57:020

Fluid Mechanics

Class Notes
Fall 2006

Prepared by:
Professor Fred Stern

Typed by: Stephanie Schrader (Fall 1999)

Corrected by: Jun Shao (Fall 2003)
Corrected by: Jun Shao (Fall 2005)
Corrected by: Jun Shao, Tao Xing (Fall 2006)
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 1

Chapter 1: Introduction and basic concepts

Fluids and the no-slip condition

Fluid mechanics is the science of fluids either at rest (fluid

statics) or in motion (fluid dynamics) and their effects on
boundaries such as solid surfaces or interfaces with other
fluids.

Definition of a fluid: a substance that deforms continuously

when subjected to a shear stress

Consider a fluid between two parallel plates, which is

subjected to a shear stress due to the impulsive motion of
the upper plate
u=U
No slip condition: no relative
Fluid motion between fluid and
Element
boundary, i.e., fluid in contact
u=0 with lower plate is stationary,
t=0
whereas fluid in contact with
upper plate moves at speed U.
τ
θ Fluid deforms, i.e., undergoes
rate of strain θ due to shear
τ stress τ
t=∆t
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 2

Newtonian fluid: τ ∝ θ = rate of strain

τ = µ θ
µ = coefficient of viscosity

Such behavior is different from solids, which resist shear

by static deformation (up to elastic limit of material)
τ
Elastic solid: τ ∝ γ = strain
γ
Solid τ=Gγ

τ G = shear modulus
t=0 t=∆t

Both liquids and gases behave as fluids

Liquids:
Closely spaced molecules with large intermolecular forces
Retain volume and take shape of container
container

liquid

Gases:
Widely spaced molecules with small intermolecular forces
Take volume and shape of container

gas
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 3

Recall p-v-T diagram from thermodynamics:

single phase, two phase, triple point (point at which solid,
liquid, and vapor are all in equilibrium), critical point
(maximum pressure at which liquid and vapor are both in
equilibrium).

Liquids, gases, and two-phase liquid-vapor behave as

fluids.
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 4

Continuum Hypothesis

In this course, the assumption is made that the fluid

behaves as a continuum, i.e., the number of molecules
within the smallest region of interest (a point) are sufficient
that all fluid properties are point functions (single valued at
a point).

For example:
Consider definition of density ρ of a fluid

lim δM x = position vector = xi + yj + zk

ρ(x , t ) =
δV → δV * δV t = time
δV* = limiting volume below which molecular variations
may be important and above which macroscopic variations
may be important

δV* ≈ 10-9 mm3 for all liquids and for gases at atmospheric
pressure

10-9 mm3 air (at standard conditions, 20°C and 1 atm)

contains 3x107 molecules such that δM/δV = constant = ρ

Note that typical “smallest” measurement volumes are

about 10-3 – 100 mm3 >> δV* and that the “scale” of
macroscopic variations are very problem dependent
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 5

Exception: rarefied gas flow

Properties of Fluids
Fluids are characterized by their properties such as
viscosity µ and density ρ, which we have already discussed
with reference to definition of shear stress τ = µθ and the
continuum hypothesis.

Properties can be both dimensional (i.e., expressed in either

SI or BG units) or non-dimensional.

See: Appendix Figures B.1 and B.2, and Appendix Tables

B.1, B.2, B.3, B.4, Appendix C and D, and tables 1.3, 1.4,
1.5, 1.6, 1.7, and 1.8.
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 6

Basic Units

System International and British Gravitational Systems

Primary Units SI BG
Mass M kg Slug=32.2lbm
Length L m ft
Time t s s
Temperature T °C (°K) °F (°R)

Temperature Conversion:
°K = °C + 273
°R = °F + 460

°K and °R are absolute scales, i.e., 0 at absolute zero.

Freezing point of water is at 0°C and 32°F.

Secondary
(derived) units Dimension SI BG
velocity V L/t m/s ft/s
acceleration a L/t2 m/s2 ft/s2
force F ML/t2 N (kg⋅m/s2) lbf
pressure p F/L2 Pa (N/m2) lbf/ft2
density ρ M/L3 kg/m3 slug/ft3
internal energy u FL/M J/kg (N⋅m/kg) BTU/lbm

Weight and Mass

F = Ma Newton’s second law (valid for both solids

and fluids)
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 7
Weight = force on object due to gravity

W = Mg g = 9.81 m/s2
= 32.2 ft/s2

SI: W (N) = M (kg) ⋅ 9.81 m/s2

M ( lbm )
BG: W (lbf) = ⋅32.2 ft/s2 =M(slug) ⋅ 32.2ft/ s2
gc
lbm ⋅ ft lbm
g c = 32.2 = 32.2 , i.e., 1 slug = 32.2 lbm
s 2 ⋅ lbf slug

1N = 1kg ⋅ 1m/s2
1lbf = 1 slug ⋅ 1ft/s2

System; Extensive and Intensive Properties

System = fixed amount of matter

= mass M

Therefore, by definition
d(M)
=0
dt

Properties are further distinguished as being either

extensive or intensive.

Extensive properties: depend on total mass of system,

e.g., M and W (upper case letters)
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 8
Intensive properties: independent of amount of mass of
system, e.g., p (force/area, lower
case letters) and ρ (mass/volume)

Properties Involving the Mass or Weight of the

Fluid

Specific Weight, γ = gravitational force, i.e., weight per

unit volume ∀
= W/ ∀
= mg/ ∀
= ρg N/m3
(Note that specific properties are extensive properties per
unit mass or volume)
Mass Density ρ = mass per unit volume
= M ∀ kg/m3

Specific Gravity S = ratio of γliquid to γwater at standard T = 4°C

(or air at standard conditions for gases)
= γ/γwater, 4°C dimensionless

γwater, 4°C = 9810 N/m3 for T = 4°C and atmospheric pressure

Variation in Density

gases: ρ = ρ (gas, T, p) equation of state (p-v-T)

= p/RT ideal gas

R = R (gas)
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 9

R (air) = 287.05 N⋅m/kg⋅°K

Air

liquids: ρ ∼ constant

Liquid and temperature Density Density

(kg/m3) (slugs/ft3)
Water 20oC (68oF) 998 1.94
Ethyl alcohol 20oC (68oF) 799 1.55
Glycerine 20oC (68oF) 1,260 2.45
Kerosene 20oC (68oF) 814 1.58
Mercury 20oC (68oF) 13,350 26.3
Sea water 10oC at 3.3% 1,026 1.99
salinity
SAE 10W 38oC(100oF) 870 1.69
SAE 10W-30 880 1.71
38oC(100oF)
SAE 30 38oC(100oF) 880 1.71

For greater accuracy can also use p-v-T diagram

57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 10

ρ = ρ (liquid, T, p)

TÇ ρÈ
pÇ ρÇ

Vapor Pressure and Cavitation

When the pressure of a liquid falls below the vapor

pressure it evaporates, i.e., changes to a gas. If the pressure
drop is due to temperature effects alone, the process is
called boiling. If the pressure drop is due to fluid velocity,
the process is called cavitation. Cavitation is common in
regions of high velocity, i.e., low p such as on turbine
blades and marine propellers.

high V low p isobars

(suction side)

streamlines around lifting

surface (i.e. lines tangent to
low V high p velocity vector)
(pressure side)

p − pv
Cavitation number =
1 2
ρV∞
2

< 0 implies cavitation

57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 11

Properties Involving the Flow of Heat

For flows involving heat transfer such as gas dynamics

additional thermodynamic properties are important, e.g.

specific heats cp and cv J/kg⋅°K

specific internal energy u J/kg
specific enthalpy h = u + p/ρ J/kg

Elasticity (i.e., compressibility)

Increasing/decreasing pressure corresponds to

contraction/expansion of a fluid. The amount of
deformation is called elasticity.

d∀ d∀
dp = − E∀ dp > 0 ⇒ <0
∀ ∀
∴ minus sign used

dp
E∀ = −
dp
=
dp N
= 2 E∀ = ρ
d∀ ∀ d ρ ρ m dρ

Alternate form: M = ρ∀
d M = ρ d ∀ + ∀d ρ = 0 (by definition)

d∀ d ρ
− =
∀ ρ
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 12

Liquids are in general incompressible, e.g.

E∀ = 2.2 GN/m 2
water
i.e. ∆∀ = .05% for ∆p = 1MN/m2
(G=Giga=109 M=Mega=106 k=kilo=103)

Gases are in general compressible, e.g. for ideal gas at

T = constant (isothermal)
dp
= RT
dρ

E∀ = ρ RT = p

Viscosity

Recall definition of a fluid (substance that deforms

continuously when subjected to a shear stress) and
Newtonian fluid shear / rate-of-strain relationship ( τ = µθ ).

Reconsider flow between fixed and moving parallel plates

(Couette flow)

δuδt=distance fluid
particle travels in time δt
y

δf at δt u=U
h u(y)=velocity profile δy
δf at t
U δθ
= y δf=fluid
h element
u=0
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 13

δθ
Newtonian fluid: τ = µθ = µ
δt
δuδt δuδt
tan δθ = or δθ = for small δθ
δy δy

δu du
therefore δθ = i.e., θ = = velocity gradient
δy dy

du
and τ =µ
dy

Exact solution for Couette flow is a linear velocity profile

U
u ( y) = y Note: u(0) = 0 and u(h) = U
h
i.e., satisfies no-slip
U boundary condition
τ =µ = constant
h

where

U/h = velocity gradient = rate of strain

µ = coefficient of viscosity = proportionality constant for

Newtonian fluid
µ= τ = N m2 = Ns
du m m m2
dy s
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 14

µ m2
ν= = = kinematic viscosity
ρ s

µ = µ(fluid;T,p) = µ(gas;T)

gas and liquid µÇ pÇ, but smal ∆µ

gas: µÇ TÇ Due to structural differences, more molecular
liquid: µÈ TÇ activity, decreased cohesive forces for gases
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 15
Newtonian vs. Non-Newtonian Fluids

Dilatant: τÇ dV/dyÇ
Newtonian: τ ∝ dV/dy
Pseudo plastic: τÈ dV/dyÇ

τ ∝ ( dV dy )
n
τ ∝ dV dy
µ = slope n>1 slope increases
with increasing τ
(shear thickening)

n<1 slope decreases

with increasing τ
(shear thinning),
blood, paint, liquid plastic
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 16

Surface Tension and Capillary Effects

Two non-mixing fluids (e.g., a liquid and a gas) will form

an interface. The molecules below the interface act on each
other with forces equal in all directions, whereas the
molecules near the surface act on each other with increased
forces due to the absence of neighbors. That is, the
interface acts like a stretched membrane
Fσ = surface tension force
AIR

Fσ Fσ
Interface

Near surface forces are increased due to absence of

neighbors such that surface is in tension σ per unit length
Away from interface
WATER molecular forces are
equal in all directions
σair/water = 0.073 N/m
Fσ = σ × L = line force with direction normal to the cut
L =length of cut through the interface

Effects of surface tension:

θ<90o Wetting θ >90o Non-wetting

 57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 17
1. Capillary action in small tube ∆h = 4σ γd
2. Pressure difference across curved interface
∆p = σ/R R = radius of curvature
3. Transformation of liquid jet into droplets
4. Binding of wetted granular material such as sand

Example

Fσ Fσ Fluid attaches to solid with contact

angle θ due to surface tension effect
and wetty properties
∆h

water
reservoir θ
d θ= contact angle

capillary tube d = 1.6mm = 0.0016m

Fσ = σ × L , L=length of contact line between fluid & solid

water reservoir at 20° C, σ = 0.073 N/m, γ = 9790 N/m3

∆h = ?
ΣFz = 0
Fσ,z - W = 0
σπd cos θ - ρgV = 0 θ ∼ 0° ⇒ cos θ = 1
ρg = γ
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 18

πd 2 πd 2
σπd − γ∆h =0 ∀=∆h =Volume of
4
4 fluid above
reservoir
4σ
∆h = = 18.6 mm
γd

A brief history of fluid mechanics

See text book section 1.10.

Fluid Mechanics and Flow Classification

Hydrodynamics: flow of fluids for which density is

constant such as liquids and low-speed gases. If in addition
fluid properties are constant, temperature and heat transfer
effects are uncoupled such that they can be treated
separately.

Examples: hydraulics, low-speed aerodynamics, ship

hydrodynamics, liquid and low-speed gas pipe systems

Gas Dynamics: flow of fluids for which density is variable

such as high-speed gases. Temperature and heat transfer
effects are coupled and must be treated concurrently.

Examples: high-speed aerodynamics, gas turbines,

high-speed gas pipe systems, upper atmosphere