PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT II

SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOLS

As its name indicates, a tool that has a single point for cutting purpose is called single point
cutting tool. It is generally used in the lathe machine, shaper machine etc. It is used to remove the
materials from the work piece.
Single-point tools are used to remove material by means of one cutting edge, in shaping, turning,
planning and other similar operations. Multipoint tools are used in milling, drilling and grinding.
Metal-cutting tools are classified as single point or multiple points. A single-point cutting tool can
be used for increasing the size of holes, or boring. Turning and boring are performed on lathes
and boring mills. Multiple-point cutting tools have two or more cutting edges and include milling
cutters, drills, and broaches.In order to produce top quality work pieces, a metal cutting tool must
have the following features:
 Toughness so that the tools do not fracture or chip
 Hardness so that the tools can withstand the heat generated during the metal cutting process
 Wear resistance so that the tool can have a long working life
It is important for metal cutting tools to be made from materials harder than the material which is
going to be cut, as this ensures that the tool will withstand the heat generated during the metal
cutting process.
It is also essential for the cutting tool to have particular geometry and clearance angles that allow
the tool’s cutting edge to precisely contact the work piece, so that the cutting process is carried out
efficiently..

The single point cutting tool has only one cutting point or edge. These tools used for turning,
boring, shaping or planning operations. These tools used on lathe, boring and shaper machines.

A single point cutting tool consists of a sharpened cutting part and the shank and main parts or
elements which are:
1: Shank
It is the main body of the tool.
2: Flank:
The surface or surfaces below and adjacent to the cutting edge is called flank of the tool.
3: Face
The surface on which the chip slides is called the face of the tool.
1
4: Heel
It is the intersection of the flank and the base of the tool.
5: Nose
It is the point where the side cutting edge and end cutting edge intersect.
6: Cutting Edge
It is the edge on the face of the tool which removes the material from the work piece. The cutting
edge consists of the side cutting edge (major cutting edge) and cutting edge(minor cutting edge)
and the nose.

1. Shank: It is that part of single point cutting tool which goes into the tool holder. Or in simple
language shank is used to hold the tool.
2. Flank: It is the surface below and adjacent of the cutting edges. There are two flank surfaces,
first one is major flank and second one is minor flank. The major flank lies below and adjacent to
the side cutting edge and the minor flank surface lies below and adjacent to the end cutting edge.
3. Base: The portion of the shank that lies opposite to the top face of the shank is called base.
4. Face: It is the top portion of the tool along which chips slides. It is designed in such a way that
the chips slides on it in upward direction.

OPERATIONS PERFORMED ON LATHE

Lathe Machine:Lathe is one of the most versatile and widely used machine tools all over the
world. It is commonly known as the mother of all other machine tool. The main function of a
lathe is to remove metal from a job to give it the required shape and size. The job is securely and
rigidly held in the chuck or in between centers on the lathe machine and then turn it against a
single point cutting tool which will remove metal from the job in the form of chips.
Machine tools that form parts by removing metal chips from a work piece include lathes, shapers
and planers, drilling machines, milling machines, grinders, and power saws. Tungsten Carbide
tipped cutting tools are used. Carbide is very hard and can cut at much higher speeds.

2
bvcbnncbnvcvncbnnbcbncvnn

3
TURNING

Turning is the removal of metal from the outer diameter of a rotating

cylindrical workpiece. Turning is used to reduce the diameter of the workpiece, usually to a
specified dimension, and to produce a smooth finish on the metal. Often the workpiece will
be turned so that adjacent sections have different diameters. In a straight turning, the cutting
tool moves along a line parallel to the axis of the work, causing the finished job to be the same
diameter throughout.

TAPER TURNING When the diameter of a piece changes uniformly from one end to the other,
the piece is said to be tapered. Taper turning as a machining operation is the gradual reduction in
diameter from one part of a cylindrical workpiece to another part. Tapers can be either external or
internal. If a workpiece is tapered on the outside, it has an external taper; if it is tapered on the
inside, it has an internal taper.

Taper Turning: The taper turning is an operation of producing a conical surface by gradual
reduction in the diameter of a cylindrical workpiece. Shoulder Turning: When a workpiece
having different diameters is turned, the surface forming the step from one diameter to the other is
called the shoulder, and machining this part of the workpiece is called shoulder turning. Step
turning is an operation performed on lathe machine where the excess material is removed from
the work piece to obtain various steps of different diameters.

4
Facing Operations

Facing is the process of removing metal from the end of a workpiece to produce a flat
surface. Most often, the workpiece is cylindrical, but using a 4-jaw chuck you can face
rectangular or odd-shaped work to form cubes and other non-cylindrical shapes.

This picture on the right shows what

happens if the tip of your cutting tool is below the center line of the lathe - a little nub is left at the
center of the workpiece. The same thing happens if the tool is too high but the nub will have more
of a cone shape in that case. If the tool is too low, place a suitable thickness of shim stock
underneath the tool in the tool holder..

CHAMFERING A chamfer is a transitional edge between two faces of an

object.

a chamfer is a sloped or angled corner or edge, and a fillet is a rounded corner or edge.

5
PARTING OFF

PLANER

A planer is a type of metalworking machine tool that uses linear relative motion between the
workpiece and a single-point cutting tool to cut the work piece.[1] A planer is similar to a shaper,
but larger, and with workpiece moving, whereas in a shaper the cutting tool moves.

SHAPER
A shaper is a type of machine tool that uses linear relative motion between the workpiece and a
single-point cutting tool to machine a linear toolpath.

6
 TOOL LIFE AND TOOL WEAR

TOOL life is defined as the time to which the tool can be used for cutting.Operating the tool until
the catastrophic failure is one way of defining tool life. This is indicated by the end of each tool

curve.

7
8
9
10
11
12
 Types of chips

The three common types of chip from a single point tool are.
1;:Discontinuous or segmental chip:
Discontinuous chips is formed by a series of rupture occurring approximately perpendicular to the
tool place face’ each chip element passing off along the tool face the chip element’ in the form of
small segment may adhere loosely to each other and becomes slightly longer.
Since the chips break up into small segments the friction between the tool and the chips reduces’
resulting in better surface finish. These chips are convenient to collect’ handle and dispose off.
Discontinuous chips tends to be formed when one or more or the following conditions exist:
13
1. Brittle material , such as cast iron and bronze.
2. large chip thickness
3. low cutting speed
4. small rack angle
Discontinuous chips are also produced when cutting more ductile material with the use of a
cutting fluid.

2: Continuous Chips:
Continuous chips are formed by the continuous plastic deformation of metal without fracture in
front of the cutting edge of the tool and is formed by the smooth flow of the chip up the tool face.
Mild steel and copper are considered to be most desirable materials for obtaining continuous
chips. The chips obtained have same thickness throughout. This type of chip is the most desirable.
Since it is stable cutting, resulting in generally good surface finish. On the other hand these chips
are difficult to handle and dispose off.
Continuous chips tend to be formed when the following condition exist:
1. ductile material
2. high cutting speed
3. small chip thickness
4. large rack angle
5. minimum friction of chip on tool face by :
· polished tool face
· use of efficient cutting lubricants.
· Use of tool material with low-coefficient of friction.
3: Continuous Chip with Built up Edge:
This type of chip is very similar to the continuous chip. With the
difference that it has a built up edge adjacent to tool face and also it is
not so smooth. It is obtained by machining on ductile material, in this
condition of high local temperature and extreme pressure in the cutting
and high friction in the tool chip interference, may cause the work
material to adhere or weld to the cutting edge of the tool. Successive
layers of work material are then added to the built up edge. When
this edge becomes larger and unstable , it breaks up and part of it is
carried up the face of the tool along with the chip while the remaining
is left over the surface being machined, which contributes to the
roughness of the surface. The built up edge changes its size during the
14
cutting operation. It first increases, then decreases, and then again
increases etc.

Discontinuous chip. When relatively brittle materials (e.g., cast irons) are machined at low
cutting speeds, the chips often form into separate segments (sometimes the segments are loosely
attached). This tends to impart an irregular texture to the machined surface. High tool–chip
friction and large feed and depth of cut promote the formation of this chip type.

Continuous chip. When ductile work materials are cut at high speeds and relatively small feeds
and depths, long continuous chips are formed. A good surface finish typically results when this
chip type is formed.

15
Chapter 21/Theory of Metal Machining

Continuous
Discontinuous chip Continuous chip chip
High shear

strain zone
Low shear To
Tool Tool Tool strain zone ol

(a) (b) (c) (d)

FIGURE 21.9 Four types of chip formation in metal cutting: (a) discontinuous, (b)
continuous, (c) continuous with built-up edge, (d) serrated.
Long, continuous chips (as in turning) can cause problems with regard to chip disposal and/or
tangling about the tool. To solve these problems, turning tools are often equipped with chip
breakers (Section 23.3.1).

Continuous chip with built-up edge. When machining ductile materials at low-
to-medium cutting speeds, friction between tool and chip tends to cause portions of
the work material to adhere to the rake face of the tool near the cutting edge. This
formation is called a built-up edge (BUE). The formation of a BUE is cyclical; it
forms and grows, then becomes unstable and breaks off. Much of the detached
BUE is carried away with the chip, sometimes taking portions of the tool rake
face with it, which reduces the life of the cutting tool. Portions of the detached
BUE that are not carried off with the chip become imbedded in the newly
created work surface, causing the surface to become rough.
The preceding chip types were first classified by Ernst in the late 1930s [13]. Since then, the available metals used in
machining, cutting tool materials, and cutting speeds have all increased, and a fourth chip type has been identified:

Serrated chips (the term shear-localized is also used for this fourth chip type).
These chips are semi-continuous in the sense that they possess a saw-tooth
16
appearance that is produced by a cyclical chip formation of alternating high shear
strain followed by low shear strain. This fourth type of chip is most closely
associated with certain difficult-to-machine metals such as titanium alloys,
nickel-base superalloys, and austenitic stainless steels when they are machined at
higher cutting speeds. However, the phenomenon is also found with more
common work metals (e.g., steels) when they are cut at high speeds

We have previously treated the rake

angle of a cutting tool as one parameter. In a single-point tool,
the orientation of the rake face is defined by two angles, back
rake angle (ab) and side rake angle (as). Together, these
angles are influential in determining the direction of chip flow
across the rake face. The flank surface of the tool is defined by
the end relief angle (ERA) and side relief angle (SRA). These
angles determine the amount of clearance between the tool and
the freshly cut work surface. The cutting edge of a single-point
17
 tool is divided into two sections, side cutting edge and end
cutting edge. These two sections are separated by the tool
point, which has a certain radius, called the nose radius. The
side cutting edge angle (SCEA) determines the entry of the
tool into the work and can be used to reduce the sudden
force the tool experiences as it enters a workpart. Nose
radius (NR) determines to a large degree the texture of the
surface generated in the operation. A very pointed tool (small
nose radius) results in very pronounced feed marks on the
surface. We return to this issue of surface roughness in
machining in Section 24.2.2. End cutting edge angle (ECEA)
provides a clearance between the trailing edge of the tool
and the newly generated work surface, thus reducing
rubbing and friction against the surface.

In all, there are seven elements of tool geometry for a single-point tool. When specified in the
following order, they are collectively called the tool geometry signature: back rake angle, side
rake angle, end relief angle, side relief angle, end cutting edge angle, side cutting edge angle, and
nose radius. For example, a single-point tool used in turning might have the following signature:
5, 5, 7, 7, 20, 15, 2/64 in.

18
 Section 23.3/Tool
Geometry 569

Chip Breakers Chip disposal is a problem that is often encountered in turning and other
continuous operations. Long, stringy chips are often generated, especially when turning ductile
materials at high speeds. These chips cause a hazard to the machine operator and the workpart
finish, and they interfere with automatic operation of the turning process. Chip breakers are
frequently used with single-point tools to force the chips to curl more tightly than they
would naturally be inclined to do, thus causing them to fracture Groove-type chip
breaker designed into the cutting tool itself, and (b) obstruction-type chip breaker designed as an
additional device on the rake face of the tool. The chip breaker distance can be
adjusted in the obstruction-type device for different cutting conditions.
(Cutting Tool Materials)
Sharpening and reconditioning of tools

Drilling and Related Operations (drilling, boring, reaming, counter boring and counter
sinking)
n the context of machining, a cutting tool or cutter is any tool that is used to remove material from
the work piece by means of shear deformation. Cutting may be accomplished by single-point or
multipoint tools. Single-point tools are used in turning, shaping, planing and similar operations, and
remove material by means of one cutting edge. Milling
and drilling tools are often
multipoint tools. Grinding tools are also multipoint tools. Each grain of
abrasive functions as a microscopic single-point cutting edge and shears a
tiny chip.
Drills Various cutting tools are available for hole making, but the twist drill is by far the most
common. It comes in diameters ranging from about 0.15 mm (0.006 in) to as large as

19
Chapter 23/Cutting-Tool Technology

FIGURE 23.12 Standard geometry of a twist drill.

75 mm (3.0 in). Twist drills are widely used in industry to produce holes rapidly and
economically..
Drilling, is a machining operation used to create a round hole in a workpart. This contrast with boring, which can
only be used to enlarge an existing hole. Drilling is usually performed with a rotating cylindrical tool that has two
cutting edges on its working end. The tool is called a drill or drill bit (described in Section 23.3.2). The most common
drill bit is the twist drill, The rotating drill feeds into the stationary workpart to form a hole whose diameter is equal
to the drill diameter. Drilling is customarily performed on a drill press, although other machine tools also perform this
operation.
OPERATIONS RELATED TO DRILLING
Several operations are related to drilling. These are illustrated in Figure 22.14 and described in this section. Most of the
operations follow drilling; a hole must be made first by drilling, and then the hole is modified by one of the other
operations. Centering and spot facing are exceptions to this rule. All of the operations use rotating tools.

Reaming is used to slightly enlarge a hole, to provide a better tolerance

Reaming.
on its diameter, and to improve its surface finish. The tool is called a reamer,
and it usually has straight flutes.

Tapping. This operation is performed by a tap and is used to provide internal screw threads on an existing hole.

20
 Counterboring provides a stepped hole, in which a larger diameter
Counterboring.
follows a smaller diameter partially into the hole. A counterbored hole is used
to seat bolt heads into a hole so the heads do not protrude above the surface.
Countersinking. This
is similar to counterboring, except that the step in the hole is cone-shaped
for flat head screws and bolts.
Centering. Also called center drilling, this operation drills a starting hole to accurately establish its location for subsequent
drilling. The tool is called a center drill.
Spot facing. Spot facing is similar to milling. It is used to provide a flat machined surface on the workpart in a localized
area.

21
22
23
Overloading the drill bit by feeding too quickly in Z will result in an excessive
chipload on each drill lip, causing the cutting edges to fracture (chip). •

Peck drilling, or the practice of drilling a short distance, then withdrawing the drill,
will reduce the tendency of chips to collect in the bottom of the hole. The deeper the
hole, the more frequent the drill must be retracted (or pecked) to be effective.

BORING MACHINES
Boring is similar to turning. It uses a single-point tool against a rotating workpart. The
difference is that boring is performed on the inside diameter of an existing hole
rather than the outside diameter of an existing cylinder. In effect, boring is an
internal turning operation. Machine tools used to perform boring operations are called
boring machines (also boring mills). One might expect that boring machines would have
features in common with turning machines; indeed, as previously indicated, lathes are
sometimes used to accomplish boring.
Boring mills can be horizontal or vertical. The designation refers to the orientation of
the axis of rotation of the machine spindle or workpart. In a horizontal boring
24
operation, the setup can be arranged in either of two ways. The first setup is one in which
the work is fixtured to a rotating spindle, and the tool is attached to a cantilevered boring
bar that feeds

FIGURE 22.10 two forms of horizontal boring: (a) boring bar is fed into a rotating
workpart, and (b) work is fed past a rotating boring bar.
into the work, as illustrated in Figure 22.10(a).
A vertical boring machine is used for large, heavy workparts with large diameters; usually the
workpart diameter is greater than its length.

DRILL PRESSES The standard machine tool for drilling is the drill press. There are various types of
upright drill, the upright drill stands on the floor
drill press, the most basic of which is the
and consists of a table for holding the workpart, a drilling head with powered spindle for the
drill bit, and a base and column for support. A similar drill press, but smaller, is the bench

25
drill, which is mounted on a table or bench rather than the floor.

26
The radial drill, Figure 22.16, is a large drill press designed to cut holes in
large parts. It has a radial arm along which the drilling head can be moved and clamped. The head therefore can be
positioned along the arm at locations that are a significant distance from the column to accommodate large work. The radial
arm can also be swiveled about the column to drill parts on either side of the worktable.

The gang drill is a drill press consisting basically of two to six upright drills
connected together in an in-line arrangement. Each spindle is powered and
operated independently, and they share a common worktable, so that a
series of drilling and related operations can be accomplished in sequence
(e.g., centering, drilling, reaming, tapping) simply by sliding the workpart along the worktable from one
spindle to the next.

multiple-spindle drill, in which several drill spindles are

A related machine is the

connected together to drill multiple holes simultaneously into the

workpart.

27
In addition, CNC drill presses are available to control the positioning of the holes
in the workparts. These drill presses are often equipped with turrets to hold
multiple tools that can be indexed under control of the CNC program. The
term CNC turret drill is used for these machine tools.
The turret drilling machine is a simple machine like any other drill
press. One set up can do up to 6 operations on one/single axis as Centering,
Drilling, Holemilling, Reaming, Chamfering, Tapping, etc.

Saves time of moving components through different set ups for various operations. With a
turret drilling machine you bring 6 spindles to work piece rather than moving the work
piece to 6 spindles.

28
Definition of turret drill
: a single-spindle or gang drill in which the spindle supports a head carrying a
number of tools and so designed that each tool may in turn be brought to a position
suitable for performing its function

29
Workholding on a drill press is accomplished by clamping the part in a vise, fixture, or jig. A vise is a general-purpose
workholding device possessing two jaws that grasp the

30
work in position.

A fixture is a workholding device that is usually custom-designed for the particular workpart. The fixture can be designed
to achieve higher accuracy in position-ing the part relative to the machining operation, faster production rates, and greater
operator convenience in use. A jig is a workholding device that is also specially designed for the workpart. The
distinguishing feature between a jig and a fixture is that the jig provides a means of guiding the tool during the drilling
operation. A fixture does not provide this tool guidance feature. A jig used for drilling is called a drill jig.

MILLING
Milling is a machining operation in which a workpart is fed past a rotating cylindrical tool with multiple cutting
edges The axis of rotation of the cutting tool is perpendicular to the direction
of feed. This orientation between the tool axis and the feed direction is one of
the features that distinguish milling from drilling. In drilling, the cutting tool is
fed in a direction parallel to its axis of rotation. The cutting tool in milling is
called a milling cutter and the cutting edges are called teeth.

31
The geometric form created by milling is a plane surface. Other work geometries can be
created either by means of the cutter path or the cutter shape. Owing to the variety of
shapes possible and its high production rates, milling is one of the most versatile and widely
used machining operations.
Milling is an interrupted cutting operation; the teeth of the milling cutter enter and exit the
work during each revolution. This interrupted cutting action subjects the teeth to a cycle of
impact force and thermal shock on every rotation. The tool material and cutter geometry
must be designed to withstand these conditions.

22.4.1 TYPES OF MILLING OPERATIONS

There are two basic types of milling operations, shown in Figure 22.17: (a) peripheral milling and (b)
face milling. Most milling operations create geometry by generating the shape (Section 22.1).

Peripheral Milling In peripheral milling, also called plain milling, the axis of the tool is
parallel to the surface being machined, and the operation is performed by cutting edges
on the outside periphery of the cutter. Several types of peripheral milling are shown in Figure 22.18: (a) slab
milling, the basic form of peripheral milling in which the cutter width
extends beyond the workpiece on both sides; (b) slotting, also called

slot milling, in which the width of the cutter is less than the
workpiece width, creating a slot in the work—when the cutter is very thin, this operation can
be used to mill narrow slots or cut a workpart in two, called saw milling; (c) side
milling, in which the cutter machines the side of the workpiece; (d)
straddle milling, the same as side milling, only cutting takes place on both
sides of the work; and form milling, in which the milling teeth have a

FIGURE 22.17 Two

basic types of milling
operations: (a) peripheral
or plain milling and (b)
face milling.

32
 Section 22.4/Milling 525

FIGURE 22.18
Peripheral milling: (a)
slab milling, (b) slotting,
(c) side milling, (d)
straddle milling, and (e)
form mill-ing. (e)

special profile that determines the shape of the slot that is cut in the work. Form milling is therefore
classified as a forming operation (Section 22.1).
In peripheral milling, the direction of cutter rotation distinguishes two forms of milling: up milling and down
milling, illustrated in Figure 22.19.
In up milling, also called conventional milling, the direction of motion of the
cutter teeth is opposite the feed direction when the teeth cut into the work. It is
milling ‘‘against the feed.’’ In down milling, also called climb milling, the direction of
cutter motion is the same as the feed direction when the teeth cut the work. It is
milling ‘‘with the feed.
’’
The relative geometries of these two forms of milling result in differences in their cutting actions. In up milling, the chip
formed by each cutter tooth starts out very thin and increases in thickness during the sweep of the cutter. In down milling,
each chip starts out thick and reduces in thickness throughout the cut. The length of a chip in down milling is less than in up
milling (the difference is exaggerated in our figure). This means that the cutter is engaged in the work for less time per
volume of material cut, and this tends to increase tool life in down milling.
The cutting force direction is tangential to the periphery of the cutter for the teeth that are engaged in the work. In up
milling, this has a tendency to lift the workpart as the cutter teeth exit the material. In down milling, this cutter force
direction is downward, tending to hold the work against the milling machine table.

Face Milling In face milling, the axis of the cutter is perpendicular to the surface being
milled, and machining is performed by cutting edges on both the end and outside periphery of

FIGURE 22.19 Two

forms of peripheral
milling operation with a
20-teeth cutter: (a) up

33
Chapter 22/Machining Operations and Machine Tools

FIGURE 22.20 Face

milling: (a) conventional
face milling, (b) partial face
milling, (c) end milling,
profile milling,
pocket milling, and
surface contouring.

the cutter. As in peripheral milling, various forms of face milling exist, several of which are
shown in Figure 22.20: (a) conventional face milling, in which the diameter of the cutter is
greater than the workpart width, so the cutter overhangs the work on both sides; (b) partial
face milling, where the cutter overhangs the work on only one side; (c) end milling, in which
the cutter diameter is less than the work width, so a slot is cut into the part; (d) profile milling,
a form of end milling in which the outside periphery of a flat part is cut; (e) pocket milling,
another form of end milling used to mill shallow pockets into flat parts; and
surface contouring, in which a ball-nose cutter (rather than square-end cutter) is fed back and forth across the work along a
curvilinear path at close intervals to create a three-dimensional surface form. The same basic cutter control is required to
machine the contours of mold and die cavities, in which case the operation is called die sinking.

22.4.2 CUTTING CONDITIONS IN MILLING

The cutting speed is determined at the outside diameter of a milling cutter. This can be converted to spindle rotation speed
using a formula that should now be familiar:

N v
¼ pD ð22:13Þ
The feedf in milling is usually given as a feed per cutter tooth; called the chip load,it represents the size of the chip formed
by each cutting edge. This can be converted to feed rate by taking into account the spindle speed and the number of teeth on
the cutter as follows:

f r ¼ Nnt f ð22:14Þ
where fr ¼ feed rate, mm/min (in/min); N ¼ spindle speed, rev/min; nt ¼ number of teeth on
the cutter; and f ¼ chip load in mm/tooth (in/tooth).
Material removal rate in milling is determined using the product of the cross-sectional
area of the cut and the feed rate. Accordingly, if a slab-milling operation is

34
 527

FIGURE 22.21 Slab

(peripheral) milling
showing entry of cutter
into the workpiece.

cutting a workpiece with width w at a depth d, the material removal rate is

RMR ¼ wd f r ð22:15Þ
This neglects the initial entry of the cutter before full engagement. Eq. (22.15) can be applied to end milling, side milling,
face milling, and other milling operations, making the proper adjustments in the computation of cross-sectional area of cut.
The time required to mill a workpiece of length L must account for the approach distance required to fully engage the
cutter. First, consider the case of slab milling, Figure 22.21. To determine the time to perform a slab milling operation, the
approach distance A to reach full cutter depth is given by
¼ ð Þ
ð 22:16 Þ
A dD D

where d ¼ depth of cut, mm (in); and D ¼ diameter of the milling cutter, mm (in). The time Tm in which the cutter is
engaged milling the workpiece is therefore

T LþA 22:17
m¼ fr ð Þ

For facemilling, let us consider the two possible cases pictured in Figure 22.22. The first case is when the cutter
is centered over a rectangular workpiece as in Figure 22.22(a). The cutter feeds from right to left across the
workpiece. In order for the cutter to reach the full width of the work, it must travel an approach distance given by the
following:
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi
2 2
A ¼ 0:5 D D w ð22:18Þ

FIGURE 22.22 Face

milling showing approach
and overtravel distances
for two cases: (a) when
cutter is centered over
the workpiece, and (b)
when cutter is offset to
one side over the work.

35
 where D ¼ cutter diameter, mm (in) and w ¼ width of the workpiece, mm (in). If D ¼ w, then Eq. (22.18) reduces to A ¼ 0.5D.
And if D < w, then a slot is cut into the work and A ¼ 0.5D.
The second case is when the cutter is offset to one side of the work, as in Figure 22.22(b). In this case, the approach
distance is given by
A ¼ ð Þ
22:19 Þ
ð

wD W

where w ¼ width of the cut, mm (in). In either case, the machining time is given by

T LþA 22:20
m¼ fr ð Þ

It should be emphasized in all of these milling scenarios that Tm represents the time the cutter teeth are engaged in the
work, making chips. Approach and overtravel distances are usually added at the beginning and end of each cut to allow
access to the work for loading and unloading. Thus the actual duration of the cutter feed motion is likely to be greater than
Tm.

CATEGORIZATION OF MACHINE TOOLS

1. ACCORDING TO ITS SHAPE AND SIZE: solid tool, tool bit, tip tool, tool
insert, etc.
2. WITH RESPECT TO MATERIAL OF THE TOOL: HSS tools, ceramic tools,
cemented carbides, diamond tool, abrasives, etc.
3. WITH RESPECT TO THE OPERATION IT CAN DO: Turning tool, knurling
tool, parting - off tool, etc.
5. WITH RESPECT TO NUMBER OF CUTTING POINTS/ EDGES OF THE TOOL:
Single point cutting tool ( for lathe), double edge cutting tool (drill),
multiple edge cutting tool (mill cutter, reamer, etc), etc.
6. WITH RESPECT TO DIRECTION OF TOOL MOTION: RH cutting tools, LH
cutting tools, etc.
7. WITH RESPECT TO MOTION OF THE TOOL: Translatory (lathe), rotary
(drill), reciprocating ( shaping).

36
37
38
TYPES OF MILLING MACHINE

Milling machines must provide a rotating spindle for

the cutter and a table for fastening, positioning, and
feeding the workpart. Various machine tool designs satisfy these require-ments. To begin with,
milling machines can be classified as horizontal or vertical.

A horizontal milling machine has a horizontal spindle,

and this design is well suited for performing
peripheral milling (e.g., slab milling, slotting, side and
straddle milling) on workparts that are roughly cube shaped.
A face
vertical milling machine has a vertical spindle, and this orientation is appropriate for

milling, end milling, surface contouring, and die-

sinking on relatively flat workparts.

39
40
41
42
43
44
GRINDING

45
46

Abrasive are small, hard, non-metallic particles
with sharp edges and irregular shapes.
 It can remove small amounts of material,
producing tiny chips
 Abrasive processes can produce fine surface
finishes and accurate dimensional tolerances.

 Abrasive machining is a material removal process

that involves the interaction of abrasive grits with
the work piece at high cutting speed and low
penetration depths.

47
A grinding wheel is a wheel composed of an abrasive compound and used for various grinding
(abrasive cutting) and abrasive machining operations. Such wheels are used in grinding machines.

Abrasive grain
The abrasive aggregate is selected according to the hardness of the material being cut.

 Aluminum oxide (A)

 Silicon carbide (S)
 Ceramic (C)
 Diamond (D, MD, SD)
 Cubic boron nitride (CBN)

48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
Types of grinding machine:
1. Surface grinding
2. Cylindrical grinding
3. Diskgrinding

56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63