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Matrix

1. A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers. An n x m matrix has n rows and m columns. Matrix entries are denoted aij as the entry in the ith row and jth column. 2. A vector is a special type of matrix. A column vector is an n x 1 matrix and a row vector is a 1 x m matrix. A square matrix is an n x n matrix. 3. The transpose of a matrix is obtained by reflecting the matrix over its diagonal. For an n x m matrix A, its transpose AT is an m x n matrix where the ijth entry of AT is the jith entry of A.

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93 views4 pages

Matrix

1. A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers. An n x m matrix has n rows and m columns. Matrix entries are denoted aij as the entry in the ith row and jth column. 2. A vector is a special type of matrix. A column vector is an n x 1 matrix and a row vector is a 1 x m matrix. A square matrix is an n x n matrix. 3. The transpose of a matrix is obtained by reflecting the matrix over its diagonal. For an n x m matrix A, its transpose AT is an m x n matrix where the ijth entry of AT is the jith entry of A.

Uploaded by

Kani Mozhi
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Matrices 1

1. An n × m matrix A is a rectangular array of numbers with n rows and m columns. By


A = (aij ) we mean that aij is the entry in the ith row and the jth column. For example,
 
1 2 −2
A= ,
0 −1 4

is a 2 × 3 matrix. We denote by Rn×m the class of n × m matrices with real entries.

2. An n × 1 matrix is called a column vector, and a 1 × m matrix, a row vector. An n × n


6 j.
matrix is called square. An n × n matrix A = (aij ) is called diagonal if aij = 0 for i =
The main diagonal of A is the set of elements aii , i = 1, . . . , n.

3. The transpose of the n × m matrix A = (aij ) is the m × n matrix AT = (aji ). Thus you
get AT from A by transposing the rows and the columns. For example, thr tranpose of
 
1 2 −2
A= ,
0 −1 4

is  
1 0
AT =  2 −1  ,
−2 4
and the transpose of 

1
x =  −2  , (1)
3
is
xT = [ 1 −2 3]. (2)
T
Note that AT = A.

4. For reasons we’ll discuss later, we denote points in Rn by column vectors. For example,
we write  
2
x= , (3)
1
instead of the (2, 1) you might be used to. To save space while observing the column vector
T
convention, some authors will write x as [ 2 1 ] or (2, 1)T .

5. Matrix Addition: If A = (aij ) and B = (bij ) are n × m matrices, then A + B is the n × m


matrix with ijth entry aij + bij .
6. Scalar Multiplication: If A = (aij ) is an n × m matrix and c is a scalar, then cA is the
n × m matrix with ijth entry caij .

7. We usually write −A instead of −1A. By A − B we mean A + (−1)B.

8. Matrix Multiplication: If A = (aij ) is n × m and B = (bij ) is m × k, then we can


Pmform the
matrix product AB. To be precise, AB is the n × k matrix whose ijth entry is l=1 ail blj .
In other words, the ijth entry of AB is the dot product of the ith row of A with the jth
column of B.

9. Note that matrix multiplication is not commutative. If A is n × m and B is m × k, where


k 6= n, then AB is defined, but BA is not. Even if k = n, it is not generally true that
AB = BA.

10. Let A, B and C be matrices and k a scalar. Then,

A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C, (4)

A(B + C) = (A + B)C, (5)

(AB)C = A(BC), (6)

and
k(AB) = (kA)B = A(kB), (7)

whenever the operations are defined.

11. The n × n identity is the matrix I ∈ Rn×n , with 1’s one the main diagonal and 0’s
elsewhere:
1 0 ··· 0
 
0 1 ··· 0
I= ... ... . . . ... 
 (8)

0 0 ··· 1

Let I be the n × n identity. If A is n × m, then IA = A. If A is m × n, then AI = A. In


particular, if A is n × n and x is n × 1, then

AI = IA = A, (9)

and
Ix = x. (10)
12. Consider the system of n equations in m unknowns:

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1m xm = b1


a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2m xm = b2
.. (11)
.
an1 x1 + an2 x2 + · · · + anm xm = bn
T T
Let A = (aij ), x = [ x1 · · · xm ] and b = [ b1 · · · bn ] . Then the above system of equations
can be written in matrix form as
Ax = b.
When b = 0 (that is, the zero vector in Rn ), the system is called homogeneous. In these
notes, we’ll only be concerned with the case of m = n.

13. Let I be the n × n identity. An matrix A ∈ Rn×n , is called invertible or nonsinuglar if


there is a matrix A−1 such that
A−1 A = I. (12)
The matrix A−1 is called the inverse of A. Note that A−1 must also be n × n. If A has
no inverse, it is called singular.
−1
14. If A ∈ Rn×n , is nonsingular, then A−1 = A, and AA−1 = I. If B ∈ Rn×n , is also
nonsingular, then AB is nonsingular and (AB)−1 = B −1 A−1

15. Proposition: Consider the n-dimensional system

Ax = b. (13)

a. If A is invertible, then (13) has the unique solution x = A−1 b.


b. It follows from (a), that if A is invertible and b = 0, then (13) has the unique solution
x = 0.
c. If A is singular and b 6= 0, then (13) has either no solution or infinitely many solutions.
d. If A is singular and b = 0, then (13) has infinitely many solutions.

16. Proposition: A ∈ Rn×n , is invertible if and only if det A 6= 0.

17. The null space or kernel of A ∈ Rn×m , is

N (A) = {x ∈ Rm | Ax = 0 ∈ Rn }.

If m = n, then by the previous two paragraphs,

N (A) = {0} ⇐⇒ det A 6= 0 ⇐⇒ A is nonsingular. (14)


18. Vectors v1 , . . . , vm are linearly indepedent or simply independent if no one of them is a
linear combination of the others. It isn’t hard to show that v1 , . . . , vm are independent if

c1 v1 + · · · + cm vm = 0,

implies that
c1 = c2 = · · · = cm = 0.
In other words, the vi are linearly independent if the only linear combination of the vi that
equals zero has coefficients that are all zero.

19. Proposition: For j = 1, . . . , n, let


 
a1j
aj =  ...  .
 

αnj

Let A be the n × n matrix with columns a1 , . . . , an : A = (aij ). Then det A 6= 0 if and only
if the column vectors a1 , . . . , an are linearly independent. Thus, for a square matrix A,

The columns of A are independent ⇐⇒ det A 6= 0 ⇐⇒ A is nonsingular. (15)

20. Let A be an n × m matrix. If x is in Rm , then Ax is in Rn . Thus,

A : Rm 7→ Rn .

Moreover,
A(x + y) = Ax + Ay,
and
A(cx) = cAx.
You can thus think of an n × m matrix A as a linear operator (or mapping, or transfor-
mation) taking Rm to Rn . If B is k × n, then BA takes x ∈ Rm to Ax ∈ Rn and then to
BAx ∈ Rk . In a nutshell,
BA : Rm 7→ Rk , linearly.
You can thus think of matrix multiplication as composition of linear operators.

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