software with a reasonable computer can be
done in a design office. The software uses finite element techniques. The following factors
can be recognized in the analysis: non-linear behavior either geometrical or material,
imperfections in the geometry, creep and buckling.
Concrete can be cast to any shape and this being a distinct advantage, offers a practically
unlimited range of the shell shapes that expresses variety and novelty in form.
The transition from pure sculpture to utilitarian architecture includes a great spectrum of
variations. Thin shells are probably the best morphological structures to express this range
through their inherent plasticity of form which lends them to diverse expressions. Thin
shells come in an immense variety of structural forms. No structural form perhaps does
greater justice to the special attributes of concrete than thin shell construction. They derive
strength through form rather than through mass.
During the last few decades the development of thin concrete shell roofs as a structural
form has added an interesting chapter to contemporary architecture. The curvature of a

178
Proceedings of the International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS) Symposium 2009, Valencia
Evolution and Trends in Design, Analysis and Construction of Shell and Spatial Structures

shell can be of the same sign throughout, Say concave or convex, or can be of different
signs, both concave and convex at the same time. The former is called synclastic and the
latter is called anticlastic.
Of course form work and manpower costs for cast in-situ shells have to be recognized.
Proper form and shape, optimum design, and good construction technique will yield
economical and durable high-performing shells. Good quality control and improved
construction techniques are necessary to enhance the performance of the shells including
safety features, durability and least maintenance.
Concrete of ordinary and high strength can be produced easily anywhere in the world and
can be lower in cost than structural steel. So reinforced concrete thin shell roofs can be the
structural system for long span structures. Thin shells still have a bright future.
This paper is a first version of a chapter for a State-of-the-Art Report by IASS Working
Group 5: Concrete Shell Roofs. The objective of this overview is to look into the key
issues of construction that play an important role in performance of concrete shells. The
paper aims to analyze the methods of achieving efficient and economical shells so that they
become competitive when compared to other type of structures. The recommendations and
ideas are based on the authors’ extensive experience in shell design and construction rather
than upon particular building codes.
The key construction issues to be considered in enhancing the performance of concrete
shells are the following:

• Techniques of Shell Construction (Section 2): ∗Cast-in-place construction

∗Precast construction ∗Prestressed construction
• Construction Details (Section 3): ∗Formwork/shuttering ∗Concrete thickness
∗Reinforcement ∗Concrete mix design ∗Concreting ∗De-shuttering
• Durability Aspects (Section 4): ∗Waterproofing ∗Thermal insulation ∗Fixture of
service installations ∗Cover to reinforcement
• Quality Control (Section 5): ∗Tests in situ ∗Curing ∗Tolerances

2. Techniques of shell construction

2.1. Cast-in-place construction
Cast-in-place shells are suitable for unique and complicated shapes and in situations where
the geometry of the shell is not conducive for splitting the shell surface into precast
elements, whether factory made or cast in situ. The following factors are to be considered
for cast-in-place shells:
The size, geometry and the components of the shell for a given application should be
judiciously decided to maximize reuse of formwork and feasible concrete pour.
If the shell facilitates dividing into convenient sectors or segments that are repetitive,
movable reusable formwork can be employed. Movement can be either by translation or
rotation or both.

179
Proceedings of the International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS) Symposium 2009, Valencia
Evolution and Trends in Design, Analysis and Construction of Shell and Spatial Structures

The design of formwork must be such that it will be possible to remove the formwork after
the setting of the concrete in segments so that the de-centering can be done quickly and
without causing any damage to the formwork.
The geometrical form being the predominant controlling factor, the formwork should be
done carefully to be stiff and to retain the geometry under the action of forces developed
during the concreting process.
The levels and dimensions should be checked frequently and rectification, if any, should be
attended to immediately.

• When concreting is done, the shuttering should cause neither pockets nor
unwanted additional thickness, either of which might lead to redistribution of the
load.
• Top shuttering is necessary whenever the angle between the surface and the
horizontal exceeds about 45º.
• Properly preplanned control sequences have to be provided for all the erection
phases such as shuttering, reinforcement, pouring, de-shuttering, and fresh
concrete protection.
• Inflated forms can also be used for cast-in-place shells.
• Any honeycombing formed should be investigated after de-shuttering and properly
grouted before applying waterproofing and/or thermal insulation.
• Marine plywood for shuttering and steel props and bracings for scaffolding are
well suited.
• Concreting should be planned such that the weather conditions like rain, low
temperature and snow do not interfere with concrete pouring. Emergency
measures like covering of the shell with plastic sheets have to be in place for any
eventualities.
• The rejection of poor quality of concrete work in cast in situ construction is often
infeasible, and in this case the only alternative is to strengthen the shell by an
acceptable method.

2.2. Precast construction

Precast concrete technology can be efficiently employed for construction of concrete shells
(Figs. 2(a), 2(b), 3, & 4). Precast shells have the following advantages compared to cast-in-
place shells. (Melaragno [3])

180
Proceedings of the International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS) Symposium 2009, Valencia
Evolution and Trends in Design, Analysis and Construction of Shell and Spatial Structures

Figure 2(a): A dome of 90m x120m using precast folded plate elements

Figure 2(b): Example of precast folded plate dome

Figure 3: Precast shells during assembly

Figure 4: Precast elements being placed in position

181
Proceedings of the International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS) Symposium 2009, Valencia
Evolution and Trends in Design, Analysis and Construction of Shell and Spatial Structures

Due to controlled conditions better quality of concrete can be achieved as the inspection of
concrete can be done at the ground level itself. Hence, the other qualities of the concrete
like homogeneity, compactness, and strength can be ensured properly. For example, should
for some reason the specified concrete characteristics are not achieved in precast concrete
construction, this product can be rejected or can be strengthened by the accepted methods.
Precast techniques can be made effective by dividing the shell into a number of identical
units ensuring the geometrical compatibility and proper structural connection. Due to this a
number of repetitions in the usage of the mould can be achieved with a consequent
reduction in the cost. The scaffolding that is required for a cast-in-situ shell is almost nil in
this case.
The size of the mould and the weight of the precast elements depend on the handling
capacity of the erection system either through a movable crane or through a moving tripod
system etc.
The completion time of the shell is reduced by organizing parallel activities in the site like
concreting of columns, fabrication of the mould and casting of the precast units in the
workshop etc.
The other advantages are as follows:
• The moulds are placed at the ground level.
• The moulds can be inclined or horizontal depending on the shell design.
• Pouring and compaction of concrete can be made easy while the whole procedure
can be protected against the atmospheric disturbances.
• The casting of precast shell can be done fast.
The material that is used for mould can be either concrete or wood or steel or a combination
of any of the two or three materials, so that maximum number of re-uses can be achieved.
The surface finish of the mould should be satisfactory so that it is easy to de-mould the
precast elements. Consequently good concrete finish is achieved.
In order to reach acceptable levels of accuracy of assembling and to obtain match casting
between different elements, it is recommended to provide special networks, used as settings
for the precast panels (Figs. 5, 6, & 7).

Figure 5: Concrete rib lattice serving to seat ferrcement precast panels

182
Proceedings of the International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS) Symposium 2009, Valencia
Evolution and Trends in Design, Analysis and Construction of Shell and Spatial Structures

Figure 6: Modalities of dividing the shell surface for precasting

Figure 7: Erection process of precast elements

In some cases shells are built by a combination of cast-in place and precast construction
methods. A set of ribs is constructed and precast concrete provisional formwork is placed
and supported by the ribs. Finally concrete is cast in place and the formwork embedded in
the shell thickness.
Setting structures can be achieved in the following ways:
By erecting in final position a concrete rib lattice serving to seat ferrocement precast panels,
all together being afterwards assembled by concrete topping (Fig. 5).
By installing a self supporting metal network in shell final position on which concrete
precast elements are placed and then joined together by cement mortar grouting:
By using ground assembly and lifting.
By demoulding and lifting the shell up to its final position and by launching the whole form
to the following bay.
Suitable storage facilities should be available to store the precast units. The erection of the
individual units forming the total structure should be done in a manner that will minimize
the erection stresses. Based on the shape/size of the precast elements suitable type and

183
Proceedings of the International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS) Symposium 2009, Valencia
Evolution and Trends in Design, Analysis and Construction of Shell and Spatial Structures

number of cranes have to be used for erection. Balancing truss or a strong back fixed to the
element is effective in taking care of erection instabilities.
Joints between adjacent precast elements have to be studied carefully. Joints in any precast
structure including precast shells are very important and critical. The philosophy is that
joints must be both designed and constructed such that the structure must behave
monolithically. In addition they must be leakproof. Several methods of joints include
welded connections for non-seismic areas, grouting the reinforcement dowels for seismic
areas, etc. Waterproofing methods include sealing the joints with non-shrink grout,
polysulphide, silicon compounds, etc.

2.3. Prestressed construction

Prestressing is effective in long span shells to take care of the tension developed at both the
boundaries and the bodies. The objectionable deflections and cracks are avoided.
Following are the advantages of prestressing shells:
• Edge beams deflection can be reduced and hence can be made sleek.
• Prestressing of shells reduces the quantity of reinforcement thereby reducing
congestion.
• Pre-compression in concrete prevents the formation of temperature and shrinkage
cracks.
• The compressive state of stress in the shells results in water tight construction
Concrete shell prestressing may be achieved in several ways (Fig 8). Methods of
prestressing both pretensioning and post tensioning are well established. Shell prestressing
can even be realized by only prestressing boundary elements, beams, or ties. A feasibility
experiment of external prestressing was performed on a concrete shell model of elliptic
form, put in a pre-compression state by wires placed below the inside shell surface (Fig. 9).

Figure 8: Prestressing of shells – only cable actions are depicted

184
Proceedings of the International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS) Symposium 2009, Valencia
Evolution and Trends in Design, Analysis and Construction of Shell and Spatial Structures

Figure 9: Elliptic shell prestressed by inside

3. Construction details
3.1. Formwork/shuttering
Formwork should be designed to take up the shell concrete weight and construction loads
and should be supported by properly braced props. Bracing should consider the lateral
forces due to partial loading of wet concrete, vibrations due to the usage of mechanical
vibrators and lateral forces generated due to geometry. Formworks may be produced in
several versions such as described in the following:
Made of many rows of props, properly braced (Fig. 10). This solution ensures tough
supports, is simply done, but is very expensive because it cannot be reused by moving.
The most effective solutions allowing reusing are formed of several steel or wood plane
trusses supported on scaffoldings placed at shell boundaries (Figs. 11 & 12). The outside
truss profiles have to suit the shell shape. Between trusses, timber boards are provided at
convenient centers. Plywood panels can sit on these timber boards. The entire formwork,
well braced, after de-shuttering, can be moved by translation or rotation or by a
combination of both, serving for other casting.

Figure 10: Fixed scaffolding made of braced props

185
Proceedings of the International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS) Symposium 2009, Valencia
Evolution and Trends in Design, Analysis and Construction of Shell and Spatial Structures

Figure 11: Steel truss scaffolding for curved shape

Figure 12: Two timber truss types for formwork of a conoidal shell

Some of the important points to be kept in mind during formwork erection are:
• After floor concrete is done to get a firm ground, an approved system of
scaffolding should be erected along valley/gutter portion. Steel walers (parallel
ribs) at the bottom of the valley should be placed to suit the shape of the shell.
• In between these two valley/gutters, timber waler (parallel supports) member
should be shaped to suit the profile of the curve and are placed as per the design
requirement of the formwork.
• In between these two waler (parallel supports) members, smaller pieces of timber
are provided spaced at a minimum distance on which the plywood can easily span.
• The total grid system and top curve profile are checked before placing the
plywood.
• The marine plywood is nailed on the top of the timber support on the already
profiled timber to suit the curvature. The plywood joints have to be plugged with
a suitable filler and the curve should be smoothed.

186
Proceedings of the International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS) Symposium 2009, Valencia
Evolution and Trends in Design, Analysis and Construction of Shell and Spatial Structures

• Appropriate measures to prevent the bulging of formwork have to be taken after a

thorough inspection.
• In case of shell roof in a multi-storied structure, the lower floors supporting the
formwork have to be suitably propped.
• Special Pneumatic Forming: A membrane is inflated to generate a tensile surface
capable of supporting a concrete layer that is then applied on top of it. Concrete
spraying has been the most practical method of constructing shells by using
pneumatic forms. The membrane is generally of neoprene material.
• Alternative methods using inflatable neoprene membranes are also available.

3.2. Concrete thickness

• The thin shell’s thickness and reinforcement must be proportioned to satisfy the
strength provisions, so as to resist internal forces obtained from an analysis, an
experimental model study, or a combination thereof. The thickness of the shell is
often dictated not by the requirements of strength, but by the limitation of
deflection of edge members, by the requirements of stability or by the required
reinforcement cover and the construction exigencies.
• Concrete thickness depends on the shape of the shell (Fig. 13), size or span of the
shell, and the strength of concrete, environmental issues and fire protection
requirements.
• Thickness can start right from 3 cm.
• Building codes vary from country to country and each country prescribes a
different minimum thickness.
• Thickness is arrived at after an analysis of the shells and with the limits of
allowable compressive stresses. Creep and buckling have to be studied.
• Currently available are high strength concrete mixtures and such new strengths
greatly reduce the thickness of concrete shells. It is therefore possible to design
shells which are efficient, costs less, consumes less steel and cement and with
larger spans.
• Long-span shells can be strengthened by ribs depending on the shape, size and
concrete strength. This will reduce large deflections and will also add to the
buckling strength of the shell.
• Whenever the areas are larger than 1,200 square meters, to provide economically
designed shells there are two effective solutions for supplementing the shell
thickness by ribs, namely:
- bidirectional rib networks placed on the inside face of the surface.
- box cross sections provided with bidirectional ribs inside the surface.
In both situations the equivalent thickness values he for shell analysis can be found
by using homogenization techniques. However for practical purposes the
following heuristic expressions are often applied:

187
Proceedings of the International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS) Symposium 2009, Valencia
Evolution and Trends in Design, Analysis and Construction of Shell and Spatial Structures

Ar
for axial effort: hea = h + (1)
ar
12 I r
for bending moment: heb = 3 h3 + (2)
ar
In which h is:
- the slab surface thickness without rib height for ribbed plates,
- the sum of upper and lower surface thicknesses for box cross sections;
Ar and Ir represent the area and inertia moment of the entire rib without any shell-
surface participation; and ar is the distance between ribs.

Figure 13: The three fundamental types of shell forms: elliptic (positive Gaussian
curvature), hyperbolic (negative) and parabolic (zero)

3.3. Reinforcement
While theoretically free-form concrete shells designed to be in pure compression need no
reinforcement, shells must resist various forces/stresses that require reinforcement to be
provided.
The principal tasks of reinforcement are to enhance the homogeneity of concrete
throughout the entire shell surface and to take care of tensile stresses produced by bending
and twisting moments due to boundary conditions, unexpected concentrated loads, and
shape irregularities. The additional tasks of reinforcement are to take care of shrinkage and
temperature stresses, limiting crack width, and its spacing. Additional reinforcement is
required in edge beams and ribs and also around openings and at locations of load
attachments. (Medwadowski and Samartin [2] )

188
Proceedings of the International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS) Symposium 2009, Valencia
Evolution and Trends in Design, Analysis and Construction of Shell and Spatial Structures

3.3.1. Provisions for reinforcement

Principal tensile stresses should be entirely resisted by reinforcement. Steel provided to
resist the tensile stresses is assumed to act at the middle shell surface. It should be placed
either in the direction of principal tension lines or in two or three directions on the surface.
Shells with thickness on the order of 8cm should be reinforced with two overlapped layers
of steel bars, ensuring the needed concrete covering. Two layers at top/bottom faces are
preferred to resist possible local bending moments.
In shells whose thickness is around 4 cm thick, the reinforcement can be provided in the
middle surface in two perpendicular directions.
In both previous situations, the steel percentage should not be less than 0.4 and not greater
than 4.0. Minimum reinforcement should be provided wherever not required by the
analysis.
Minimum laps to be provided are 30 times the diameter of the bar or 450mm, whichever is
greater. Bar splices should be staggered with not more than one third of all bars spliced at
one cross section.
Bar nets have to be held in the designed position by the concrete either by little cubes or by
metal loops. Attention should be paid to the steel bars curvature in the vertical plane of the
shell in order to resist the generated deviation forces.
Steel or carbon fiber reinforcement in a recommended dosage, almost of 0.5-0.6 KN/m³ of
concrete, may be effective to reduce the concrete shrinkage, as well to improve its
homogeneity and compactness. Fiber reinforcement can be effectively used to reduce the
shrinkage cracks.
Deformed bars of smaller diameter are preferred in the body of the shell. For a singly
curved shell, a welded fabric is preferred. However welding is not preferred in seismic
zones.
Additional steel reinforcement should be provided in the junction between beam and shell,
where crack appearance due to shrinkage differences due to distinct thickness can occur.

3.3.2. Prestressing reinforcement

Prestressing tendons have to be laid in the middle surface of the shell so that they act
tangentially to the central face.
When prestressing tendons do not lie tangentially to central surface, the exerted forces have
to be resolved in two components, which should be accounted for in the design.
Where prestressing tendons are anchored in the boundary elements, special reinforcement
should be added to accommodate locally produced tensile forces.

3.4. Concrete mix design

Many methods of design of concrete mix are available. Concrete mix design for shells
should be based on the following:
• Type of construction – In-Situ/Precast

189
Proceedings of the International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS) Symposium 2009, Valencia
Evolution and Trends in Design, Analysis and Construction of Shell and Spatial Structures

• Thickness of the shell

• Weather conditions
• Grade of concrete
Sufficient measures have to be taken to reduce the heat of hydration as shell structures are
thin and susceptible to thermal/shrinkage cracks. A smooth shell thickness transition
between the edge beams and the shell area is desirable.
Reduction of water cement ratio and high workability are prime requirements of the mix
design. Plasticizers can be used to reduce the water cement ratio to around 0.4. Silica
fumes can also be added to concrete to result in more dense concrete with less permeability.
Considering environmental issues, it is also recommended to use fly ash/ slag cement /
Pozzolona cement as a replacement to portion of cement.
In hot weather concreting the aggregates should be chilled and ice cooled water should be
used in making concrete. In cool weather on the contrary, warmed aggregates together with
warm mixing water has to be used.
Sufficient number of cubes/cylinders should be tested at 3, 7, 14, 21, and 28 days to
monitor the strength which aids in deciding the de-shuttering date.
Self-compacting concrete can also be used especially where the shell surfaces are steep and
where the shuttering length is long.

3.5. Concreting
Quality control of concrete is very important aspect of the shell construction. Proper
behavior of the shell depends on the mechanical properties of concrete and hence on strict
quality control of concrete. The following points should be kept in mind during the
concreting of a shell structure:
• The concrete placing should produce a smooth dense solid texture on the
undersurface of the shell with no pockets or honey-combing.
• Concreting should be done starting from the supporting beams and stiffening
beams working upwards from lower end to higher end.
• Maximum size of aggregate should be 20mm. Depending on the thickness of the
shell, less than 12mm can also be used.
• Construction joints should preferably be located in zones of compressive stresses
and the concreting should be done in a symmetrical manner.
• High-performance concrete will have a higher modulus of elasticity to control
deflections but will cause shrinkage cracks in the thinner members of the shell.
Appropriate grade and mix design may reduce the cracks.
• Concrete can be placed by pumping or by bucket and mobile crane.
• Form vibrators can be used for shell proper and needle vibrators for beams.
• Construction joints should be treated with bonding agents.

190
Proceedings of the International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS) Symposium 2009, Valencia
Evolution and Trends in Design, Analysis and Construction of Shell and Spatial Structures

3.6. De-shuttering
De-shuttering should be carried out progressively in accordance with a carefully designed
program with proper supervision. De-shuttering as a general principle should be done from
the point of maximum deflection to the point of minimum deflection, symmetrically. Any
wrong method of de-shuttering may endanger the structure.
De-shuttering should be done when the compressive strength of the concrete is at desired
level. However with conventional curing of concrete, de-shuttering may take place after a
minimum period of 14 days.
De-shuttering of the form work should be guided by the general code of practice for
concrete. One of the codes suggests that the de-shuttering should be done when the
concrete achieves a strength of at least twice the strength to which the concrete may be
subjected to at the time of de-shuttering. The verification of the concrete strength should be
done by testing the concrete cubes/cylinders at various times, i.e., 7, 14, and 28 days.
If early removal of forms is required the magnitude of the modulus of elasticity at the time
of proposed form removal must be investigated in order to ensure the safety of the shell
with regard to buckling.

4. Durability aspects
4.1. Waterproofing
Waterproofing is the method adopted to prevent the ingress of water through the roof.
Inadequate waterproofing is manifested as:
• Dampness/water droplets
• Discoloration
• Streaks
Since most of the shells have excellent slope the water naturally drains off and stagnation is
rarely possible. Good dense concrete would therefore be efficient and any other extraneous
media would not be required. The waterproofing may be required only in places where
there is continuous rainfall over a period of several months resulting in the presence of
continuous moisture and, concrete being not entirely impermeable, certain dampness may
occur.
Hence, generally more often than not water proofing is provided. With regards to
waterproofing two methods are followed:
• In the first, on the outside layer of concrete, a timber lattice is made on which a
layer of slate or copper is fixed.
• Alternatively, the outer face is covered by brushing with a cement grout containing
additional water inhibitors or by applying a tight membrane on the entire shell.
A few of the other methods of waterproofing are as follows:
• 1 mm thick Acrylic coating can be adopted.

191
Proceedings of the International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS) Symposium 2009, Valencia
Evolution and Trends in Design, Analysis and Construction of Shell and Spatial Structures

• Three or five layer bitumen felting provides effective water proofing media.
• Polymeric or polyethylene membrane is in wide use, which is simply unrolled and
fixed over the concrete by torching.
• Coating with chemical waterproofing grout which produces the crystallization of
the upper layer of concrete.
• A number of other methods is available. The type must be chosen depending on
factors like type of shell, weather, etc.
• Many times corrugated galvanized sheets are used as a waterproofing material
which is also used architecturally. The sheets are fixed on a wooden or steel grid
on the top of the slab.

4.2. Thermal insulation

Shells being thin elements, the heat that is put in through the shell can be significant. This
is particularly valid in tropical countries. In a similar manner in cold countries loss of heat
through the shell is possible.
Insulating material can be either on the top of the shell or on the underside of the shell.
As far as methods of thermal insulation are concerned, currently, the following procedures
are used:
In the first alternative, the thermal insulation is applied on the concrete upper face, fixed
with cement mortar, which is then protected by a layer of waterproof covering. Thermal
insulation on the external surface can be provided in two ways:
• Polyurethane base primer is applied on the dust-free concrete and 20mm thick
polyurethane foam is applied on the same.
• Expanded Polystyrene of 50mm or 25mm can be fixed to the dust-free concrete
with the help of bitumen of desired grade.
With the help of bonding agents, the waterproofing media such as integrated polymeric
system or bitumen felting can be applied on the thermal insulating layer.
The second alternative provides the thermal insulation to be directly applied on the
shuttering. After de-shuttering the insulation layer finally remains fixed on the inner face
of the concrete shell. If aesthetics and fireproofing regulations permit, insulation can be on
the underside of the shell.
The third alternative inserts the thermal insulation in the middle of concrete layer of the
shell. Subsequently special connectors are used and both layers of concrete are joined
together. The positive features of this approach are:
• An appreciable increase in the plate inertia moment and the buckling limit.
• Both faces, inner and upper of the shell, remain as concrete, promoting an exposed
concrete look (Fig. 14).

192
Proceedings of the International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS) Symposium 2009, Valencia
Evolution and Trends in Design, Analysis and Construction of Shell and Spatial Structures

D e t .A
C o n c re te
150 P o ly s ty re n e
C o n c re te

Figure 14: Thermal insulation insertion

4.3. Fixing of service installations

A special mesh of reinforcement should be provided in order to strengthen locally the
concrete plate and thus allowing it to hang suspenders.
As for electrical ducts, they should be laid, in the central part of the concrete thickness,
parallel to the main reinforcement.
Heavier conduits as for ventilation or water drainage should preferably be located in edge
beams, ribs or columns. Moreover these conduits may be placed extraneously to the
structural elements, thus avoiding damages created if eventual deteriorations occur.

4.4. Cover to reinforcement

A few of the important factors to be considered in determining the amount of cover are:
• Fire resistance
• Environmental issues.
• Thickness of the shell
• Based on environmental factors and the thickness of shell, Table 1 provides some
guidelines for possible covers. Generally the cover is a minimum of 12mm up to
25mm.
It will be more efficient to protect the top and bottom surfaces by applying appropriate
protective coating to protect the concrete from environmental deleterious effects.

193
Proceedings of the International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS) Symposium 2009, Valencia
Evolution and Trends in Design, Analysis and Construction of Shell and Spatial Structures

Table 1: Covers for cast in-situ shells suggested as per authors’ experience

Degree Thickness Grade Diameter Recommended value for cover (mm)

of of the of of Bars
exposure element concrete (mm) Cover Plastering
(mm) Notes
Mild 75 mm M 25 < 12 12 Plastering done with epoxy mortar
> 12 15 will increase the life span of the
structure and delays corrosion.
M 30 & < 12 12 Judicious reduction in the cover can
above > 12 15 be considered.
Severe 100 mm M 30 < 12 25
and > 12 25 For precast shells 70% of the
above indicated cover can be used.
M 35 & < 12 22
Above > 12 25

5. Quality control
Here quality control refers to the following actions:
• The confirmation of correct shaping of moulds, shuttering, and settings. Checking
the dimensions provided in the design.
• The control concrete qualities established in the project concerning strength,
ductility, and compactness according to the pouring procedures specified for the
site and in confirmation with standard provisions.
• Referring to the reinforcement, a special attention has to be paid to verify the steel
or carbon qualities as well as the accurate bar positioning.
• The yield strength of steel specified in the design should be achieved in the site.
This can be ensured by testing the steel reinforcement frequently for yield
strength.

5.1. Tests in situ

After de-shuttering, some tests could be performed on the entire achieved shell by loading it
with a percentage of the service load value so that the concrete shell behavior concerning
displacements and deformations may be examined.

5.2. Curing
Shells develop shrinkage cracks if not cured properly. Also the ultimate strength of
concrete is reduced. In moderate weather, ordinary methods of curing such as wet curing or
use of membrane curing are adequate. However, in hot weather, water curing is advisable.
Sprinklers can be placed on top of the shell for better curing. There are many admixtures /

194
Proceedings of the International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS) Symposium 2009, Valencia
Evolution and Trends in Design, Analysis and Construction of Shell and Spatial Structures

additives available in the market as curing compounds in which case water curing can be
avoided.
Steam curing is extremely efficient for precast concrete components. It is possible to
demould the precast element within 24 hours of the start of this curing method provided the
concrete has attained at least 70% of its ultimate strength. This certainly speeds the
construction process. A small boiler can produce stream at the site near the casting yard.
(Ambili and Rajamane [1])

5.3. Tolerances
Tolerance is the permissible limit of deviation in the constructed dimension to those
assumed in the design. While the tolerances are generally left to the discretion of the
project/site engineer, it is recommended that the working drawings prepared by the
designers/manufacturers should indicate the tolerance to serve as guidelines in the site.
Tolerance is applicable to all of the following:

5.3.1. Form work/geometry

The formwork should be designed and constructed to the shapes, lines and dimensions
shown on the drawings within the tolerance specified which can be termed as dimensional
deviation.

5.3.2. Dimensional deviation

It is impossible to achieve absolute accuracy in the erection of the formwork and certain
amount of inaccuracy has to be expected. The permissible deviation or tolerance that is
specified should be as large as possible to facilitate easy construction without rendering any
part of the finished shell un-acceptable for the purpose for which it is intended. An
unrealistic attitude for dimensional variations can result in considerable increase in the cost.
If the construction results in any deviation from the shape other than specified tolerances,
an analysis should be made and any required remedial action should be taken to ensure safe
behavior. Some geometric imperfections of a shell structure can lead to a drastic reduction
of the overall buckling load.
The deviations can be different for the following categories:
Precast concrete elements. For precast concrete elements, overall dimensions of the
member should not vary more than 0.5% or 10mm, whichever is less.
Cast in-situ. For cast in-situ shells variation in plan dimensions should be 1 percent or 20
mm whichever is smaller. However, in the vertical direction, it should be restricted to 1
percent or 15 mm, whichever is smaller.

5.3.3. Thickness
The thickness may vary from place to place depending upon the design. The tolerance in
thickness is as follows:
For precast concrete elements:

195
Proceedings of the International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS) Symposium 2009, Valencia
Evolution and Trends in Design, Analysis and Construction of Shell and Spatial Structures

• + 1.5 mm for sections less than 75 mm thick

• + 3.0 mm for sections more than 75mm but less than 450mm
• + 6.0mm for sections thicker than 450mm
For cast in-situ shells structures the variation in the thickness can be 5% or 10 mm
whichever is smaller.

5.3.4. Cover
Concrete cover is always referred to in terms of the nominal cover and is to be provided to
all reinforcement. Tolerance/deviation in the cover depends on (i) the type of shuttering,
(ii) the thickness of the element, and (iii) the location of the reinforcement.
Recommendations on the tolerances are as shown in Table 2. (Sundaram [5] )
Table 2: Tolerances on the upper bound of cover

Type Single-layer Double-layer

reinforcement reinforcement
Precast shell 5 mm 5 mm
Cast in-situ 10 mm 5 mm

5.3.5. Formwork/shuttering
The degree of unevenness of shuttering also affects the cover. Hence, the degree of
unevenness should be related to cover and the tolerance to the cover. As the tolerances
recommended to the cover is 5mm to 10mm, the tolerance to degree of unevenness should
be limited to 2mm.

5.3.6. Reinforcement spacing

Shells are usually lightly reinforced. The tolerance in the spacing should be 5% of the
spacing or 10 mm whichever is lesser.

6. Future development
The ability to predict whether or not a given concrete will correctly fill a given formwork is
being researched in the field of rheology of concrete and further research and findings are
needed to understand better the laying of concrete on formwork. (Roussel [4])
Environmental factors have to be considered. Cement production involves emission of
carbon dioxide into the atmosphere which is a part of the problem of global warming.
Suitable replacement of cement with fly ash/ slag cement/ pozzolona cement has to be used.
Continuous research and updates are required in this area.
To ensure the best performance of shells, use of newer materials like light-weight concrete,
fiber-reinforced concrete and composite panels should be investigated and encouraged.

196
Proceedings of the International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS) Symposium 2009, Valencia
Evolution and Trends in Design, Analysis and Construction of Shell and Spatial Structures

Self-compacting concrete should be explored more fully for usage in shell construction, and
its properties like long-term durability, creep, etc. must be studied thoroughly.

7. Conclusions
Key construction issues related to concrete shell roof construction have been discussed.
The Importance of exercising control on quality of concrete, placement of concrete, design
of form work, waterproofing methods and thermal insulation have been discussed with
suggested tolerances for enhancing the overall performance of concrete shell roof
construction.
Precast construction, its advantages and speed of construction are also discussed.
With the minimum use of materials like cement and steel and with efficient design and
construction of formwork, concrete shell roofs have a bright future especially where labor
is not expensive

References
[1] Ambili. P.S Scientist and Rajamane N.P., Deputy Director and Head, Concrete
composites Lab Structural Engineering Research Centre, CSIR, Chennai , India.-
An introduction to Self Curing Concrete.
[2] Medwadowski S. J. and Samartin A., Design of reinforcement in concrete shells:
A unified approach. Journal of the International Association for Shell and Spatial
structures, Vol. 45. No 1. April, 2004, pp 41-50.
[3] Melaragno M., An Introduction to Shell Structures, Von Nostrand Reinhold.
[4] Roussel N., From Rhelogy of fresh concrete to casting process, Concrete
International, ACI March 2009.
[5] Sundaram R., Problems of Quality and Durability in India, Proceedings of the
IASS Symposium, Dresden and Cottbus, Germany, 10-14 September 1990.

197