Roads Design Manual

THE REPUBLIC OF UGANDA
MINISTRY OF WORKS AND TRANSPORT

ROAD AND BRIDGE WORKS
ROAD DESIGN MANUAL

Volume 3: Pavement Design
Part IV: Pavement Rehabilitation
January 2010
VOLUME III, Pavement Design Manual
Part 4: Pavement Rehabilitation Guide
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABBREVIATIONS AND DEFINITIONS........................................................................................... i
1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................1.1
1.1 Purpose and Scope of the Manual ........................................................................1.1
1.2 Organization of the Manual ...................................................................................1.2
1.3 The Pavement Management Context .............................................................1.4
1.3.1 Maintenance and Rehabilitation..................................................................1.6
2 DATA COLLECTION........................................................................................................ 2.1

2.1 PMS Records........................................................................................................ 2.1
2.2 Other Data............................................................................................................. 2.3
2.3 Traffic Data............................................................................................................ 2.3
3 ANALYSIS FOR REHABILITATION................................................................................ 3.1

3.1 Introduction........................................................................................................... 3.1
3.2 Damage Quantifiers.............................................................................................. 3.1
3.3 Pavement Quality Rating...................................................................................... 3.1
4 DESIGN OF ASPHALT OVERLAYS............................................................................... 4.1

4.1 Asphalt Overlays of Flexible Pavements............................................................... 4.1
4.1.1 General ................................................................................................... 4.1
4.1.2 Deflection Procedure.................................................................................. 4.2
4.1.3 Effective Analysis Procedure...................................................................... 4.5
4.1.4 Surface Preparation for Overlay................................................................. 4.8
4.2 Asphalt Overlays of Rigid Pavements.................................................................. 4.10
4.2.1 Deflection Procedure..................................................................................4.10
4.2.2 Effective Thickness Procedure.................................................................. 4.12
4.2.3 Surface Preparation for Overlays.............................................................. 4.14
4.2.4 Reflection Crack Control............................................................................ 4.15
5 DESIGN OF ALTERNATIVE REHABILITATION METHODS.......................................... 5.1

5.1 Reconstruction...................................................................................................... 5.1
5.1.1 Asphalt Pavement...................................................................................... 5.1
5.1.2 CEM I Concrete Pavement........................................................................ 5.2
5.2 Recycling...............................................................................................................5.3
5.2.1 Recycling of Asphalt Pavement.................................................................. 5.4
5.2.2 Recycling of CEM I Concrete..................................................................... 5.5
6 SELECTION OF PREFERRED ALTERNATIVE.............................................................. 6.1

6.1 Rehabilitation Factors........................................................................................... 6.1
6.2 Selection of Preferred Solution............................................................................. 6.1
6.2.1 Cost Analysis...............................................................................................6.2
6.2.2 Non-monetary Considerations.....................................................................6.3
6.3 Preferred Rehabilitation Alternative........................................................................6.3
7 REFERENCES..................................................................................................................7.1
Ministry of Works and Transport

APPENDICES
Appendix A: Evaluation of Paved Roads

Appendix B: Field Work
Appendix C: Rigid Pavement Distresses
Appendix D: Pavement Temperature
Appendix E: Derivation of New Structural Number
Appendix F: Derivation of Effective Structural Number

ABBREVIATIONS AND DEFINITIONS
AADT Average Annual Daily Traffic
AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
AC Asphalt concrete. High-quality hot mixture of asphalt cement and well-graded,

high-quality aggregate, thoroughly compacted into a uniform dense mass.
BCEOM Bureau Central d’Etudes d’Outre Mer (France)
CBR California Bearing Ratio
CEBTP Centre d’Etudes du Batiment et des Travaux Publics (France)
CEM I Portland Cement US 310-1 (US = Uganda Standard)
CRCP Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement
CSRA Committee of State Road Authorities (South Africa)
DCP Dynamic Cone Penetrometer
Drainage Coefficients (m2, m3)

Factors used to modify layer coefficients in flexible pavements as a function of how well the
pavement structure can handle the adverse effect of water infiltration
Equivalent Standard Axles (ESA)

Summation of equivalent 8.2 t single axle loads used to combine mixed traffic to design traffic
class
FWD Falling Weight Deflectometer
IRI International Roughness Index
Is Global damage index (used in the VIZIR method)
JPCP Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement
JRCP Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement
Layer Coefficients (a1, a2, a3)
The empirical relationship between structural number (SN) and layer thickness which expresses
the relative ability of a material to function as a structural component of the pavement
LCPC Laboratoire Central des Ponts et Chaussees (France)
Maintenance Routine work performed to keep a pavement, under normal conditions of traffic
and forces of nature, as nearly as possible in its as-constructed condition.
NDT Non-Destructive Testing
Overlay One or more courses of asphalt construction on an existing pavement. The overlay
often includes a leveling course, to correct the contour of the old pavement,
followed by a uniform course or courses to provide needed thickness.
i

PMS Pavement Management System
QI Pavement Quality Rating (used in the VIZIR method)
Reconstruction

The process by which a new pavement is constructed, utilizing mostly new
materials, to replace an existing pavement.
Recycling The reuse, usually after some processing, of a material that has already served
its first-intended purpose.
Rehabilitation Work undertaken to significantly extend the service life of an existing pavement.
This may include overlays and preoverlay repairs, and may include complete
removal and reconstruction of the existing pavement, or recycling of part of the
existing materials.
Roadbase A layer of material of defined thickness and width constructed on top of the
subbase, or in the absence thereof, the subgrade.
RRD Representative Rebound Deflection
S1 to S6 Subgrade strength classes used to characterize the subgrade in pavement

design (cf MoWT-Volume III, Pavement Design Manual (Part 1, Flexible
Pavement Design Guide).
SNeff Effective structural number of an existing pavement.
SNnew Structural number of a new pavement.
ii
Structural Number (SN)

An index number into which thickness of flexible pavement layers may be
converted through the use of suitable layer coefficients related to the type of
material being used in each layer of the pavement structure
Subbase The layer of material of specified dimensions on top of the subgrade and below
the roadbase.
Subgrade The surface upon which the pavement structure and shoulders are
constructed.
Surfacing The asphalt surfacing of a flexible pavement or the concrete slab of a rigid
pavement.
T1 to T8 Traffic classes used to characterize the anticipated traffic in terms of ESA for
flexible pavement design purposes (cf MoWT-Volume III, Pavement Design
Manual (Part 1, Flexible Pavement Design Guide).
T1, T2, T3 Thicknesses (in centimeters) of pavement surface, base and subbase layers
(existing or required)
TRL Transport Research Laboratory (UK)
VIZIR A method for quality evaluation of paved roads developed by the LCPC and
used in PMS implementation
VOC Vehicle Operating Cost
iii
1 Introduction
1.1 Purpose and Scope of the Manual
The purpose of this Asphalt Pavement Rehabilitation and Overlay Design Manual - Part
4 is to give specific guidance and recommendations to the engineers responsible for the
maintenance and rehabilitation of existing pavements.
This Asphalt Pavement Rehabilitation and Overlay Design Guide - 2004 is based on a
review of the design standards of several countries. Most chapters are based closely on
the Transport Research Laboratory Overseas Road Note 31: A Guide to the Structural
Design of Bitumen-Surfaced Roads in Tropical and Sub-Tropical Countries (ref.1). Of note
is the fact that this reference document and companion TRL documents have drawn on
the experience of TRL and collaborating organizations in several tropical and sub-tropical
countries.
For that portion of the text dealing with surface treatments, the text is based once again on
a TRL source, Overseas Road Note 3: A Guide to Surface Dressing in Tropical and Sub-
Tropical Countries (ref. 2).
Other major reference sources include AASHTO, and, in particular, the AASHTO Guide
for Design of Pavement Structures, as revised in 1993 (ref.6). References of the Asphalt
Institute were reviewed for asphalt concrete and other hot- and cold-mix types. South
African and Kenyan references were reviewed to assist in the development of a design
well suited for the eastern African region.
As the network of paved roads in Uganda evolves, it is likely that a gradual shift in emphasis
will occur, from new design and construction to maintenance and rehabilitation of the
existing paved network.
The design of new pavements is covered in the MoWT-Volume III, Pavement Design Manual
(Part 1, Flexible Pavement Design Guide and Part 2 Rigid pavement Design Guide). The
purpose of this manual is to provide, as a complement, a guide for the design of the most
common rehabilitation solutions applicable to paved roads, and for the selection of an
appropriate rehabilitation alternative for a particular project.
This manual provides design procedures for the rehabilitation of both flexible and rigid
pavements. The procedures utilize data, which are collected during desk studies as well
as by means of fieldwork.
Several rehabilitation alternatives, including asphalt overlays, are usually available to the
design engineer from a technical viewpoint; the manual provides guidance regarding the
choices, practical and economical, between the various alternatives.
Careful consideration to sound engineering practice shall be observed in the use of the
Manual, and under no circumstances shall the Manual waive professional judgment in
applied engineering. As this Manual due to Technological development and change,
requires periodic updating, comments and suggestions on all aspects from any concerned
body, group or individual as feedback during its implementation is expected and will be
highly appreciated.
1.1
1.2 Organization of the Manual
The manual is organized in a manner designed to satisfy its purpose and scope as
identified above, and to guide its user along a natural progression following a recommended
procedure.
The procedure and the organization of the manual are illustrated in the flow diagram in
Figure 1.1.
In Chapter 2, the user of the manual is taken through the steps required to collect an array
of data relevant to the rehabilitation project. This data includes various elements from
different sources (e.g. past road inventories, as-built pavement structures, unit prices,
etc.), essentially gathered as part of a desk study, and preferably prior to initiating the
collection of additional data in the field. One of the important aspect of this task consists
of collecting relevant traffic data.
1.2
VOLUME III,
Part 4: Pavement Pavement Design
Rehabilitation GuideManual
Data Collection
Chapter 2
Fieldwork
Appendix B
x Pavement Condition
Survey
x Deflection Survey
x Other Field Activities
Analysis x Maintenance
Need for Rehabilitation No x No Action
Chapter 3 x Project Reconsideration
Yes
Overlay Design Design of Rehabilitation

Chapter 4 Methods Other than Overlays
Chapter 5
x Deflection Procedure
x Effective Thickness x Reconstruction
Procedure x Recycling
x Alternative Methods
Selection of Preferred Rehabilitation

Alternative
Chapter 6
Final Design
1.3
1.3
Details of the data collection that needs to be carried out in the field are presented in
Appendix B. Of primary importance among these are a detailed pavement condition survey
and a deflection survey. Other tasks to be performed in the field are field testing and
sampling of materials, drainage survey, etc. The methods presented cover both flexible
and rigid pavements.
Chapter 3 outlines the method used to verify or confirm the need for rehabilitation (as
opposed to maintenance) for a particular project, using the data collected which are
normally more complete, recent and reliable than the data available at the time of the initial
determination. In some cases, the need for rehabilitation may not be confirmed, in which
case more cost-efficient projects or maintenance expenditures may need to be sought.
In Chapter 4, flexible and rigid pavements are treated separately, and for each, two
methods of overlay design are considered. Chapter 5 details the various alternatives to
overlay, including reconstruction and recycling.
Finally, as the project nears the completion of its design phase, the user of the manual
will be guided through methods aimed at selecting, from among the feasible rehabilitation
alternatives, the alternative best suited to optimize the satisfaction of all the rehabilitation
objectives, considering economic and practical concerns. This is the purpose of Chapter
6.
1.3 The Pavement Management Context
Pavement management, in its broadest sense, encompasses all the activities involved
in the planning, design, construction, maintenance, evaluation and rehabilitation of the
pavement portion of a public works program. A pavement management system (PMS)
is a set of tools or methods that assist decision makers in finding optimum strategies for
providing, evaluating, and maintaining pavements in a serviceable condition over a given
period of time. The function of a PMS is to improve the efficiency of decision-making,
expand its scope, provide feedback on the consequences of decisions, facilitate the
coordination of activities within the agency, and ensure the consistency of decisions made
at different management levels within the agency.
In this sense, pavement “design”, as covered by MoWT-Volume III, Pavement Design

Manual (Part 1, Flexible Pavement Design Guide and Part 2 Rigid pavement Design
Guide) and “rehabilitation”, as covered in this manual, are essential parts of the overall
pavement management process, a conceptual illustration of which is given in Figure 1.2
(after Ref. 3 and 4).
As can be seen on Figure 1.2, it is convenient and customary to describe a PMS in terms
of two generalized levels: (1) the network management level, and (2) the project level.
1.4
Figure 1.2 Activities of a Pavement Management System (after Ref. 3 and 4)

Figure 1.2 Activities of a Pavement Management System
At the network level, the pavement management system gives information relevant to the
development of programs involving the road infrastructure considered as a group of itineraries,
At the network level, the pavement management system gives information relevant to
identified by their functional class and their main technical characteristics and level of traffic.
the development
Basically, the pavement of programs
management involving
system thedeals
roadprimarily
infrastructure considered
with network level as a group
where key of
administrative decisions that affect programs for road networks are made. It allows one toand
itineraries, identified by their functional class and their main technical characteristics
level ofand
evaluate traffic. Basically,
compare seriesthe
of pavement
maintenancemanagement
activities andsystem deals primarily
maintenance with network
and rehabilitation
level where
alternatives, andkey administrative
to test decisions
them with regard that affect
to budget programs for road networks are made.
constraints.
It allows one to evaluate and compare series of maintenance activities and maintenance
Theand rehabilitation
project level is thealternatives,
appropriateand
leveltofor
test them with
evaluating regard
the to budget
detailed pavement constraints.
conditions of a
section of an itinerary, and for designing technical solutions for routine, periodic maintenance,
or The
rehabilitation,
project levelaccording to road management
is the appropriate priorities,theselected
level for evaluating detailedcost-efficient policy
pavement conditions
alternatives,
of a section andofbudget constraints.
an itinerary, and forHere again, by
designing comparing
technical the benefits
solutions and periodic
for routine, costs
associated with several alternative activities, an optimum strategy is identified
maintenance, or rehabilitation, according to road management priorities, selected cost- that will provide
the desired benefits at the least cost over a selected analysis period.
efficient policy alternatives, and budget constraints. Here again, by comparing the benefits
and costs associated with several alternative activities, an optimum strategy is identified
that will provide the desired benefits at the least cost over a selected analysis period.
1.5
1.5
1.3.1 Maintenance and Rehabilitation
Two terms, “maintenance” and “rehabilitation”, deserve particular attention in order to

fully understand and better benefit from this manual. As already indicated, the PMS aims
at allocating resources between maintenance and rehabilitation, and an outline of the
method used for this purpose is given in Chapter 4. It is therefore appropriate to define
what is covered by these two groups of activities.
a) Maintenance
The following excerpt from the introduction to the Asphalt Institute Manual Series No. 16,
Asphalt in Pavement Maintenance (Ref. 6) is considered appropriate to define maintenance,
as well as to provide some insight into two general categories of maintenance:
“Pavement maintenance is not easy to define. Maintenance departments generally

agree what it is, but there are some minor differences. Some call pavement improvement
“maintenance”. Others include only the work that keeps the pavement in its as-constructed
condition.
Taking all these into consideration, the definition that seems to fit best is:
 Pavement maintenance is work performed from time to time to keep a pavement,

under normal conditions of traffic and forces of nature, as nearly as possible in its as-
constructed condition.
Distinctions are usually made between forms of maintenance, based on their required
frequency. The International Road Maintenance Handbook (Ref. 7) uses the grouping of
“routine” and “periodic” maintenance, while other sources (e.g. TRRL, Ref. 8) use “routine”,
“recurrent”, “periodic” and “urgent”. The following excerpt from Reference 8 illustrates
these categories:
“… There are four categories:
 routine maintenance, required continually on every road, whatever its engineering

characteristics or traffic volume
 recurrent maintenance, required at intervals during the year with a frequency that
depends on the volume of traffic using the road
 periodic maintenance, required only at intervals of several years
 urgent maintenance, needed to deal with emergencies and problems calling for
immediate action when a road is blocked.
Examples of activities within these categories are as follows:
Routine:
Grass cutting; drain clearing; recutting ditches; culvert maintenance; road signs
maintenance
Recurrent on paved roads:

Repairing pot-holes; patching; repairing edges; sealing cracks
Periodic on paved roads:

resealing (surface dressing, slurry sealing, fog spray, etc.); regravelling shoulders; road
surface marking
1.6
Urgent:
Removal of debris and other obstacles; placement of warning signs and diversion
works.”
b) Rehabilitation
The following excerpt from the AASHTO Guide (Ref. 3) illustrates the essential difference
between maintenance and rehabilitation:
“Major rehabilitation activities differ markedly from periodic maintenance activities

(sometimes called normal, routine and/or preventive maintenance) in that the primary
function of the latter activity is to preserve the existing pavement so that it may achieve its
applied loading, while rehabilitation is undertaken to significantly increase the functional
life.”
In this manual, the following definition of rehabilitation, which also introduces the major
rehabilitation categories, will be retained:
“Work undertaken to significantly extend the service life of an existing pavement. This
may include overlays and pre-overlay repairs, and may include complete removal and
reconstruction of the existing pavement, or recycling of part of the existing materials.”
Rehabilitation is the subject of this manual, and is given further scrutiny hereunder.
i) Rehabilitation Alternatives
In the context of pavement management at a project level, and as noted earlier, several
rehabilitation alternatives are usually available after technical evaluation, and will need
to be compared. It is therefore appropriate, before a more detailed description of these
alternatives is given, to outline their main characteristics and the classification used in this
manual.
For simplicity, rehabilitation is subdivided into two major categories:
(1) Rehabilitation Methods with Overlays

(2) Rehabilitation Methods other than Overlays
It is realized that various agencies define overlays in different ways, e.g. some sources
would consider the addition of unbound courses as overlay. For clarity, and consistent with
the scope of this manual, the following definition of an overlay will be adopted for use in
this manual:
“One or more courses of asphalt construction on existing pavement. The overlay often
includes a leveling course, to correct the contour of the old pavement, followed by a
uniform course or courses to provide needed thickness.”
Bearing in mind the distinction between maintenance and rehabilitation, thin overlays will
not be emphasized in the manual, nor will resurfacing with surface dressing or overlays of
short (spot) length. It is noteworthy that asphalt concrete overlays of 5 cm are considered
periodic maintenance in the context of the Pavement Management System (Ref. 5).
1.7
It is also realized, and it should be recognized, that some of the methods which fall
under “rehabilitation methods other than overlays” may be used/required as pre-overlay
treatments in major rehabilitation work.
Rehabilitation methods other than overlays include, as broad primary categories:
 Reconstruction: in this category, little or no contribution is expected from the existing

pavement materials and the materials needed for rehabilitation will be mostly new
materials.
 Recycling: the rehabilitation takes advantage of the existing pavement materials, which
are re-used in part or as a whole, in the construction of the rehabilitated pavement.
The above categories are general in nature, and some combinations of methods are
possible and indeed used. For instance, the materials of an existing surface treatment and
road base may be recycled as the road base or sub base of a reconstructed pavement,
with new materials brought on site to construct the upper layers, e.g. road base and AC
surface.
In addition to the above primary categories of non-overlay rehabilitation methods,

other rehabilitation techniques (some of them, as noted, being also applicable prior to
an overlay) can be applied to pavements to significantly extend their lives without the
placement of an overlay, or may delay recycling or reconstruction for several years.
These techniques, however, in order to truly qualify as rehabilitation techniques, must
satisfy several criteria:
1) They must be applied only to pavements which are structurally adequate to support
future traffic loadings over the design period without structural improvement from an
overlay. Only structurally adequate pavements, or pavements restored to a structurally
adequate state, are candidates for rehabilitation without overlay.
2) They must address the cause(s) of the pavement distress and be effective in both
repairing existing deterioration and preventing its recurrence. For this, a combination
of techniques may be required (one repair method and one preventive technique).
If each of the repair and preventive methods meet the pavement’s needs and satisfy the
imposed constraints (such as available funding and minimum life extension), then they
qualify as feasible rehabilitation alternatives.
If the alternative considered fails to satisfy the above criteria, it will be better classified
under the term of maintenance.
Examples of major rehabilitation methods that may be employed as non-overlay techniques

include:
(1) Full-Depth Repair

(2) Partial Depth Patching
(3) Joint-Crack Sealing
(4) Subsealing-Undersealing
(5) Grinding and Milling
(6) Subdrainage
(7) Pressure Relief Joints
1.8
(8) Load Transfer Restoration

(9) Surface Treatments
These methods are defined and described further in Chapter 5 of the manual.
Finally, non-overlay rehabilitation methods also include, as required when these elements
have become deficient, geometric improvements and/or drainage improvements or
restoration.
1.9
2. DATA COLLECTION
In this chapter, general guidance is given relative to the gathering of data other than the
data which needs to be collected in the field.
It is recommended that this collection and review of data be conducted prior to the field
activities, as it can influence the latter with regard to their scope and organization.
The collection includes a search through the PMS records, as detailed below. Conversely,
the results of this collection, to the extent that they can update and/or complete the PMS
records, should be made available to the Branch or Office in charge of the PMS records.
2.1 PMS Records
These records are among the first sources of data to be sought and collected. Normally,
the data required for the PMS are regularly updated. They fall into three categories, as
follows:
1) Data specifically collected for the PMS. This data deals with road inventory and
road conditions. It includes the results of visual inspection, roughness and deflection
surveys, and geotechnical investigations.
The visual inspection includes information about road geometry, road inventory features
(length; width; profile; alignment; type of structures encountered; etc.), and about road
damage (deformation; cracks; potholes; rutting; gullies; etc.). This information is extremely
valuable in assessing the road condition; it is usually gathered along the entire length of
the road.
Roughness is normally measured using a Bump Integrator and expressed through the
International Roughness Index (IRI). Typical values of the IRI, depending upon the type of
road and its condition, are as follows:
Table 2.1 Condition of the Road vs. IRI
IRI Ranges Road Condition

Lower than 6 very good
6 to 11 good
11 to 15 fair
15 to 19 poor
Larger than 19 very poor
While the road roughness is not directly involved in the structural design of the rehabilitation
procedures presented in this manual, it may influence the choice and the method of
effecting one alternative, e.g. by indicating a probable need for a leveling course prior to
applying a structural overlay course.
Deflection surveys for the PMS are usually carried out using a Benkelman beam. Except
for a variation in the magnitude of the load application, the procedure is similar to that
described in this manual in Appendix B, and the user of this manual should refer to these
sections for details. A review of the PMS deflection data and a comparison with the results
of the deflection survey undertaken for the specific project should give insight into the
2.1
evolution of the load carrying capacity of the pavement and/or increased confidence in the
results of the specific survey.
Data specifically collected for the PMS also include detailed information about the subgrade,
pavement materials, and pavement structure. This information would have been collected
on sample sections by means of test pits with retrieval of samples for laboratory analysis.
The data from the test pits would normally include:
a) Layers of the pavement structure: type, thickness, and maximum size of aggregates
of each layer.
b) Subgrade: in-situ dry density; in situ moisture content; gradation; Atterberg limits;
classification according to AASHTO and/or USCS systems; and in situ CBR obtained
from correlation with DCP testing.
Here again, this data can be compared, and be a useful complement, to the project specific
geotechnical data collected in the field as detailed in Appendix B.
2) Data required for the PMS, but that has usually been collected separately in the field
and then forwarded to or obtained by the Branch or Office in charge of the PMS. This
essentially includes traffic and axle load data.
The data should normally include AADTs, classification of the traffic among the various
vehicle categories, and axle load data within each category. The data available from the
Branch or Office in charge of the PMS may already have been processed and be readily
available only in terms of traffic classes and cumulative equivalent axles. It will then be
necessary to collect the raw data in order to reprocess them according to the procedure
detailed further in this chapter (Section 2.3).
The usefulness of the traffic data thus collected will depend greatly on whether they
are sufficiently up-to-date. Nevertheless, they should be a valuable complement to the
evaluation of the traffic made for the specific project under consideration. In some cases,
they may be sufficiently recent, reliable, and complete to be used, at least in part, for the
project.
3) The third category of data normally available from the Branch or Office in charge
of the PMS includes archive data such as theoretical pavement structures; ages
of the pavement structures; unit prices of road works; vehicle operating costs and
geoclimatic data.
General information about pavement structure and history should normally have been
made available to the PMS through MoWT’s Maintenance Divisions or in the stations, and
includes:
 number and thickness of the pavement layers (surfacing, roadbase and subbase),
together with a description of the material of each layer (asphalt, concrete, surface
treatment, crushed basalt aggregates, etc.)
 the date of construction or rehabilitation of the pavement structure
 the type and date of major periodic maintenance activities
This data is very important to properly assess the road condition.
Unit rates of road works should also be available among the data in the PMS records.
These costs will be useful in the economic comparison of the feasible rehabilitation
alternatives, as detailed in Chapter 6 of this manual.
Vehicle operating costs (VOC) should not normally have an impact on the design of a
specific project already selected for rehabilitation.
2.2
2.2 Other Data
A review of existing documents, in addition to those available from the Branch or Office in
charge of the PMS, should be conducted prior to field activities.
Such a review includes essentially a desk study similar to that undertaken for the feasibility
study of any road project.
The geological environment of the project should be researched, together with the
geotechnical characteristics corresponding to the geological formations along the
alignment.
Sources of information regarding past investigations, published or not, are to be gathered

and reviewed. They may include activities only loosely related to road construction
concerns (e.g. agricultural, hydrology, mining).
Existing reports, maps, mineral resource surveys, boring logs, and any relevant data need
to be collected and compiled. This is particularly valuable in identifying road construction
materials.
Of particular importance, when available, are as-built plans of the road section under
consideration or of adjacent projects, together with any memoirs or design reports (including
pavement design reports and/or pavement evaluation reports) and maintenance records.
2.3 Traffic Data
The rehabilitation procedures presented in this manual require a characterization of the

traffic expected to be carried by the road after rehabilitation. Such a characterization is
done in terms of a cumulative number of equivalent standard axles (ESAs). This method
of characterization is necessary because the deterioration of paved roads due to traffic
results from both the magnitude of the individual wheel loads and the number of times
these loads are applied. Equivalency factors are used to convert traffic volumes into
cumulative equivalent standard axles loaded at 8.2 metric tonnes.
The process by which the cumulative number of ESAs is determined is illustrated in Figure
2.1, and is essentially as described in the MoWT-Volume III, Pavement Design Manual
(Part 1, Flexible Pavement Design Guide). The user of this rehabilitation manual should
refer to these chapters for such details.
2.3
Part 4:VOLUME III, Rehabilitation
Pavement Pavement Design Manual
Guide
Select Design Period
Determine Initial Traffic Volume

(Initial AADT) per Class of
Vehicle
Determine Traffic Growth
Determine Cumulative Traffic

Volumes over the Design Period
Estimate Mean Equivalent Axle

Load (ESA) per Class of Vehicle
Estimate Cumulative ESAs over

the Design Period (in one
direction)
Figure 2.1 Traffic Evaluation

Figure 2.1 Traffic Evaluation
Some notes are, nevertheless, worth mentioning, as follows:

Some notes are, nevertheless, worth mentioning, as follows:
The design period of a rehabilitation project may be subject to constraints of a different
 The design period of a rehabilitation project may be subject to constraints of a
nature than those relative to a new construction project. In some cases, for instance, a
different nature
rehabilitation thanmay
project thoseberelative to aduring
necessary new construction project.
a relatively short In some
period, duringcases,
which for
an
instance, a rehabilitation
alternate alignment project
is being mayand/or
designed be necessary
constructed.during
Thea design
relatively short
period period,
should be
during which
carefully an alternate
ascertained at thealignment is being
outset of the designed
rehabilitation and/or constructed. The design
design.
period should be carefully ascertained at the outset of the rehabilitation design.
Vehicle classification, initial traffic volume determination and cumulative traffic volumes
over theclassification,
 Vehicle design period shalltraffic
initial be as detailed
volume in the respective
determination chapters traffic
and cumulative of thevolumes
MoWT-
Volume III, Pavement Design Manual (Part 1, Flexible Pavement Design Guide).
over the design period shall be as detailed in the respective chapters of the MoWT-
Volume III, Pavement Design Manual (Part 1, Flexible Pavement Design Guide).
The conversion of traffic volumes into cumulative ESAs over the design period, as
detailed in the MoWT-Volume III, Pavement Design Manual (Part 1, Flexible Pavement
 The conversion
Design Guide) isofeffected
traffic volumes
through into
the cumulative
use of axleESAs load over the design
equivalency period,
factors. as
These
detailed in the MoWT-Volume III, Pavement Design Manual (Part 1, Flexible
equivalency factors could be calculated using standard formulae; and are relative to Pavement
Design Guide)
single axle is For
loads. effected through
vehicles the useaxles,
with multiple of axle
i.e. load equivalency
tandems, factors.
triples, etc., each These
axle in
equivalency
the multiple factors
group iscould be calculated
considered usingand
separately, standard formulae;
weighted separatelyand inareaxle
relative
load
surveys.
to single axle loads. For vehicles with multiple axles, i.e. tandems, triples, etc., each
axle in the multiple group is considered separately, and weighted separately in axle
load surveys. 2.4
2.4
It is noted that the rehabilitation methods presented in this manual are derived from
methods proposed by the Asphalt Institute (e.g. Ref. 11), which uses equivalency factors
for tandem axles. The use of equivalency factors considering each axle separately, is
comparatively conservative and is recommended.
2.5
3 ANALYSIS FOR REHABILITATION
3.1 Introduction
Upon completion of the data collection and fieldwork, the engineer normally has all the
elements necessary to perform the rehabilitation design. It is worth, however, evaluating
at this point, at the project level, the need for rehabilitation by applying the method of
determination used by the PMS mostly at the network level.
If the need for rehabilitation is not confirmed, this may indicate that the most recent data
collected for the project has refined the earlier, tentative determination that rehabilitation
was needed for a particular project, and that rehabilitation should be reconsidered. It may
also indicate, on the other hand, that the project under consideration is of such a nature
and/or presents such overriding characteristics that have not yet been entirely incorporated
into the overall PMS system, which does not operate on a strictly technical basis.
The purpose of this chapter is to outline the method used in the PMS to differentiate between
the needs for rehabilitation or maintenance for flexible pavements. The method is given in
detail for reference in Appendix A (copied from Ref. 12).
3.2 Damage Quantifiers
During the pavement condition survey (cf. Appendix B.1), two types of damage (A and B)
have been noted, together with their extent and severity level. Type B damage generally
influences the type of work to be done only if there is no Type A damage. In the method,
a global visual index Is is used, which is based solely on Type A damage (indicative of
structural condition).
The global visual index Is is calculated from three damage groups:
 cracking and crazing;

 deformation and rutting;
 repairs.
The index Is (from 1 to 7) is calculated following the flow chart given in Figure 3.1. Ratings
of 1 and 2 reflect good surface conditions requiring no work or for which work can safely be
postponed. Ratings 3 and 4 represent an intermediate surface condition, serious enough
to trigger maintenance work in the absence of any other consideration. Ratings 5, 6 and 7
represent very poor surface conditions requiring major maintenance or rehabilitation work.
3.3 Pavement Quality Rating
A pavement quality rating Qi is estimated by combining the value of the index Is as defined
above, characterizing the “visual condition”, with the results of deflection measurements
qualifying the combined “bearing capacity” of the pavement structure and its subgrade
support.
The deflection of a homogeneous section of road is characterized by its value “d” (in 1/100
mm). In the PMS method, “d” is defined as “m + 1.3 ō”, “m” being the mean value of the
deflection measurements and “ō” their standard deviation.
3.1
VOLUME
Part III, Pavement
4: Pavement Design Guide
Rehabilitation Manual
No cracking or deformation 0
Extent Extent
(1) 0 to 10 to >50% Deformatio 0 to 10 to > 50%
Visual Examination
10% 50% n 10% 50%

Severity Severity
Crackin Index
1 1 3 3 1 1 3 3
g
Index 2 2 3 4 2 2 3 4
If 3 3 4 5 Id 3 3 4 5
(1) Separate If
calculation for 0 1-2 3 4-5
Id
longitudinal
First damage
cracking and 0 1 2 3 4
crazing. 1-2 3 3 4 5
The larger of the
index
two indices is 3 4 5 5 6
used. 4-5 5 6 7 7
Extent
0 to
10 to 50% > 50%
10%
Severity
1 0 0 0
2 0 0 +1
3 0 +1 +1
Correction for repairs
Surface
Damage
Index
Is
Scale from (best) to 7 (worst)
Final rating
Figure 3.1: Determination of Damage Index Is

Note: In the PMS study (Ref. 5), a choice has been made to measure (with a Benkelman
Beam) theFigure 3.1 (from
deflections Ref. 12)the twin-wheels
between Determination
of anofaxle
Damage Index
loaded Is legal limit in the
at the
country. In order to calculate “d” as indicated above, it is suggested that a linear interpolation
be used, from the measurements made with an axle loaded at 8.2 metric tonnes as prescribed
Note: In the
in Appendix B.PMS studyimperfect,
Although (Ref. 5), athis
choice has been
provides made to measure
a reasonable (with to
consistency a Benkelman
link the design
Beam) the deflections between the twin-wheels of an axle loaded at the legal limit in the
methods presented in this manual with the PMS procedure.
country. In order to calculate “d” as indicated above, it is suggested that a linear
interpolation be used, from the measurements made with an axle loaded at 8.2 metric
tonnes as prescribed in Appendix B. Although imperfect, this provides a reasonable
consistency to link the design methods presented in this manual with the PMS procedure.
3.2
3.2
The characteristic deflection “d” having been determined, it is then compared with two
threshold values d1 and d2, which divide general deflection magnitudes into three ranges
as follows:
d1 value below which pavement performance is generally good

d2 value above which pavement performance is poor
d1-d2 range of indecision
The values of d1 and d2 are not necessarily fixed and are subject to revision as the PMS
evolves on a network level. They may also be traffic dependent. The current values should
be obtained from the Branch or Office in charge of the PMS.
As an illustration, the following values are selected as “threshold” deflection values:
For roads with a surface treatment
d1 90/100 mm
d2 115/100 mm
For roads with surfacings of asphalt concrete of more than 8 to 10 cm
d1 60/100 mm
d2 80/100 mm
The deflections were chosen on the basis of a small number of test sections. The deflection
“threshold” should be reviewed from time to time and the designer is expected to verify the
current values.
Based on the deflection “d” compared to d1 and d2, the characteristic deflection of a particular
road falls into one of three classes, as illustrated in Figure 3.2. Figure 3.2 also defines the
overall Pavement Quality Rating Qi based on the possible combinations of deflection value
and Surface Damage Index Is.
Based on the Quality Rating Qi, the method provides the following options, as illustrated
in Figure 3.2:
 For quality ratings Q1 to Q3, no major rehabilitation work is required. The road works to
be performed include routine maintenance and/or periodic maintenance.
 For quality ratings Q4 to Q6, this indicates a zone of indetermination where visual
inspection and deflection values appear inconsistent. A procedure is given in Appendix
A to reassess the rating and to reclassify it as either in the range Q2-Q3 or Q7-Q8.
 For quality ratings Q7 to Q9, a rehabilitation is required (e.g. in the form of a structural
overlay).
3.3
VOLUME
VOLUME III, Pavement Design
III, Pavement Manual
Design Manual
PartPart
4: Pavement Rehabilitation
4: Pavement Rehabilitation Guide
Guide
Deflection d1 d2
Surface damage index Is Class 1 Class 2 Class 3
Q3 Q6
1-2 Q1
(maintenance) (to be
Little or no cracking or no deformation (maintenance)
reclassified)
3-4 Q2 Q5 Q8
Cracks with little or no deformation, (maintenance) (to be (overlay)*
deformation without cracks reclassified)
Q4
5–6-7 Q7 Q9
(to be
Cracks and deformation (overlay)* (overlay)*
reclassified)
* or other rehabilitation method
Figure 3.2 Pavement Quality Rating (Qi) and Required Road Works
(adapted from Ref. 5)
3.4
3.4
4. DESIGN OF ASPHALT OVERLAYS
4.1 Asphalt Overlays of Flexible Pavements
4.1.1 General
Asphalt overlays may be used to correct both surface deficiencies (raveling, roughness,
slipperiness) and structural deficiencies. Surface deficiencies in asphalt pavements usually
are corrected by thin resurfacings (functional overlays), but structural deficiencies require
overlays designed on factors such as pavement properties and traffic loadings (structural
overlays).
There are many instances when a surface treatment will not accomplish what is needed.
Examples are depressions or severe raveling. In such cases, a thin overlay should be used
over any required leveling course. Thin overlays usually range from 2.5 cm to 5 cm thick
using a fine-grained top size dense mix. These are considered maintenance.
The overlay design procedures in the remainder of this section provide an overlay thickness
to correct a structural deficiency. If no structural deficiency exists, a thin overlay may still be
required to correct a functional deficiency.
This section covers the design of structural overlays by means of one or several lifts of
asphalt concrete.
It is assumed that this option is feasible, i.e. that the condition of the existing pavement
is not such that it dictates substantial removal and replacement of the existing pavement.
Such conditions would include:
 A large amount of very severe alligator cracking,

 Excessive rutting which can be attributed to unstable existing materials,
 Seriously deteriorated stabilized roadbase requiring an excessive amount of repairs
prior to overlay operations,
 Contaminated granular roadbase,
 Excessive stripping of the existing AC surface.
Two methods of overlay design are recommended, namely a deflection procedure (adapted
from the Asphalt Institute, Ref. 11) and an effective thickness (or component analysis)
procedure (adapted from AASHTO, Ref. 3). It is recommended that both methods always be
used for comparison purposes. It is unlikely that the methods will agree exactly, and sound
engineering judgment is required to estimate the possible reasons for the discrepancies
and make a choice or a compromise between the results obtained by both methods.
Preference may be given to the effective thickness procedure when the history of pavement
construction is well known and the destructive testing results are such that the quality of the
materials is also well known. When the results and the records indicate the possibility of
significant variation and uncertainty in the structure of the existing pavement, or extensive
localized repairs, it is probably preferable to rely on statistical deflection results indicative of
the overall load carrying capacity of the system comprising the pavement and its supporting
subgrade.
4.1
VOLUME III,Pavement
Part 4: PavementRehabilitation
Design Manual Guide
4.1.2 Deflection Procedure
The deflection procedure recommended herein uses the results of a deflection survey
1
The conducted
deflection with a Benkelman
procedure Beam as described
recommended in Section
herein uses B.3. of a deflection survey
the results
conducted with a Benkelman Beam as described in Section B.3.1
The steps involved in the procedure are as follows:
The steps involved in the procedure are as follows:
Step Step
1: Determine a representative
1: Determine rebound
a representative rebound deflection (RRD)
deflection (RRD)
Step Step
2: Determine the design
2: Determine future
the design traffic
future in terms
traffic of cumulated
in terms equivalent
of cumulated equivalent standard

standard axles (ESAs).
axles (ESAs).
Step Step
3: Determine the required
3: Determine overlay
the required thickness.
overlay thickness.
StepStep
1 1
The The
individual deflection
individual measurements
deflection measurementsrecorded
recordedduring
duringthe
the deflection survey must
deflection survey must bebe
adjusted by abytemperature
adjusted a temperature adjustment
adjustmentfactor
factorwhich
whichcan
can be
be read
read from Figure 4.1.
from Figure 4.1. The
The
determination of the
determination mean
of the meanpavement
pavementtemperature
temperaturecancanbebemade
made inin accordance with the
accordance with the
procedure given
procedure in Appendix
given D. D.
in Appendix
Figure 4.1 Temperature Adjustment Factor for Benkelman Beam Deflections

Figure 4.1 (from Ref. 15): Temperature Adjustment Factor for
Benkelman Beam Deflections
1
The results of deflection surveys conducted with a FWD are well-suited for use, after back-calculation
of pavement parameters, as an input to the effective thickness procedure.
4.2
The results of deflection surveys conducted with a FWD are well-suited for use, after back-calculation of pavement
parameters, as an input to the effective thickness procedure.
4.2
The mean and standard deviation of the adjusted individual deflection readings are then
calculated. The representative rebound deflection RRD is taken as:
RRD = ( x + 2s) c

Where:
x is the arithmetic mean of the individual deflection measurements adjusted for
temperature
s is the standard deviation of the adjusted individual measurements
c is a critical period adjustment factor

The critical period is the interval during which the pavement is most likely to be damaged
by heavy loads. The Asphalt Institute (Ref. 11) recommends the following methods for
determining the critical period adjustment factor:
a) Obtain a continuous record of measured rebound values for a similar pavement in

a similar environment and on a similar subgrade, and determine the most critical
period. Then either:
1) Make the rebound measurements during the critical period, in which case the
adjustment factor, c, equals 1.0. Or:
2) Make the rebound measurements at any time and adjust to the critical deflection by
letting the adjustment factor, c, equal the ratio of the critical period deflection to the
deflection for the date of the test.
b) If no record of comparable deflection data is available, make the rebound measurements

at any time and make any needed adjustments using engineering judgment.
Example
Rebound deflections were measured for a section of asphalt pavement under uniform
temperature conditions. The measurements were made under an 8.2 tonne axle load
and the pavement temperature was estimated to be 17° C. The aggregate roadbase of
the pavement was 350 mm thick. Using Figure 4.1, the temperature adjustment factor is
F = 1.04. The measurements were made at the end of the rainy season and may reasonably
be considered to be representative of the critical period, hence c = 1.0. Individual and
adjusted measurements, and calculated representative deflection, are given below:
Measured deflections Deflections adjusted for

(under 8.2 tonne axle), mm temperature (factor 1.04), mm
0.60 0.62
0.56 0.58
0.46 0.48
0.70 0.72
0.80 0.83
0.68 0.71
0.57 0.60
4.3
Measured deflections Deflections adjusted for

VOLUME (under 8.2 tonne
III, Pavement axle),
Design mm
Manual temperature (factor 1.04), mm
0.71 0.74
0.53
Measured deflections 0.55for
Deflections adjusted
(under 8.2 tonne0.86
axle), mm temperature (factor 1.04), mm
0.90
0.71 0.74
0.53 0.55
Mean adjusted value
0.86 (mm) 0.673
0.90
Standard deviation (mm) 0.130
Mean adjusted value (mm) 0.673
Representative deflection
Standard deviation (mm) (mm) 0.932
0.130
Representative deflection (mm) 0.932
Step Step
2 2
The traffic analysis outlined in Section 2.3 of this manual (and further detailed in the MoWT-
VolumeTheIII,traffic analysis
Pavement outlined
Design in Section
Manual 2.3 of this
(Part 1, Flexible manualDesign
Pavement (and further
Guide)detailed
is to be in
used the MoWT-Volume
to determine the designIII,number
Pavement Design standard
of equivalent Manual axles
(Part(ESAs)
1, Flexible Pavement
expected to be
Design
carried by the Guide) is overlay.
road after to be As used to determine
a reminder, the number
this design design ofnumber
ESAs isofexpressed
equivalent
standard8.2axles
in equivalent tonne(ESAs)
axles. expected to be carried by the road after overlay. As a
reminder, this design number of ESAs is expressed in equivalent 8.2 tonne
Step axles.
3
To find the thickness of asphalt concrete overlay required, enter the overlay thickness
Step 3
design chart, Figure 4.2, with the RRD obtained in Step 1, move vertically to the curve
representing the design ESA (from Step 2), and move horizontally to the Overlay Thickness
scale.To find the thickness of asphalt concrete overlay required, enter the overlay
thickness design chart, Figure 4.2, with the RRD obtained in Step 1, move
vertically to the curve representing the design ESA (from Step 2), and move
horizontally to the Overlay Thickness scale.
Figure 4.2: Overlay Thickness Design Chart

Figure 4.2 (from Ref. 15): Overlay Thickness Design Chart
4.44.4
Example
The pavement considered in the example in Step 1 is being considered for a future traffic
of 5 x 106 ESAs. With a RRD of 0.93 mm, the required overlay thickness is found from the
chart to be 75 mm.
4.1.3 Effective Analysis Procedure
The required thickness of AC overlay is computed as:
(SNnew − SNeff)
T0 =
a0
where:
T0 = required overlay thickness in centimeters

SNnew = structural number of a new pavement (centimeters)
SNeff = effective structural number of the existing pavement (centimeters)
a0 = structural coefficient of the AC overlay
The same coefficient as given for new AC surface course materials may be used for the
structural coefficient a0 of the AC overlay.
It may be noted that the structural numbers have the same dimension as a thickness.
SNnew is computed as indicated in Appendix E. It requires the determination of the required

structure of a new pavement for the specific subgrade strength and traffic applicable to
the project. The procedure given in Appendix E lists structural layer coefficients for the
conversion of the required structure into SNnew.
SNeff requires knowing the existing pavement structure and using the equation:
SNeff = a1T1 + a2T2m2 + a3T3m3
Where:
T1, T2, T3 = thicknesses (in centimeters) of existing pavement surface,

roadbase, and subbase layers
a1, a2, a3 = corresponding structural layer coefficients

m2, m3 = drainage coefficients for granular roadbase and subbase
The thicknesses Ti are determined from the previously collected data and field work, as
indicated in Chapter 2 and Appendix B.
The coefficients ai may be determined from Table 4.1, which lists suggested layer
coefficients for commonly used materials. Other suggested coefficients, for stabilized
roadbase materials, are given in Table 4.2.
4.5
Table 4.1
Suggested Layer Coefficients for Existing AC Pavement Layer Materials
MATE- COEFFI-
SURFACE CONDITION
RIAL CIENT
AC Sur- Little or no alligator cracking and/or only low-severity
0.35 to 0.40
face transverse cracking
<10 percent low-severity alligator cracking and/or
0.25 to 0.35
<5 percent medium- and high-severity transverse cracking
>10 percent low-severity alligator cracking and/or
<10 percent medium-severity alligator cracking and/or
0.20 to 0.30
>5-10 percent medium- and high-severity transverse
cracking
>10 percent medium-severity alligator cracking and/or
<10 percent medium-severity alligator cracking and/or
0.14 to 0.20
>10 percent medium- and high-severity transverse crack-
ing
>10 percent high-severity alligator cracking and/or
0.08 to 0.15
>10 percent high-severity transverse cracking
Granular No evidence of pumping, degradation, or contamination 0.10 to 0.14
Roadbase by fines.
or Sub- Some evidence of pumping, degradation, or contamina-
base tion by fines. 0.00 to 0.10
Table 4.2
Additional Suggested Layer Coefficients for
Stabilized Roadbase Materials
MATERIAL SURFACE CONDITION COEFFICIENT
Stabilized Little or no alligator cracking and/or only low-severity 0.20 to 0.35

Roadbase transverse cracking
<10 percent low-severity alligator cracking and/or

<5 percent medium- and high-severity transverse 0.15 to 0.25
cracking
>10 percent low-severity alligator cracking and/or

<10 percent medium-severity alligator cracking and/or 0.15 to 0.20
>5-10 percent medium- and high-severity transverse
cracking
>10 percent medium-severity alligator cracking and/or

<10 percent high-severity alligator cracking and/or 0.10 to 0.20
>10 percent medium- and high-severity transverse
cracking
>10 percent high-severity alligator cracking and/or
0.08 to 0.15
>10 percent high-severity transverse cracking
4.6
It must be realized that relatively limited guidance is available for the selection of layer
coefficients for in-service pavement materials. Engineers are encouraged to use judgment
and to build experience in the selection of the coefficients, particularly with regard to local
materials and pavement behavior.
The drainage coefficients m2 and m3 may be determined on the basis of Table 4.3 and
4.4 further below.
Table 4.3: Quality of Drainage

Quality of Drainage Water Removed Within
Excellent 2 hours
Good 1 day
Fair 1 week
Poor 1 month
Very Poor (water will not drain)
Table 4.4
Recommended mi Values for Modifying Structural Layer Coefficients of Untreated
Roadbase and Subbase Materials
Percent of Time Pavement Structure is Exposed to Mois-

ture Levels
Approaching Saturation
Less Than Greater Than
Quality of Drainage 1-5% 5-25%
1% 25%
Excellent 1.40-1.35 1.35-1.30 1.30-1.20 1.20
Good 1.35-1.25 1.25-1.15 1.15-1.00 1.00
Fair 1.25-1.15 1.15-1.05 1.00-0.80 0.80
Poor 1.15-1.05 1.05-0.80 0.80-0.60 0.60
Very Poor 1.05-0.95 0.95-0.75 0.75-0.40 0.40
Example
An existing pavement is made up of the following layers:
 5 cm AC surfacing (T1)
 15 cm granular roadbase (T2)
 15 cm subbase (T3)
The AC surface shows less than 10 percent of low-severity cracking, very little medium-
and high-severity transverse cracking, and can be assigned (cf. Table 4.1) a structural layer
coefficient a1 of 0.30. Roadbase and subbase courses show no evidence of degradation
or contamination. The coefficients a2 and a3 may both be taken as 0.12. The quality of
drainage is considered fair and the pavement structure is exposed to levels near saturation
on the order of 5%. Both coefficients m2 and m3 can be taken as 1.00.
4.7
SNeff is calculated as:
SNeff = 0.30x5 + 0.12x1.00x(15 + 15) = 5.1
It is contemplated to overlay the pavement for an expected traffic class T6. The subgrade
strength class is S4. The structural number of an adequate pavement structure for these
conditions is SNnew = 9.13 (see Appendix E).
The required overlay thickness is: T0 = (9.13 – 5.1)/0.44 = 9.15 cm (which may be rounded
up to 10 cm).
Note: The above method is based on the determination of SNeff essentially from an
assessment of the quality of the pavement layers from visual, field (e.g., DCP) and/or
laboratory testing. Alternatively, SNeff may be estimated from the results of deflection
(FWD) testing as outlined in Appendix F.
4.1.4 Surface Preparation for Overlay
In the design of overlays and the adoption of the overlay as a rehabilitation solution, the
construction feasibility should be verified first (besides the economic constraints) with
reference to factors such as:
 Traffic control, traffic disruption;

 Materials and equipment availability; and
 Construction problems such as utilities, bridge clearances, side slope extension.
Having determined the feasibility, careful and correct preparation of the existing pavement,
prior to construction of overlays, is essential to good construction and to maximum overlay
performance. The overlay thickness is designed to correct a below-average pavement
condition, but not to provide the extra structural strength needed for localized weak areas.
If the overlay thickness is based on the weakest condition in the section, it would be over-
designed for the rest of the section and thus be needlessly costly. Therefore, the weaker
areas must be corrected to provide a uniform foundation for the overlay.
Some of the factors which need consideration in preparation of the existing pavement are
as follows:
Pre-Overlay Pavement Repairs
If distress in the existing pavement is likely to affect the performance of the overlay, it should
be repaired prior to the placement of the overlay. Much of the deterioration that occurs in
overlays results from deterioration that was not repaired in the existing pavements. The
cost tradeoffs of pre-overlay repair and overlay type should also be considered.
Severe alligator cracking and linear cracks, rutting and surface irregularities should be
repaired prior to overlay of AC pavements.
The pre-overlay repairs generally fall in the maintenance categories. One particular pre-
overlay operation to consider is an effective reflection crack control.
4.8
Reflection Crack Control
Reflection cracks are a frequent cause of overlay deterioration. The thickness design
procedures described in the preceding sections do not consider reflection cracking. Pre-
overlay repairs (patching and crack filling) may help delay the occurrence and deterioration
of reflection cracks. Additional reflection crack control measures include:
 Pavement fabrics;
 Crack relief layers. These are composed of open-graded coarse aggregate and a small
percentage of asphalt cement; and
 Increased overlay thickness.
Subdrainage
As indicated in Appendix B, the existing subdrainage condition of the pavement should

be evaluated since it has a great influence on how well the overlay performs. Removal of
excess water from the pavement cross-section will increase the strength of the pavement
layers and subgrade, and reduce deflections.
Milling-Recycling
Milling, with or without the intent of recycling the milled materials, can improve the
performance of the overlay, by removing some of the cracked and hardened materials and
by minimizing existing rutting or other significant distortions.
Surface Recycling
This process may be considered as analogous to pre-overlay surface preparation or an

in-place variant of cold milling and recycling. The asphalt pavement surface is heated in
place, scarified, remixed, relaid, and rolled. Asphalts, recycling agents, new asphalt hot-
mix, aggregates, or a combination of these may be added to obtain a desirable mixture.
When new asphalt hot-mix is added, the finished product may be used as the final surface;
otherwise, an asphalt surface course should be used.
Shoulders
Overlaying traffic lanes generally requires that the shoulders be overlaid to match the grade
line of the traffic lanes. In selecting an overlay material and thickness for the shoulder, the
designer should consider the extent to which the existing shoulder is deteriorated and
the amount of traffic that will use the shoulder. For example, if trucks tend to park on the
shoulder at certain locations, this should be considered in the shoulder overlay design.
If an existing shoulder is in good condition, any deteriorated areas should be patched. An

overlay may then be placed to match the shoulder grade to that of the traffic lanes. If an
existing shoulder is in such poor condition that it cannot be patched economically, it should
be removed and replaced.
4.9
4.2 Asphalt Overlays of Rigid Pavements
Deflection tests measure the response of a pavement to a specified load. Depending

on the type of pavement, the measured deflection indicates the necessity for overlay.
The thickness of the overlay can be reduced by limiting the deflections by way of
undersealing.
In Jointed Plain Concrete Pavements (JPCP), the differential deflection should be  0.05
mm, and mean edge deflection should be  0.36 mm. In Continuously Reinforced Concrete
Pavement (CRCP), the deflection should be less than 0.015 mm. If the above criterion
is exceeded, overlaying with or without undersealing is required. The deflections are
assumed to be reduced by 0.2 percent per millimeter of overlay thickness. The thickness
of overlay can be obtained from the chart shown in Figure 4.3, based on the temperature
differential and the length of the slab. Alternatives 2 and 3, mentioned in the figure, can be
used to reduce the overlay thickness in sections B and C of the chart.
Example
Slab = 13.5 m Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP)
High Temperature = 28° C
Low Temperature = -16° C
∆t = 44° C
Measured Benkelman Beam deflections:
d1 = 0.85 mm
d2 = 0.63 mm
Diff. Deflection = d1 – d2 = 0.85 – 0.63 = 0.22 mm
Mean Deflection = (d1 + d2)/2 = (0.85 + 0.63)/2 = 0.74 mm
4.10
VOLUME
VOLUME III,
III, Pavement
Pave Design
ement Desig gn Manual
Manual
Part
Part 4: Pavement RehabilitationGuide
Figure 4.3: Chart for selecting Asphalt Concrets Structural Overlay Thickness for
PCC Pavement
NOTES:
(1) Temperature differential (∆t) is the difference between the highest normal daily maximum
NOTES:
temperature and the lowest normal daily maximum temperature for the hottest and
(1) coldest
Temp perature
months,diffe erential
based on ('t) is theaverage.
a 30-year differe
ence between the highesst normal da aily
maximum temperrature and the lowest norrmal daily ma aximum temp perature for thhe
(2) Alternative 2: Crack and seat the slab into smaller sections with thinner overlay.
hotte
est and coldesst months, ba ased on a 30-yyear average.
(2) Alternative
(3) native3:2:Utilize
Altern Cracckaand
crack-relief
seat th layerinto
he slab with drainage
smaller system
ns withwith
section thinner
thinne overlay.
er overlay.
(3) Altern ze a crack-relief layer with drainage sysstem with thin
native 3: Utiliz nner overlay.
Figure
e 4.3 (from Ref.
R 11) C
Chart for Se
electing Asphalt Concrete
Structura
al Overlay T
Thickness fo
or PCC Pav
vement
4.11
4.11
Alternative 1: Thick Overlay
Step 1—Enter the design chart, Figure 4.3, with ∆t = 44°C and slab length = 13.5 m
The required overlay is more than 230 mm. Therefore, use Alternative 2 or 3.
Alternative 2: Reduce Slab Length
Step 1—Break the slab into 6.8 m sections.
Step 2—Enter the design chart, Figure 4.3, with ∆t = 44° C and slab length = 6.8 m
Required overlay = 160 mm (by interpolation)

Use 165 mm
Step 3—Check vertical mean deflection:
At the rate of 0.2 percent per millimeter of overlay thickness, the reduction in deflection is:
165 x 0.74 x 0.002 = 0.24 mm
Remaining deflection is: 0.74 – 0.24 = 0.50 mm > 0.36 mm allowable.
Therefore, undersealing is required.
4.2.2 Effective Thickness Procedure
If the overlay is being placed for some functional purpose such as roughness or friction,
a minimum thickness overlay that solves the functional problem should be placed. If
the overlay is being placed for the purpose of structural improvement, the required
thickness of the overlay is a function of the structural capacity required to meet future
traffic demands and the structural capacity of the existing pavement. The required
overlay thickness to increase structural capacity to carry future traffic is determined by the
following equation:
Dol = A(Df – Deff)
Where:
Dol = Required thickness of AC overlay, cm

A = Factor to convert PCC thickness deficiency to AC overlay thickness
Df = Slab thickness to carry future traffic, cm
Deff = Effective thickness of existing slab, cm
The A factor, which is a function of the PCC thickness deficiency, is given by the following
equation:
A = 2.2233 + 0.0015(Df – Deff)2 – 0.0604(Df – Deff)
AC overlays of conventional JPCP, JRCP, and CRCP have been constructed as thin as 5
cm and as thick as 25 cm. The most typical thicknesses that have been constructed for
highways are 7.5 to 15 cm.
4.12
Deff is computed from the following equation:

Deff = Fjc x Fdur x Ffat x D
Where:
D = Existing PCC slab thickness, cm

Fjc = Joints and cracks adjustment factor
Fdur= durability adjustment factor
Ffat = fatigue damage adjustment factor
The factors Fjc, Fdur, Ffat, are dependent on the existing condition of the pavement and can
be evaluated based on the condition survey detailed in Appendix B.
Fjc depends on the total number of unrepaired deteriorated joints, cracks, punchouts and
other discontinuities per kilometer in the design lane and is determined using Figure 4.4.
Fdur depends on the existing durability problems, such as aggregate distress. Using the
condition survey, Fdur is determined as follows:
1.00: No sign of PCC durability problems

0.96-0.99: Durability cracking exists, but no spalling
0.88-0.95: Substantial cracking and some spalling exists
0.80-0.88: Extensive cracking and severe spalling exists
The Ffat factor adjusts for past fatigue damage that may exist in the slab. It is determined
by observing the extent of transverse cracking (JPCP, JRCP) or punchouts (CRCP) that
may be caused primarily by repeated loading.
The following guidelines can be used to estimate the Ffat factor in the design lane:
0.97-1.00: Few transverse cracks/punchouts exist (none caused by “D” cracking or

reactive aggregate distress)
JPCP: <5 percent slabs are cracked
JRCP: <25 working cracks per mile (about 16 per km)
CRCP: <4 punchouts per mile (2 or 3 per km)
0.94-0.96: A significant number of transverse cracks/punchouts exist (none caused
by “D” cracking or reactive aggregate distress)
JPCP: 5-15 percent slabs are cracked
JRCP: 25-75 working cracks per mile (16-47 per km)
CRCP: 4-12 punchouts per mile (3 to 8 per km)
0.90-0.93: A large number of transverse cracks/punchouts exist (none caused by
“D” cracking or reactive aggregate distress)
JPCP: >15 percent slabs are cracked
JRCP: >75 working cracks per mile (>47 per km)
CRCP: >12 punchouts per mile (>8 per km)
4.13
Part 4:VOLUME
PavementIII,Rehabilitation GuideManual
Pavement Design
Deteriorated Transverse Joints and Cracks / Kilometer
Figure
Deteriorated 4.4: FJoints
Transverse jc
Adjustiment Factor
and Cracks / Kilometer
4.2.3 Surface Preparation forFigure

Overlays
4.4 Fjc Adjustment Factor
The following types of distress in JPCP, JRCP and CRCP should be repaired prior to
placement
4.2.3 of an AC overlay.
Surface Preparation for Overlays
The following types of distress in JPCP, JRCP and CRCP should be repaired prior to
Distress
placement of an Type
AC overlay. Repair Type
Working cracks Full-depth repair or slab replacement
Punchouts Distress Type Repair Type
Full-depth PCC repair
Working cracks
Spalled joints Full-depth
Full-depth repair or slab
or partial-depth replacement
repair
Punchouts Full-depth PCC repair
Deteriorated repairs
Spalled joints Full-depth repairor partial-depth repair
Full-depth
Deteriorated
Pumping/faulting repairs Edge Full-depth
drains repair
Pumping/faulting Edge drains
Settlements/heaves
Settlements/heaves AC AClevel-up,
level-up,slab jacking, or or
slab jacking, localized
localized
reconstruction
reconstruction
Full depth repairs and slab replacements in JPCP and JRCP should be PCC, dowelled or
Full tied
depthto repairs
provide and
loadslab replacements
transfer in JPCP
across repair joints. and
FullJRCP
depth should
repairs be PCC, dowelled
in CRCP should be
or tied
PCC to provide load be
and should transfer across repair
continuously joints.with
reinforced Fullsteel
depth repairs
which in CRCP
is tied shouldto
or welded
be PCC and should
reinforcing steel inbethe
continuously reinforced
existing slab to providewith steel
load whichacross
transfer is tied joints
or welded to
and slab
continuity.
reinforcing steel in the existing slab to provide load transfer across joints and slab
continuity.
Installation of edge drains, maintenance of existing edge drains, or other subdrainage
improvement should be done prior to placement of the overlay if a sub-drainage
evaluation
Installation indicates
of edge a need
drains, for such an of
maintenance improvement.
existing edge drains, or other subdrainage
improvement
Pressure should be done
relief joints prior be
should to placement of the
placed only at overlay if a sub-drainage
fixed structures, and notevaluation
at regular
indicates a need
intervals alongfor such
the an improvement.
pavement. The only exception to this is where reactive aggregate has
caused expansion of the slab.
Pressure relief joints should be placed only at fixed structures, and not at regular intervals
along the pavement. The only exception to this is where reactive aggregate has caused
expansion of the slab. 4.14
4.14
4.2.4 Reflection Crack Control
4.2.4 Reflection Crack Control
The basic mechanism of reflection cracking is strain concentration in the overlay due to
movement
The basic in the vicinity
mechanism ofof joints and
reflection cracksisinstrain
cracking the existing pavement.
concentration in the overlay due to
movement in the vicinity of joints and cracks in the existing pavement.
A variety of reflection crack control measures have been used in attempts to control the
A variety
rates of reflection
of reflection crackcrack control measures
occurrence have been
and deterioration. used
Any onein of
attempts to control
the following the
treatments
rates of reflection crack occurrence and deterioration. Any one of the following treatments
may be employed in an effort to control reflection cracking in an AC overlay of JPCP or
may be employed in an effort to control reflection cracking in an AC overlay of JPCP or
JRCP:
JRCP:
(1) Sawing and sealing joints in the AC overlay at locations coinciding with joints in the
(1) Sawing and sealing joints in the AC overlay at locations coinciding with joints in the
underlying JPCP or JRCP.
underlying JPCP or JRCP.
(2) Increasing AC overlay thickness. Reflection cracks will take more time to propagate
(2) Increasing AC overlay thickness. Reflection cracks will take more time to
through
propagatea thicker overlay
through andoverlay
a thicker deteriorate more slowly.
and deteriorate more slowly.
(3) Placing
(3) Placingaabituminous-stabilized granularinterlayer
bituminous-stabilized granular interlayer (large-sized
(large-sized crushed
crushed stone
stone crackcrack
relief
relieflayer),
layer),prior
prior to
to or
or in combination
combinationwith
withplacement
placement of of
thethe
ACAC has has
overlay
overlay beenbeen
effective.
effective.SeeSeeFigure
Figure4.5.4.5.
(4) Cracking
(4) Crackingand andseating
seating JPCP
JPCP oror breaking
breakingandandseating
seating JRCP
JRCP prior to placement
prior of of
to placement
the AC overlay. This technique reduces the size of PCC pieces
the AC overlay. This technique reduces the size of PCC pieces and seats them and seats them in in
the underlying base, which reduces horizontal (and possibly vertical)
the underlying base, which reduces horizontal (and possibly vertical) movements atmovements at
cracks.
cracks.
Reflection cracking can have a considerable (often controlling) influence on the life of an
Reflection cracking can have a considerable (often controlling) influence on the life of an
AC overlay of JPCP or JRCP. Deteriorated reflection cracks detract from a pavement’s
AC overlay of JPCP or JRCP. Deteriorated reflection cracks detract from a pavement’s
serviceability and also require frequent maintenance, such as sealing, milling, and
serviceability
patching. and also require frequent maintenance, such as sealing, milling, and
patching.
Figure 4.5: Crack-Relief Layer in an Overlay System, Cross-Section

Figure 4.5 (from Ref.11) Crack-Relief Layer in an Overlay System, Cross-Section
When the pavement has been rendered as uniformly stable as possible, it must be cleaned
thoroughly and tack-coated with asphalt before the overlay is placed.
When the pavement has been rendered as uniformly stable as possible, it must be
cleaned
When thoroughly
overlaying and tack-coated
a PCC pavement with
that asphalt
has beenbefore the overlay
grooved, is treatment
special placed. is necessary
to prevent moisture intrusion. Here, a heavy asphalt tack coat, an asphalt slurry seal, or a
When(fine-graded)
sand overlaying asphalt
a PCC leveling
pavement that ishas
course usedbeen
to fillgrooved, special treatment is
the grooves.
necessary to prevent moisture intrusion. Here, a heavy asphalt tack coat, an asphalt
slurry
Old PCCseal,surfaces
or a sandthat
(fine-graded) asphalt
range from leveling
polished tocourse is used to fillcan
coarse-textured the grooves.
vary significantly
in bonding ability. Polished surfaces can be re-textured to improve their bonding with
Old PCC surfaces
overlays. However,that rangecases,
in most from polished to coarse-textured
the proper can vary
use of a tack coat, significantly
selection in
of the proper
bonding ability. Polished surfaces can be re-textured to improve their bonding
mix type and overlay thickness, coupled with correct construction procedures, will provewith
overlays. However, in most cases, the proper use of a tack coat, selection of the proper
more economical in ensuring a good bond.
mix type and overlay thickness, coupled with correct construction procedures, will prove
more economical in ensuring a good bond.
4.15
4.15
5. DESIGN OF ALTERNATIVE REHABILITATION METHODS
 Reconstruction: In this category, little or no contribution is expected from the existing

pavement materials and the materials needed for rehabilitation will be new materials.
 Recycling: The rehabilitation takes advantage of the existing pavement materials, which
are reused in part or as a whole in the construction of the rehabilitated pavement.
Other methods which are effective in both repairing existing deterioration and, to some
extent, preventing or delaying its recurrence include repairs by patching, crack sealing,
milling and surface treatments or seals. These methods, however, are better classified
under the term of maintenance (cf. Chapter 1). It is recognized that they are often required
for the preparation of the existing pavement prior to overlay (cf. Chapter 4).
The above categories are general in nature, and some combinations of methods are
possible and indeed used. For instance, the materials of an existing surface treatment
and base course may be recycled as the base or subbase of a reconstructed pavement,
with new materials brought on site to construct the upper layers, e.g. roadbase and AC
surface.
5.1 Reconstruction
5.1.1 Asphalt Pavement
Since the pavement is to be reconstructed with new materials, generally only the subgrade
of the existing pavement will remain. It is assumed in this case that the existing pavement
materials are trucked away. If the materials are removed from the roadway and carried to
a central plant for processing and later reuse, this central plant recycling is considered a
cold recycling technique.
For reconstruction design, therefore, the subgrade strength (CBR) must be evaluated and
this evaluation yields the design CBR to use in pavement design.
The rest of the design process for reconstruction follows that of a new pavement design.
This design is to be carried out in accordance with the MoWT-Volume III, Pavement Design
Manual (Part 1, Flexible Pavement Design Guide).
In case a variant reconstruction procedure is used, whereby, for instance, the existing
subbase is left in place, prior to the addition of a new roadbase and surface course, the
principles of component analysis, as detailed for the overlay design in Chapter 4, may be
applied.
5.1
Example
An existing pavement is made up of the following layers:
 Surface dressing
 20 cm of granular roadbase
 15 cm of subbase
The condition survey has indicated the need for rehabilitation. The subgrade has been
evaluated and is considered properly compacted and homogeneous. Investigations have
revealed that the subgrade can be characterized by a CBR within the range of subgrade
strength class S4 (CBR between 8 and 14). Traffic studies concluded that the future traffic
would be in excess of 6 x 106 ESA but well within the range of traffic class T6 (6 to 10 x
106 ESA).
An adequate new pavement structure (MoWT-Volume III, Pavement Design Manual (Part
1, Flexible Pavement Design Guide) consists of:
 10 cm AC surfacing
 20 cm granular roadbase
 17.5 cm subbase
The existing subbase course is of good quality, with a CBR consistently in excess of 30.
The existing roadbase is of marginal or poor quality and new sources of adequate quality
of crushed stone have been located. It was elected to reconstruct the pavement from the
existing subbase (to be preserved) up. The scarified surface dressing and existing base
course will be disposed of.
The existing subbase may remain and contribute to the new pavement structure as 15 cm
of subbase (at a 1-to-1 ratio with new materials). It is simpler, in view of the abundance of
materials, to substitute crushed stone base materials to the missing 2.5 cm of subbase.
The reconstruction operations will consequently lay down 22.5 cm of new roadbase and
10 cm of new AC surfacing.
5.1.2 CEM I Concrete Pavement
At some point near the end of the life of a CEM I Concrete pavement, the slab is so badly
deteriorated that total reconstruction becomes more cost-effective than resurfacing or
restoration. CEM I Concrete pavement conditions that favor reconstruction include:
1. Little or no remaining structural life, as evidenced by extensive slab cracking.

2. Extensive slab settlement, heave, or cracking due to foundation movement (caused
by swelling soil or frost heave).
3. Extensive joint deterioration (particularly for short-jointed pavements, since full-depth
repair would require replacement of a large percentage of the concrete surface).
4. Extensive concrete deterioration due to poor durability (D-cracking or reactive
aggregate distress).

5.2
Reconstruction may also be warranted for highways that do not meet required geometric
design standards (e.g. lane width, bridge clearance, curve superelevation). On resurfacing
projects, it may sometimes be necessary to reconstruct short sections of pavement near
bridges to maintain required bridge clearances.
Reconstruction may also be warranted for highways that do not meet required geometric
design
As is thestandards
case with(e.g. lanepavement,
asphalt width, bridge clearance, curve
in reconstruction superelevation).
projects, generally onlyOn
theresurfacing
subgrade
projects,
of it maypavement
the existing sometimes willberemain.
necessary
For to reconstruct short
reconstruction sections
design, of pavement
therefore, near
the subgrade
bridges (CBR)
strength to maintain required
must be bridge clearances.
evaluated.
As is the case with asphalt pavement, in reconstruction projects, generally only the
5.2 Rsubgrade
ECYCLINGof the existing pavement will remain. For reconstruction design, therefore, the
subgrade strength (CBR) must be evaluated.
As long as virgin (new) materials are in abundant supply and within reasonable distance,
5.2 Recycling can remain an attractive option. However, when new materials are less plentiful
reconstruction
and the costs of haulage become uneconomical, the need to conserve energy and materials
favors pavement
As long as virginrecycling.
(new) materials are in abundant supply and within reasonable distance,
reconstruction can remain an attractive option. However, when new materials are less
The processes
plentiful forcosts
and the pavement recycling
of haulage are conveniently
become grouped
uneconomical, into two
the need categories:energy and
to conserve
materials favors pavement recycling.
(a)
TheAsphalt Pavement
processes Recycling
for pavement recycling are conveniently grouped into two categories:
(a) Asphalt
This categoryPavement Recycling
is further divided into three groups:
This category is further divided into three groups:

Surface recycling. This type of recycling is described earlier in Section 4.1;
 Cold-mix recycling; and
Surface recycling. This type of recycling is described earlier in Section 4.1;
Hot-mix recycling.
 Cold-mix recycling; and
 Hot-mix recycling.
(b) CEM I Concrete Pavement Recycling
(b) CEM I Concrete Pavement Recycling
These categories are illustrated by Figure 5.1.
These categories are illustrated by Figure 5.1.
In-Place
Surface With or
Recycling Without Heat
In-Place
Asphalt Pavement Cold-Mix
Recycling Recycling
Central Plant
Pavement
Recycling Hot-Mix Central Plant
Recycling
CEM I Concrete
Recycling
Figure 5.1: Categorization of Recycling Approaches

Figure 5.1 Categorization of Recycling Approaches (from Ref. 16)
5.3
5.3
5.2.1 Recycling of Asphalt Pavement
a) Cold-Mix Recycling
In this process, reclaimed asphalt pavement materials, reclaimed aggregate materials,

or both, are combined with new asphalt, and/or recycling agents in place, or at a central
plant, to produce cold-mix roadbase mixtures. An asphalt surface course is required. This
is a common method for recycling old pavements, including both the surface and untreated
roadbase materials.
From the viewpoint of thickness design, the design procedure is similar to that of a
reconstruction. The required structure of a new pavement must be determined in
accordance with the (MoWT-Volume III, Pavement Design Manual (Part 1, Flexible
Pavement Design Guide). A component analysis helps to determine the contribution of the
recycled materials.
Example
The same example is used as given above for reconstruction, with the following modification:
in this case, the subbase is still left in place, but the existing roadbase and surface treatment
are being recycled as a bituminous roadbase. The materials are recycled in-place and may
be attributed a structural coefficient of 0.25 (see Appendix F).
Keeping the same 1:1 ratio between the existing 15 cm of subbase to be left in place and
15 cm of the required subbase, the deficiency to be made up to complete the required
structure is:
 10 cm of AC surfacing
 20 cm of granular roadbase
 2.5 cm of subbase
Using structural layer coefficients of 0.44, 0.14 and 0.11, respectively, this corresponds to
a deficit of structural number of 7.5.
One solution consists therefore of laying down 12.5 cm of recycled roadbase (contributing
12.5x0.25 i.e. 3.1 to the SN) and the originally required 10 cm of AC surfacing (contributing
10x0.44 i.e. 4.4 to the SN).
However, alternate solutions providing the same SN may be considered (e.g. 17 cm of

recycled roadbase and 7.5 cm of AC surfacing). This illustrates a commonly advocated
advantage of recycling.
Cold-mix recycling involves ripping, scarifying, pulverizing, or crushing the old pavement.
It is either hauled to a central site and upgraded with asphalt cement, emulsified asphalt
or other stabilizing agents (lime, cement, fly ash in combination with lime or cement, or
calcium chloride), or it is treated in place. Treatment in place may be achieved by blading,
rotary mixers or a travel plant. Before beginning the project, representative samples should
be obtained. The asphalt content and consistency and the gradation of the aggregates
should be determined. Then the materials should be blended and a mix design developed.
The real economical advantage of cold-mix recycling often lies in the ability to upgrade
an old pavement structure with a relatively thin wearing course with limited need for new
aggregates. After the recycled mix is placed, it should be capped with an AC wearing
course or a surface treatment.
5.4
b) Hot-Mix Recycling
In this process, reclaimed asphalt pavement materials, reclaimed aggregate materials, or

both, are combined with new asphalt and/or recycling agents and/or new aggregate, as
necessary, in a central plant to produce hot-mix paving mixtures.
Two methods are used to process the old pavement: (1) Scarifying and removing the
material to a crushing plant where it is sized, or (2) sizing the material in-place with rotating
drummilling equipment or hammermills and hauling the sized materials to a central
location for later processing. The reclaimed asphalt pavement contains both asphalt and
aggregate. Testing is conducted to determine the characteristics of the reclaimed asphalt
pavement (e.g. asphalt extraction, gradation of the aggregate and consistency of the
extracted asphalt).
Equipment to centrally hot-process the recycled material can be, for convenience, separated
into three general categories: direct flame heating, indirect flame heating, and superheated
aggregate. The techniques and related operations are illustrated in Figure 5.2.
From the viewpoint of thickness design, the design procedure is identical to that given
for cold-mix recycling. It should only be noted that hot-mix recycling lends itself to higher
quality control, hence a higher layer structural coefficient may be assigned to the recycled
materials.
5.2.2 Recycling of CEM I Concrete
In most cases where reconstruction is justified, the existing concrete can be recycled to
reduce the cost of reconstruction.
Concrete pavement recycling involves breaking up the old pavement on grade, loading
and hauling the material to a crushing plant, and processing it at the plant to produce
recycled concrete aggregate (RCA). The product of this process is an aggregate that can
be used in place of virgin aggregate in any component of the pavement structure where
aggregate is used, including:
1. Untreated, dense-graded aggregate roadbase

2. Cement- and asphalt-stabilized roadbases
3. Lean concrete roadbase
4. CEM I concrete surfacing
5. Asphalt concrete surfacing
6. Fill
7. Filter material
8. Drainage layer or edge drains
5.5
5.6

Figure 5.2: Central Plant Hot-Mix Recycling Techniques
Figure 5.2 (from Ref. 16) Central Plant Hot-Mix Recycling Techniques
5.6
Recycling of CEM I Concrete pavements is not limited to those pavements that contain
sound aggregate. Pavements containing reactive aggregate can be recycled into new
concrete using fly ash to control expansion of the reactive aggregate. Badly D-cracked
pavements have also been successfully recycled into new pavements. The common
practice in recycling D-cracked pavement is to limit the maximum size of the recycled
concrete aggregate, so that any aggregate particles that contain sizable voids are fractured
before being used in the new concrete mix.
One limitation of small aggregate size is poor aggregate interlock at joints and cracks,
especially on JRCP and CRCP. Additional large virgin aggregate may need to be added so
that sufficient aggregate interlock will develop.
A CEM I Concrete pavement that has an AC overlay can be recycled, but the two layers
must be recycled separately. Asphalt concrete should not be recycled for aggregate in
a CEM I Concrete mix, because the asphalt cement will inhibit entrainment of air in the
concrete mix.
Whether or not a particular project should be recycled depends on numerous factors,

including suitability of the pavement for recycling, availability and cost of virgin aggregate,
cost of disposing of old pavement material if it is not recycled, approximate cost of recycling,
policy toward recycling, and the extent of local contractors’ experience with recycling. CEM
I Concrete pavement recycling has proven to be both economical and environmentally
advantageous. Laboratory and field studies have shown that a high quality concrete,
with improved durability, can be produced using recycled concrete aggregate. Significant
savings in material transportation and disposal costs are possible through recycling,
particularly in urban areas.
CEM I Concrete pavement recycling can be divided into two groups:
 surface recycling
 central plant recycling
Both surface and central plant recycling techniques have been utilized on roadways
containing Portland cement concrete. However, surface recycling techniques applied to
concrete pavements is most often considered a pavement removal operation. The removed
pavement can be recycled. Figure 5.3 describes some of the CEM I concrete recycling
options.
Surface Recycling
Surface recycling techniques involve the use of cold milling or cold planing techniques
that are capable of economically removing up to approximately two inches of concrete in
a single pass. Traffic can operate for extended periods of time on the milled surface, or an
asphalt concrete overlay can be placed.
The sequence of operation involving surface recycling is as follows:
1. Establishing desirable grade line.

2. Milling, grinding, or planing the pavement to the desired depth.
3. Clean-up involving rotary broom and vacuum equipment.
4. Disposal or recycling of the millings.
Surface recycling operations, involving overlays, use the sequence of operations as

described above, with the addition of a tack coat and asphalt concrete overlay.
5.7
Pavement milling operations are suitable for the removal of localized severe surface
undulations caused by swelling clays, etc.; for removal of pavement prior to overlay along
gutters, at bridge approaches, and other areas where a feathered edge of asphalt concrete
or CEM I concrete is likely to abrade; and for improved drainage, surface texture, and skid
resistance.
An added advantage of surface recycling is the increase in bond strength between a

milled CEM I concrete and an overlay as compared to a normal overlay operation. This
anticipated increase in bond strength may allow the use of thin overlays on CEM I concrete
pavements.
Central Plant Recycling
The pavement removal and crushing operations are performed with conventional
construction and demolition equipment or specially designed equipment. The old concrete
pavement is normally broken such that the size of the resulting slab is normally small enough
to be received by the primary crusher. Additional reduction in slab size can be performed
at the crushing location. Central plant sizing can be performed with conventional, fixed and
portable crushing equipment; however, reinforcing steel may be a problem and may have
to be removed at one or more of six processing locations:
1. On the grade during the loading operation,

2. During the locating operation for crushing if stockpiling occurs prior to crushing,
3. At the entry to the primary crushing,
4. On the belt after primary crushing,
5. On the belt after final crushing, or
6. In the stockpile prior to remixing.
Equipment recently developed pulverizes the concrete to smaller sizes on grade and thus
more complete steel removal is possible on grade.
Blending and mixing operations in the central plant are standard operations, as are the
techniques utilized for the placing and curing of recycled materials. Gradation adjustments
(particularly the addition of natural sands) are often made to improve workability.
Structural Design
The structural design of CEM I Concrete pavement using recycled materials can be done,
in principle, using the guidelines given in the (MoWT-Volume III, Pavement Design Manual
(Part 2, Rigid Pavement Design Guide).
In essence, recycled material is viewed no differently from new or virgin material in either
new or rehabilitated pavement systems. Because of this, the most important structural
rehabilitation parameter for recycled material is the characterization of the load carrying
ability (lab and/or field) of the material.
5.8
5.9
Blend crushed CEM I
Concrete with new aggregate
as required.
Blend crushed CEM I
as required and add CEM I
cement or asphalt.
Blend crushed CEM I Haul, place
Load and Concrete with new aggregate and cure
Break Crush, screen as required and add CEM I
Pavement Haul to Plant and stockpile cement and water to make
lean concrete - econocrete
Blend crushed CEM I


as required and add CEM I

cement and water to make
CEM I cement concrete.
Blend crushed CEM I
as required and add asphalt
cement to make asphalt
concrete.
FigureFigure 5.3 (from
5.3: CEMI Ref. 16)
Concrete CEM IRecycling
Pavement Concrete Pavement Recycling
5.9
Literature review indicates that the structural coefficients of recycled materials do reflect
the extreme variation of reused materials and recycling processes utilized. However, it is
equally apparent that recycled materials have the capacity to be equivalent, or greater, in
load spreading capabilities than the original material. With good control on the recycling
process, and based on laboratory test data, an appropriate structural coefficient can be
evaluated to be used in the design.
Similarly, the properties of concrete made with recycled aggregate show some variations
compared to the concrete made with virgin aggregate, as given below.
Concrete Properties
The following is a comparison of the properties of CEM I Concrete made with recycled
concrete aggregate and concrete made with virgin aggregate:
1. The compressive strength of recycled concrete is between 60 and 100 percent of

the compressive strength of conventional concrete at the same water-cement ratio.
Water-reducing admixtures can be used to obtain higher strength concrete at the
same cement content without compromising workability.
2. The static modulus of elasticity of recycled concrete is between 60 and 100 percent of
the modulus of conventional concrete at the same water-cement ratio.
3. The flexural strength of recycled concrete is between 80 and 100 percent of the flexural
strength of conventional concrete at the same water-cement ratio.
4. Recycled concrete has a higher ratio of flexural strength to compressive strength than
conventional concrete.
5. Low-strength recycled concrete can be recycled into higher-strength concrete through

proper mix design.
6. The durability of concrete made with aggregate susceptible to D-cracking can be

substantially increased by limiting the top size of the aggregate.
7. The volume response to moisture and temperature changes of recycled concrete is

not significantly different from that of normal concrete.
The fact that concrete containing recycled concrete aggregate has a higher ratio of flexural
strength to compressive strength than conventional concrete should be considered if
compressive strength is to be used as the criterion for acceptance or for timing the early
opening of reconstruction projects.
All of the above comments about recycled concrete aggregate’s performance in concrete
surfaces apply to its use in lean concrete roadbase courses, as well. Recycled concrete
aggregate was used in lean concrete roadbases long before it was used in concrete surfaces
because not enough was known about its performance in surface courses. In general, the
use of recycled concrete aggregate is restricted to roadbase courses (granular, cement- or
asphalt-stabilized, and lean concrete).
5.10
6. SELECTION OF PREFERRED ALTERNATIVE
The following excerpt from Part III of the AASHTO Guide (Ref. 3) appears relevant to this
section:
“While analytical solutions to portions of the rehabilitation methodology are presented, the
engineer must recognize that it may be impossible to accurately determine the optimal
rehabilitation solution from a rigorous analytical model. However, the user should not be
discouraged from employing this approach but rather feel encouraged to use every available
tool at his/her disposal to determine the problem cause, identify potentially sound and
economic solution alternatives, and then select the most preferred rehabilitation strategy
from sound engineering experience”.
6.1 Rehabilitation Factors
Rehabilitation choices should be viewed with reference to several factors, including:
 the decision to use new materials, recycled materials, or a combination of both (noting
that recycled materials need not be those obtained from the specific pavement project
being rehabilitated);
 the decision to employ full reconstruction, partial reconstruction, a direct overlay, or
some combination of reconstruction and overlay.
Due to state of the art limitations regarding the entire rehabilitation process, there is a
definite need for feedback on the performance of various rehabilitation methods. The
“optimum” solution (from the viewpoint of cost to benefit ratio) may not be attainable for
a particular project due to constraints imposed (e.g. funding). There should however be a
“preferred” solution which is cost-effective, has other desirable characteristics, and meets
the existing constraints.
Some factors which may influence the rehabilitation choices have been listed as data
which must be collected prior to the condition survey (cf. Chapter 2). Road inventory is one
of them, and the geometric design (i.e. the adequacy of the existing geometry) should be
viewed as one major factor to decide between overlay and non-overlay methods. Other
potential constraints to be contended with include:
 traffic control problems;

 possible funding limitations;
 desirable service life of the rehabilitation;
 right-of-way;
 availability of materials and equipment; and
 probable contractor’s capacities.
On the basis of the above factors and constraints, the design engineer should be able to
suggest candidate solutions among those described in Chapters 4 and 5, and among the
multiple combinations thereof. After the feasible candidate solutions have been selected,
by weighing candidate solutions against project constraints, preliminary design should be
prepared. Preliminary designs require only approximate cost estimates.
6.2 Selection of Preferred Solution
There is no infallible method for selecting the most “preferred” rehabilitation alternative for a
given project. The selection process requires engineering judgment, creativity and flexibility.
Guidance can nevertheless be offered to select a preferred solution. Both monetary and
non-monetary considerations apply.
6.1
6.2.1 Cost Analysis
The cost is generally considered the most important criterion in the selection process.
Normally, a life-cycle cost analysis is required, and an outline of its main components is
given below. However, one must bear in mind a few points regarding life cycle cost analysis
as it is applied to the selection of a rehabilitation method.
Life-cycle cost analysis requires inputs of both cost and time. Unfortunately, both of these
elements are subject to a large degree of uncertainty. For instance, the effective life of a
rehabilitation technique is subject to the following influences:
 the skill and care with which the work is performed;

 the quality of the materials used;
 environmental conditions prevalent in the region where the pavement exists;
 the traffic which uses the pavement; and
 other rehabilitation and maintenance work being performed concurrently.
Even the engineer familiar with the performance of various rehabilitation methods in his
or her local area can appreciate the difficulty of selecting appropriate inputs for use in the
life-cycle cost analysis. To eliminate as much uncertainty as possible, it is essential to
collect rehabilitation performance data whenever available (e.g. from the Office or Branch
responsible for the PMS).
 Another important consideration regarding life-cycle cost analysis is that the same
rehabilitation techniques, when applied to different pavements, may have variant
effects. Furthermore, some methods keep a pavement at a consistently high-condition
level, while others may allow the condition of the same pavement to fluctuate. Thus,
discrepancy is often not revealed by the cost analysis if user costs are not included in
the calculations. It is therefore important to include user costs in a cost analysis.
The major costs to consider in the economic analysis include:
(1) Government costs
(a) Initial rehabilitation costs. These should include, in particular, the costs of pavement
preparation (repairs, etc.) required prior to overlay, if this is the alternative
considered in the analysis.
(b) Future rehabilitation costs (after the selected design period for the rehabilitation
design).
(c) Maintenance costs, recurring throughout the design period.
(d) Salvage return or residual value at the end of the design period.
(e) Engineering and administrative costs.
(f) Traffic control costs, if applicable.
(2) User costs
(a) Travel time

(b) Vehicle operation
(c) Accidents
(d) Discomfort
(e) Time delay and extra vehicle operating costs during resurfacing or major
maintenance
There are a number of methods of economic analysis that are applicable to the evaluation
of alternative strategies.
6.2
(1) Equivalent uniform annual cost method, often simply termed the “annual cost
method”
(2) Present worth method for:
(a) costs
(b) benefits, or
(c) benefits minus costs, usually termed the “net present worth” or “net present value
method”
(3) Rate-of-return method

(4) Benefit-cost ratio method
(5) Cost-effectiveness method
Either the net present worth value or the equivalent uniform annual cost may be used to
determine life cycle costs for comparisons of alternate pavement rehabilitation strategies.
In either case, it is essential that comparisons only be made for analysis periods of equal
length. Details of the equations used in the methods are beyond the scope of this manual.
They may be found in the HDM models developed by the World Bank.
6.2.2 Non-monetary Considerations
As with the review of the constraints in the selection of candidate rehabilitation methods,
several factors need to be considered in selecting the preferred solution. They include, in
particular, service life, duration of construction, reliability of the solution, constructibility and
maintainability.
Also, as with monetary considerations, the service life (selected and ascertained during
the data collection) of a rehabilitation method is an important factor. This is particularly
significant for high-volume roads, for which lane closures and traffic delays pose considerable
difficulties. The important time parameter is years of pavement life extension achieved by
the rehabilitation methods and should be a factor in almost any decision criterion.
6.3 Preferred Rehabilitation Alternative
The preferred rehabilitation alternative will be selected using first cost considerations,
then non-monetary factors. When the cost does not indicate a clear advantage, weighing
factors may be assigned to the non-monetary considerations. Each factor is evaluated
and multiplied by its weight, and a final “score” is calculated. This procedure is in relatively
common use to select the preferred rehabilitation alternative.
Such a method for measuring several rehabilitation alternatives against criteria that cannot
be expressed in monetary units is illustrated in Figure 6.1.
Detailed design, plans and cost estimates are normally prepared after the selection of the
preferred alternative. If major differences occur at this stage, either in cost or in design, it
may be necessary to reinvestigate the cost-effectiveness of the solution.
First, the relative importance of each criterion is assigned by the design team. Next, the
alternatives are rated according to their anticipated performance in the criterion areas.
Then, an alternative’s rating in an area is multiplied by the assigned weight of that factor
to achieve a “score”. Finally, all of the scores for an alternative are summed, and the
alternative with the highest score is the preferred solution.
6.3

6.4
6.4
7 REFERENCES
1. AASHTOWare® DARWin® 3.1 (1997). Pavement Design and Analysis System.
2. AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF STATE HIGHWAY AND TRANSPORTATION

OFFICIALS (1985). Guidelines on Pavement Management.
3. AMERICAN ASSOCIATION of STATE HIGWAY AND TRANSPORTATION OFFICIALS

(1993). AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures. Washington, D.C.
4. AMERICAN ASSOCIATION of STATE HIGWAY AND TRANSPORTATION OFFICIALS.

AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures. Volume 2 (August 1986).
5. ASPHALT INSTITUTE (February 1990 Edition). Research Report No. 83-1 (RR-83-1).
Deflection Method for Designing Asphalt Concrete Overlays for Asphalt Pavements.
6. ASPHALT INSTITUTE (June 1983). Manual Series No. 17 (MS-17) Asphalt Overlays
for Highway and Street Rehabilitation. The Asphalt Institute, Lexington, Kentucky.
7. ASPHALT INSTITUTE (May 1981). Information Series No. 178 (IS-178). Alternatives
in Pavement Maintenance, Rehabilitation, and Reconstruction.
8. Asphalt Institute Manual Series No 16 (MS-16): Asphalt in Pavement

Maintenance.
9. ASPHALT INSTITUTE. Manual Series No. 14 (MS-14) Third Edition. Asphalt Cold-
Mix.
10. ASPHALT INSTITUTE. Manual Series No. 19 (MS-19) Second Edition. A Basic Asphalt
Emulsion Manual.
11. ASPHALT INSTITUTE. Manual Series No. 20 (MS-20) Revised Second Edition.
Asphalt Hot-Mix Recycling.
12. ASPHALT INSTITUTE. Manual Series No. 21 (MS-21) First Edition. Asphalt Cold-Mix
Recycling.
13. BCEOM (1998). Pavement Management System. Draft Final Report. Appendix II/2/1
t Part II. Road Dictionary and Data Acquisition. VIZIR Method for Quality Evaluation
of Paved Roads.
14. BCEOM (1998). Pavement Management System. Draft Final Report.
15. C.E.B.T.P.-L.C.P.C. (1985). Manuel pour le reinforcement des chaussees souples en

pays tropicaux.
16. CENEK, P.D., J.E. PATRICK, J.F. McGUIRE, and D.A. ROBERTSON (1994). New
Zealand Experience in Comparing Manual and Automatic Pavement Condition Rating
Systems. From proceedings of the Third International Conference on Managing
Pavements, San Antonio, Texas, May 1994.
17. CSRA (1983). Draft TRH 12: 1983- Bituminous Pavement Rehabilitation Design.
Pretoria, South Africa.
18. CSRA (1985). TRH 6. Nomenclature and Methods for Describing the Condition of
Asphalt Pavements.
7.1
19. CSRA (1989). Draft TRH 19. Standard Nomenclture and Methods for Describing the
Condition of Jointed Concrete Pavements. Pretoria, South Africa.
20. CSRA (1990). TH 9: Draft. Pavement Management Systems: Standard Visual

Assessment Manual. Pretoria, South Africa.
21. ETHIOPIAN ROADS AUTHORITY. Site Investigations Manual-2001.
22. EHIOPIAN ROADS AUTHORITY. Pavement Design Manual, Volume 1 – Flexible

Pavements and Gravel Roads-2001.
23. ETHIOPIAN ROADS AUTHORITY. Pavement Design Manual, Volume 2 – Rigid

Pavements-2001.
24. Hajek, Jerry J. Transportation Resarch Record 1482: General Axle

Load Equivalency Factors. Ontario Ministry of Transportation,
Canada.
25. Huson, W.R., R. Haas, and R.D. Pedigo (1979). Pavement Management
System Development, NCHRP Report 215.
26. LCPC (October 1992). VIZIR- Computer-aided method of estimating road network
maintenance needs.
27. LEPERT, P., R. GUILLEMIN, L. BERTRAND, and D. RENAULT (1994). Evaluation

of French National Highway Network Based on Surface Damage Surveys. From
proceedings of the Third International Conference on Managing Pavements, San
Antonio, Texas, May 1994.
28. LIVNEH, MOSHE (1994). Repeatability and Reproducibility of Manual Pavement

Distress Survey Methods. From proceedings of the Third International Conference on
Managing Pavements, San Antonio, Texas, May 1994.
29. LOUIS BERGER AND ASSOCIATES, INC. (1994). Non-Destructive Testing of

Roadway Pavements – Equipment Used to Derive Inputs for Pavement Management
Systems. From Proceedings of the 8th Annual Road and Bridge Conference and
Exposition, Rosemont, Illinois, December 1994.
30. Organization fo Economic Co-Operation and Development (1978).

Road Research. Catalog of Road Surface Deficiencies.
31. PIARC International Road Maintenance Handbook, Volume III. Maintenance of Paved
Roads.
32. PRAKASH, ANAND, BRIJ N. SHARMA, and THOMAS J. KAZMIEROWSKI (1994).

Investigation into Observational Variations in Pavement Condition Survey. From
proceedings of the Third International Conference on Managing Pavements, San
Antonio, Texas, May 1994.
33. SHAHIN, M.Y., CHAD STOCK, MERCEDES CROVETTI, and LISA BECKBERGER
(1995). Transportation Research Record 1508. Effect of Sample Uit Size and Number
of Surveyed Distress Types on Pavement Condition Index for Asphalt-Surfaced
Roads.
34. TRANSPORT AND ROAD RESEARCH LABORATORY Overseas Road Note 1 (2nd
Edition, Reprinted 1995). Maintenance Management for District Engineers.
7.2
35. TRANSPORT AND ROAD RESEARCH LABORATORY Overseas Road Note 2 (2nd
Edition, Reprinted 1987). Maintenance Techniques for District Engineers.
36. TRANSPORT RESEARCH LABORATORY (1993). Road Building in the Tropics. State-
of-the-Art Review No.9.
37. TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD, NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL (1994).

Transportation Research Record 1455. Selection of Preferred Pavement Design
Alternative Using Multiattribute Utility Analysis.
38. TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD, NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL (1995).

Transportation Research Record 1508. Calbration of HDM-III Performance Models for
Use in Pavement Management of South African National Roads.
39. TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD, NTIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL (1996).

NCHRP Synthesis 223. Cost-Effective Preventive Pavement Maintenance.
40. TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD, NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL

(1996). Transportation Research Record 1524. Toward Adapting HDM-III Model to
Local Conditions: Lessons from a Case Study in Tanzania.
41. U.S. ARMY CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING RESEARCH LABORATORY (CERL),

U.S. Army Engineering and Housing Support Center (HSC). Asphalt Surfaced Roads
and Parking Lots. Pavement Condition Index (PCI) Field Manual (PAVER).
42. U.S. ARMY CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING RESEARCH LABORATORY (CERL),

U.S. Army Facilities Engineering Support Agency FESA). Jointed Concrete Roads
and Parking Lots. Pavement Condition Index (PCI) Field Manual (PAVER).
43. U.S. DEPARTMENT of TRANSPORTATION. Federal Highway Administration. National

Highway Institute. Doc. FHWA-HI-93-056. Techniques for Pavement Rehabilitation.
Fifth Edition March 1993.
44. VINCENT, S.P.R., A.S. LEACH, K. McPHERSON, and H.R. KERALI (1994).
Development of Road Management Systems in Southern Africa. From proceedings
of the Third International Conference on Managing Pavements, San Antonio, Texas,
May 1994.
45. WRLD BANK. Technical Paper 46, Guidelines for Conducting and Calibrating Road
Roughness Measurements.
46. Yoder and Witczak (1975). Principles o Pavement Design, Second Edition (Part V:
Pavement Evaluation and Rehabilitation). John Wiley & Sons.
7.3
APPENDIX A
VIZIR METHOD
FOR QUALITY EVALUATION OF PAVED ROADS
A.1 Classification and Quantification of Damages

General
The first part of VIZIR is a method of classification and quantification of damage that forms part of
general road maintenance management studies or special route maintenance studies. It is intended
to provide a picture of the surface condition of a road at a given time and to identify zones of equal
quality (in terms of three damage levels).
These zones of equal quality and these three damage levels are used to determine the nature and
type of work required; in some cases, the very identification of the damage determines the solution,
while in others it is only one factor in a more complex diagnosis involving other criteria.
The damage classified in the VIZIR method is relevant primarily to flexible pavements with
bituminous surfacings. This damage is divided into two categories:
Type A Damage
This characterizes the structural condition of a pavement, affecting either all of its courses and the
ground or the surfacing only. This damage is caused by a structural deficiency of the pavement, and
its identification is used in the search for a solution in conjunction with other criteria, in particular the
bearing capacity as characterized by the static deflection.
Type A damage includes four types:
• Deformation;
• Rutting;
• (fatigue) cracking; and
• crazing.
Type B Damage
This damage leads to repairs that are generally unrelated to the pavement’s structural capacity.
It may be caused by defective placement, by deficient product quality, or by some special local
condition, possibly aggravated by traffic.
Type B damage includes:
• cracking other than fatigue cracking, i.e. longitudinal joint cracks, transverse thermal shrinkage
cracks, and longitudinal and transverse clay shrinkage (desiccation) cracks;
• potholes;
• raveling and, more generally, all surfacing defects such as fretting, bleeding, etc.
A-1
A.2 Survey and Grading of Damage
The damage is surveyed by an operator who travels the length of the route and records, for any
damage:
• its type;
• its severity; and
• its extent, i.e., the length of road affected or, as appropriate, the area.
VIZIR provides a damage topology and, for each type of damage, three levels of severity.
The survey can be done manually, while travelling the road on foot or by car. The operator in this
case enters his observations (identification of damage and estimate of its severity) on a route
diagram, a document representing the route as a straight line, the scale and precision of which are
appropriate to the type of study.
The survey may also be done using the LCPC’s DESYROUTE equipment. Carried in a car, it
makes it easy to record the type, severity, and location of any damage (position on curved x-axis
based on information from the distance indicator). Its data entry and retrieval software allows all
sorts of calculations, such as a mean severity index and an extent as a percentage of a given
length, or an overall quality index based on a combination of several types of damage. It can
also read out all of these data, either in the form of a route diagram identical to the one produced
by hand or in the form of files that can be incorporated in a road data bank (for instance the
VISAGE road data bank).
To help the operator in his work, VIZIR proposes a catalogue of damage and a method of graphic
representation that are summed up in Table 1 (Type A damage) and Table 2 (Type B damage).
In the route diagram, damage is represented by a rectangle of which the background (white,
grayish, or black) indicates the level of severity, while the two sides represent the co-ordinates of
the beginning and end of the damaged zone, or in other words, its extent.
The severity values given in Tables 1 and 2 are average values suitable for many road networks.
However, they can be altered to fit the assigned maintenance objectives and the expected level of
severity.
A-2
Part 4: Pavement
Part Rehabilitation
4: Pavement GuideGuide
Rehabilitation
Each type of damage and each associated level of severity, as indicated in Tables 1 and 2, is
Each described in detail and
type of damage in the nextassociated
each sub-sectionlevel
and of
shown in a photograph
severity, as indicatedattached to the
in Tables present
1 and 2, is
appendix.
described in detail in the next sub-section and shown in a photograph attached to the present
appendix.
A-3
A-3
A.3 Description of Type A Damages
A.3 DESCRIPTION OF TYPE A DAMAGES
This concerns the following types of damage:
This concerns the following types of damage:
1. Deformation, rutting
1. 2. Fatigue cracking
Deformation, rutting and crazing
2. Fatigue
3. cracking
Patching andand crazing
repairs
3. Patching and repairs
Deformation and Rutting
DEFORMATION AND RuTTING
The deformations specific to flexible pavements almost always lead to rutting or subsidence.
The deformations specific to flexible pavements almost always lead to rutting or subsidence.
Theirdegree
Their degreeofof severity
severity is is determined
determined bybythethe depth
depth h measured
h measured on on a straightedge
a straightedge 1.51.5 m long
m long
placed
placed crosswise
crosswise on on
thethe pavement
pavement (see(see following
following figure).
figure).
Figure A.1 Measurements of Deformation
Rutting
Rutting appears
appears in the
in the wheel
wheel tracks,
tracks, on back
on the the back
of theofpavement
the pavement about about
50 to 8050 cmto 80
fromcmthefrom the
edge.
edge.It Itisiscaused
causedbybysettlement
settlement of of
thethe
materials
materialsunder
underheavy,
heavy,channelized
channelizedtraffic, possibly
traffic, but but not
possibly
not
necessarily aggravated by a deficiency of bearing capacity of the soil. There may also be
necessarily aggravated by a deficiency of bearing capacity of the soil. There may also be rutting
rutting through
through creepcreep
of theofbituminous
the bituminous courses
courses only,only, but this
but this is found
is found mostmost
oftenoften in semi-rigid
in semi-rigid pavement
pavement or in pavements
or in pavements with a bituminous
with a bituminous roadbase.
roadbase.
The
Thefollowing values
following areare
values given for guidance:
given for guidance:
Severity 1 h < 2 cm
Severity
Severity 2 1 h << 2h cm
2 cm < 4 cm
Severity
Severity 3 2 h >24 cm
cm < h < 4 cm
Severity 3 h > 4 cm
Subsidence affects the entire edge of the pavement. It is a result of deficiencies of bearing
Subsidence
capacity affects the
or of stability, entirecaused
possibly edge ofbythe pavement.
materials It is aquality
of poor resultorof excessively
deficiencieshigh
of bearing
water
capacity Subsidence
contents. or of stability, possibly
often occurscaused by and
in bends materials of poor
in zones quality
of very highorstress:
excessively high
It can be in water
the
form of:
contents. Subsidence often occurs in bends and in zones of very high stress: It can be in the
form of:
Localized
Localized subsidence
subsidence of severity 1 1
of severity
Subsidence of severity 3
Subsidence of severity 3 or or
Ridge
Ridge of of
severity 1, 21,or2 3or 3
severity
Longitudinal deformations generally show up in the evenness measurement (sag of a few cm,
Longitudinal deformations generally show up in the evenness measurement (sag of a few cm,
wavelength
wavelength from
from 1 to
1 to 2020
cm)cm) and
and must
must notnot
be be counted
counted twice.
twice. However,
However, longitudinal
longitudinal deformation in
deformation
inthe
the form
form of an isolated
of an isolatedridge
ridgemay
mayproperly
properlybebe recorded
recorded withwith transverse
transverse deformations.
deformations.
Fatigue
FATIGuE Cracking
CRACKING
This
Thiscategory does
category notnot
does include cracks
include resulting
cracks from from
resulting faultyfaulty
construction, such as
construction, the as
such longitudinal
the longitudinal
joint between two mix spreading bands, or cracks caused by some particular
joint between two mix spreading bands, or cracks caused by some particular behavior behavior of the of the
material, such as longitudinal or transverse thermal shrinkage cracks or clay shrinkage cracks.
material, such as longitudinal or transverse thermal shrinkage cracks or clay shrinkage cracks.
Longitudinal fatigue cracks, on the other hand, are recorded. Most often initially single and
A-4isolated,
A-4
VOLUME
Part III, Pavement
4: Pavement Design Guide
they evolve toward continuous cracking, sometimes branching, before multiplying in the wheel
tracks to the point
Longitudinal of becoming
fatigue cracks, onvery
theclosely spaced.
other hand, are recorded. Most often initially single and
isolated, they evolve toward continuous cracking, sometimes branching, before multiplying in the
wheel tracks
Severity 1 to Single
the point
or of becoming
clearly very closely
separated spaced.cracks
longitudinal
Severity 2 Continuous cracks, branched or clearly open
Severity3 1
Severity Single or clearly
Extensively separated
branched longitudinal
cracks cracks crazing
foreshadowing
Severity 2
Continuous cracks,
or wide open cracks branched or clearly open
Severity 3 Extensively branched cracks foreshadowing crazing
or wide open cracks
Patching and Repairs
PATCHING AND REPAIRS
In some damage survey methods, repairs may not be counted. This is true of the OECD Manual–
Road monitoring
In some damagefor question of maintenance
survey methods, repairs –may DC1not– 1990. The LCPC
be counted. hasisalways
This true ofheld
thethat repairs,
OECD
like damage,
Manual– aremonitoring
Road an integralfor part of the visual
question examination.
of maintenance – DC1 The– 1977
1990.guide to the examination
The LCPC has always of
held that
flexible repairs, like
pavements, damage,
in fact, says,are an integral
“a recent repairpart of the visual
conceals examination.
a problem; frequentThe 1977call
repairs guide to
attention
the examination of flexible pavements, in fact, says, “a recent repair conceals
to it”. Repairs are intended to palliate the deficiencies of a pavement, temporarily or permanently; a problem;
frequent
their repairs
number, calland
extent, attention to it”.in Repairs
frequency time areare intended
elements to palliate
of the the In
diagnosis. deficiencies
the VIZIR of a
method,
pavement, temporarily or permanently; their number, extent, and frequency in
repairs must be rated in the course of the visual examination, because some of them are used in time are elements
of the diagnosis. In the VIZIR method, repairs must be rated in the course of the visual
determining the index of pavement appearance. Two cases are distinguished:
examination, because some of them are used in determining the index of pavement appearance.
Two cases are distinguished:
• The repair has definitively eliminated the defect, in which case it will appear on the survey
x document
The repair (route diagram)eliminated
has definitively but not bethe
counted
defect,when calculating
in which case it the
will surface
appear on quality index;
the survey
• The repair(route
document has more or less
diagram) adequately
but not be countedeliminated the defect,
when calculating but not
the surface its cause,
quality index; and will
x doubtless
The repairreappear
has morehere or there
or less or nearby;
adequately the repair
eliminated theisdefect,
therefore
butreflected as an aggravating
not its cause, and will
doubtless
factor reappear the
in calculating here or there
visual index.or nearby; the repair is therefore reflected as an
aggravating factor in calculating the visual index.
The first category includes repairs of Type B defects or partial or complete rebuilding of the
The first category
pavement, includes repairs
in good condition. of Type
VIZIR rates B as
them defects
beingorofpartial or 1.
severity complete rebuilding
Rebuilding may beofofthe
the
pavement, in good condition. VIZIR rates them as being of severity 1. Rebuilding may be of the
surfacing only or of the whole pavement:
surfacing only or of the whole pavement:
Rebuilding of wearing course at longitudinal joint (Type B damage)
Rebuilding of wearing course at longitudinal joint (Type B damage)
Rebuilding of pavement (Type A damage)
Rebuilding of pavement (Type A damage)
Patching of the wearing course (Type B damage)
Patching of the wearing course (Type B damage)
Structural defects of pavement after repair (Type A)
Structural defects of pavement after repair (Type A)
TheThesecond
secondcategory
categoryincludes
includes localised
localised pavement repairsofofType
pavement repairs TypeAAdefects,
defects,classed
classedasasseverity
severity 2
if in
2 ifgood condition
in good and and
condition severity 3 otherwise.
severity OnlyOnly
3 otherwise. severities 2 and
severities 3 may,
2 and according
3 may, to their
according extent,
to their
increase the visual
extent, increase index.
the visualPhotos 21 and21
index. Photos 24and
illustrate such cases.
24 illustrate such cases.
TableA.3
Table A.3: Extent
ExtentofofPatching
Patchingand
andRepair Severity
Repair vs. Severity
Extent
0 to 10% 10 to 50% > 50%

Severity
1 0 0 0
2 0 0 +1
3 0 +1 +1
Table for calculating the correction of surface damage Is according to the severity and extent of
Table for calculating the correction of surface damage Is according to the severity and extent of
repairs.
repairs.
A-5
A-5
A.4 Description of Type B Damages
The common Type B damage in flexible pavements includes:
• Cracking of longitudinal joint;

• Potholes
• Raveling and, more generally, any surface defect such as fretting, bleeding, etc.
There are others that depend on extreme climatic conditions or particular materials, such as:
Thermal shrinkage of bituminous materials;
• Clay shrinkage of pavement courses.
VIZIR is intended for flexible pavements, and so does not cover the thermal shrinkage cracking of
hydraulic materials. If they had to be included, they would be in category B.
Cracking of Longitudinal Joint

This is a failure of bonding between two adjacent bands of coated materials. This type of crack is
initially single and straight, and can be repaired by treatment specific to such cracking (severity
1). Traffic causes the crack to branch or double and lose material at the edges (severity 2, 3).
Repairs are more costly: complete rebuilding of the damaged zone or placement of a new wearing
course.
Severity 1 Single hair line crack

Severity 2 Branching crack
Severity 3 Wide, branching crack with loss of materials
Potholes
Potholes most often result from wear or destruction of the wearing course, sometimes from the
presence of foreign bodies in the surfacing.
They are small when they first appear. In the absence of maintenance, they grow and reproduce in
rows, often with a pitch equal to the circumference of a truck type.
Depending on the degree of severity of these potholes, it may be necessary to rebuild part of the
wearing course or, if they have become too deep, of the wearing course and roadbase. In some
cases, it may even be necessary to rebuild the whole pavement. If there are too many potholes, it
may be necessary to rebuild a considerable length of pavement.
The three levels of severity depend on the nature of the work:
Severity 1 Small number of potholes that can be plugged

by ordinary patching
Severity 2 Large number of small potholes in surface
Severity 3 Potholes or crazing formation – pavement

must be rebuilt or overlaid

Movement of Material: Ravelling, Fretting, Bleeding, etc.
Movements of materials include ravelling and bleeding: some ravelling is caused by excessive
wear of the wearing course and may lead to the formation of potholes. It is normally counted as
cracking or crazing.
Ravelling of severity 1 on crazing of severity 2, counted as Type A damage
A-6
Other ravelling is caused by defective construction. The following damages are distinguished:
• Ravelling: more or less large losses of gravel from surface dressings (deficiency of bonding,
hence of the quality and/or quantity of bitumen);
• Scabbing: loss of all or part of a thin (<3 cm) wearing course of coated materials and separation
from its substrate; this is often preceded by major cracking of the wearing course;
• Fretting: deficient implementation due to bad equipment operation: poor distribution of bitumen
by the sprayer, hence surface unequally covered by the bitumen or bad gravel distribution on
the pavement; and
• Bleeding: upward movement of excess bitumen in hot weather.
The following examples show the severity levels that can be manifested by some of the above
mentioned pavement defects:
Severity 1 Localised raveling (scabbing) or discontinuous ravelling of plucking type
Severity 2 Continuous ravelling

Severity 3 Very marked generalised fretting

Severity 3 Generalised bleeding

Shoulder and Ditch Erosion
There are other forms of damage that are specific to a climate, a country, or a given traffic pattern
and that may require rebuilding of the shoulders as part of maintenance:
• Lacy edge: this damage occurs in pavements in which the roadbase and shoulders are
of the same type, and is caused by the frequent stopping of vehicles on the shoulders. The
extent of the damage is more important than its severity.
Severity 1 Onset of lacy edges
Severity 2 Lace cutting more than 0.50 m into the pavement
Severity 3 Extreme erosion approaching destruction of the pavement
• Low shoulders: this damage is caused by maintenance of the shoulders, which gradually
become lower than the pavement surface.
Severity 1 From 1 to 5 cm lower
Severity 2 From 5 to 10 cm lower
Severity 3 More than 10 cm lower
• Ditch and shoulder erosion: the erosion may take a number of forms (rainwash of ditch;
rainwash and destruction of ditch; destruction gravely endangering a part of the pavement).
The severity code follows this progression:
Severity 1 Erosion of ditch – repairs limited to ditch
Severity 2 Erosion and rainwash of shoulder
Severity 3 Threat to or destruction of a part of the pavement
A-7
A.5 Use of Damage Quantifiers to Determine Maintenance Needs
General
In the previous chapter, two types of damage have been distinguished (A and B). For each type
of damage, a scale of classification according to three levels of severity has been provided. Each
type of damage is accordingly quantified by two estimators:
• its extent (length of road affected); and

• its severity.
VIZIR quantifies damage to estimate the quality of a pavement, investigated either in connection
with a road maintenance management study (network) or with a view to particular work (route).
In both cases, even if the levels of precision are different, rehabilitation approaches must be
identified.
In the case of type B damage, the maintenance approach follows from the identification of the
damage by itself, and no other parameters are needed for the diagnosis. For example, centerline
cracking requires bridging of the cracks, lacy edges require rebuilding of the edges and shoulders,
and so on.
This is not true of type A damage; the approach will depend on other factors, and the diagnosis will
be based on damage, bearing capacity, traffic, etc. It is therefore necessary to establish an overall
rating of visual condition, similar to the ratings or classes used for the other parameters. Type A
damage leads to major work such as rebuilding or overlaying of the surfacing. This work remedies
type B damage in passing: bridging a centerline crack to prevent the infiltration of water is pointless
if a wearing course is going to be applied over the pavement. Generally, type B damage influences
the type of work done only if there is no type A damage (whence the choice of the order A and B)
and, conversely, the global visual index used to qualify the pavement counts only type A damage.
Damage Index Is
The global visual index Is is calculated for a specified length of road from three damage groups:
• cracking and crazing;

• deformation and rutting; and
• repairs.
A cracking index If, depending on the severity and extent of cracking or crazing of the length of
road in question, is calculated first. When both cracking and crazing are present, the larger of both
values is used.
A deformation index Id, depending on the severity and extent of deformation and rutting is then
calculated in a similar manner.
If and Id are combined in a first pavement quality index. It may, as appropriate, be corrected to
reflect the severity and extent of certain repairs. It has already been pointed out that some repairs
conceal pavement deficiencies, and so are treated as aggravating factors when estimating surface
quality.
This correction yields a global damage index Is that qualifies the pavement over the length chosen
for the calculation. Is ranges from 1 to 7. Ratings 1 and 2 reflect good surface conditions that need
no work (or at least on which work may safely be postponed). Ratings 3 and 4 represent a rather
intermediate surface condition, bad enough to trigger maintenance work in the absence of any
other consideration. Ratings 5, 6 and 7 represent very poor surface conditions requiring major
maintenance or overlay work.
A-8
The baseline length on which Is is calculated may depend on the type of study, the database, other
parameters included in the diagnosis, and the operator.
For studies of road maintenance management systems, which are global studies, the route diagram
is plotted to a scale of about 2 cm per km; the database itself is established with a step on the order
of 500 m. Is may therefore be calculated for 500 m lengths.
For route maintenance planning, the survey is plotted to a scale of about 5 cm per km, and a 200
m step may be used for the calculation.
Finally, in the case of a test section, the route diagram is plotted to a scale of about 20 cm per km;
a high degree of precision is attained and Is may be calculated for 50 m lengths.
When the damage survey is done using DESYROUTE, the software of which includes VIZIR,
simply indicate, during data processing, the measurement length on which the calculation should
be based and the scale on which the route diagram should be printed out.
A-9
Extent and severity Extent and severity

of cracking: of deformation:
cracking index deformation index
Surface condition rating
Possible correction
for repairs
Damage index
Is
Figure A.2 Principles of Determination of Surface Condition Rating
A-10
A-10
No cracking or deformation 0
Extent Extent
(1) 0 to 10 to >50% Deformatio 0 to 10 to > 50%
Visual Examination
10% 50% n 10% 50%

Severity Severity
Crackin Index
1 1 3 3 1 1 3 3
g
Index 2 2 3 4 2 2 3 4
If 3 3 4 5 Id 3 3 4 5
(1) Separate If
calculation for 0 1-2 3 4-5
Id
longitudinal
First damage
cracking and 0 1 2 3 4
crazing. 1-2 3 3 4 5
The larger of the
index
two indices is 3 4 5 5 6
used. 4-5 5 6 7 7
Extent
0 to
10 to 50% > 50%
10%
Severity
1 0 0 0
2 0 0 +1
3 0 +1 +1
Correction for repairs
Surface
Damage
Index
Is
Scale from (best) to 7 (worst)
Final rating
Figure A.3 (from Ref. 12) Determination of Damage Index Is
Figure A.3 Determination of Damage Index Is
A-11
A-11
A.6 Development of Solutions
General
The development of maintenance or overlay solutions from a diagnosis combining a visual

examination with other parameters such as bearing capacity and traffic is not independent of
the context of the study. This section deals with the search for solutions in the context of road
maintenance management systems.
The methodology of the studies performed by the LCPC may be represented schematically as
follows:
a. Construction of a database, field survey of data, determination of network quality at time

t0
b. Analysis of data, determination of “technical solution”, i.e. what should be done to the road
network on the basis of its quality image at time t0 to restore a certain level of service, in
the absence of any budgetary constraints.
c. Search for an “optimised solution” reflecting both technical requirements and budgetary
constraints, including staging of the work over several years, and time projection of the
image of the network at time t0 and of the technical solution. For this, laws describing
change against time must be available. The World Bank’s HDM III model proposes such
laws for developing countries.
The technical solution is determined in two stages.
• First, “visual condition” and “bearing capacity” are combined; the bearing capacity is
indicated by the deflection value and the visual condition is represented by index Is as
determined in the previous section. The combination generates a pavement quality rating
on a scale from 1 to 9 and a conclusion as to what needs to be done: nothing, maintenance
or an overlay.
• Then, in a second stage, the pavement quality rating and the level of traffic are combined
and the work to be done is decided for each pair of values.
Pavement Quality Rating Qi
The pavement quality rating Qi is estimated by combining the value of the Index Is qualifying
the pavement surface and the deflection value qualifying the combined bearing capacity of the
pavement and foundation soil.
Damage Index Is
The damage index is divided into three ranges:
Rating 1 or 2 Little or no cracking or deformation; good surface condition requiring no

(or only just requiring) immediate maintenance.
Rating 3 or 4 Cracks with little or no deformation, or deformation without cracking;

intermediate surface condition, bad enough to trigger maintenance work
in the absence of any other consideration.
Rating 5, 6 or 7 Extensive cracking and deformation; poor surface condition requiring

major maintenance or overlay work.
A-12
Deflection
Deflection is also divided into three ranges, by thresholds d1 and d2:
d1 value above which pavement performance is generally good
d2 value above which pavement performance is poor
d1-d2 range of indecision.
The choice of thresholds d1 and d2 depends on many factors, such as climate, type and
thickness of pavement, soils, axle loads, and so on. These values are generally based on a
particular country’s experience. They may, where possible, be based on the examination of
control sections during the general study of the network. If values based on experience are
not available in a country, this calibration may be done during the study. As far as Ethiopia is
concerned, the issue of the determination of d1 and d2 is discussed in Part III of the present
manual.
Table 4 gives the pavement quality rating Qi as a function of the Index Is and the deflection value.
Three main ranges have to be considered:
Q1, Q2, and Q3 : these ratings mean that there is nothing that needs to be done, or at most
maintenance work depending on the traffic carried by the road. When sealing
is required, the cracking index is used to determine the data and type of work.
Q7, Q8, and Q9 : these ratings mean that the pavement requires an overlay, the thickness of
which is determined by the traffic.
Q4, Q5, and Q6 : this is a zone of indetermination for which the index Is and the deflection value
seem inconsistent. These cases should be further examined and eventually
reclassified. The procedure is as follows:
Q4 : pavement with marked damage in spite of a good bearing capacity. The validity
of the deflection measurement should be checked together with the nature of
the damages (in particular rutting layers of coated materials, unrelated to the
deflection measurement). Depending upon the answer, Q4 will be reclassified
as Q2 (priority to deflection) or Q7 (priority to damage).
Q 5 : same analysis as above; allowance will be made for the position of the deflection
with respect to the limits and to the traffic; depending upon the answer, may be
reclassified as Q3, Q7, or Q8.
Q6 : pavement having a large deflection value without apparent damage; to validate

or unvalidate the surface condition, check the age of the pavement or the date
of the most recent work, together with the traffic level. Depending upon the
answer, may be reclassified as Q3 or Q8.
A-13

Deflection d1 d2
Surface damage index Is Class 1 Class 2 Class 3
Q3 Q6
1-2 Q1
(maintenance) (to be
Little or no cracking or no deformation (maintenance)
reclassified)
3-4 Q2 Q5 Q8
Cracks with little or no deformation, (maintenance) (to be (overlay)*
deformation without cracks reclassified)
5-6-7 Q4 Q7 Q9
(to be
Cracks and deformation reclassified) (overlay)* (overlay)*

Figure A.4: Pavement Quality Rating (Qi) and Required Road Works
Figure A.4 Pavement Quality Rating (Qi) and Required Road Works
(adapted from Ref. 5)
A-14
Ministry of Works and Transport A-14
APPENDIX B
FIELDWORK
B.1 Pavement Condition Surveys
Condition surveys are essentially required to assess a pavement’s physical distress and form the
basis of a diagnosis regarding the maintenance or rehabilitation needs. Together with drainage,
destructive and non-destructive testing, they are mandatory before rehabilitation design.
Flexible Pavements
One of the stated objectives of the PMS is to provide a pavement condition evaluation system. A
condition survey conducted for a specific project, in order to be compatible with the PMS of the
network, must follow the same method. Also, by using the same method, the results of the specific
condition survey can be forwarded to the Office or Branch in charge of the PMS and incorporated
into the PMS Road Data Bank.
Following is a summarized description of the method of classification and quantification of visible

damage, adapted from the “VIZIR method”, as presented in the Manual of Procedures for PMS
(Ref 12) and copied for reference in Appendix A.
General
The method of classification and quantification of damage is intended to provide a picture of the
road surface condition at the time of inspection and to identify zones of equal quality (in terms of
three damage levels). The damage is divided into two categories:
• Type A damage, which characterizes the structural condition of the pavement and includes
four types as follows:
- Deformation;
- Rutting;
- (fatigue) cracking; and
- crazing.
• Type B damage, generally unrelated to the pavement structural capacity. This type of
damage may be caused either by defective placement, or by deficient materials quality, or
by some special local condition, aggravated by traffic. Type B damage includes:
- cracking other than fatigue cracking, i.e. longitudinal joints and transverse thermal shrinkage
cracks;
- potholes;
- raveling and, more generally, all surfacing defects such as fretting, bleeding, etc.
Survey and Grading of Damage
The survey is intended to record, for any damage:
• its type;
• its severity; and
• its extent, i.e. the length of road affected, or, as appropriate, the area.
It is to be noted that the method was designed for use with automatic data recording equipment,
which facilitates the recording of the distresses and the calculation of quality ratings. Nevertheless,
the survey can also be done manually.
The severity of each type of damage is described in detail, in tabulated form as well as by illustrations
(photographs) in Appendix A. Following are some examples.
B-1
VOLUME
VOLUME III, III,
Pavement Design
Pavement Manual
Design Manual
PartPart
4: Pavement Rehabilitation
Guide
Description of of
Description Type A Damage
Type A Damage
Rutting appears
Rutting appearsin in
wheel
wheeltracks
tracksabout
about 50
50 to 80 cm
to 80 cmfrom
fromthethepavement
pavement edge.
edge. It may
It may be due to
be due
settlement of theofmaterials
to settlement under
the materials heavily
under channelized
heavily traffic,
channelized traffic,ororoccasionally
occasionallydue
due to
to creep within
the within
bituminous layers only.
the bituminous layers only.
As example,
As an an example, rutting
rutting is is characterizedby
characterized bythe
thefollowing
following levels
levels of
of severity:
severity:
Severity
Severity 1 1 h <h 2< cm
2 cm
Severity 2 2 2 cm
Severity 2 cm< h<<h4<cm (see
4 cm Figure
(see B.1)B.1)
Figure
Severity 3 4 cm < h
Severity 3 4 cm < h
Where h is the depth of rutting measured by a straight edge. As indicated earlier, complete
Where h is the depth of rutting measured by a straight edge. As indicated earlier, complete
illustrations and guidance regarding severity levels are given in Appendix A for rutting, as
illustrations
well as forand guidance
other regarding
types of severity levels
Type A damage, areuser
and the given in Appendix
should A forAppendix
refer to that rutting, as
forwell as
for other
completetypes of Type A damage, and the user should refer to that Appendix for complete details.
details.
Figure B.1: Rutting – Figure B.1

Severity Rutting
Level 2 – Severity Level 2
Description
Description of of Type
Type B Damage
B Damage
Similarly,
Similarly, damage
damage of of
TypeTypeBBis ischaracterized
characterizedbybyaa severity
severity level,
level, as
as detailed
detailedininAppendix
AppendixA.A. One
One example is that of cracking of longitudinal joints. This type of crack is initially
example is that of cracking of longitudinal joints. This type of crack is initially single singleand
andstraight
straight (Severity 1, e.g. Figure B.2). Under traffic, the crack evolves, branches or doubles,
(Severity 1, e.g. Figure B.2). Under traffic, the crack evolves, branches or doubles, and eventually
and eventually loses material at the edges (Severity 2, 3).
loses material at the edges (Severity 2, 3).
B-2
B-2
PartVOLUME III, Pavement
4: Pavement Design
Guide
Figure B.2:
Figure B.2 Cracking – Severity
Severity Level
Level11
Rigid Pavements
RIGID PAVEMENTS
As for flexible pavements, a visual condition (distress) survey is essential for planning rehabilitation
efforts.
As forIn order
flexibletopavements,
make knowledgeable decisions,
a visual condition the engineer
(distress) should
survey is havefor
essential theplanning
following
information:
rehabilitation efforts. In order to make knowledgeable decisions, the engineer should have the
following information:
• Distress type;
• xDistress severity;
Distress type; and
Distress
• xDistress severity; and
amount.
x Distress amount.
The distress type will assist in defining probable cause(s) of the distress and ultimately help in
The distress
selecting type will assist
a rehabilitation in defining
strategy suitableprobable cause(s)
to repair of the the
and prevent distress and ultimately
recurrence of the help in
problem.
selecting a rehabilitation strategy suitable to repair and prevent the recurrence of the problem.
The distress is not necessarily related to traffic loads. Tables B.1 and B.2 (from Ref. 3) classify the
The distress is not necessarily related to traffic loads. Tables B.1 and B.2 (from Ref. 3) classify
distress types of jointed concrete and continuously reinforced concrete pavements respectively.
the distress types of jointed concrete and continuously reinforced concrete pavements
respectively.
The condition survey will also document the severity of the distress and provide a record of the
pavement condition
The condition at the
survey time
will of document
also the survey,the
including
severitythe
of location of the
the distress distress.
and provide Thus, differences
a record of the
between sections
pavement of theatpavement
condition the time (or lanes)
of the will become
survey, includingapparent and guide
the location of theindistress.
the rehabilitation
Thus,
differences
design process.between sections of the pavement (or lanes) will become apparent and guide in the
rehabilitation design process.
Definitions of the major distress types and of severity levels suggested for use during the condition
Definitions
survey of the major
are presented distress A,
in Appendix types and of
together severity
with levels suggested
recommended methodsfor use during the(to
of measurement
condition survey are presented in Appendix A, together with recommended methods of
record the distress amount).
measurement (to record the distress amount).
B.2 Drainage Survey
B.2 DRAINAGE SURVEY
In the design of pavement rehabilitation, the possible contribution of drainage improvement should
be investigated. The existing drainage of the pavement and subgrade may be inadequate and the
In the design of pavement rehabilitation, the possible contribution of drainage improvement
pavement distress may result from this condition or be accelerated by it.
should be investigated. The existing drainage of the pavement and subgrade may be inadequate
and the pavement distress may result from this condition or be accelerated by it.
The pavement condition survey will often indicate moisture-related distress. Distress types in
flexible
The pavements which may
pavement condition either
survey willbe caused
often or be
indicate accelerated bydistress.
moisture-related moistureDistress
includetypes
stripping,
in
rutting, depression,
flexible pavementsfatigue
which cracking
may eitherand be potholes.
caused or Inberigid pavement,
accelerated they include
by moisture includepumping,
stripping,“D”
cracking,
rutting,joint deterioration,
depression, fatiguefaulting
crackingandandcorner breaks.
potholes. In rigid pavement, they include pumping, “D”
cracking, joint
Subsequent deterioration,
to the faulting and
pavement condition cornerand
survey breaks.
depending on whether or not drainage-related
distress is apparent, a determination needs to be made regarding the need for a specific drainage
Subsequent to the pavement condition survey and depending on whether or not drainage-related
survey.
distress
It should be isrecognized
apparent, that
a determination needs to be made
even when moisture-related regarding
distress the need
is absent, for a
drainage specific
deficiencies
drainage survey.
may exist which need to be corrected. Maintenance personnel regularly involved with a particular
section of road under evaluation should be consulted in this regard, as they are a good source of
relevant information.
B-3
B-3
Part 4: VOLUME
PavementIII,Rehabilitation
Pavement Design
GuideManual
Table B.1 General Categorization of Jointed Concrete Pavement Distress

(from Ref. 3)
Distress Type Primarily Primarily

Traffic Load Caused Climate/Materials
Caused
1. Blow-up X
2. Corner break X
3. Depression X
4. Durability “D” cracking X
5. Faulting of transverse joints and cracks X
6. Joint load transfer associated distress X X
7. Joint seal damage of transverse joints X
8. Lane/shoulder dropoff or heave X
9. Lane/shoulder joint separation X
10. Longitudinal cracks X
11. Longitudinal joint faulting X X
12. Patch deterioration X (M, H) X (L)
13. Patch adjacent slab deterioration X X
14. Popouts X
15. Pumping and water bleeding X (M, H) X (L)
16. Reactive aggregate durability distress X
17. Scaling, map cracking and crazing X
18. Spalling (transverse and longitudinal joints) X (M, H) X (L, M. H)
19. Spalling (corner) X
20. Swell X
21. Transverse and diagonal cracks X (L, M, H) X (L)
Table B.2 General Categorization of Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement

Distress (from Ref. 3)
Distress Type Primarily Primarily

Traffic Load Caused Climate/Materials
Caused
1. Asphalt patch deterioration X
2. Blow-up X
3. Concrete patch deterioration X (M, H) X (L)
4. Construction joint distress X
5. Depression X
6. Durability “D” cracking X
7. Edge punchout X
8. Lane/shoulder dropoff or heave X
9. Lane/shoulder joint separation X
10. Localized distress X
11. Longitudinal cracking X
12. Longitudinal joint faulting X X
13. Patch adjacent slab deterioration X X
14. Popouts X
15. Pumping and water bleeding X (M, H) X (L)
16. Reactive aggregate distress X
17. Scaling, map cracking and crazing X
18. Spalling X X
19. Swell X
20. Transverse cracking X (M, H) X (L, M)
Note: L, M, H refer to low, medium and high severity levels.
It should be recognized that even when moisture-related distress is absent, drainage deficiencies
may exist which need to be corrected. Maintenance personnel regularly involved with a particular
B-4
B-4
The first step in drainage evaluation will include a review of the as-built documents collected as part
of the data collection discussed in Chapter 2. That will encompass the determination of the initial
drainage provisions, and examination of pavement cross-sections and profiles. If moisture-related
distress is apparent, then the original drainage system is inadequate (due to design or present
condition). The next step of the evaluation will include an examination of topographical features.
This may lead to discovering streams or wet areas above the pavement elevation.
The drainage evaluation also requires a site investigation (preferably during a wet season), with the
aim of answering such questions as the following:
• Where and how does water move across the pavement surface?
• Where does water collect on and near the pavement?
• How high is the water level in the ditches?
• Do the joints and cracks contain any water?
• Does water pond on the shoulder?
• Does water-loving vegetation flourish along the roadside?
• Are deposits of fines or other evidence of pumping (blowholes) visible at the pavement’s
edge?
• Do the inlets contain debris or sediment buildup?
• Are the joints and cracks sealed well?
If the original drainage design appears adequate, the site investigation should also verify that it has
actually been entirely built as planned, and determine whether changes have taken place since it
was built.
Drainage problems often encountered include shallow side ditches, broken or clogged pipes and
outlets, permeable shoulders and slow draining aggregate roadbase with no outlets or outlets of
insufficient capacity.
Subgrade problems related to drainage include pockets of poor soils (e.g. saturated silts and/
or clays, or organic materials) and localized springs, groundwater seepage or non-functioning
subsurface drainage systems.
B.3 NDT Deflection Measurements
The use of non-destructive testing (NDT) for the measurement of pavement deflection under
applied loading has been part of the process of structural evaluation and rehabilitation design
for decades, using various types of equipment (e.g. Ref. 13). The total deflection under load has
been used as an indicator of the load-carrying capacity of the pavement, especially for flexible
pavements, by correlating allowable repetitions of ESAs to the maximum deflection. This has later
been refined by taking into consideration only the “rebound” or “elastic” portion of the deflection
as the key indicator of performance, rather than the total deflection under load. Various methods
utilizing measurements of the slope (e.g. radius of curvature) of the deflection basin (or deflection
bowl) under load have also been developed to further characterize the pavement behavior and
structural capacity.
In this manual, emphasis is placed on measurements of the rebound deflection made by means
of a Benkelman Beam. This presents the advantages of a certain consistency with the procedures
of the PMS, a relatively simple field procedure, and a consistency with the selected overlay design
methods presented further in the manual. An alternate deflection survey procedure is also outlined,
using a Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD). This method, which is well suited and actually
intended to make use of deflection bowl measurements, requires more logistical support and is
more expensive.
Benkelman Beam Rebound Deflection Testing Procedure
The following (adapted from Ref. 11) gives a procedure for determining the static Benkelman Beam
rebound deflection at a point on an asphalt pavement structure under specified axle load, tire size,
B-5
tire spacing and tire pressure. The absolute minimum spacing of sample locations should be 100
m, on either side (in either direction) of the road. Shorter intervals should be adopted if practical,
and in areas of special concern (particular distress).
Equipment
Major equipment includes:
1. A Benkelman Beam as per AASHTO T256.
Painting the beam white or aluminum will reduce temperature effects.
2. A 4.5 metric tonne truck as the reaction load. The vehicle shall have an 8.2 tonne load equally
distributed on the two dual wheels of the rear axle. The clear distance between two tires of
each dual shall be a minimum of 50 mm. The tires shall be 10.00 x 20, 12 ply, inflated to a
pressure of 552 kPa. The use of tires with tubes and rib treads is recommended.
3. Tire pressure-measuring gauge.
4. Standard Iron-Constantan thermocouple wire and a temperature potentiometer (any other

surface temperature measuring equipment that gives results comparable to the thermocouple
potentiometer equipment may be used).
Procedure
1. The preselected point to be tested is located (usually only the outside lane is tested) and
marked on the pavement. Points should be located 0.6 m from the pavement edge if the lane
width is less than 3.35 m; 0.9 m from the pavement edge if the lane width is 3.35 m or more.
2. Center one set of dual wheels of the truck over the marked point. A location within 75 mm of
the point is acceptable.
3. Insert the probe of the Benkelman Beam between the dual wheels and place on the selected
sample point.
4. Remove the locking pin from the beam and adjust the front legs to permit approximately 13
mm travel of the dial gauge stem.
5. Start the buzzer on the beam and record the initial dial reading.
6. Immediately after recording the reading, drive the truck slowly forward 9 m or more.
7. Record the final dial reading. When the dial movement stops, stop the buzzer. The dial
movement may resume after a short pause, but no more readings are necessary.
8. Measure the pavement surface temperature1∗ in the following manner:
a. At a point not less than 254 mm from the pavement’s edge, drive a small hole into the
pavement 3 mm in diameter and 3 mm in depth.
b. Fill the hole with water or asphalt. Insert a thermocouple with the wire bent at right angles
5 mm from the end, 3 mm into the water or asphalt.
c. Read the temperature with a temperature potentiometer. At this time, also record the air
temperature.
1 One pavement surface temperature measurement an hour usually will be sufficient. Make the measurement at the
location currently being tested for deflection.
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9. Check the truck tire pressure once a day and correct to the 552 kPa standard equipment, if
necessary.
10. Determine the total thickness, to the nearest 25 mm of asphalt-bound components in the
pavement structure. This may be done from construction records (cf. Chapter 2), by core
drilling, or by a small excavation at the pavement’s edge. Determine also the types and
general condition of materials in the remainder of the pavement structure, i.e., “granular
roadbase, wet” or “granular subbase, saturated and contaminated with silt from subgrade”.
Calculations
Subtract the final dial reading from the initial dial reading and record. The total pavement rebound
deflection is twice the dial movement during the test (two-to-one is the usual ratio for the Benkelman
Beam; some models may be built with a different ratio).
Report
The report shall include the following:
Sample location
Total pavement rebound deflection
Pavement surface temperature
Air temperature
Asphalt pavement thickness
For rigid pavements, the deflection measurements using the Benkelman Beam are made along the
edge of the concrete slab, according to the following guidelines essentially taken from those of the
Asphalt Institute (Ref. 11):
For two-lane highways, the deflection measurements are made on the outside edge on both sides of
the centerline. For divided highways, deflections should be measured on the outermost edge only.
Additional deflection measurements should be made at corners, joints, cracks, and deteriorated
pavement areas, to determine load-transfer capability. The total vertical movement in these areas
is important, but the differential movement from one slab to another is more important, because it
may indicate the need for undersealing. The differential movement is considered a measurement
of the load-transfer capability of the slab. Load-transfer is defined as the ratio of the deflection
on one side of the joint or crack to the deflection on the opposite side. This is illustrated in Figure
B.3.
B-7
Figure B.3 Differential Deflection and Load Transfer (from Ref. 11)
The deflection testing procedure for rigid pavements is as follows:
The Benkelman Beam should be positioned on the shoulder as shown in Figure B.4.
Figure B.4B.4
Figure (after Ref. 11)
Position Position
of vehicle andofBenkelman
vehicle and Benkelman
Beam Beam
for making for making
static rebound
static rebound
deflection deflection measurements
measurements on rigid pavements.
on rigid pavements
Measurements should be made on either side of the joint or crack to determine the
parameters described in Figure B.3. They should be taken, to the extent practical, during the
most severe environmental circumstances, e.g. at the end of a wet season. A suggested
minimum spacing is 100 m, with more closely spaced sample locations where cut and fill
sections alternate rapidly.
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VOLUME
VOLUMEIII,III,Pavement
PavementDesign
DesignManual
Manual
Part
Part 4: Pavement RehabilitationGuide
FFalling WEIGHT
ALLINGWeight DEFLECTOMETER
Deflectometer (FWD)(FWD)
The Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) is classed as an impulse deflection device providing a
non-destructive means of determining a pavement response to dynamic loading.
Various models and manufacturers (e.g. Dynatest, Foundation Mechanics, KUAB, etc.) exist,
which follow the same principle and provide similar information. A typical arrangement is given
schematically in Figure B.5.
Figure B.5 Falling Weight Deflectometer
Weights are raised to a predetermined height and allowed to fall on a specially-designed plate,
transmitting an impulse force to the pavement. The shape of the load pulse obtained is somewhat
similar to that obtained from a moving wheel load. Figure B.6 schematically illustrates a typical
pavement structure under a FWD dynamic load. By varying the weights dropped and the height
from which they are dropped, the force developed upon impulse can be varied, as can the range
of wheel load effects simulated. For instance, a typical dynamic force of 40 KN (a generally
recommended magnitude) applied to a 30 cm diameter disk by a dropping weight on the order of
60 kg is common.
Usually, six or seven geophones (sensors, or velocity transducers) record the deflections at offset
distances from the center of load application. A typical configuration for flexible pavements is
given in Figure B.7.
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VOLUME III,
Part 4: Pavement Pavement Design
Rehabilitation Guide Manual
Figure B.6 Schematic of Stress Zone within Pavement Structure under the FWD
Load (from Ref. 3)
Figure B.7 Deflection Sensors Configuration for Flexible Pavement

Figure B-7 Deflection Sensors Configuration for Flexible Pavement Testing
Testing
The tests should be made in the outer wheelpath at intervals sufficient to adequately assess
The tests should be
conditions. madeofin25the
Intervals outer
m to 250 wheelpath at Areas
m are typical. intervals
thatsufficient to adequately
are seriously deterioratedassess
and
conditions. Intervals
obviously of 25 repairs
will require m to 250
shouldm not
are be
typical.
tested,Areas thatseparately
or tested are seriously deteriorated
so as not and
to influence
obviously will require
statistical repairs
analyses of theshould
results.not be tested, or tested separately so as not to influence
statistical analyses of the results.
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B.4 Existing Pavement Structure and Subgrade Assessment
The data obtained from PMS records and the subsequent review of those records should serve as
the basis for the fieldwork. The PMS data can be reconfirmed by carrying out a specific field study
and reviewing the field data.
In general, field testing is categorized into two broad areas: nondestructive testing (NDT) and
destructive testing. Destructive tests (such as test pits, DCP tests) require the physical removal
of pavement layer material in order to obtain a sample (either disturbed or undisturbed) or to
conduct an in-situ test. Such testing has many disadvantages and limitations, particularly when
conducted on moderate to heavily trafficked roadways. Practical restraints in terms of time and
money severely limit the number and variety of destructive tests conducted on routine rehabilitation
studies.
Nondestructive testing, on the other hand, does not necessitate physical disturbance of the
pavement. The most widely used form of NDT is associated with the field deflection tests noted in
Section B.3.
In spite of their disadvantages, destructive tests are the only definitive means of determining
pavement layer thicknesses and layer material type.
Test Pits
Test pits represent one of the common methods of investigation to determine the thickness and
type of the various pavement layers and to assess the subgrade. Samples from each pavement
layer and subgrade can be collected for visual inspection and subsequent laboratory testing. The
test results can be used in the rehabilitation design analysis and to check conformance of the
material with standard specifications. Test pits shall be dug through the pavement layers and into
the subgrade soil for a minimum total depth of 0.80 m (alternatively, the pit should extend at least
0.20 m below subgrade level).
The spacing of the test pits should depend on sound engineering judgement and be guided by a
prior review of all possible documents, as well as a visual pavement condition survey.
However, as a general guideline, one test pit every 500 meters, alternating on either side of
the roadway, is recommended. The position of each test pit shall be accurately determined and
reported.
DCP Testing
DCP testing frequency can be the same as that of the test pits, i.e. every 500 m. In fact, the DCP
test location can be adjacent to the test pit location. However, as mentioned before, depending on
the pavement location, the frequency can be altered to better assess the pavement and to optimize
the testing program.
The DCP instrument is designed for the rapid in-situ measurement of the structural properties of
existing road pavements (with the exception of hard layers like concrete) and subgrade. In cases
of material that the DCP cannot penetrate, a hole can be drilled through that layer using a suitable
drill. Lower layers of the pavement can then be tested in the normal way.
The DCP test results can be compared with the laboratory test results, and the data collected from
review of the possible documents, including PMS records. Additional testing may be necessary in
case of discrepancies to better evaluate pavement conditions.
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APPENDIX C
TYPICAL RIGID PAVEMENT DISTRESS

TYPE-SEVERITY DESCRIPTIONS
Name of Distress: Blow-up
Description:
Most blow-ups occur during the spring and hot summer at a transverse joint or wide crack. Infiltration
of incompressible materials into the joint or crack during cold periods results in high compressive
stresses in hot periods. When this compressive pressure becomes too great, a localized upward
movement of the slab or shattering occurs at the joint or crack. Blow-ups are accelerated due to
a spalling away of the slab at the bottom, creating reduced joint contact area. The presence of “D”
cracking or freeze-thaw damage also weakens the concrete near the joint, resulting in increased
spalling and blow-up potential.
Severity Levels:
L— Blow-up has occurred, but only causes some bounce of the vehicle which creates no discomfort.
M— Blow-up causes a significant bounce of the vehicle which creates some discomfort. Temporary
patching may have been placed because of the blow-up.
H— Blow-up causes excessive bounce of the vehicle, which creates substantial discomfort and/or a
safety hazard and/or vehicle damage, requiring a reduction.
How to Measure:
Blow-ups are measured by counting the number existing in each uniform section. Severity level
is determined by riding in a mid- to full-sized sedan weighing approximately 13.3-16.9 kN over the
uniform section at the posted speed limit. The number is not as important as the fact that initial
blow-ups signal a problem with “lengthening” or gradual downhill movement—and others should
be expected to occur until the maximum distance is down to 300 meters between blow-ups, the
distance required to develop full restraint of an interior section.
Name of Distress: Corner Break
Description:
A corner break is a crack that intersects the joints at a distance less than 1.8 m on each side,
measured from the corner of the slab. A corner break extends vertically through the entire slab
thickness. It should not be confused with a corner spall, which intersects the joint at an angle through
the slab and is typically within 0.3 m from the slab corner. Heavy repeated loads, combined with
pumping, poor load transfer across the joint, and thermal curling and moisture warping stresses,
result in corner breaks.
Severity Levels:
L—Crack is tight (hairline). Well-sealed cracks are considered tight. No faulting or break-up of
broken corner exists. Crack is not spalled.
M—Crack is working and spalled at medium severity, but break-up of broken corner has not
occurred. Faulting of crack or joint is less than 13 mm. Temporary patching may have been
placed because of corner break.
H—Crack is spalled at high severity, the corner piece has broken into two or more pieces, or
faulting of crack or joint is more than 13 mm.
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How to Measure:
Corner breaks are measured by counting the number that exists in the uniform section. Different
levels of severity should be counted and recorded separately. Corner breaks adjacent to a patch
will be counted as “patch adjacent slab deterioration”.
Name of Distress: Depression
Description:
Depressions in concrete pavements are localized settled areas. There is generally significant slab
cracking in these areas, due to uneven settlement. The depressions can be located by stains
caused by oil droppings from vehicles and by riding over the pavement. Depressions can be caused
by settlement or consolidation of the foundation soil, or can be “built-in” during construction. They
are frequently found near culverts. This is usually caused by poor compaction of soil around the
culvert during construction. Depressions cause slab cracking, roughness, and hydroplaning when
filled with water of sufficient depth.
Severity Levels:
L— Depression causes a distinct bounce of vehicle which creates no discomfort.

M— Depression causes significant bounce of the vehicle, which creates some discomfort.
H— Depression causes excessive bounce of the vehicle, which creates substantial discomfort,
and/or a safety hazard, and/or vehicle damage, requiring a reduction in speed for safety.
How to Measure:
Depressions are measured by counting the number that exists in each uniform section. Each
depression is rated according to its level of severity. Severity level is determined by riding in a mid-
to full-sized sedan weighing approximately 13.3-16.9 KN over the uniform section at the posted
speed limit.
Name of Distress: Durability (“D”) Cracking
Description:
“D” cracking is a series of closely-spaced, crescent-shaped hairline cracks that appear at a

PCC pavement slab surface adjacent and roughly parallel to transverse and longitudinal joints,
transverse and longitudinal cracks, and the free edges of pavement slab. The fine surface cracks
often curve around the intersection of longitudinal joints/cracks and transverse joints/cracks. These
surface cracks often contain calcium hydroxide residue, which causes a dark coloring of the crack
and immediate surrounding area. This may eventually lead to disintegration of the concrete within
0.3 to 0.6 m or more of the joint or crack, particularly in the wheelpaths. “D” cracking is caused
by freeze-thaw expansive pressures of certain types of coarse aggregates and typically begins at
the bottom of the slab, which disintegrates first. Concrete durability problems caused by reactive
aggregates are rated under “Reactive Aggregate Distress”.
Severity Levels:
L— The characteristic pattern of closely-spaced fine cracks has developed near joints, cracks,
and/or free edges; however, the width of the affected area is generally <30 cm wide at
the center of the lane in transverse cracks and joints. The crack pattern may fan out at
the intersection of transverse cracks/joints with longitudinal cracks/joints. No joint/crack
spalling has occurred, and no patches have been placed for “D” cracking.
M— The characteristic pattern of closely-spaced cracks has developed near the crack, joint,
or free edge and: (1) is generally wider than 30 cm at the center of the lane in transverse
cracks and/or joints; or (2) low- or medium-severity joint/crack or corner spalling has
developed in the affected area; or (3) temporary patches have been placed due to “D”
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cracking-induced spalling.
H— The pattern of fine cracks has developed near joints or cracks and (1) a high severity level
of spalling at joints/cracks exists and considerable material is loose in the affected area;
or (2) the crack pattern has developed generally over the entire slab area between cracks
and/or joints.
How to Measure:
“D” cracking is measured by counting the number of joints or cracks (including longitudinal) affected.
Different severity levels are counted and recorded separately. “D” cracking adjacent to a patch is
rated as patch-adjacent slab deterioration. “D” cracking should not be counted if the fine crack
pattern has not developed near cracks, joints, and free edges. Popouts and discoloration of joints,
cracks, and free edges may occur without “D” cracking.
Name of Distress: Faulting of Transverse Joints and Cracks
Description:
Faulting is the difference of elevation across a joint or crack. Faulting is caused in part by a buildup
of loose materials under the approach slab near the joint or crack, as well as depression of the leave
slab. The buildup of eroded or infiltrated materials is caused by pumping from under the leave slab
and shoulder (free moisture under pressure) due to heavy loadings. The warp and/or curl upward
of the slab near the joint or crack due to moisture and/or temperature gradient contributes to the
pumping condition. Lack of load transfer contributes greatly to faulting.
Severity Levels:
Severity is determined by the average faulting over the joints within the sample unit.
How to Measure:
Faulting is determined by measuring the difference in elevation of slabs at transverse joints for the
slabs in the sample unit. Faulting of cracks is measured as a guide to determine the distress level
of the crack. Faulting is measured 30 cm in from the outside (right) slab edge on all lanes except
the innermost passing lane. Faulting is measured 30 cm in from the inside (left) slab edge on the
inner passing lane. If temporary patching prevents measurement, proceed on to the next joint.
Sign convention: + when approach slab is higher than departure slab, – when the opposite occurs.
Faulting never occurs in the opposite direction.
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Name of Distress: Joint Load Transfer System Associated Deterioration (Second Stage
Cracking)
Description:
This distress develops as a transverse crack a short distance (e.g., 23 cm) from a transverse joint
at the end of joint dowels. This usually occurs when the dowel system fails to function properly
due to extensive corrosion or misalignment. It may also be caused by a combination of smaller
diameter dowels and heavy traffic loadings.
Severity Levels:
L— Hairline (tight) crack with no spalling or faulting or well-sealed crack with no visible faulting or
spalling.
M— Any of the following conditions exist: the crack has opened to a width less than 25 mm; the
crack has faulted less than 13 mm; the crack may have spalled to a low- or medium-severity
level; the area between the crack and joint has started to break up, but pieces have not been
dislodged to the point that a tire damage or safety hazard is present; or temporary patches
have been placed due to this joint deterioration.
H— Any of the following conditions exist: a crack with width of opening greater than 25 mm; a crack
with a high-severity level of spalling; a crack faulted 13 mm or more; or the area between the
crack and joint has broken up and pieces have been dislodged to the point that a tire damage
or safety hazard is present.
How to Measure:
The number of joints with each severity level are counted in the uniform section.
Name of Distress: Joint Seal Damage of Transverse Joints
Description:
Joint seal damage exists when incompressible materials and/or water can infiltrate into the joints.
This infiltration can result in pumping, spalling, and blow-ups. A joint sealant bonded to the edges
of the slabs protects the joints from accumulation of incompressible materials and also reduces the
amount of water seeping into the pavement structure. Typical types of joint seal damage are: (1)
stripping of joint sealant, (2) extrusion of joint sealant, (3) weed growth, (4) hardening of the filler
(oxidation), (5) loss of bond to the slab edges, and (6) lack or absence of sealant in the joint.
Severity Levels:
L— Joint sealant is in good condition throughout the section with only a minor amount of any of
the above types of damage present. Little water and no incompressibles can infiltrate through
the joint.
M— Joint sealant is in fair condition over the entire surveyed section, with one or more of the
above types of damage occurring to a moderate degree. Water can infiltrate the joint fairly
easily; some incompressibles can infiltrate the joint. Sealant needs replacement within 1 to 3
years.
H— Joint sealant is in poor condition over most of the sample unit, with one or more of the above
types of damage occurring to a severe degree. Water and incompressibles can freely infiltrate
the joint. Sealant needs immediate replacement.
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How to Measure:
Joint sealant damage of transverse joints is rated based on the overall condition of the sealant over
the entire sample unit.
Name of Distress: Lane/Shoulder Drop-Off or Heave
Description:
Lane/shoulder drop-off or heave occurs when there is a difference in elevation between the traffic
lane and shoulder. Typically, the outside shoulder settles due to consolidation or a settlement of
the underlying granular or subgrade material or pumping of the underlying material. Heave of the
shoulder may occur due to frost action or swelling soils. Drop-off of granular or soil shoulder is
generally caused from blowing away of shoulder material from passing trucks.
Severity Levels:
Severity level is determined by computing the mean difference in elevation between the traffic lane
and shoulder.
How to Measure:
Lane/shoulder drop-off or heave is measured in the sample unit at all joints when joint spacing is
> 15 m, at every third joint when spacing is < 15 m. It is also measured at mid-slab in each slab
measured at the joint. The mean difference in elevation is computed from the data and used to
determine severity level. Measurements at joints are made 0.3 m from the transverse joint on the
departure slab only on the outer lane/shoulder.
Name of Distress: Lane/Shoulder Joint Separation
Description:
Lane/shoulder joint separation is the widening of the joint between the traffic lane and the shoulder,
generally due to movement in the shoulder. If the joint is tightly closed or well-sealed so that water
cannot easily infiltrate, then lane/shoulder joint separation is not considered a distress.
Severity Levels:
No severity level is recorded if the joint is tightly sealed.
L— Some opening, but less than or equal to 3 mm.
M— More than 3 mm, but equal or less than 10 mm opening.
H— More than 10 mm opening. Gravel or sod shoulders are rated as high.
How to Measure:
Lane/shoulder joint separation is measured and recorded in mm near transverse joints and at mid-
slab. The mean separation is used to determine the severity level.
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Name of Distress: Longitudinal Cracks
Description:
Longitudinal cracks occur generally parallel to the centerline of the pavement. They are often
caused by improper construction of longitudinal joints or by a combination of heavy load repetition,
loss of foundation support, and thermal and moisture gradient stresses.
Severity Levels:
L— Hairline (tight) crack with no spalling or faulting, or a well-sealed crack with no visible faulting
or spalling.
M— Working crack with a moderate or less severity spalling and/or faulting less than 12 mm.
H— A crack with width greater than 25 mm; a crack with a high-severity level of spalling; or a crack
faulted 13 mm or more.
How to Measure:
Cracks are measured in meters for each level of distress. The length and average severity of each
crack should be identified and recorded.
Name of Distress: Longitudinal Joint Faulting
Description:
Longitudinal joint faulting is a difference in elevation of two traffic lanes measured at the longitudinal
joint. It is caused primarily by heavy truck traffic and settlement of the foundation.
Severity Levels:
Severity level is determined by measuring the maximum fault.
How to Measure:
Where the longitudinal joint has faulted, the length of the affected area and the maximum joint
faulting is recorded.
Name of Distress: Patch Deterioration (including replaced slabs)
Description:
A patch is an area where a portion or all of the original slab has been removed and replaced with a
permanent type of material (e.g., concrete or hot-mixed asphalt). Only permanent patches should
be considered.
Severity Levels:
L— Patch has little or no deterioration. Some low severity spalling of the patch edges may exist.
Faulting across the slab-patch joints must be less than 6 mm. Patch is rated low severity even
if it is in excellent condition.
M— Patch has cracked (low severity level) and/or some spalling of medium-severity level exists
around the edges. Minor rutting may be present. Faulting of 6-19 mm exists. Temporary
patches may have been placed because of permanent patch deterioration.
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H— Patch has deteriorated by spalling, rutting, or cracking within the patch to a condition which
requires replacement.
How to Measure:
The number of patches within each uniform section is recorded. Patches at different severity levels
are counted and recorded separately. Additionally, the approximate area (in square meters) of each
patch and type (i.e., PCC or asphalt) is recorded. All patches are rated either L, M, or H.
Name of Distress: Patch Adjacent Slab Deterioration
Description:
Deterioration of the original concrete slab adjacent to a permanent patch is given the above name.
This may be in the form of spalling of the slab at the slab/patch joint, “D” cracking of the slab
adjacent to the patch, a corner break in the adjacent slab, or a second permanent patch placed
adjacent to the original patch.
Severity Levels:
Severity levels are the same as that described for the particular distress found. A second permanent
patch, placed adjacent to a previously-placed permanent patch, will be rated here as medium
severity. Temporary patches placed because of this deterioration will also be rated here as medium
severity.
How to Measure:
The number of permanent patches with distress in the original slab adjacent to the patch at each
severity level will be counted and recorded separately. Additionally, the type of patch (AC or PCC)
and distress will be recorded separately.
Name of Distress: Popouts
Description:
A popout is a small piece of concrete that breaks loose from the surface due to freeze-thaw action,
expansive aggregates, and/or nondurable materials. Popouts may be indicative of unsound
aggregates and “D” cracking. Popouts typically range from approximately 25 mm to 10 cm in
diameter and from 13 to 51 mm deep.
Severity Levels:
No degrees of severity are defined for popouts. The average popout density must exceed
approximately one popout per square meter over the entire slab area before they are counted as
a distress.
How to Measure:
The density of popouts can be determined by counting the number of popouts per square meter of
surface in areas having typical amounts.
Name of Distress: Pumping and Water Bleeding:
Description:
Pumping is the movement of material by water pressure beneath the slab when it is deflected under
a heavy moving wheel load. Sometimes the pumped material moves around beneath the slab, but
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often it is ejected through joints and/or cracks (particularly along the longitudinal lane/shoulder
joint with an asphalt shoulder). Beneath the slab there is typically particle movement counter to
the direction of traffic across a joint or crack that results in a buildup of loose materials under the
approach slab near the joint or crack. Many times, some fine materials are pumped out, leaving a
thin layer of relatively loose clean sand and gravel beneath the slab, along with voids causing loss
of support. Pumping occurs even in pavement sections containing stabilized subbases.
Water bleeding occurs when water seeps out of joints and/or cracks. Many times it drains out over
the shoulder in low areas.
Severity Levels:
L— Water is forced out of a joint or crack when trucks pass over the joints or cracks; water is forced
out of the lane/shoulder longitudinal joint when trucks pass along the joint; or water bleeding
exists. No fines can be seen on the surface of the traffic lanes or shoulder.
M— A small amount of pumped material can be observed near some of the joints or cracks on the
surface on the traffic lane or shoulder. Blow holes may exist.
H— A significant amount of pumped materials exist on the pavement surface of the traffic lane or
shoulder along the joints or cracks.
How to Measure:
If pumping or water bleeding exists anywhere in the sample unit, it is counted as occurring at
highest severity level, as defined above.
Name of Distress: Reactive Aggregate Distresses
Description:
Reactive aggregates either expand in alkaline environments or develop prominent siliceous reaction
rims in concrete. It may be an alkali-silica reaction or an alkali-carbonate reaction. As expansion
occurs, the cement matrix is disrupted and cracks. It appears as a map-cracked area; however, the
cracks may go deeper into the concrete than in normal map cracking. It may affect most of the slab
or it may first appear at joints and cracks.
Severity Levels:
Only one level of severity is defined. If alkali-aggregate cracking occurs anywhere in the slab, it is
counted. If the reaction has caused spalling or map cracking, these are also counted.
How to Measure:
Reactive-aggregate distress is measured in square feet or square meters.
Name of Distress: Scaling and Map Cracking or Crazing
Description:
Scaling is the deterioration of the upper 3 to 13 cm of the concrete slab surface. Map cracking or
crazing is a series of fine cracks that extend only into the upper surface of the slab surface. Map
cracking or crazing is usually caused by overfinishing of the slab and may lead to scaling of the
surface. Scaling can also be caused by reinforcing steel being too close to the surface.
Severity Levels:
L—Crazing or map cracking exists; the surface is in good condition with no scaling.
M/H—Scaling exists.
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How to Measure:
Scaling and map cracking or crazing are measured by area of slab in square meters.
Name of Distress: Spalling (Transverse and Longitudinal Joint/Crack):
Description:
Spalling of cracks and joints is the cracking, breaking or chipping (or fraying) of the slab edges
within 0.6 m of the joint/crack. A spall usually does not extend vertically through the whole slab
thickness but extends to intersect the joint at an angle. Spalling usually results from (1) excessive
stresses at the joint or crack caused by infiltration of incompressible materials and subsequent
expansion, (2) disintegration of the concrete from freeze-thaw action of “D” cracking, (3) weak
concrete at the joint (caused by honeycombing), (4) poorly designed or constructed load transfer
device (misalignment, corrosion), and/or (5) heavy repeated traffic loads.
Severity Levels:
L— The spall or fray does not extend more than 8 cm on either side of the joint or crack. No
temporary patching has been placed to repair the spall.
M— The spall or fray extends more than 8 cm on either side of the joint or crack. Some pieces may
be loose and/or missing, but the spalled area does not present a tire damage or safety hazard.
Temporary patching may have been placed because of spalling.
H— The joint is severely spalled or frayed to the extent that a tire damage or safety hazard
exists.
How to Measure:
Spalling is measured by counting and recording separately the number of joints with each severity
level. If more than one level of severity exists along a joint, it will be recorded as containing the
highest severity level present. Although the definition and severity levels are the same, spalling of
cracks should not be recorded. The spalling of cracks is included in rating severity levels of cracks.
Spalling of transverse and longitudinal joints will be recorded separately. Spalling of the slab edge
adjacent to a permanent patch will be recorded as patch adjacent slab deterioration. If spalling
is caused by “D” cracking, it is counted as both spalling and “D” cracking at appropriate severity
levels.
Name of Distress: Spalling (Corner):
Description:
Corner spalling is the raveling or breakdown of the slab within approximately 0.3 m of the corner.
However, corner spalls with both edges less than 8 cm long will not be recorded. A corner spall
differs from a corner break in that the spall usually angles downward at about 45° to intersect the
joint, while a break extends vertically through the slab. Corner spalling can be caused by freeze-
thaw deterioration, “D” cracking, and other factors.
Severity Levels:
L— Spall is not broken into pieces and not loose.

M— One of the following conditions exists: Spall is broken into pieces; cracks are spalled; some
or all pieces are loose or absent but do not present tire damage or safety hazard; or spall is
patched.
H— Pieces of the spall are missing to the extent that the hole presents a tire damage or safety
hazard.
How to Measure:
Corner spalling is measured by counting and recording separately the number of corners spalled at
each severity level within the sample unit.
C-9
Name of Distress: Swell
Description:
A swell is an upward movement or heave of the slab surface, resulting in a sometimes sharp
wave. The swell is usually accompanied by slab cracking. It is usually caused by frost heave in the
subgrade or by an expansive soil. Swells can often be identified by oil droppings on the surface as
well as riding over the pavement in a vehicle.
Severity Levels:
L— Swell causes distinct bounce of the vehicle which causes no discomfort.

M— Swell causes significant bounce of the vehicle which creates some discomfort.
H— Swell causes excessive bounce of the vehicle which creates substantial discomfort, and/or a
safety hazard, and/or vehicle damage, requiring a reduction in speed for safety.
How to Measure:
The number of swells within the uniform section are counted and recorded by severity level. Severity
levels are determined by riding in a mid- to full-sized sedan weighing approximately 13.3-16.9 kN
over the uniform section at the posted speed limit.
Name of Distress: Transverse and Diagonal Cracks
Description:
Linear cracks are caused by one or a combination of the following: heavy load repetition, thermal
and moisture gradient stresses, and drying shrinkage stresses. Medium- or high-severity cracks
are working cracks and are considered major structural distresses. They may sometimes be due to
deep-seated differential settlement problems. (Note: Hairline cracks that are less than 1.8 m long
are not rated.)
Severity Levels:
L— Hairline (tight) crack with no spalling or faulting, a well-sealed crack with no visible faulting or
spalling.
M—Working crack with low- to medium-severity level of spalling, and/or faulting less than 13 mm.
Temporary patching may be present.
H— A crack with width of greater than 25 mm; a crack with a high-severity level of spalling; or a
crack faulted 13 mm or more.
How to Measure:
The number and severity level of each crack should be identified and recorded. If the crack does
not have the same severity level along the entire length, the crack is rated at the highest severity
level present. Cracks in patches are recorded under patch deterioration.
C-10
APPENDIX D
METHOD FOR PREDICTING MEAN

PAVEMENT TEMPERATURE
Definition and Purpose:
Mean pavement temperature is an average of the temperatures at the surface, mid-depth, and
bottom of the asphalt-bound portion of the pavement, even though it may have been placed in
several layers and at different times.
The mean pavement temperature is used to find a Temperature Adjustment Factor, required for
adjusting pavement deflection values to a standard temperature of 21°C, as indicated in Step 1 of
Appendix B.2 of the manual.
Information Required:
The temperature prediction method requires five items of information:
1. Location of test site—for identification of test data to guide in selection of the weather station
from which air temperature data must be obtained.
2. Date of test—required to indicate the dates on which air temperature will be needed for
pavement temperature adjustment.
3. Maximum and minimum air temperature—needed for each of the five days immediately prior to
the date of deflection testing to provide an air-temperature history at the test site.
4. Pavement surface temperature—measured at the time the deflection test is performed.
5. Thickness of asphalt-bound portion of the pavement—required for selection of the proper

curves on the pavement temperature chart.
All information listed above, except Item 3, is recorded during performance of the Benkelman beam
deflection survey.
Item 3, the five days of air temperature history, prior to the date of the deflection measurements,
can be obtained in one of three ways.
1. Hourly air temperatures may be read and recorded for a period of five days preceding each test
location in the general vicinity where deflection measurements are made. From these data the
maximum and minimum daily temperatures are determined.
2. Obtain from the nearest weather station the maximum and minimum air temperatures for each
of the five days proceeding each day of testing. This station should be in a location that records
essentially the same temperature readings as at the test site.
3. Obtain the maximum and minimum air temperatures for each of the five days proceeding
each day of testing from published weather bureau (or similar agency) data. This is the most
practical approach if the evaluation of test results is needed immediately.
When the five-day air temperature history has been obtained, the average of the ten values is
determined. This average is used, together with pavement surface temperature to estimate the
pavement temperature at any depth. Surface temperature is measured and recorded when the
deflection test is performed. The date and time of these are also recorded.
D-1
temperature
VOLUME to estimate
III, Pavement theManual
Design pavement temperature at any depth. Surface
temperature is measured and recorded when the deflection test is performed. The
date and time of these are also recorded.
Surface temperature may be measured by inserting a thermometer or thermocouple into a small,

Surface temperature may be measured by inserting a thermometer or thermocouple
6mm±into deep hole6mm±
a small, or indentation
deep holein or
theindentation
surface ofin
the pavement.
the surface ofThe
thehole should The
pavement. be filled with water
or asphalt, which
hole should beshould be allowed
filled with water ortoasphalt,
come towhich
equilibrium
shouldbefore the temperature
be allowed to come to is read.
equilibrium before the temperature is read.
Prediction of Mean Pavement Temperature:
Prediction of Mean Pavement Temperature:
Relationships between pavement surface temperature, air-temperature history, and pavement
temperature at any
Relationships depthpavement
between have been derived
surface and are shown
temperature, in condensed
air-temperature form
history, andin Figure D-1. It
should be usedtemperature
pavement for overlay design
at anyonly. Pavement
depth temperatures
have been derived at various
and depths can
are shown in be estimated
by applying
condensedtheform
required information
in Figure to thisbechart.
D-1. It should used for overlay design only. Pavement
temperatures at various depths can be estimated by applying the required
Theinformation
first step istotothis
addchart.
the five-day air temperature history (average of maximum and minimum air
temperatures for five days preceding the test) and the pavement surface temperature to determine
the The first
value step
with is totoadd
which thethe
enter five-day
chart.air temperature
Then, the Meanhistory (average
Pavement of maximum
Temperature is estimated:
and minimum air temperatures for five days preceding the test) and the pavement
(a) surface temperature
Determine pavementto determine
thickness the
andvalue with which to enter the chart. Then, the
mid-depth.
Mean Pavement Temperature is estimated:
(b) Enter Figure D-1 on the horizontal scale with the pavement surface temperature. Extend a
(a) Determine pavement thickness and mid-depth.
line vertically to intersect the depth lines. Extend lines horizontally from the depth representing
the Enter
(b) bottomFigure
of the layer to intersect
D-1 on the vertical
the horizontal scalescale.
with Interpolate between
the pavement the depth lines as
surface
necessary.
temperature. Extend a line vertically to intersect the depth lines. Extend lines
horizontally from the depth representing the bottom of the layer to intersect the
(c) Thevertical
sum of the Interpolate
scale. surface temperature, mid-depth
between the depth temperature,
lines as necessary. and bottom temperature is
averaged to provide the Mean Pavement Temperature.
(c) The sum of the surface temperature, mid-depth temperature, and bottom
(d) Thetemperature is averaged
Mean Pavement to provide is
Temperature theused
MeantoPavement Temperature.
enter Figure 4.1 in the Manual to obtain a
temperature adjustment factor for Benkelman beam deflection readings.
(d) The Mean Pavement Temperature is used to enter Figure 4.1 in the Manual to
obtain a temperature adjustment factor for Benkelman beam deflection
readings.
Figure D.1 Predicted Pavement Temperature

Figure D.1: Predicted Pavement Temperature
D-2
D-2
Example
Given: Asphalt concrete pavement 10cm thick. Surface temperature is 31°C. Average air
temperature for 5 days preceding the test is 22°C. The adjusted surface temperature is 31 + 22 =
53°C (surface temperature plus 5-day average air temperature). Find predicted pavement mean
temperature.
1. Surface temperature = 31°C
2. Temperature at 5cm depth = 30°C (From Figure D-1)
3. Temperature at 10cm depth = 27°C (From Figure D-1)
4. Pavement mean temperature =
31° + 30° + 27° = 29°

3
(Use this temperature in Figure 4.1 of the manual to find temperature adjustment factor, F.)
D-3
APPENDIX E
DERIVATION OF SNnew, STRUCTURAL NUMBER

OF A NEW PAVEMENT
SNnew is required in the component analysis procedure (Section 4.1 of the manual) to determine a
required asphalt overlay thickness. SNnew is computed in three steps as follows:
• Step 1: Select an appropriate required structure of a new pavement for the specific subgrade
strength and traffic applicable to the project. The structure selected is characterized by the
thicknesses Ti of its component layers, i.e. T1, T2, T3= thicknesses of required pavement
surfacing, roadbase and subbase layers respectively.
• Step 2: To each of the layers determined in Step 1, assign an appropriate structural layer
coefficient ai.
The following structural layer coefficients are recommended:
- Bituminous surface: a1 = 0.44

- Bituminous roadbase: a1 = 0.30 (note: use 0.25 for in-place recycled materials)
- Cement or lime stabilized roadbase: a2 = 0.15 to 0.20
- Granular roadbase: a2 = 0.14
- Cement or lime stabilized subbase: a3 = 0.12
- Granular subbase: a3 = 0.11
- Granular capping layer: a3 = 0.09
• Step 3: compute SNnew as:

SNnew = a1T1 + a2T2 + a3T3
Example
The example of Section 4.1 is considered: subgrade strength class S4, anticipated future traffic
class T6.
• Step 1:
An adequate new pavement structure consists of:
 10 cm AC surfacing
 20 cm granular roadbase
 17.5 cm subbase
• Step 2:
Structural layer coefficients are assigned as follows: a1 = 0.44; a2 = 0.14; a3 = 0.11
• Step 3:
SNnew = a1T1 + a2T2 + a3T3 = 0.44x10 + 0.14x20 +0.11x17.5 = 9.13
E-1
APPENDIX F
APPENDIX F
DERIVATION OF SNeff, EFFECTIVE STRUCTURAL
NUMBER OF
DERIVATION AN
OF SNeff
, EXISTING PAVEMENT
EFFECTIVE STRUCTURAL
NUMBER(adapted from Ref.
OF AN EXISTING 3)
PAVEMENT
The NDT method of SNeff determination follows an assumption that the structural capacity of the
pavement is a function of its total thickness and overall stiffness. The relationship between SNeff
and stiffness is:
6Tt 3
SNeff Ep (Equation 1)
1,000
where Tt = total thickness (in centimeters) of all pavement layers above the subgrade
Ep = effective modulus of pavement layers above the subgrade (kPa)
Ep may be back-calculated from deflection data as follows.
The data required for the calculations is:
do = deflection measured at the center of the load plate (and adjusted to a standard
temperature of 20° C), cm
P = applied load, kg
D = total thickness of pavement layers above the subgrade, cm
dr = deflection at a distance r from the center of the load, cm
r = distance from center of load, cm
a = NDT load plate radius, cm
With the above data, using Figure F-1, the ratio of Ep/MR can be calculated.
Where MR = subgrade resilient modulus, kPa
23.54 P
drr
Based on the ratio of Ep/MR and known value of MR, Ep can be computed in kPa. SNeff is then
calculated using Equation 1.
F-1
F-1
VOLUME
VOLUME III,III, PavementDesign
Pavement DesignManual
Manual
Part
Part 4: 4: Pavement
Pavement Rehabilitation
Rehabilitation Guide
Guide
25.89 MR do / P (MR kPa, do cm, P kg)
a = 15 cm
0 12.5 25 37.5 50 62.5 75 87.5 100 112.5 125 137.5 150

Total pavement thickness D, cm
Figure F.1 Determination of Ep/MR (Ref. 3)
F-2
F-2

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THE REPUBLIC OF UGANDA

MINISTRY OF WORKS AND TRANSPORT

ROAD DESIGN MANUAL

ABBREVIATIONS AND DEFINITIONS........................................................................................... i

2 DATA COLLECTION........................................................................................................ 2.1

3 ANALYSIS FOR REHABILITATION................................................................................ 3.1

4 DESIGN OF ASPHALT OVERLAYS............................................................................... 4.1

5 DESIGN OF ALTERNATIVE REHABILITATION METHODS.......................................... 5.1

6 SELECTION OF PREFERRED ALTERNATIVE.............................................................. 6.1

Ministry of Works and Transport

Appendix A: Evaluation of Paved Roads

Ministry of Works and Transport

ABBREVIATIONS AND DEFINITIONS

AADT Average Annual Daily Traffic

AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials

AC Asphalt concrete. High-quality hot mixture of asphalt cement and well-graded,

BCEOM Bureau Central d’Etudes d’Outre Mer (France)

CBR California Bearing Ratio

CEBTP Centre d’Etudes du Batiment et des Travaux Publics (France)

CEM I Portland Cement US 310-1 (US = Uganda Standard)

CRCP Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement

CSRA Committee of State Road Authorities (South Africa)

DCP Dynamic Cone Penetrometer

Drainage Coefficients (m2, m3)

Equivalent Standard Axles (ESA)

FWD Falling Weight Deflectometer

IRI International Roughness Index

Is Global damage index (used in the VIZIR method)

JPCP Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement

JRCP Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement

Layer Coefficients (a1, a2, a3)

LCPC Laboratoire Central des Ponts et Chaussees (France)

NDT Non-Destructive Testing

Ministry of Works and Transport

PMS Pavement Management System

QI Pavement Quality Rating (used in the VIZIR method)

RRD Representative Rebound Deflection

S1 to S6 Subgrade strength classes used to characterize the subgrade in pavement

SNeff Effective structural number of an existing pavement.

SNnew Structural number of a new pavement.

Structural Number (SN)

TRL Transport Research Laboratory (UK)

VOC Vehicle Operating Cost

1.1 Purpose and Scope of the Manual

1.2 Organization of the Manual

Overlay Design Design of Rehabilitation

Selection of Preferred Rehabilitation

1.3 The Pavement Management Context

In this sense, pavement “design”, as covered by MoWT-Volume III, Pavement Design

Figure 1.2 Activities of a Pavement Management System (after Ref. 3 and 4)

1.3.1 Maintenance and Rehabilitation

Two terms, “maintenance” and “rehabilitation”, deserve particular attention in order to

“Pavement maintenance is not easy to define. Maintenance departments generally

 Pavement maintenance is work performed from time to time to keep a pavement,

“… There are four categories:

 routine maintenance, required continually on every road, whatever its engineering

Examples of activities within these categories are as follows:

Recurrent on paved roads:

Periodic on paved roads: