Indian Concrete Journal On Environmental Clearance in India

May 2017, Vol. 91, No. 5, Rs. 100. 72 pages.
THE INDIAN CONCRETE JOURNAL

PUBLISHED BY ACC LIMITED
Image source: www.wikipedia.org
Price Rs. 600

CD on Concrete Bridges
An Icj Compilation
Concrete Bridges have been one of ICJ’s interest areas, and the Ninety-two papers have been divided into
journal has published several papers on this topic during the 13 categories, namely, Bridge construction,
critical period when the sophistication of bridge technology Bridges across major rivers, Rail and road
and construction were on the rise. bridges across Thane creek, Bridges on
Konkan Railway, Design and optimization
ICJ has now compiled important papers published in the
of bridges, Cable-stayed bridges, Pamban
last few decades on a CD showcasing bridge projects in the
bridge, First-of-its-kind bridges, Condition
country.
monitoring and rehabilitation of bridges,
The compilation has been done with the purpose of focusing on Seismic design of bridges, Integral bridges,
technological trends and archiving information. It is expected High performance concrete for bridges and
that this compilation will help provide a compact, ready Delhi Metro.
reference on various facets of concrete bridges.
Please send your cheque/DD to: The Publication Manager, The Indian Concrete Journal, ACC Limited, L.B.S. Marg, Next to Eternity
Mall, Near Teen Haath Naka, Thane (W) 400 604. Tel: +91(22) 3302 7646 E-mail: [email protected] Website: www.icjonline.com
Cost of the CD is Rs. 600 inclusive of postage and handling All Cheques / Demand Drafts should be drawn in favour of ' ACC Limited '
Online payment facility available at www.icjonline.com

Founded in 1927
May 2017, Volume 91, Number 5
Published by ACC Limited, L.B. Shastri Road, Near

Teen Haath Naka, Thane (W) 400604.
The contents of this journal are contributions
of individual authors, and reflect their
independent opinions, findings, conclusions and
recommendations and do not necessarily imply TECHNICAL PAPERS
that they reflect the views of the Publisher, ACC
Limited. The Publishers are not liable for any
damage or inconvenience, caused to anyone who
Correlation between rapid visual survey score and possible
may have acted on the information contained in
the publication. 12 damage of a building
Ajay K. Sreerama, Chenna Rajaram and R. Pradeep Kumar
The Indian Concrete Journal, ISSN 0019-4565
Copyright © 2017 ACC Limited.
ACC Limited - Registered Office – Cement House,
24
121, Maharshi Karve Road, Mumbai 400 020. Seismic performance of masonry infilled reinforced concrete structures
The copyright, database rights and similar rights Arshad K. Hashmi and Alok Madan
in all materials published in The Indian Concrete
Journal are owned by ACC Limited. None of
this material may be used for any commercial
or public use, other than for the purpose of fair
Investigations on the effect of gradual cooling on the properties of fly
dealing, research or private study, or review of the
contents of the journal, in part or in whole, and
may not be reproduced or stored in any media for
47 ash concrete subjected to sustained elevated temperatures
Shweta Patil and K.B. Prakash
mass circulation without the prior written consent
of the publisher.
54
Durable concrete by packing density method
S.K. Dhawan, Itihas Dhareppagol and B. Bhattacharjee
PUBLISHING / EDITORIAL /
ADVERTISEMENT &
CIRCULATION OFFICE
The Indian Concrete Journal
ACC Limited
L.B. Shastri Road, Near Teen Haath Naka
Next to Eternity Mall, Thane (West) 400 604,
Maharashtra, INDIA.
Tel: 00-91-22-33027646
FEATURES
Website: www.icjonline.com
E-mail: [email protected]
[email protected]
04 EDITORIAL
Editor: Ashish Patil

Editorial Team:
06 NEWS & EVENTS
Ulhas Fernandes
S.M. Abbas POINT OF VIEW: Environmental clearance Acts
34 and Rules - Evolution and experience
Ajit K. Sinha and K.N. Jha
May 2017, Vol. 91, No. 5, Rs. 100. 72 pages.

PUBLISHED BY ACC LIMITED
Cover image source: POINT OF VIEW: Effect of different aspect ratio of steel fiber on
www.linkedin.com/trinh-nguyen
60 mechanical properties of high strength concrete
S.S. Kadam and V.V. Karjinni
Cover May 2017 FINAL MAN ===.indd 1 25/04/2017 7:23:17 AM
The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017 3

EDITORIAL
EDITORIAL
From the Editor’s Desk...
We close this year with the issue of demonetisation of safety and remaining life expectancy. In order to have an
Rs.1000/- currency and replacement of old Rs.500/- accurate and reliable assessment, an arch dam in South
denomination with new currency. This has affected most India was undertaken as a case study to understand
T
construction sites where
he heat wave payments
in some States tooflabourers
India is are made
affecting the properties
clearances along of with
concrete
some in dams.
case Possible
studies causes by
are covered of
in cash. While companies will have to manage arranging
normal life and also construction activity. Concrete displacement and cracking in
the authors in this Point of View. arch concrete dam were
smaller denomination currency at sites in the interim period, identified in this study.
made under these hot temperature conditions has to factor
many companies are employing innovative methods of Concrete is a composite material with each having different
this and necessary precautions have to be taken to ensure
paying their workmen. Load bearing walls, compound walls, retaining walls,
that the concrete is durable. These and many more topics thermal characteristics. Concrete properties under elevated
dams, chimneys, bridge piers, as masonry structures are
are covered in this issue. temperature are studied and the feasibility of fly ash to be
Computer aided programs are available to analyse shear- quite popular. Because of its low tensile strength, masonry
adopted as partial replacement to cement is investigated
wall frame in high rise buildings. However, a simple and components are designed to resist mainly compressive
Evaluating seismic vulnerability on existing building isthe
a in this paper.
time saving numerical methodology for choosing forces. Need for conservation of heritage structures has
technically complex and expensive procedure and can
preliminary dimensions of a shear wall system is not there. motivated researchers to evaluate the seismic resistance of
only be performed on asuggest
limitedthe
number It is a challenge to achieve high standards of durability
The authors in this paper same! of buildings. unreinforced masonry structures.
Based on the survey of over 1500 buildings, authors use in practice. Distress in many structures is witnessed after
the Rapid over
Estimated Visual
60Screening method
Million houses are where
required thetoselected
be built aFrictional
few years of construction.
resistance of the soilToaround
ensurethe
proper qualitya
pile plays
in rural and
buildings are urban areas
modelled as analysed
and per the Ministry
throughofnumerical
housing. control
critical of
rolethein raw
the material remainsbearing
pile’s ultimate a big challenge for
capacity and
AffordableIthousing
approach. – cost
is observed effective
that aroundand fast dwelling
70-80% units
of reinforced the
this engineers and the
directly affects technicians.
constructionThe quality
author ofreviews the
composite
are the need of the hour. Glass Fibre Reinforced
concrete buildings suffer some damage in this region. Gypsum factors that make
piles, i.e., the concrete
reinforced concretedurable starting from
pile inserting into the
soil
(GFRG) panels offer an innovative solution that addresses cement
mix mixed
design pile. to
process Although composite
the selection piles are
of suitable applied
materials,
construction
Lot speed
of research at area
in the less cost. The authors
of masonry in reinforced
in-filled this paper in practical engineering, the
mixing, and compaction till curing. theory of the characteristics of
have constructed
concrete model apartments
frame structures to demonstrate
indicates that this
buildings built vertical bearing capacity of the pile is inconsistent and not
with minimal steel requirement and minimal involvement perfected.
The effect This paper in
of aspect ‘Point
ratio andof volume
View’ suggests
of steela fibre
practical
on
devoid of in-filled masonry in ground floor is a reason
of labour! and simple formula to calculate vertical bearing
mechanical properties of high strength concrete is studied capacity of
for severe damage to the structure in the event of an
the composite pile. The second
in this paper featured in Point of View.paper under in PoV studies
earthquake. In this study, seismic vulnerability curves are
Can bond strength (between steel and concrete) applied the effect of high temperature on normal and high strength
developed for representative masonry in-filled RC frame
as per the IS code for standard grade of concrete be used RC with
Trust and
these without
papers willsteel fibres.
enrich your knowledge further.
structures simulated with the various distributions of
also for high strength concrete? As design parameters for
masonry infill panels
bond strength over
for high the frame
strength elevation.
concrete is not defined in Wewrite
hopetoIndia manages to put behind the currency crises
Do us with your feedback!
the IS code, investigation to evaluate bond strength of high and leaps forward to a New Year!
There is substantial
strength time and cost
concrete is conducted overrun
which revealsona account of
correlation Best Regards,
delay
of bondin strength
granting with
environmental
compressiveclearances in concrete
strength of project. Write to us with your views and suggestions.
Detail on Environmental
and diameter Impact Assessment and Forest
of reinforcements. Ashish Patil
Wishing you all A Very Happy New Year!
There are many dams that are over 50 years old. These
Best Regards,
‘age old dam’ can be characterized with an increase in
4 structural deterioration
The Indian Concrete resulting
Journal May 2017 in impaired structural Ashish Patil
NEWS & EVENTS
NATIONAL CONVENTION ON trade show focusing on construction, architecture, planning

FERROCEMENT and engineering.
FS-2017, The 4th National Convention on ferrocement on The twin-event will be the only one of its kind in India,
the theme of ‘Innovative applications’ will be held during May focusing on sustainable built-environment and good urban
12-14, 2017 at Peroor, Kottayam, Kerala. For more details, governance. The three-day conference and exhibition
visit their website. is targetted at mayors, municipal commissioners, senior
urban development officials from the Central and State
Ferrocement Society
Governments, Urban Local Bodies and Housing Agencies
p: 8086065566, 8589997181
e: [email protected] from all over India, built environment professionals, architects,
w: www.ferrocementindia.com planners, and engineers.
Good Governance India Foundation / Fairfest Media Ltd

Rehabilitation and Strengthening of p: (22) 4555 8555 / (91)(22) 4555 8555
e: [email protected] / [email protected]
Structures w: www.municipalika.com / www.capex.co.in
A Two-Day Professional Development Program on
‘Rehabilitation and Strengthening of Structures’ will be held
during 19th & 20th May, 2017 at CETTM, Hiranandani AKC’s May 2017 Programs
Gardens, Powai, Mumbai. The May 2017 programs of Ambuja Knowledge Centre
include the following.
AKC Andheri
• T echnical Lecture on “Manufactured Sand” on 05th
May’2017 (Speaker: Er. Suhash Dhuri, Director,
E Cube Consultants)
• T echnical Lecture on “Design & Execution of

High Performance Concrete” on 26th May’2017
(Speaker: Er. Manish Mokal, AGM QA/QC, Afcons)
• “ Basics of RCC Design & Concept” workshop - 04th

This Program has been approved by Engineering Council of
& 05th May’2017.
India (ECI) and Construction Industry Development Council
(CIDC). It will be particularly beneficial to civil/ structural AKC (Thane) along with ‘Centre of Excellence’, ACC Thane
engineers, consultants and contractors as well as faculty and • T echnical Lecture on “Challenges in Concrete at
students of academic institutions. RMC” on 26th May,17 (Speaker Er. Sadanand
Govilkar, Technical Head, ACC Limited)
Technoesis is accredited by Consultancy Development Centre,
• “ Basics of RCC Design & Concept” Workshop on
DSIR, Ministry of Science & Technology, Government of India
25th& 26th May’2017.
for providing professional training in construction industry.
AKC Belapur
Dhargalkar Technoesis (I) Pvt. Ltd. • “ Repair/ Rehabilitation & Waterproofing” Workshop
p: (022) 28461500/ 28461317 / 28463012, 9819732195
on 18th& 19th May’2017.
e: [email protected]
w: www.technoesis.co.in
AKC – North Mumbai
• “ Basics of RCC Design & Concept” Workshop on
twin events Municipalika and capex 23rd& 24th May’2017.
Ambuja Cements Ltd., Mumbai
Municipalika Smart and Sustainable Cities 2017 is being p: ++91 22 40667620 / 8291885509 / 9167334813
organised during May 18 - 20, 2017 at CIDCO Exhibition e: [email protected]
Centre, Navi Mumbai, Maharashtra, co-located with CAPEx, w: www.foundationsakc.com
6 The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017

NEWS & EVENTS
Andhra Pradesh Construction The conference would focus on: Raw materials for
Expo 2017 construction chemical industry; manufacturing technologies
and equipment; packaging materials and equipment;
Andhra Pradesh Construction Expo 2017 will take place application tools, techniques and equipment; communication
during 2-4 June 2017 at Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh. tools; formulations of construction chemicals; construction
It aims to provide lasting synergies within the industry by chemicals market trends.
creating solid forecasts and imparting tangible take-homes
for all stakeholders. The event is targetted at: Suppliers to construction chemicals
industry & dry mix mortar and other allied construction
The New capital of Andhra Pradesh ‘Amaravati’ is just nearby material manufacturers; formulators of construction
to Vijayawada city. The new capital will be built with complete chemicals (R&D); marketing teams of construction chemicals
infrastructure and basic amenities. Many construction companies; procurement managers of construction chemicals
companies and Government bodies have to play key role companies; quality control professionals of construction
in building the new capital in near future. The capital region chemicals industry
spread across 7,420 sq.km. The seed capital region covers
8 sq km. Huge buildings in large number have to come up The conference will have focus sessions on various
and many bridges have to built across the Krishna River to technologies and presentations by experts from leading
connect the capital with other areas. national and international suppliers. CCMA shall provide
brief presentation on the opportunities and challenges faced
by the industry.
Construction Chemicals Manufacturers Association

p: 022 - 2403 6410 / +91-9323551522 / 7875565563
w: www.ccmaindia.com
International Construction
Chemicals Conference (C3)
Expectations on the new capital city are obviously running high The Construction Chemicals Manufacturers Association
with active participation of Singapore and Japan governments. (CCMA) the body, mind and soul of the construction
The AP Government, under the dynamic leadership of chemicals industry in India will be hosting the sixth edition of
Sri. N. Chandrababu Naidu, Hon’ble Chief Minister of the The International Construction Chemicals Conference during
state is to leave no stone unturned to build a historical capital. July 6th-7th, 2017 at the Lalit, Sahar Airport Road, Mumbai.
The capital city Amaravathi will stand as testimony for a world
class city. Massive transformation of technology in likely to
Emphasis of this international conference is improvements at
take place with building of New capital.
the time of construction, repairs, strengthening, rehabilitation
and protection from future deterioration.
Andhra Pradesh Construction Expo 2017
p : +91-866 - 6539879
e: [email protected] An exciting line-up of industry captains, research scholars
w: www.apconstructionexpo.com and industry veterans will disseminate vital information on the
emerging materials, methods and practices that are taking
shape in the construction chemicals sector today. Delegates
Suppliers to Construction Chemical to C3 will benefit from an insightful program balanced with
Industry to India an opportunity to create an ideal networking opportunity
that is bound to unite the industry together in its quest for
The Construction Chemicals Manufacturers Association
excellence.
(CCMA) the body, mind and soul of the construction
chemicals industry in India will be hosting the 3rd Edition
Construction Chemicals Manufacturers Association (CCMA)
of International Conference of suppliers to the Construction
p: 022 - 2403 6410 /+91-9323551522 / 7875565563
Chemical Industry of India will be held at Mumbai during July w: www.ccmaindia.com
4th-5th, 2017 as a two-day event.

NEWS & EVENTS
Structural Engineers World ILCC 2017

Congress-SEWC 2017 Indian Institute of Technology Madras (IIT Madras) in
The Structural Engineers World Congress (SEWC) is organising association with Institute for Lean Construction Excellence
an International Colloquium on Architecture-Structure (ILCE) is organising ILCC 2017 during July 28-29, 2017 at
International for Sustainable Built Environment during July 13 IIT Madras.
to 15, 2017 at NIMHANS Convention Centre, Hosur Road,
Adopting Lean concepts has enabled several construction
Bengaluru. The special focus is ‘Why Concrete’.
projects around the world to experience significant
improvements in productivity and profitability. Internationally,
Lean Construction is becoming more and more popular to
solve the many ailments of conventional project delivery.
Today these concepts are also being implemented in the
Indian Construction arena and many leading players have
come forward to implement Lean Concepts in some form or
other.
The main objective of ILCC 2017 Conference is to provide

a platform where Lean construction practitioners - owners,
contractors, consultants, coaches, academics, etc can share
their experiences and go further on the path of successfully
applying Lean concepts to construction. In addition, the
conference will also provide an opportunity for academics
to present their ongoing research findings in the construction
field and interact with industry practitioners to enable industry-
academic collaboration in this field.
The conference will comprise International and Indian keynote

and invited presentations, academic paper presentations and
industrial case-studies on Lean principles across planning,
engineering, procurement and construction. The conference
is organized along the lines of IGLC (International Group
for Lean Construction) and LCI (Lean Construction Institute)
conferences which have been key events in the international
arena and which have enabled wider adoption of Lean
concepts in construction. A pre-conference Workshop will
focus on practical implementation aspects with sessions from
leading Lean coaches and practitioners.
The keynote speakers are:

The SEWC Colloquium 2017 in Bengaluru plans to discuss
/ deliberate on today’s issues of global concern and aims to • Prof. Iris D.Tommelein, Ph.D. University of
initiate a dialogue on the idea of creating a sustainable built California, Berkeley, USA
environment. An outstanding galaxy of international experts • Dr. Bhargav Dave, Ph.D. University of Aalto, Finland
in the field will deliver keynote addresses in this colloquium. • Mr. Anup Mathew, Sr. Vice President & Business
The colloquium presents a unique and excellent opportunity Head - Godrej Construction
to learn more about current practices and trends for the
• Mr. Lauri Merikallio, Vison Alliance Partners Ltd.,
future.
Finland
SEWC 2017
p: +91-9900415386 / 9449767454 ILCC 2017
e: [email protected] IIT Madras, Chennai
w: www.sewc-international.org w: http://www.web.iitm.ac.in/ilcc2017/index.html

NEWS & EVENTS

NEWS & EVENTS
CONCRETE 2017 addressed suitably. Selection of TBM for different types of sub-
strata requires a very careful planning. For this reason, a more
The Indian Concrete Institute is organising Concrete 2017 elaborate geotechnical Investigation is a must. Construction
during July 14-15, 2017 at Hotel Royal Plaza, Ashoka Road, of cross-passages find their own challenges of temporary/
New Delhi. The theme is ‘Underground Structures’ enabling works. For more details contact the following.
An architect’s, urban planner’s and visionary’s preference Concrete 2017

goes to making infrastructure underground and keep the p: 9650607824
ground available for other uses. And, as the time goes by, e: [email protected]
more and more underground structures are coming in vogue. w: www.icindc.org
Although, more expensive compared to elevated structures,
underground structures help retaining the cityscape.
RILEM WEEK and ICACMS-2017
One of the finest examples of underground structures is
Paris Metro, wherein everything within the city has been IIT Madras is hosting the International Conference on Advances
made underground. Similarly, a 15 km long underground in Construction Materials and Systems (ICACMS-2017)
arterial expressway was constructed in Boston, with the during September 3 to 8, 2017 at IIT Madras and Hotel Leela
idea to demolish the elevated arterial expressway. With the Palace Chennai.
advancement of latest technologies Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai,
Chennai, Bangaluru, Jaipur etc. have also be contributing The conference covers several themes related to construction
underground metro projects. Several long and short vehicular materials and systems, with the objective of providing the
underpasses have been constructed in various parts of India state of the art coverage on cement and asphalt concrete,
and other countries. A multi-storeyed building, today, can’t be heritage materials, and building systems. Several participants
imagined without 2-3 levels below ground for parking. from the industry, both local and international, are expected,
who will also set up a large exhibition of construction material
related products. The interactions and discussions at the
conference are expected to significantly contribute to the
process of infrastructure development that is currently in full
swing in India.
Besides the conference, it will also host the RILEM Week at

Chennai, where all the standing committees and some of the
active technical committees will meet.
The keynote speakers are:

Underground structures pose varied challenges to the
planners, designers and constructors. An underground • Hussain Bahia, Univ. of Wisconsin-Madison, USA
structure has to be located in a way to keep away from • Herve di Benedetto, Univ. of Lyon, France
existing as well as future underground structures and utilities.
Stabilising the substrata, dealing with varying rock conditions • Robert Flatt, ETH-Zurich, Switzerland
etc pose different levels of design challenges. Constructing
• Douglas Hooton, Univ. of Toronto, Canada
diaphragm wall in rock requires expensive trench cutters.
• J Murali Krishna, IIT Madras, India
Large diameter piles (3 m diameter and above) are becoming
• Paulo Lourenco, Univ. of Minho, Italy
popular for speedy construction and better seismic resistance,
especially in liquefiable sub-strata. Use of rock anchors, • Harald Muller, KIT-Karlsruher, Germany
rock nailing, rock grouting etc are essential ingredients of
• Peter Richner, EMPA-Zurich, Switzerland
an underground construction. Dewatering and waterproofing
find a special importance in underground construction. • Karen Scrivener, EPFL-Lausanne, Switzerland
• Chandra Sekhar, NUS, Singapore

Design and construction of Tunnels using TBM and NATM
technologies have their intricacies, which need to be • L P Singh, CBRI-Roorkee, India

NEWS & EVENTS
• David Trejo, Oregon State Univ., USA maintenance and always neglected a lot. The delay that
happens during the construction has its impact on flooring
• Maria Rosa Valuzzi, Univ. of Padova, Italy
schedules and chances are there that, this pressure to complete
• Jason Weiss, Oregon State Univ., USA the flooring within shorter time has its own impact on quality of
flooring which in turn proves to be nightmare for maintenance
RILEM WEEK and ICACMS-2017 department.
e: [email protected]
w: www.rilem2017conference.org
However, with changing economic scenario, more information
flow and awareness among the various stake holders in the
International Flooring Conference field, India has been witnessing the silent but sure revolution
Western Region in the area of commercial and industrial flooring. The pressure
increase the industrial growth, focus of lowering maintenance
CII is organising a conference on flooring during September
breakdowns, increased cost of maintenance to increase the
11 to 13, 2017 at The LaLit Mumbai Sahar Airport Road,
Mumbai. overall productivity, are all responsible for industry to also
focus on flooring and its importance.
Flooring is one area in the construction industry that has been
witnessing rapid changes over the past two decades. The
advent of several new technologies and the increasing use of
specialized machinery have meant that the field has changed
beyond recognition, especially with reference to the industrial
and commercial flooring sectors Today industrial floorings
play a very vital role in productivity, safety & housekeeping
which has gradually with time changed from the conventional
cement flooring, tiles etc., to dust free monolithic floors.
In recent years, the safety of concrete floors has been an

essential component especially in Industrial buildings.
The main purpose to provide protection to the slab from
deterioration or contamination, and also not to overlook,
to provide some added benefit such as, wear and tear,
antiskid, chemical resistance, easy maintenance, physical
performance, aesthetics etc. It is quite obvious that no other
surface in a building takes more abuse than floors, regardless The Outdoor Factor: At the same time, in any industry, the
of the type of building, be it industrial or commercial or public. external flooring consisting of Roads, Walkways, and Pavements
within the factory premises is another nightmare since it has
Though there have been lots of technological advancements direct impact on look and movement of vehicles. Though
in construction industry, since late last century, flooring traditionally bitumen was the most common material used for
caught up with rest of construction industry little late and it external roads, the use of concrete for external applications is
is witnessing rapid changes over the past two decades. With increasing due to its durability and lower maintenance cost.
the introduction of newer flooring technologies supported by Another material which is gaining popularity for external road
the increasing use of specialized machinery have meant that / walkway is paver blocks, which can be used both roads as
the field has changed beyond recognition, especially with well as walkways within factory premises and has advantage
reference to the industrial and commercial flooring sectors.
of providing varied designs while being laid. For more details
The industrial and commercial flooring segments have been
contact the following.
maintaining a healthy pace of growth in the recent few years,
with India emerging as a key market for newer technologies
Confederation of Indian Industry
p: 91-22-24931790/3332/0565/0996
The Inside Story: Concrete flooring is not given much e: [email protected]
importance in terms of its design, durability and cost of w: www.cii.in

TECHNICAL PAPER
Correlation between rapid visual survey score

and possible damage of a building
Ajay K. Sreerama, Chenna Rajaram and R. Pradeep Kumar
In recent past due to rapid growth of Indian cities, there is a tremendous increase on housing industry, especially in seismic
Zone IV & V. As most of these constructions are without earthquake resistant measures, the built environment in these
zones has been found seismically vulnerable. Detailed seismic vulnerability evaluation is a technically complex and expensive
procedure and can only be performed on a limited number of buildings. The present paper highlights the use of Rapid
visual screening (RVS) method for seismic assessment of reinforced concrete (RC) buildings in Himachal Pradesh state. A RVS
survey has been carried out on 1540 RC buildings, out of which 6 buildings are selected for detailed analysis. The selected
buildings are modeled and analyzed through numerical approach. A correlation graph has been constructed between peak
ground acceleration (PGA) and, RVS, indicating different damage states of a building. Around 80% of RC buildings located in
Zone V of Himachal Pradesh will suffer moderate damage and around 73% of RC buildings located in Zone IV will suffer slight
damage in the event of earthquake with PGA prescribed as per IS 1893.
Keywords: Rapid visual screening; pushover analysis; fragility curves; vulnerability assessment.
INTRODUCTION The most commonly observed damage to RC structures was

cracking and falling of infill walls. The infill walls were very
Structural damages in buildings during an earthquake are
vulnerable and damage to these walls resulted in significant
accepted constructively by majority of seismic codes in
economic loss and human casualties. Many multi-storey
the world, given that there is no human loss. Many new
reinforced concrete buildings collapsed in major cities in
constructions were unaffected by the improvements of
India due to the effect of earthquake. Those buildings had
codes, but the earthquake safety of existing buildings is
ground floors left open for parking with few or no filler
under question. In case of Indian subcontinent, it faces
walls, which resulted in a top-heavy and soft ground-floor
serious earthquake threat due to rapid growth of urban
system. Figure 1 shows damage of RC buildings during past
population, wherein nearly 60% of landmass in India is part
2001 Bhuj earthquake. So, there is urgent need to perform
of moderate-to-severe earthquake prone area. However,
the seismic vulnerability assessment of buildings and
over 80% of population is living in this 60% of the land [1].
suggest possible solutions to retrofit them. Since the detailed
In last decade, India has witnessed around 25 moderate to
assessment of buildings is a complex and expensive task, it
severe earthquakes like 2001 Bhuj earthquake (M7.7), 2004
cannot be performed on all the buildings in an area.
Sumatra earthquake (M9.3), 2005 Kashmir earthquake
(M7.6), 2009 Andaman Islands (M7.5), and 2011 Sikkim
Many studies have been conducted in different cities around
earthquake (M6.8). Around 4.25 lakh casualties and property
the world viz. Tehran, Iran [4,5,6], Dehradun, India [7], Basel,
loss were caused by the above earthquakes (Ref. Table 1).
Switzerland, Kanpur, India [8], Zeytinburnu, Turkey [9],
The Indian Concrete Journal, May 2017, Vol. 91, Issue 5, pp. 12-23. Gandhidham, India [10], and Nanded, India [11]. It exposed

TECHNICAL PAPER
Table 1. Major earthquake in India [2]

S.No Date Epicenter Location Mw Casualties
1 1818 Jun 16 (23.60, 68.60) Kutch,Gujarat 8.0 2000

2 1869 Jan 10 (25.00, 93.00) Nearcachar, Assam 7.5 Unknown
3 1885 May 30 (34.10, 74.60) Sopor, J&K 7.0 Unknown
4 1897 Jun 12 (26.00, 91.00) Shillong plateau 8.7 1500
5 1905 Apr 04 (32.30, 76.30) Kangra, HP 8.0 19000
6 1918 Jul 08 (24.50, 91.00) Srimangal, Assam 7.6 Unknown
7 1930 Jul 02 (25.80, 90.20) Dhubri, Assam 7.1 Unknown
8 1934 Jan 15 (26.60, 86.80) Bihar-Nepal border 8.3 10700
9 1943 Oct 23 (26.80, 94.00) Assam 7.2 Unknown
10 1950 Aug 15 (28.50, 96.70) Arunachal Pradesh-China Border 8.5 1526
11 1956 Jul 21 (23.30, 70.00) Anjar, Gujarat 7.0 Unknown
12 1967 Dec 10 (17.37, 73.75) Koyna, Maharashtra 6.5 177
13 1975 Jan 19 (32.38, 78.49) Kinnaur, HP 6.2 Unknown
14 1988 Aug 06 (25.13, 95.15) Manipur-Myanmar border 6.6 1000
15 1988 Aug 21 (26.72, 86.63) Bihar-Nepal border 6.4 1004
16 1991 Oct 20 (30.75, 78.86) Uttarkashi, UP 6.6 2000
17 1993 Sep 30 (18.07, 76.62) Latur-Osmanabad, Maharashtra 6.3 9748
18 1997 May 22 (23.08, 80.06) Jabalpur,MP 6.0 38
19 1999 Mar 29 (30.41, 79.42) Chamoli Dist, UP 6.8 100
20 2001 Jan 26 (23.40, 70.28) Bhuj , Gujarat 7.7 20023
21 2004 Dec 26 (03.34, 96.13) Off West Coast of Sumatra 9.3 283106
22 2005 Oct 08 (34.48, 73.61) Kashmir 7.6 74500
23 2009 Aug 10 (14.01, 92.92) Andaman Islands, India region 7.5 Unknown
24 2011 Sep 18 (27.7, 88.2) Sikkim Nepal border 6.8 Unknown

TECHNICAL PAPER
Table 2. Distribution of major earthquakes in HP from Table 3. District-wise area under seismic zones V and IV
1900-1963 [24] of HP and district-wise number of earthquakes from 1800-
S.No Date Magnitude District 2008 (>M4.0) [24]
1. 04 April 1905 8.0 Kangra S.No District Area under Area under Number of
seismic seismic earthquakes
2. 28 February 1906 7.0 Kullu Zone V (%) Zone IV (%)
3. 09 October 1914 6.1 Chamba
4. 11 May 1930 5.5 Mandi 1. Kangra 98.8 1.2 39
5. 22 June 1945 6.5 Chamba 2. Mandi 97.4 2.6 53

6. 10 July 1947 6.2 Chamba 3. Hamirpur 90.9 9.1 2
7. 12 August 1950 5.5 Chamba 4. Chamba 53.2 46.8 186
8. 15 September 1962 5.5 Kangra
5. Kullu 53.1 46.9 19
9. 12 April 1963 5.4 Kinnaur
6. Una 37.0 73.0 0
7. Bilaspur 25.3 74.7 1
Lahul and
8. 2.14 97.86 99
Spiti
the amount of structural deficiencies and construction 9. Shimla 0.38 99.62 49
practices to be considered for new buildings, but the detailed 10. Solan 1.06 98.94 4
evaluation for the existing buildings is under question. A
11. Sirmaur -- 100 8
few international practices have been quoted the importance
12. Kinnaur -- 100 93
of detailed structural assessment to understand the seismic
behavior of existing structures[12,13,14,15].
The seismic vulnerability assessment of buildings has been

first carried out in early 1970’s through empirical methods, most deadly and devastating disasters of all time in India.
where structural damage is provided as a function of An earthquake of 8.0 magnitude having epicenter at 32
0
intensity[16,17,18]. In 2005, the intensity has been changed 0

16’ N and 77 15’ E that occurred on 4 April 1905, caused
from MSK scale to MCS intensity scale [19]. On other widespread damages in the state and other parts of north-
side, an approach called Vulnerability Index Method has west India. An earthquake of magnitude 7.0 on the Richter
been extensively used in Italy[20]. Alternative empirical scale occurred on 28 February 1906 at 320 00’ N and 770 00’
vulnerability functions have also been proposed using normal E in Kullu valley. The other high-intensity earthquakes
or lognormal distributions, which do not use macro-seismic (magnitude above 6) occurred in the years 1914, 1945 and
intensity or PGA to characterize the ground motion but are 1947. There were four earthquakes of medium intensity
related to the spectral acceleration or spectral displacement (magnitude 5–5.9) that occurred in 1930, 1950, 1962 and 1963.
at the fundamental elastic period of vibration [21,22,23].
In this study, an attempt has been made to understand the The entire state is at risk of being affected by a severe seismic
damage index of reinforced concrete buildings by correlating event. About 32% of the total geographical area of HP falls
its observed RVS scores in the state of Himachal Pradesh. in the very high seismic zone V, while the rest (68%) lies
For this purpose, 1540 RC buildings are surveyed and RVS in the high seismic zone IV. Ten out of 12 districts fall in
scores are calculated, out of which 6 selected buildings have the very high seismic zone. Three districts have over 90%
been evaluated in detail. A qualitative study of seismic of their geographical area prone to very high seismicity.
assessment of RC buildings is done for a region. Two districts have more than 50% of the geographical area
with the severest seismic intensity: Chamba (53.2%), and
STUDY AREA OF HIMACHAL PRADESH (HP) Kullu (53.1%). During 1800–2008, about 70% of earthquakes
Himachal Pradesh state is located 31.103°N, 77.172°E and lies occurred in three districts, namely, Chamba, Lahul and Spiti,
in the Himalayan Mountains. The seismic activity of this area and Kinnaur. Three districts, Solan, Hamirpur and Bilaspur,
is closely associated with the active faults and the regional have less than 1%, whereas in Una district, no earthquake
tectonic features which include Main Boundary Thrust has ever been recorded during this period [24]. Table 3
(MBT) and Main Central Thrust (MCT) running parallel to shows the distribution of seismic area of HP under IV and V
Himalayas. As it is located in the western Himalaya, it has and number of occurrence of earthquakes (>M4.0). Figure 2
experienced major earthquakes in the past shown in Table 2. shows the seismicity and the location of fault map of the
The beginning of the 20th century was marked by one of the state of Himachal Pradesh.

TECHNICAL PAPER
Table 4. General information and geometry details of selected
RC buildings
Specification Building I Building II Building III
General building information
Location Mandi Mandi Hamirpur
Latitude 31˚32’02’’ N 31˚32’4’’ N 31˚40’80’’ N
Longitude 76˚54’13’’ E 76˚53’23’’ E 76˚31’473’’ E
Year of construction - - 2005
Storeys G+1 G+1 G+1
Seismic zone V V IV
RVS score 61 95 125
Structural details
Length (m) 10.05 12.85 13.5
Width (m) 6.6 8.7 10.7

Figure 2. Seismicity and location of faults of Himachal Pradesh
Storey height (m) 3 3 3
200 Column dimension (m ) 2
0.3x0.3 0.23x0.46 0.25x0.34
Bilaspur
2
Chamba Beam dimension (m ) 0.3x0.3 0.23x0.46 0.23x0.22
Hamirpur
150 Kangra
Slab thickness (m) 0.1 0.125 0.25
Kullu External wall thickness (m) 0.23 0.23 0.23
No. of RC Buildings
Lahul
Mandi Internal wall thickness (m) 0.1 0.1 0.1
100 Shimla
Sirmur
Solan
Una Specification Building IV Building V Building VI
50
General building information
Location Shimla Shimla Hamirpur

0
0 50 100 150 200 Latitude 31˚05’39’’ N 31˚40’58’’ N -
RVS Score
Longitude 77˚10’36’’ E 77˚10’10’’ E -
(a)
800 Year of construction - - 2000
700 Storeys G+1 G+1 G+1
Seismic zone V V IV
600
No. of RC buildings
RVS score 135 115 115

500
Structural Details
400
Length (m) 25.7 10.55 11.4
300 Width (m) 6.35 7.23 9.4
200 Storey height (m) 3.6 3.0 3.0
100 Column dimension (m2) 0.40x0.45 0.30x0.30 0.30x0.30

2
Beam dimension (m ) 0.40x0.50 0.30x0.30 0.23x0.22
0
40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Slab thickness (m) 0.25 0.25 0.25
RVS score
(b) External wall thickness (m) 0.23 0.23 0.23
Internal wall thickness (m) 0.1 0.1 0.1

Figure 3. Normal distribution of RC buildings surveyed in Himachal
Pradesh (a) district wise and (b) HP state

TECHNICAL PAPER
Figure 4. General view of selected RC buildings
DETAILED ANALYSIS OF RC BUILDINGS Figure 4 and the geometry details are shown in Table 4. M25
grade of concrete and Fe415 steel are used in this analysis. A
Over 9099 buildings have been surveyed, which consists
discrete approach called Applied Element Method (AEM)
of different typology of buildings. Out of which 1540 are
has been used to model selected buildings. The numerical
RC buildings and 6 among them have been selected from
method and its mathematical formulation are described
various districts for the purpose of detailed analysis. The
in the following section. Soil-structure interaction analysis
selection of buildings is mainly based on RVS score, and year
has not been considered in this analysis. The base of the
of construction. The normal distribution of RC buildings in
building is assumed to be fixed. The numerical modeling of
the state of Himachal Pradesh as per district wise and state
all buildings is shown in Figure 5.
is shown in Figure 3. The selected buildings are shown in
Building-I Building-II Building-III
Building-IV Building-V Building-VI
Figure 5. Numerical modeling of RC structures

TECHNICAL PAPER
MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION is replaced by the reinforcement bar and the coordinates
of the springs representing the reinforcement bars are
Modeling of RC
defined by the nearest spring. The general stiffness matrix
For the purpose of this study Applied Element Method components corresponding to each degree of freedom are
is used [25]. It is a discrete method in which the elements EdT and the forces
GdT
Kn 
determined by assuming unit displacement ; Ks 
are connected by pair of normal and shear springs which are at the centroid of each element. Theaelement stiffnessa
are distributed around the element edges. These springs matrix size is 6x6. The stiffness matrix components diagram
represents the stresses and deformations of the studied is shown in Figure 6. S  k sin 2 (   ) 
11 n k
element. The elements motion is rigid body motion and the
internal deformations are taken by springs only. The spring The stiffness matrix is shown below. S 22  k s sin (   ) 
2
stiffness is determined as,

S33  k nl 2 cos 2 ( )  k s
 S11 S12 S13  S11  S12 S16 
EdT GdT S12  0.5(sin 2(   ))
Kn 
; Ks 
S
 12 S 22 S 23  S 21  S 22 S 26 
(1) ...(1) S13  k s l sin( ) cos( 
a a  S13 S 23 S 33  S 31  S 32 S 36 
  S 23  k nl cos( ) cos( 
S11distance
where ‘d’ is the 2
(   springs,
 k n sinbetween ‘T’2 (is the
)  k s cos  thickness
)  S14 S 24 S 34 S11 S12 S 46 
 S16  S11dy  S12dx 
of the element and ‘a’ is2 the length of the2 representative  S15 S 25 S 35 S 45 S 22 S 
S 22 are
 k sthe (   )and
sinYoung’s  kshear (   ) of the
n cos modulus  S 26  S12dy  S 22dx 
56
area, ‘E’ and ‘G’ 
2
case(
S 33  k nl Incos
material, respectively. 2
 k s l sin ( )the area (dT)
2 2
of)reinforcement,
 S16 S 26 S 36 S 46 S 56 S66  S36  S13dy  S 23dx 
 S11  S12 S16 
S12  0.5(sin 2(   ))(k s  k n ) S 46 S11dy  S12dx  S
 S 21  S 22 S 26  S 56 S12dy  S 22dx  S
S13  k s l sin( ) cos(   )  k nl cos( ) sin(   )
 S 31  S 32 S 36  S 66  S16dy  S 26dx 
 S 23  k nl cos( ) cos(   )  k s l sin( ) sin(   ) (2)
S11 S12 S 46 
 S16  S11dy  S12dx  S13
S 45 S 22 S  x ax
 S 26  S12dy  S 22dx  S 23 2 b  c
56
S 46 S 56 S66  S36  S13dy  S 23dx  S33 a a

S 46 S11dy  S12dx  S13
2
S 56 S12dy  S 22dx  S 23 1   2    2  2
S 66  S16dy  S 26dx  S36
p    1  
2  2 
x ax
2 b  c fb f
 t' 
1
a a (3)
'
fb ft
2 V   .S aW ;
1   2    2  2
p    1   PF .SD. ro
 roof 
2  2  (4)
 roof
fb f
SD 
'
 t' 
1 (5) PF . roof
fb ft
V   .S aW ;
PF .SD. roof ;
 roof 
(6)
 roof
SD 
PF . roof

EdT GdTPAPER
n  TECHNICAL
; Ks  (1)
a a
of the springs subjected to tension is assumed to be zero.
S11  k n sin (   )  k s cos (   )
2 2
For reinforcement, bi-linear stress strain relationship is
assumed. After yield of reinforcement, steel spring stiffness
S 22  k s sin 2 (   )  k n cos 2 (   )
is assumed as 0.01 of initial stiffness. After reaching 10% of
S  k l 2 cos 2 ( )  k s l 2 sin 2 ( ) strain, it is assumed that the reinforcement bar is cut. The
2 S16  33 n force carried by the reinforcement bar is redistributed force
S12  0.5(sin 2(   ))(k s  k n )
2 S 26  to the corresponding elements in reverse direction. The
S13  k s l sin( ) cos(   )  k nl cos( ) sin(   ) material models[25] for concrete, both in compression and
S 36 
 S 23  k nl cos( ) cos(   )  k s l sin( ) sin(   )
2 tension and the reinforcement bi-linear model are shown in
(2)
S 46  ... (2) Figure 7.
 S16  S11dy  S12dx  S13
S56 S

 26  S12dy  S 22dx  S 23 Failure Criteria
S66 S  S dy  S dx  S To determine the principal stresses at each spring location,
36 13 23 33
S 46 S11dy  S12dx  S13 the following technique is used in this analysis. The shear
and normal stress components at point A are determined
S56 S12dy  S 22dx  S 23 from the normal and shear springs attached at the contact
S 66  S16dy  S 26dx  S36 point location shown in Figure 8.
x Howevera  xthe global stiffness matrix is generated by summing

 bupall the local
 c stiffness matrices for each element. p
1
a a (3)
c
2 (B)
Material Model (A)
The material model

2 used in this analysis is Maekawa vo
  2 compression
  1   2model
 [25].2 In this model, the tangent modulus
b
is calculated
    to the strain at the spring location.
according
uo
2  peak
After
2 stresses,
 spring stiffness is(4)assumed as a
Contact point ro
minimum value to avoid having a singular matrix[25]. The Initial D.O.Fs

fb difference
ft between spring stress and stress corresponding a
 strain
to 1 at the spring location are redistributed in(5)each
 (a) (b)
f b' ft '
increment in reverse direction. For concrete springs are
subjected to tension, spring stiffness is assumed as the initial Figure 8. (a) Principal stress determination and (b) Redistribution of

V  .S W ;
stiffness till ait reaches crack point. After cracking, stiffness spring forces at element edges
PF .SD. roof ;
 roof 
(6)
 roof
SD 
PF . roof

16 11 12 13
S 45 S 22 S 
 S 26  S12dy  S 22dx  S 23
56
S 46 S 56 S
66 
 S36  S13dy  S 23dx  S33
TECHNICAL
 S 46PAPER
S11dy  S12dx  S13
S 56 S12dy  S 22dx  S 23
The secondary stress σ2 from normal stresses and at point B MODELING OF BRICK MASONRY
and C can  S 66  Sby
be calculated 16dy  S 26the
using dxequation
 S36 given below:
In brick modeling, each brick unit is represented by a
set of square elements, where mortar joints lie in their
x ax corresponding contact edges. In spring level, springs that
2 b  c
a
a ...(3)
(3)
lie within one unit of brick are termed as ‘unit springs’.
For those springs, the corresponding domain material is
The principal stress is calculated as: brick as isotropic nature and they are assigned to structural
2 properties of brick. Springs those accommodate mortar joints
1   2  1   2  2
p      are treated as ‘joint springs’. They are defined by equivalent
2  2  properties based on respective portion of unit and mortar
(4)
...(4) thickness. The configuration of brick units, joints and their
representation is shown in Figure 9.
fb f
'
 t'  1 (5)
The value off bprincipal
ft stress σp is compared with the tension Where Eb and Gb are Young’s modulus and shear modulus of
resistance of the studied material. When σp exceeds the critical brick unit, respectively, whereas Em and Gm are Young’s modulus
value of tension 
V resistance,
 .S aWthe; normal and shear spring and shear modulus of mortar, respectively. Thickness of wall and
forces are redistributed in the next increment by applying mortar are denoted as ‘T’ and ‘th’. A composite material model is
the normal and shear  PFforces
roof spring .SD.in roof ; 
the reverse direction. considered which takes into account both brick and mortar. Brick
These redistributed forces are transferred to the element (6) are assumed to follow principal stress failure criteria with
springs
center as a force and moment, roofand then these redistributed linear elastic behavior. Once there is splitting of brick reaching
SD 
forces are applied to the structure in the next increment. A elastic limit, normal and shear stress are assumed not to transfer

PF . roofof brick masonry is given
brief description about modeling
below.
Inside a brick : element springs

T:Wall thickness
At mortar interface : joint springs
a
1 n a-th th th
Kn eq
=
axT ( Eb
+
Em
(
Kn = Eb x T 1 n a-th th
n
Kn eq
=
axT ( Gb
+
Gm
(
Ks = Gb x T 'n' springs
n 'n' springs
Figure 9. Discretization of brick masonry in AEM

x ax
2 b  c
a a (3)
TECHNICAL PAPER 2
1   2  1   2 
 cracked surface
through  2 state. The brick spring’s failure
 intensile displacement control is used till complete collapse of the
2 2
criterionis based on a failure envelope given by, building. The base shear vs roof displacement plots for
(4)
buildings are shown in Figure 10. For each roof displacement,
fb ft base shear is calculated as the summation of horizontal forces
'
1
 ' 
...(5) (5) at the bottom of each column. The pushover curve pattern
fb ft
mainly depends on three parameters i.e., initial stiffness,
strength, and ductility. From the analysis, it is observed that
Where Vfband .fSt aare
Wthe 
; principal compression and tensile all buildings have same initial stiffness except building-1.
stresses, respectively, and f’b and f’t are the uni-axial
 roof and
compression
 PFtensile strengths,

.SD. roof ; respectively. The failure Building-4 has high strength compared to strength of all
(6) buildings. The length of building-4 is around four times the
criterion of mortar joint is explained in detail by Bishnu [26]
 roof
width and the aspect ratio is 0.243 in X direction and 0.95 in
SDA nonlinear pushover analysis has been done to
in 2004. Y direction, respectively. The amount of force required to
evaluate the capacity  roof
PF . of selected RC buildings. push the building along low aspect ratio direction is higher
compared to other direction. Later, the analysis has been
NONLINEAR STATIC PUSHOVER ANALYSIS
carried out to calculate damage of the building through
Pushover analysis is mainly to evaluate the capacity of fragility curves. The description about fragility curves is
existing buildings and retrofit them. It can also be applied given in the following section.
for new structures. It is necessary to know the performance
of any building and collapse pattern. For the purpose of FRAGILITY CURVES
study, non-linear static pushover analysis is quiet helpful. It Fragility curves are the plot of damage parameter against
is an incremental static analysis used to determine the force- spectral acceleration. The damage parameter is calculated
displacement relationship. The analysis involves applying using energy principles[27,28,29]. The total energy
horizontal loads, in a prescribed pattern, onto the building dissipation of building during application of lateral
incrementally and plotting the total applied lateral force and displacement is the area under pushover curve. The elastic
associated lateral displacement at each increment, until the and inelastic energies of the building are calculated at each
building achieves collapse condition. A plot of the total base displacement. The schematic diagram represents calculation
shear versus roof displacement of a building is obtained of damage from pushover curve shown in Figure 11.
from this analysis that would indicate any premature failure
or weakness. The damage parameter (D) is denoted as the ratio of inelastic
energy to the total energy of building. The dissipated energy
In this analysis, pushover analysis is done for all selected at point ‘i’ is inelastic energy in damage calculation. The
RC buildings. The building is pushed either load control dissipated energy till collapse gives rise to total energy in
or displacement control to obtained base shear vs roof
displacement curve for a building. In this analysis
Linear Ei
behavior Inelastic Di = ;
Emax
Base shear (kN)
1600 energy
Building-1 E
1400 Building-2 Di+1 = Ei+1
i+1 max
Building-3
i
1200 Building-4
Building-5
1000 Building-6
Base shear (kN)
Non-linear
800 behavior
600
Elastic
400 energy
Roof displacement (m)
200
0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 Total/max energy
Roof displacement (m)
Figure 11. Schematic diagram represents base shear vs roof

Figure 10. Pushover curves for selected RC buildings displacement of building for calculating damage

EdT GdT
; Ks 
 TECHNICAL
a PAPER
n (1)
a
S11  k1n sin 2 (   )  k s cos 2 (   ) 0.9
0.9 Collapse
k s sin (   )  k n cos (   )
S 22  0.8 2 2
0.8
Damage parameter (d)
S  0.7k l 2 cos 2 ( )  k s l 2 sin 2 ( ) 0.7

Severe damage
2 S16  33 0.6n 0.6
0.5(sin 2(   ))(k s  k n )
S12  0.5
S 26 
PGA (g)
2 Building-1 0.5
S13  k s l sin( ) cos(   )  k nl cos( ) sin(
0.4
  )
Building-2
Moderate damage
S 36  0.3 Building-3 0.4

2
k nl cos( ) cos(   )  k s l sin( ) sin(
 S 23  0.2   )
Building-4 (2) Slight damage
S 46  0.1
Building-5 0.3
 S16  S11dy  S12dx  S13 Building-6
S  0 0.2
 S 26  S12dy  S 22dxSpectral
 S 23
56 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0.1 No damage
S66 S  S dy  S dx  S
acceleration (g)
36 13 23 33 0
60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
S 46 12.
Figure
S11dy  S dx  S
Fragility12curves for13RC buildings RVS Score
S 56 S12dy  S 22dx  S 23
S 66  S16dy  S 26dx  S36 Figure 13. Generalized damage state of building w.r.t RVS score
and PGA for RC buildings
damage calculation. With these damage values, fragility
x curvea hasx generated which is in terms of displacement.
 bFigure 12
  c fragility curves for all buildings. It is
a shows
a necessary to convert displacement (3)into acceleration. building in an area through fragility curves is difficult
Following is the procedure: task. The RVS score of buildings can be easily calculated
2 in an area. In this study an attempt has been made done
  2 Step-1:
  1 Spectral
  2  accelerations
2 (Sa) are calculated using
4π(SD)/T
 2  
. Where SD=spectral displacement and T=time
to correlate the damage state of a building with RVS score
2  2  and PGA value of a region. Figure 13 shows the generalized
period. (4) damage state of building w.r.t RVS score and PGA for RC
buildings. The damage state of building can be said, if RVS
f t The spectral displacement (SD) values are calculated
f b Step-2: score of the building and location of building. The safety of
  1 shear relation
from base (5)
f b' f t' the building is dependent on high RVS score of the building.
According to IS-1893(part1):2002 [30], the zone factors for
V   .S aW ; Zone-IV and V are 0.24 g and 0.36 g, respectively. A RC
building, whose RVS score is 100, experience slight damage
PF .SD. roof ;
 roof  in Zone-IV and moderate damage in Zone-V. The damage
(6) values are calculated for 1540 RC buildings in the state of
...(6)
 roof Himachal Pradesh and found that 80% of RC buildings
SD  located in zone-V of will suffer moderate damage and 73%
PF . roof of RC buildings located in zone-IV will suffer slight damage.
CONCLUSIONS
Where, V-base shear, W-seismic weight of structure, PF-
A correlation has been done on damage parameter with RVS
participation factor.
score of a building and PGA of a region. For this purpose, 1540
Step-3: Fragility curve can be drawn with acceleration and RC buildings are surveyed and RVS scores are calculated.
corresponding damage. Out of which 6 buildings have been evaluated in detail. A
nonlinear pushover analysis has been done to calculate the
The damage states of the building were defined as no damage capacity of buildings. The damage parameters are quantified
(D<0.2), slight damage (D<0.4), moderate damage (D<0.6), for buildings using energy based approach. A relation has
severe damage (D<0.8) and complete collapse (D>0.8). From been proposed to quantify the damage parameter of a
the above study, it is observed that building-1 experience building using PGA of a region and RVS score of a building.
complete collapse, if the building is subjected to PGA of Around 80% of RC buildings located in Zone-V of Himachal
0.24 g. The building-3 does not experience any damage for Pradesh will suffer moderate damage and around 73% of RC
the same PGA value. Measuring the damage state of each buildings located in zone-IV will suffer slight damage.

TECHNICAL PAPER
References 16. Whitman, R.V., Reed, J.W. and Hong, S.T., Earthquake Damage
Probability Matrices, Proceedings of the Fifth World Conference
1. Pradeep, K. R., and Murty, C. V. R., Earthquake safety of houses on Earthquake Engineering, Rome, Italy, 1973, Vol. 2, pp. 2531-
in India: Understanding the bottlenecks in implementation, Indian 2540.
Concrete Journal, 2014, Vol.88, No.9, pp.51-63.
17. Braga, F., Dolce, M. and Liberatore, D., A Statistical Study on
2. Indian Meteorological Department (IMD), New Delhi. Damaged Buildings and an Ensuing Review of the MSK-76 Scale,
3. Murty, C. V. R., Goel, R. K., Goyal, A., Jain, S. K., Sinha, R., Proceedings of the Seventh European Conference on Earthquake
Durgesh C. R., Jaswant N. A., and Rainer M., Reinforced Concrete Engineering, Athens, Greece, 1982, pp. 431-450.
Structures, Earthquake Spectra, 2002, Vol. 18(S1), pp.149-186. 18. Corsanego, A. and Petrini, V., Seismic Vulnerability of Buildings
4. Nateghi. F., Earthquakes, Vulnerabilities and Earthquake Disaster – Work in Progress, Proceedings of the Workshop II on Seismic
Management, 1998, IIEES Publications. Risk Vulnerability and Risk Assessment, Trieste, Italy, 1990, pp.
577-598.
5. Nateghi. F., Seismic Vulnerability of the Mega City of Tehran,
2000, Proc. of 12th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, 19. Pasquale, D.G., Orsini, G. and Romeo, R.W., New Developments
Auckland, New Zealand. in Seismic Risk Assessment in Italy, Bulletin of Earthquake
Engineering, 2005, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 101-128.
6. Motamed, H., and Ashtiany, M. G., An Index for Evaluating Urban
Earthquake Risk, 2012, Proc. of the U.S-Iran Seismic Workshop, 20. Benedetti, D. and Petrini, V., Sulla Vulnerabilità Di Edifici in
Tehran, Iran. Muratura: Proposta Di Un Metodo Di Valutazione, L’industria
delle Costruzioni, 1984, Vol. 149, No. 1, pp. 66-74.
7. Singh P., Population Vulnerability for Earthquake Loss Estimation
using Community Based Approach with GIS: Urban Infrastructure 21. Scawthorn, C., Iemura, H. and Yamada, Y., Seismic Damage
Management, Dissertation of Master of Science, 2005, International Estimation for Low- and MidRise Buildings in Japan, Earthquake
Institute for Geo Information Science and Earth Observation, Engineering & Structural Dynamics, 1981, Vol. 9, No. 2, pp. 93-115.
Netherlands. 22. Shinozuka, M., Chang, S.E., Eguchi, R.T., Abrams, D.P., Hwang,
8. Jain C. K., Seismic Vulnerability of buildings and population H.H.M. and Rose, A., Advances in Earthquake Loss Estimation
in India with a case study of Kanpur, Master of Technology and Application to Memphis, Tennessee, Earthquake Spectra,
Dissertation, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute 1997, Vol. 13, No. 4, pp. 739-758.
of Technology, Kanpur, 2006. 23. Rossetto, T. and Elnashai, A., Derivation of Vulnerability Functions
9. Ozcebe, G., Sucuoglu, H., Yucemen, M. S., Yakut, A., and Kubin, for European-Type RC Structures Based on Observational Data,
J., Seismic Risk Assessment of Existing Building Stock in Istanbul, Engineering Structures, 2003, Vol. 25, No. 10, pp. 1241-1263.
A Pilot Application in Zeytinburnu District, 2006, Proc. of 8th US 24. Chandel, V. B. S., and Karanjot K. B., Seismicity and vulnerability
National Conference on Earthquake Engineering, San Fransisco. in Himalayas: the case of Himachal Pradesh, India, Geomatics,
10. Srikanth, T., and Pradeep, K. R., Ajay, P. S., Rastogi, B. K., and Natural Hazards and Risk, 2010, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 69-84.
Santosh, K., Earthquake Vulnerability Assessment of Existing 25. Hatem, T. D., A New Efficient Method for Nonlinear, Large
Buildings in Gandhidham and Adipur Cities, Kachchh, Gujarat Deformation and Collapse Analysis of Structures, Ph.D Thesis,
(India), European Journal of Scientific Research, 2010, Vol.41, Civil Engg. Dept., University of Tokyo, September, 1998.
No.3, pp.336-353.
26. Bishnu, P. H., and Meguro, K., Simulation of brick masonry wall
11. Narender, B., Development of a Comprehensive Seismic Risk behavior under in plane lateral loading using applied element
Assessment Model for Built Environment: A Case Study on method, The 13th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering,
Nanded-Waghala City, Maharashtra, Ph.D Thesis, Department 2004, Vancouver, B.C., Canada.
of Civil Engineering, Earthquake Engineering Research Centre,
International Institute of Information Technology, Hyderabad, 27. Pradeep, R. K., and Murty, C. V. R., Critical Review of Indian
2014. Seismic Code; IS:1893-2002, Proc. of International Colloquium
on Architecture & Structural Interaction for Sustainable
12. FEMA 154, Rapid Visual Screening of Buildings for Potential Development, 2013, New Delhi. 
Seismic Hazards - A Handbook, Federal Emergency Management
Agency, 2002, Washington D.C. 28. Rajaram, C., Pradeep, R. K., Singh, A. P., Mohan, K., and Rastogi,
B. K., Seismic Damage Estimation for Port Buildings: An Energy
13. NRCC, Manual for Screening of Buildings for Seismic Investigation based Approach, Journal of Indian Society of Structural Engineers
by Institute for Research in Construction, National Research (ISSE), 2014, Vol.16, No.4, pp.13-24.
Council Canada, Ottawa, United States of America, 1993.
29. Vimala A., Expended Energy Based Seismic Damage Assessment
14. Japan Building Disaster Prevention Association (JPDPA), 2001. Method for RC Bare Frames, Ph.D Dissertation, Earthquake
Seismic Evaluation and Retrofit, Japan. Engineering Research Centre, International Institute of
15. N ZSEE, Assessment and Improvement of the Structural Information Technology - Hyderabad, 2014.
Performance of Buildings in Earthquakes, Recommendations of 30. ______ Indian standard criteria for earthquake resistant design of
a NZSEE Study Group on Earthquake Risk Buildings, June 2006, structures, Part-1 general provisions and buildings, IS 1893:2002,
New Zealand. Bureau of Indian standards, New Delhi.

TECHNICAL PAPER
Sreerama Ajay Kumar holds an M.Tech from IIIT Hyderabad; pursuing another master’s in Earthquake
Engineering at ROSE School, Italy. He has contributed his research in the field of earthquake engineering
which are published in technical papers in national and international Journals. His areas of interest in
research are seismic safety of irregular buildings with mass and stiffness irregularities.
Chenna Rajaram holds a PhD degree from International Institute of Information Technology, Hyderabad
(IIIT-H). He is an Assistant Professor at RGMCET, Nandyal, AP. He has published over 25 papers in
national and international journals and conferences. His research interests are earthquake engineering and
structural dynamics, analytical and numerical simulation of ground motions, and applied element method.
R. Pradeep Kumar, holds a Ph.D degree from University of Tokyo, Japan. He is a Professor and Head of
Earthquake Engineering Research Centre (EERC) at IIIT Hyderabad. His research interests are numerical
modeling of faults and tectonic plates, collapse simulation of buildings, seismic evaluation and strengthening
of buildings and concrete codes in India. He is a panel member of IS 456 and IS 1343 (CED2). He is also a
panel member of IS 1893, and IS 13920 (CED39).

TECHNICAL PAPER
Seismic performance of masonry infilled

reinforced concrete structures
Arshad K. Hashmi and Alok Madan
Inspite of intense research in the area of masonry infilled reinforced concrete (RC) frame structures in recent past,
displacement-based non-linear analyses of masonry infilled RC frames with explicit consideration of infill panels as
structural elements is far from common practice in earthquake resistant design of structures. This is mostly due to the
analytical complexity in modelling the infill panel realistically. The present paper is based on an analytical study of
the seismic performance of typical planar masonry infilled RC frames considering the effect of distribution of masonry
infill panels over the elevation of the RC frame using rational displacement based analysis methods such as non-
linear dynamic time-history analysis and non-linear static force-displacement (push-over) analysis based on realistic
and efficient hysteretic models of the structural elements. The objective of the present study is to develop seismic
vulnerability curves for representative masonry infilled RC frame structures with the various commonly implemented
seismically undesirable and corresponding preferred distributions of masonry infill panels over the frame elevation.
Keywords: Seismic performance; seismic vulnerability; seismic demand; pushover analysis; capacity spectrum method; performance based
seismic engineering.
INTRODUCTION earthquake (1999). In 1897 Shilong, north-eastern Assam

in India has experienced an earthquake of Richter scale
Major stock of multi-storey buildings in urban India and, magnitude 8.6, one of the great ground shaking recorded
in general, Asia is constructed as reinforced concrete (RC) anywhere in the world. The seismologist reported that there
framed structures with masonry infills for architectural, is a substantial evidence to expect that one or more of such
functional and economic reasons. Presently there is no great earthquakes may be overdue in the Himalayan arc
statistically viable observational database available on the threatening millions of people, of the Indo-Gangetic plains
post-earthquake seismic damage of building structures of India and surrounding countries of India [1].
surveyed by experts in India. However, it is observed
that the buildings in which the masonry infill panels are In the disaster preparedness and response planning, the
discontinued above the base for reasons of functionality to regional seismic hazard and loss assessment of structures
create an open storey for parking, commonly known as a are essential information, which can be provided in terms
‘soft’ and / or ‘weak’ storey at the base of the buildings have of seismic vulnerability curves for structures [2]. The
suffered severe damage and in some cases complete collapse seismic vulnerability curves predicts the proportion of the
in the recent Nepal earthquake (2015), Bhuj earthquake exposed building stock in each damage state in the event
(2001) in Gujarat (India) and in Adapazari (Turkey) of an earthquake of given severity. Seismic vulnerability
curves may be defined as functions that relate the multiple
The Indian Concrete Journal, May 2017, Vol. 91, Issue 5, pp. 24-33.

TECHNICAL PAPER
performance limit states of a structure to a parameter of of seismic vulnerability curves for the typical population of
the severity of the ground motion. The vulnerability curves masonry infilled RC framed building construction in India.
may thus be considered as a graphical representation of The present study focuses on the analytical investigation
seismic risk. The performance limit state may be quantified of seismic vulnerability of the populations of typical
in many ways such as the maximum inter-storey drift, the medium-rise masonry infilled reinforced concrete (RC)
top displacement of the structure and a related damage state framed buildings constructed in the present decade in
of the structure. The three performance limit states that are urban India. An important objective of the present study is
considered most important are immediate occupancy (IO), to develop seismic vulnerability curves for representative
life safety (LS) and collapse prevention (CP) [3]. The severity configurations of medium-rise masonry infilled RC frame
of the earthquake ground motion may be represented structures considering the effect of the distribution of
by spectral ordinates such as the spectral displacement masonry infill panels over the frame elevation on the seismic
(Sd), velocity (Sv) and acceleration (Sa) or ground motion performance of the RC frame. The seismic vulnerability
intensity (I) or simply the peak ground acceleration (pga) curves that are developed in deterministic terms are termed
of the earthquake. Thus there are different methodologies as seismic performance and seismic demand curves in the
for development of vulnerability curves depending upon present study and provide useful tools for predicting the
different analysis procedure, structural model, damage seismic performance in the event of a future earthquake.
model and seismic hazard.
SEISMIC PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT OF

The analytical methods for derivation of probabilistic MASONRY INFILLED RC FRAMED BUILDING
vulnerability functions are computationally intensive and STRUCTURES
time-consuming, as a large number of analyses are generally
The present study endeavours to provide prediction tools
required to fully represent the uncertainties associated with
for seismic hazard assessment of the generic populations
the material properties, structural parameters and ground
of medium-rise masonry infilled reinforced concrete (RC)
motion [4]. Lang and Bachmann (2004) represented the
framed building structures. The study is based on the
seismic vulnerability in a deterministic format by plotting
analytical development of seismic performance and demand
the displacement demand on the structure as a function
curves for practical multi-storey masonry infilled RC frame
of the spectral displacement of the earthquake [5]. The
structures with the commonly implemented seismically
displacement demand was quantitatively related to a
undesirable as well as functionally preferred distributions
measure of structural damage called damage grade [5]. The
of the masonry infill panels over the frame elevation using
damage grades, which can be qualitatively interpreted based
rational displacement-based analysis techniques within
on a classification of the observed physical damage, were
the performance-based framework. Based on a review
identified on the plot of the displacement demand versus
of architectural plans and structural framing schemes
spectral displacement [6]. The alternative deterministic form
of masonry infilled RC framed buildings constructed in
of vulnerability curves proposed by Lang and Bachmann [6]
practice, some representative planar masonry infilled RC
can be derived with substantially lesser computational effort
frame configurations were identified for the analytical
and will be termed as seismic demand curves in the present
investigation of seismic performance and demand of the
study.
building stock of interest. The analytical investigation was
performed for the following six multi-bay multi-storey
There is no formal scientific database on the seismic damage geometries of planar RC frames with different number of
observed in the masonry infilled RC framed building stock bays and or different bay lengths:
during the past earthquakes in India. The methodical
collection of extensive long-term homogenous observation- 1. Fourteen storeys (ground + 13) three bay frame with
based damage data from post-earthquake disaster sites a bay length of 3.0 meters,
requires a large-scale and coordinated research program
in collaboration with other institutions in different regions, 2. Fourteen storeys (ground + 13) three bay frame with
which is not easily feasible at the present juncture in India a bay length of 6.0 meters,
due to limited resources for disaster management. In the
context of the present scenario, an analytical approach is a 3. Fourteen storeys (ground + 13) five bay frame with a
more feasible initiative as a first step towards the derivation bay length of 3.0 meters,

TECHNICAL PAPER
4. Fourteen storeys (ground + 13) five bay frame with a beams. The structural frame elements were designed using
bay length of 6.0 meters, the limit state method of design (strength or capacity
design). It may be noted that the format and model of the
5. Seven storeys (ground + 6) three bay frame with a bay latest revision of Indian seismic design code [7] as well as the
length of 3.0 meters, underlying seismic design philosophy are similar to those of
the Uniform Building Code (now IBC) of America [8]. For
6. Seven storeys (ground + 6) five bay frame with a bay purposes of comparison, the design horizontal seismic base
length of 3.0 meters. shear coefficient for a number of practical masonry infilled
RC framed buildings was computed using the revised
Indian seismic design code [7] criteria as well as IBC 2000 [8]
The following practically relevant cases of distribution code provisions. It was found that the revised Indian seismic
of masonry infill panels along the elevation of a planar design code is more conservative in estimating the design
masonry infilled RC frame were identified for the analytical earthquake loads than IBC 2000.
evaluation:
a. Completely infilled RC frame [Figure 1 (a)],
b. Infilled RC frame without infill panels in the first

(ground) storey (‘soft / weak storey’ at ground
level corresponding to building supported on stilt
columns) [Figure 1 (b)],
c. Infilled RC frame with partially infilled first (ground)

storey (‘soft / weak storey’ at the ground level with
some frame panels infilled with masonry) [Figure 1
(c)],
d. Bare RC Frame [Figure 1 (d)].
The masonry infilled RC framed building structures with the

representative configurations were designed in accordance
with the current Indian Standard (IS) code of practice for
earthquake resistant design IS 1893:2002 (Indian seismic
design code) using the good computer program [7]. The
design earthquake loading for the RC framed buildings
were computed using the response spectrum method for
equivalent static 3-D analysis in accordance with the Indian
seismic design code [7]. Assuming that the structural system
of the buildings is a moment-resisting RC frame with ductile
detailing, the response reduction factor (force reduction
factor) was specified as 5.0 to account for the inherent
capability of the frame to undergo inelastic deformations
without loss of strength or stiffness. Following the standard
design practice, the contribution of the masonry infill panels
was ignored in the structural analysis for code-based design
of the RC frame members. However, the time period of the
masonry infilled RC framed building for obtaining the design
earthquake loads was calculated using the more stringent
formulation specified for such buildings with brick infills by
the latest revision of the Indian seismic design code [7]. The
dead weight of the masonry infill panels was assumed to act
as a uniformly distributed gravity load on the supporting

TECHNICAL PAPER

TECHNICAL PAPER
Figure 2 shows a typical multi-bay multi-storey masonry of the earthquake for the different practically relevant
infilled planar R/C frame in a representative masonry distributions (a), (b), (c) and (d) of masonry infill panels
infilled RC framed building structure with 14 storeys over the frame elevations that were identified in a previous
(ground+13) and five bays in the weak direction designed section of the paper. The overall damage index, which is
in accordance with the current Indian seismic design code. selected as a measure of the seismic performance of the
The figure also presents the material properties assumed in RC frame, is evaluated by performing non-linear dynamic
the design of the 14 (ground + 13) storeys building with five analysis of the frame under synthetic earthquake ground
bays in the weak direction. The typical design dimensions motions using the modified Park and Ang damage model for
and reinforcement details for different structural frame quantification of seismic damage[11]. Figure 3 also mentions
members are also summarized in Figure 2. the performance limit states corresponding to the linguistic
interpretation of increasing overall damage index [10]. The
Methodology of Seismic Performance peak ground acceleration (pga) of the earthquake ground
Assessment motion may be considered as a measure of the severity of the
The seismic performance and demand of masonry infilled earthquake in the seismic performance curves presented in
RC framed building structures is assessed by performing Figure 3(i & ii). It is apparent from Figure 3(i & ii) that the
non-linear dynamic analysis of the representative planar presence of a ‘soft’ storey at the ground level due to partial or
masonry infilled RC frame configurations identified in complete absence of infill panels in the ground storey impairs
the previous section of the paper under the action of some the seismic performance of the RC frame. The impairment in
artificially generated earthquake ground motions The seismic performance of the RC frame is more pronounced
synthetic earthquake ground motions were generated for for moderates to severe earthquakes with a pga larger than
ascending peak ground accelerations in the range of 0.1g 0.4g. It may be noted from the comparison presented in
to 1.0 g. The non-linear dynamic analysis of the masonry Figure 3 (i & ii) is that the seismic performance of the
infilled RC frame was performed in the present study using completely infilled frame is superior to that of the bare frame.
rational and realistic hysteretic models of the structural
Figures 3 (iii) and (iv) illustrate the analytically obtained
elements including masonry infill panels [9-10]. The results
seismic demand curves of the planar frame geometries 3
of the non-linear analyses are used to provide a graphical
and 6 respectively identified in a previous section of the
representation of the seismic performance and demand of
paper. Each figure displays the variation of the seismic
the selected building stock in two different practically useful
displacement demand at the top storey of the representative
formats: (i) seismic performance curves that relate the seismic
planar RC frame with respect to the spectral displacement
damage of the RC frame to the peak ground acceleration
of the earthquake for the various practically relevant
(pga) of the earthquake, and (ii) seismic demand curves that
distributions (a), (b), (c) and (d) of masonry infill panels
depict the relationship between the seismic displacement
over the frame elevation that were identified in a previous
demands (top storey displacement or first inter-storey
section of the paper. It is apparent from Figures 3 (iii) and
drift) on the RC frame and the spectral displacement of the
(iv) that the seismic displacement demand at the top storey
earthquake including correlation of the seismic displacement
of the frame is marginally affected by the distribution of the
demand with the performance limit states.
masonry infill panels over the frame elevation for all the
Seismic Performance and Demand representative frame geometries considered in the present
study. The seismic demand curves presented in Figure 3 (iii)
Curves for Masonry Infilled RC Framed
illustrate that seismic vulnerability of the RC frame with
Building Structures
the representative frame geometry 3 interpreted in terms of
For sake of brevity, the seismic performance and demand the displacement demand at the top storey of the frame is
curves for the two most vulnerable representative planar inconsistent with the seismic damage predicted by Figure 3
multi-bay multi-storey RC frame geometries (i.e. 3 and 6) (i) for e.g., bare frame is depicted to be seismically more
identified after nonlinear dynamic analysis are presented vulnerable in Figure 3 (iii) than the masonry infilled frame
herein. Figures 3 (i) and (ii) illustrates the analytically obtained without any infill panels in the first (ground) storey (i.e.
seismic performance curves of the planar frame geometries with a ‘soft’ storey at the ground level). The observation
3 and 6, respectively. Each figure shows the variation of suggests that the maximum inter-storey drifts show a better
the quantitative overall damage index of the representative correlation with the seismic damage than the top storey
planar RC frame with respect to the peak ground acceleration displacements.

TECHNICAL PAPER

TECHNICAL PAPER
Figures 3 (v) and (vi) present the variation of the first of the seismic performance and demand curves presented
(ground) storey deformation demand with respect to the in Figure 3 indicates that the seismic demand expressed in
spectral displacement of the earthquake for the planar frame terms of the inter-storey drift demand is a more realistic
geometries 3 and 6 respectively. Each figure depicts the measure of the seismic performance of the frame elements
seismic demand curves expressed in terms of the seismic in case of masonry infilled RC frames with seismically
inter-storey drift demand at the ground level i.e. the ground vulnerable distributions of masonry panels over the frame
(first) storey deformation for the representative planar RC elevation.
frame with the different practically relevant distributions
(a), (b), (c) and (d) of masonry infill panels over the frame Capacity Spectrum Method using
elevation that were identified in a previous section of Pushover Analysis for Verification of
the paper [Figure 1]. Figures 3 (v) and (vi) also highlight Seismic Demands
the global acceptance criteria defined by ATC-40 and Pushover or non-linear static analysis methods have gained
FEMA-356 for different performance limit states of considerable popularity, as they can be employed to assess
immediate occupancy (IO), life safety (LS) and collapse the seismic demands on building structures while avoiding
prevention (CP) in terms of the maximum inter-storey drifts the complexities and difficulties associated with non-linear
of 1%, 2% and 4% respectively [12-13]. A brief inspection dynamic time-history analysis. A class of equivalent static

TECHNICAL PAPER
analysis procedures that employ the pushover analysis relevant distributions of masonry infill panels identified
in conjunction with the response spectrum concept for previously [Figure 1] for the four recorded earthquake
predicting the seismic demands on a building structure ground motions mentioned above. It should be noted that
is popularly known as the capacity spectrum method [14- the spectral displacements and spectral accelerations in the
15]. The capacity spectrum method using non-linear static ADRS representation of the capacity and demand curves
(push-over) analysis and inelastic demand spectra was are expressed in non-dimensional percentage terms by
implemented in the present study to verify the seismic normalizing them with respect to the total height of the
demands predicted by the non-linear dynamic analysis building and acceleration due to gravity g, respectively.
for four recorded ground motions due to Bhuj (2001), Thus, the non-dimensional spectral displacement and
El-Centro (1940), Chile (1985) and San-Fernando (1971) spectral acceleration represent, respectively, the top (roof)
earthquakes[11]. Details of the application of capacity displacement (drift) normalized with respect to the total
spectrum procedure using pushover analysis and inelastic height of the m.d.o.f. building structure in percentage and
demand spectra for masonry infilled RC frames may be the horizontal base shear normalized with respect to the
found elsewhere [14,16]. Figures 4 and 5 display the capacity total weight also in percentage. The point where the demand
and demand curves both in acceleration-displacement curve of the earthquake intersects capacity curve of the
response spectrum (ADRS) format determined for RC frame building in the ADRS form is termed as the performance
geometries 3 and 6, respectively, with the various practically point and defines the seismic demand of the earthquake on

TECHNICAL PAPER
the structure. The non-dimensional structural displacement structures is assessed through non-linear dynamic analysis
and force demands corresponding to the performance points of representative planar masonry infilled RC frame
are highlighted as circumscribed by ellipses in Figures 4 geometries subjected to artificially generated earthquake
and 5. ground motions. The results of the vulnerability assessment
establish that the seismic performance of a code-compliant
The seismic demands obtained from the non-linear masonry infilled RC frame is substantially superior to that
dynamic analysis are reproduced in non-dimensional of a corresponding bare RC frame, provided any soft storey
terms of percentage circumscribed in rectangular boxes in effect at the ground storey is sufficiently compensated by
Figures 4 and 5 for ready comparison. The comparison shows
partially infilling the soft ground storey with masonry
that the seismic displacement and force demands predicted
panels or designing the columns in the soft storey to resist
by the simpler capacity spectrum method agree reasonably
the surplus base shear due to the masonry infills.
well with the corresponding seismic demands predicted by
the non-linear dynamic analysis for all the distributions of
References
masonry infill panels and earthquake records considered in
the study with a few exceptions such as the case of frame 1. Bilham, R., Gaur, V. K., and P. Molnar, P. (2001) “Himalayan
Seismic Hazard.” Science, 293(5534), 1442-44.
geometry 6 under the action of San Fernando earthquake
and bare frame with - 6 under the action of Chile earthquake. 2. Rossetto T. and Elnashai A. (2003). “Derivation of Vulnerability
It may be remarked from Figures 4 and 5 that the case of Function for European- Type RC Structures Based on Observational
Data.” Engineering Structures, 25(10), 1241-1263.
the bare frame in general displays substantially larger
top displacement for lower base shear coefficient than the 3. Kwon,O.S., and Elnashai A.( 2006). “ The Effect of Material and
Ground Motion Uncertainty on the Seismic Vulnerability Curves
masonry infilled frame without any infills in the first storey
of RC Structures.” Engineering Structures, 28(2), 289-303.
(i.e. ‘soft’ ground storey). Similar results were illustrated in
Figure 3 (iii & iv). The observation may be explained by the 4. Rossetto T. and Elnashai A. (2005). “A New Analytical Procedure
for the Derivation of Displacement Based Vulnerability Curves for
fact that the infills of the masonry infilled RC frame above Population of RC Structures.” Engineering Structures, 27(3), 397-409
the first storey increase the overall lateral stiffness of the
frame, thus resulting in lesser displacement at the top in 5. Lang K. and Bachmann H. (2004). “On the Seismic Vulnerability of
Existing Buildings: A Case Study of the City of Basel. ” Earthquake
comparison to the bare RC frame. Spectra, 20(1), 43-66.
CONCLUDING REMARKS 6. Lang K. and Bachmann H. (2003). “On the Seismic Vulnerability
of Existing Unreinforced Masonry Building.” Journal of Earthquake
The present paper is based on performance-based seismic Engineering, 7(3), 407-426
evaluation of planar masonry infilled RC frame structures
7. ______Indian standard criteria for earthquake resistant design of
with vertical layout of infill panels that are commonly structures, Part 1 - General provisions and buildings, IS 1893:2002
constructed in the field and are particularly vulnerable to (Part 1), Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India.
earthquakes, such as the layout in which the infill panels 8. ICC IBC 2000, “2000 International Building code ”, International
are discontinued at the ground level thus resulting in a ‘soft’ Code Council, Washington D.C.
and/or ‘weak’ storey at that level. The results of the present
9. Madan A, Reinhorn AM, Mander JB, Valles R.( 1997). “Modeling of
study establish that the seismic vulnerability as well as the Masonry Infill Panels for Structural Analysis.” Journal of Structural
horizontal seismic base shear of masonry infilled RC frames Engineering, 123; 1295 - 1302.
is significantly influenced by the density and distribution of
10. Valles, R. E., Reinhorn, A. M., Kunnath, S. K., Li, C., and Madan,
the masonry infill panels in the RC frame, an effect that is A. (1996). “IDARC Version 4.0 - A Program for the Inelastic
disregarded by the present generation of the seismic codes. Damage Analysis of Buildings.” Technical Report NCEER-96-0010,
SUNY/Buffalo.
The study focuses on the development of region-specific 11. Park YJ, Reinhorn AM and Kunnath, S. K.( 1987). “IDARC:
seismic performance and demand curves for typical Inelastic damage Analysis of Reinforced Concrete Frame–Shear
configurations of practical medium rise masonry infilled Wall Structures.” Technical Report NCEER-87-0008, National
multi-storey RC framed structures considering the various Center for Earthquake Engineering Research, SUNY Buffalo.
commonly implemented distributions of masonry infill 12. ATC-40 (1996).“Seismic Evaluation and Retrofit of Concrete
panels over the frame elevation. The seismic performance Buildings.” Report SSC 96-01, California Seismic Safety
Commission, Applied Technology Council, Redwood, CA, USA.
and demand of masonry infilled RC framed building

TECHNICAL PAPER
13. FEMA-356 (2000), “Prestandard and Commentary for Seismic 15. Kunnath, S. K. (2006), “Performance-based Seismic Based Design
Rehabilitation of Buildings”, Federal Emergency Management and Evaluation of Building Structures.” Earthquake Engineering
Agency (FEMA), Washington D. C., USA. for Structural Design, ed. Chen, W. F. and Lui, E. M., CRC press,
© 2006 by Taylor and Francis Group, Oxfordshire, England.
14. Fajfar P. (1999). “Capacity Spectrum Method Based on Inelastic
Demand Spectra.” Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 16. Madan, A and Hashmi A.K. (2008). “Analytical prediction of
28; 979-93. Seismic Performance of Masonry Infilled Reinforced Concrete
Frames Subjected to Near-Field Earthquakes.” Journal of Structural
Engineering, ASCE; 134 (9); 1569-1581.
Arshad K. Hashmi holds a PhD in Structural Engineering from Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi. His
areas of research interest are earthquake engineering;performance based seismic engineering, structural
optimization.
Alok Madan holds a PhD in Structural Engineering from State University of New York at Buffalo. Presently
he is a Professor in the Department of Civil Engineering at Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi. His area
of research includes research on structural engineering, nonlinear structural dynamics, concrete structures,
computing in structural engineering, structural masonry.

POINT OF VIEW
Environmental clearance Acts and

Rules - Evolution and experience
Ajit K. Sinha and K.N. Jha
Many of the infrastructure projects, specially in the environment of India. The Constitution of India vide the
transportation sector, (Railways, Ports, Roads, / Highways 42nd amendment, has detailed and outlined this onus and
and Airports) have had time and cost overruns on account responsibility on the Government of India in Articles 48A
of delay in grant of environmental clearance also in and 51A (g) of the Indian Constitution. These articles provide
addition to delay in obtaining other approvals/clearances. that:
Though, prior to 1985, forest related legislations / Acts /
i. the state will protect and improve the environment
Rules existed but in isolated and exclusive domains. With and safeguard forests and wildlife of the country
the notification of the Environment (Protection) Act 1986 (Article 48A), and
followed by the Environment Impact Assessment, Rules,
2006, the related stipulations, regulatory norms started ii. every citizen is bound to protect and improve the
getting formalized and evolving. Herein, the legislative natural environment and to have compassion for
history of the Acts/Rules at different times in India and living creatures [ Articles 51A (g)].
across the World has been stated. Chronologically, the
USA (NEPA legislation) and European countries have an
The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF), since
edge over other regions. Grant of forest clearance (FC)
then, has been renamed as Ministry of Environment, Forest
which comprises approval for diversion of forest land, if
and Climate Change, and is the nodal regulatory body of
that be the case of the project, took much longer time Government of India. Primarily, it is mandated to formulate
than it took for grant of environmental clearance in case policies, laws and rules related to environment, and issuing
of roads/highways projects in India. Use of technological environmental clearance (EC) for any developmental
advancements can be very helpful in mapping of roads project, as in the Schedule of the Environmental Impact
and railway line alignments, extent of forest cover getting Assessment (EIA) Notification, dated 14 September 2006 [1]
affected adversely by the proposed projects etc. Satellite under the Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986. With the
imaging techniques etc. can be used extensively for increase in number and sector specific infrastructure projects
evaluating the extent of human habitats getting displaced, entailing substantial private investment, several Acts, Bills
submerged, and affected. and their respective Amendments to ensure improvement
in quality of environment, were legislated in India.
Forest Conservation Act,1980, Environment (Protection)
1.0 INTRODUCTION Act,1986,the Coastal Regulation Zone,1991(notification)
The Government of India vide its policy and regulatory and the National Appellate Authority Act,1997 are some
functions, ensures protection and improvement of the of the critical laws that need to be complied with by the

POINT OF VIEW
proponents (applicants seeking environment clearance) 2006 provisions further ensured closer interaction between
for the projects. The Environment (Protection) Act (EPA) the State Governments and the Central Government. The
1986 was notified soon after the Bhopal gas tragedy (1984). improvements have been summarized in Table 1.
This Act is all encompassing in its mandate and empowers
the Government of India to effect measures for improving 2.1 Structure and other aspects of eia in
and protecting the quality of environment. The said Act india
mandates the Government of India to set standards for The EIA system, being multidimensional and
effluent discharge and emission as well as regulating interdisciplinary in nature, is concerned with identifying
location of industries. and evaluating direct and indirect impacts of a project on the
environment. These impacts are addressed by appropriate
2.0 ENVIRONMENT IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA) environmental protection and enhancement measures
Consequent to the Earth Summit held at Rio de Janeiro in and it needs to be ensured and should form an integral
1992 the EIA was notified in 1994 in India, based on the part of the proposal. The EIA system supports project
EPA 1986 and has seen further amendments in 1997, 2006 proponents in incorporating environmental considerations
and 2007. The updated processes and stages for getting the in project planning. The project cost should also account
environmental clearance in terms of the provisions of the for implementing measures for environment upkeep and
EIA Act are illustrated in Figure 1. Screening, scoping, public cost for complying with the conditions accompanying the
consultation, and appraisal are the four cardinal stages in environmental clearance granted by the regulator. Onus
the EIA process. for determining and disclosing all relevant inputs needed
for a methodical assessment of environmental impacts of
The EIA notification of 1994 was further improved upon with their proposed projects lies with the project proponent.
the more detailed notification of 2006. The latter provided Review of an EIA by Central Regulatory Authority/
for significant and elaborate arrangement for effectively State Environmental Impact Assessment Agency (SEIAA)
carrying out EIA. The provision comprised categorization is guided by the following criteria: (a) environmental
of projects in terms of set out parameters. The clearance considerations are integrated into overall project planning;
process was decentralized with some categorized as ‘B2’ and (b) the environmental impact assessment is sound,
projects falling within the competency of the concerned State and the proposed environmental mitigation measures
Governments for the purpose of granting environmental are effective. An effective regulatory review of an EIA
clearance. In fact the process was democratized and the depends on timely, full, and accurate disclosure of relevant
Table 1. Salient improvements in GoI’s EIA Notification of 2006 over EIA Notification of 1994
EIA Notification 2006 EIA Notification 1994
(including amendments)
Clearance process simplified - Previously all the projects figured in Schedule 1

required environmental clearance. Now, the projects have been categorized as “A”
& “B” and ‘B’ has further been bifurcated into B1 and B2 category. B2 projects Project proponents were required to seek clearance for all
would not required EIA report. Category B projects would be cleared by the the projects under Schedule 1 from the Central Government
respective State Governments.
Screening and scoping processes. The screening process has been specifically
detailed and the responsibility for carrying out scoping has been entrusted to
It was the project proponent who decided the TOR as well
the Expert Appraisal Committee. [EAC]. Scoping comprises freezing of Terms
as conducted the EIA study either by himself or through
of Reference [TOR] and the TOR is required to be displayed on the websites of
consultants.
State/ Union Territory Environmental Impact Assessment Authority [S/UEIAA].
Public consultation comprising public hearing :All projects categorized as ‘A’

& ‘B1’ are mandatorily required to undertake the public consultation. Some Provisions existed but the methods to be adopted weren’t
projects e.g. extension of road and highways, those that do not require any further that transparent and all encompassing.
acquisition of land etc. are exempt from carrying out public consultation.
Responsibility lies with the State PCBs/ UTPCBs.

POINT OF VIEW
Project Conception
Initial Screening by Project Proponent

Screening EIA Not Needed
in case the Project falls under
Category A or Category A/B
Preliminary Assessment
Regulatory Screening of CategoryA/B

Projects by MoEF/Regulatory
Authority. EIA Required Regulatory Scoping of
Category A Projects by
MoEF/Regulatory Authority
Category B
Scoping
Further Screening at State Level

(to determine Category B1/B2 Public Consultation
Impact Analysis
Project feasibility, EIA

Mitigation studies and publichearing
Category B1 Category B 2
Reporting
EC process Decision on EC
similar to that based on the Review by SPCB Public Hearing
for Category A, information
(at State Level) provided.
Review by MoEF
Not Approved Decision Making Approved
Redesign and Resubmit Implementation and Monitoring
Figure 1. Environmental approval process & EC project classification scheme

POINT OF VIEW
information in the EIA by project proponents to project Territory Pollution Control Committee (UTPCC) shall invite
stakeholders. An effective public participation in course of responses from such concerned persons by placing on their
preparation of EIA report plays a very important role website the summary EIA report prepared in the format as
and it facilitates assessment of application, seeking EC. specified in EIA Notification, 2006 and further amendments,
With a view to achieving an effective implementation and by the applicant along with a copy of the application in the
further clarifying the processing principles involved, prescribed form, within seven days of the receipt of a written
Government of India updated its EIA Notification in request for arranging the public hearing.
September 2006.
2.3 Public consultation - worldwide
2.2 Public consultation process Directive 2003/25/EC [2] governs issues related to the
The public consultation shall ordinarily have two ‘public hearing’ [EIA] in respect of Member States. The
components [1] comprising: EIA Directive does not define ‘reasonable time-frames’ and
leaves a margin of discretion for Member States to determine
i. a public hearing at the site or in its close proximity- ‘reasonable time-frames’ within their jurisdiction. The time
district wise, to be carried out in the manner prescribed frames adopted by the Member States in the consultation
for ascertaining concerns of local affected persons. phase, range from 14 days as the shortest time frame
(Bulgaria, Estonia) to 60 days as the longest time frame
ii. obtaining responses in writing from other concerned
(Italy) [2]. Most Member States have adopted a time frame
persons having a plausible stake in the environmental
of 30 days for the public consultation process to conclude.
aspects of the project or activity.
2.4 EIA as a regulatory tool

The public hearing at, or in close proximity to, the site(s) in all After the project is subjected to an EIA and the application
cases shall be conducted by the State Pollution Control Board for clearance is submitted and approved, MoEF issues an
(SPCB) or the Union Territory Pollution Control Committee environmental clearance (EC). The EC normally lists down
(UTPCC) concerned in the specified manner and the minutes a set of conditions for it to be valid. The EC is accompanied
of the proceedings shall be forwarded to the regulatory by conditions under which the project shall operate and
authority concerned within 45 (forty five) days of a request clearance has been granted. This is how the MoEF is able
to the effect, from the applicant. In case the State Pollution to regulate the operations of all environmentally critical
Control Board or the Union Territory Pollution Control projects and projects within environmentally critical areas.
Committee concerned does not undertake and complete
the public hearing within the specified period, and/or does The site of a project (e.g., in ecologically sensitive areas) is an
not convey the proceedings of the public hearing within important factor which decides whether an EC is required.
the prescribed period directly to the regulatory authority Ecologically sensitive areas include coastal areas (protected
concerned as above, the regulatory authority shall engage by the Coastal Regulatory Zone notification (CRZ), forests
another public agency or authority which is not subordinate (protected by the Forest Conservation Act), various areas
to the regulatory authority, to complete the process within a notified by the MoEF as Ecologically Sensitive Zones (ESZs),
further period of forty five days. for example, Doon valley, Taj Trapezium etc. to wetlands,
deserts, national parks, sanctuaries, corals, etc. (which are not
If the public agency or authority nominated above, reports protected by any specific Notification). In case of industries,
to the regulatory authority concerned that on account of the the Environmental Guidelines for Siting of Industry (framed
prevailing local situation, it may not be possible to conduct in 1985) and the Environment (Siting for Industrial Projects)
the public hearing in a manner which will enable the views Rules, 1999 have to be complied with.
of the concerned local persons to be freely expressed, it shall
report the facts in detail to the concerned regulatory authority, The following categories of projects/activities are exempt
which may, after due consideration of the report and other from public consultation as notified by EC notification dated
reliable information that it may have, decide that the public 14 September 2006: (i) modernization of irrigation projects
consultation in the case need not include the public hearing. (ii) all projects or activities located within industrial estates
For obtaining responses in writing from other concerned or parks approved by the concerned authorities, and which
persons having a plausible stake in the environmental aspects are not disallowed in such approvals; (iii) expansion of roads
of the project or activity, the concerned regulatory authority and highways which do not involve any further acquisition of
and the State Pollution Control Board (SPCB) or the Union land; (iv) maintenance and dredging provided the dredged

POINT OF VIEW
material shall be disposed within port limits; (v) all building complexes must have a clearly identified management with
or construction projects or area development projects (which the legal responsibility of ensuring adherence to the terms
do not contain any category A projects and activities) and and conditions of prior environmental clearance, and must
townships (vi) all category B2 projects and activities; and indicate the authority to be held responsible for violation of
(e) all projects or activities concerning national defence the same throughout the life of the complex/estate.
and security or involving other strategic considerations as
determined by the central government. 2.6 Important legislations regulating the
environmental clearances in india
2.5 Specified requirements for environmen- i. One of the earliest legislation in this direction was
tal clearance the Indian Forest Act, 1927 which provided for
Thresholds in respect of roads/highways, ports and airports consolidating acquisition of common property such
and other stipulations / governing criteria etc. for processing as forest. The nodal agencies for the purpose are the
and grant of environment clearance for projects in these respective State Governments and Forest settlement
sectors are spelt out in Table 2. officers.
ii. The Air (Prevention and control of Pollution) Act,1981

2.5.1 General condition (GC)
further amended in 1987 was legislated with the
Any project or activity specified in category B will be mandate to the Government for ensuring prevention
treated as category A, if located in whole or in part within and control of Air pollution including noise pollution.
10 km from the boundary of: (i) protected areas notified The Government was further mandated to set up and
under the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972; (ii) critically constitute pollution control boards at Central and
polluted areas as notified by the Central Pollution Control State Government level. No one could establish or
Board from time-to-time; (iii) eco-sensitive areas as notified operate any industry without the concerned Board’s
under section 3 of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, clearance.
such as Mahabaleshwar, Panchgani, Matheran, Pachmarhi
Dahanu, Doon Valley, and, (iv) inter-State boundaries and iii. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,
international boundaries, provided that the requirement 1974 and further amended in 1988 mandated the
regarding distance of 10 km of the inter-state boundaries can Government to ensure prevention of degradation
be reduced or completely done away with by an agreement of quality of water, restoration of water quality.
between the respective states or Union Territories (UTs) No industry can be established or operate without
sharing the common boundary in case the activity does not clearance from the respective Pollution Control
fall within 10 km of the areas mentioned at item (i), (ii) and Boards. No developer is permitted to discharge
(iii) above. sewage or industry effluents in any river/stream.
iv. The Wildlife (Protection) Act,1972 and further

2.5.2 Specific condition (SC)
amended in 1993 stipulates that any industry or
If any industrial estate/complex/export processing zone/ other developmental activities (including road and
special economic zone/biotech park/leather complex highway projects) requiring prior EC in terms of the
with homogeneous type of industries, such as chlor-alkali thresholds detailed in the EIA notification, Sept 2006
industry, leather /skin / hide processing industry, petro- shall have to obtain Wildlife Clearance if the project
chemical based processing units and synthetic organic is proposed to be located inside of 10 kms of any
chemicals industry located outside industrial area for National Park/Wildlife Sanctuary.
category ‘A’ projects and located within industrial area for
category ‘B’ projects or those industrial estates with pre- v. The Forest Conservation Act,1980 and further
defined set of activities (not necessarily homogeneous), amended in 1988 aimed to empower the Central
obtains prior environmental clearance, individual industries Government to ensure prevention of depletion of
including proposed industrial housing within such estates/ forest area. It prevents de-reservation of forest land
complexes will not be required to take prior environmental and to ensure that forest land is not used for non-
clearance, so long as the terms and conditions for the forest purposes without the express approval of the
industrial estate/complex are complied with. Such estates/ Central Government.

POINT OF VIEW
Table 2. Categorisation and conditions for accord of environmental clearance
Project or Activity Category with threshold limit Conditions if any
A B
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
1 Physical infrastructure including environmental services
Note: air strips, which do not involve

All projects including air strips
1a Air ports bunkering /refueling facility and or air
which are for commercial use.
traffic control, are exempted.
General condition shall

apply
Note:
(i) Capital dredging
inside and outside the
< 5 million TPA of
ports or harbors and
>5 million TPA of cargo handling
Ports , harbours, channels are included.
cargo handling capacity and/or
1b breakwaters, and (ii) Maintenance
capacity (excluding ports/ harbours
dredging dredging is exempt
fishing harbours) >10,000 TPA of fish handling
provided it formed part
Capacity
of the original proposal
for which Environment
Management Plan (EMP) was prepared
and environmental
clearance obtained.
(i) new national highways, and

(i) all new state
(ii) expansion of national
highways projects,
highways greater than 30 km, General condition shall
and
involving additional Apply
1c Highways (ii) state highways
right of way greater than 20m Note: highways include
expansion projects in hilly terrain
involving land acquisition and Expressways
(above 1000m AMSL) and or
passing through more than
ecologically sensitive areas.
one state.
2 Construction/Township/Commercial Complexes/Housing
The built up or covered

area on all the floors
put together including
Building and >50000 sq. m. and basement(s) and other
2a
construction projects <1,50,000 sq. m. of built-up area service areas, which
are proposed in the
building/construction
projects.
The built up or
covered area on all
the floors put together
Covering an area ++All projects under
including
>100 ha and / or built up area Item 8(b) shall be
2b basement(s) and
>1,50,000 sq. appraised as category
other service areas,
m. B1
which are proposed
in the building /
construction projects.

POINT OF VIEW
vi. The Environment (Protection) Act 1986 further 3.0 EVOLUTION OF THE EIA SYSTEM ACROSS
amended in 1991 mandates ensuring prevention THE WORLD
of discharges or environment pollutants beyond
The European countries started with the process of enacting
prescribed limits and also to ensure handling
legislations for EIA as a follow up to the approval of the
of hazardous substances in accordance with the
European Directive on EIA in 1985. Regulatory framework
standards and procedures set out by the respective
and guidelines on EIA were established in West Germany
authorities.
(1974), France (1976), Canada (1973) and Australia (1975)
vii. The above crucial Acts are summarized in Table 3. etc. Among researchers and authors there is unanimity
that in the year 1969 the U.S.A. was the first nation to
establish formally, legislation requiring EIA by way of
2.7 Exemption (relaxation) in clearances to the U.S. National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) [3].
linear projects Subsequently, Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) was
MoEF on 19th March 2013 partially modified the provisions established by NEPA for assisting in the interpretation of
of the Forest Conservation Act 1980 with a view to providing NEPA’s provisions and procedures. The broad mandate of
for non-forest use of forest land. Provisions were made for NEPA was to ensure creation of and maintaining conditions
grant of EC to linear projects, of course subject to fulfillment conducive to harmonious existence of man and nature. In the
of additional conditions viz. work on non-forest land may U.K. several laws got legislated that served as the foundation
only be executed up to such point (to be selected by the user stone for EIA, 1988 onwards. These legislations implemented
agency) on either side of forest land. This was permitted the European Commission Directives 85/337/EEC (CEC
under explicit certification by the user agency that if approval 1985) including its amendments. The directives itself grew
under the Forest (Conservation) Act 1980 for diversion of out of a concern for physical environment and preventing
forest land is declined, it is technically feasible to execute its further deterioration. Provisions contained in Directive
the project along an alternate alignment without involving 85/337 [an offshoot of European Communities Act of 1972]
diversion of forest land. Further, commencement of work on are the statutory documents which spell out the rules for
non-forest land will not confer upon the user an assurance EIA to be carried out by the Member States. In terms of the
for grant of final approval under the Forest (Conservation) above Directive, EIA is mandatorily required for classes of
Act, 1980. projects appearing in Annexure –I of the Directive, whereas,
projects figuring in Annexure-II provides for discretion
to authorities for carrying out EIA. Annexure-I projects
Table 3. Summary of key environmental acts in India

S. no. Name Scope and objective Operational agencies/key players
Mandates consolidation of acquisition of State Government, Forest

1. Indian Forest Act, 1927
common property such as forests Settlement Officers
Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, Wildlife Advisory Boards, Central Zoo

2. To protect wildlife
amended, in 1993 Authorities
Constitutes provisions for the prevention and
Water (Prevention and Control of
3. of water pollution and enhancing the quality of Central and State Pollution Control Boards
Pollution) Act, 1974, amended in 1988
water
Forest Conservation Act, 1980, To halt India’s rapid deforestation and resulting
4. Central Government
amended in 1988 environmental degradation
Air (Prevention and Control of Details provisions for prevention, control and
5. Central and State Pollution Control Boards
Pollution) Act, 1981, amended in 1987 abatement of air pollution
To provide for the protection and Central Government, nodal agency MoEF,
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986,
6. improvement of the environment under an can delegate powers, State Departments of
amended in 1991
umbrella legislation Environment

POINT OF VIEW
primarily consists of those related to crude oil refineries, is not a prerequisite for grant of “Prior Environmental
coal / shale, thermal power station, nuclear power stations, Clearance”(MoEF OM dated 2nd Dec 2009 ).
large scale projects for damps reservoirs pipelines for gas,
waste water treatment etc. Further, for identifying a The Forest Clearance process comprises 2 stages: stage I and
st
project figuring under Annexure-II, a combination of both, II. The 1 stage constitutes in-principle approval in addition
1) thresholds and 2) a case by case approach is followed by to depositing money for Compensatory Afforestation. No
Member States. However, still, major variation in the activity is allowed to be undertaken by the project-proponent
nature of thresholds used,exists among different Member until stage II clearance (Final) is accorded. Stage II clearance
States e.g. in afforestation projects from an area of 30 hectares involves compliance of set out conditions under Stage-I
in Denmark to 350 hectares in Portugal, triggers mandatory approval, followed by handing over of the land. Previously,
EIA. EC and FC were being sought independently, however, with
the MoEF notification dated 19.03.2013 Forest Clearance has
EIA procedures and legislations were finalized/adopted in been delinked for linear projects (roads/highways,pipeline
China in 1989 [13], in Cambodia in 1996, in Laos in 1999, in projects etc.).
Vietnam in 1993, and in Thailand in 2002. The EIA system
adopted/in existence worldwide, have a very comprehensive 5.0 ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT PLAN
objective of making the decision-makers fully aware of the (EMP)
environmental consequences that will follow their decision
Environment impact assessment precedes formulation
in the proposed action.
of Environment Management Plan. In the process of the
said assessment the direct, indirect, intangible/induced
Despite the EIA law of 2002 enacted in China, wherein
and short/long term environment impacts, their range and
public participation is enshrined under Articles 11 and 21,
scope, those that may cause risk to and adversely affect
researchers are of the view that initially public participation
the physical, socio-economic and biological resources, are
in the EIA process was limited [12]. In many of the countries
carried out in co-ordination with all the stakeholders and
several laws have been enacted since 2002 to mitigate
affected people. The study also incorporates processing and
adverse environmental impact and for improving forestry
examining of “Alternatives” to the projects’ location, design
management. These laws/legislations were drafted/enacted
etc. with a view to avoiding adverse environmental effects
in response to and for complying with the conditions
regarding proper land use and progressive forest reforms, or at least minimize such risks. Such assessment studies also
laid down by the World Bank for the release of Structural cover the geographical “area of influence” of the project. The
Adjustment Credit Loans. likely risks and impacts on account of the proposed project
shall cover the whole project-cycle including at relevant i)
4.0 DETAILS OF FOREST CLEARANCE preconstruction, ii) construction, and (iii) operation and
maintenance stages.
Protected areas like National Parks are completely free from
human activities and are notified under Forest Protection The client/proponent has to prepare the EMP which
Act (1980) and/or Wildlife (Protection) Act,1972 and their necessarily should comprise:
respective amendments. Wildlife clearance is a prerequisite
to obtaining “Forest Clearance” if the project involves i. mitigation measures,
forest land diversion in Protected Areas even for roads/
highway projects. In fact, all projects/developmental ii. implementation schedule, cost estimates, and
activities including projects of roads/highways requiring performance indicators, and
prior EC in terms of the thresholds notified under EIA iii. contingency plan for quick response in case of
stipulations,2006, require Wildlife Clearance if the projects’ emergency situations and should have an in-built
location falls within 10 kms of the geographical boundary of detailed environment impact monitoring and
any Wildlife Sanctuary/National park as per the provisions reporting mechanism.
of the Wildlife (Protection) Act,1972. The National Board
of Wildlife (NBWL) was constituted by the Government of
India as a follow-up to the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment The EMP must ensure that mitigation measures proposed
Act (2003).Prior clearance/approval from the NBWL and e.g.design, construction including O & M of any project is in
the Supreme Court, Government of India, is essential for complete synergy with the extant and applicable Acts, Rules,
obtaining wildlife clearance. However, Wildlife Clearance Laws, Notifications and regulatory provisions. Mitigation

POINT OF VIEW
Table 4. Projects where forest land required diversion & where wild life clearance was required (as on 29.09.2014).
S l . Name of Projects ENV. Clear- Forest Clear- Area for Wild life clearance
No. ance (Time) ance (Time) diversion (Time)
(ha)
7 8 . 0 1 +
1 Kishangarh-Udaipur – Ahmedabad section of NH-8 2 yrs 1 yr 8.5 mth NA
173.39 [*1]
Gomati Chauraha – Udaipur section of NH-8 (from Km 177/000 TO Km 260/100) in the
2 1 yr 3 mth 2 yrs 6 mth 267 NA
State of Rajasthan
3 Jhalawar – Biaora section of NH-12 in the State of Rajasthan 1 yr 10 mth 2 yrs 12.6 NA
Rehabilitation and upgrading to 2 Lane with paved shoulder of NH-232A (Unnao-Lal-

4 1 yr 5 month No data 66 NA
ganj Section) in the state of Uttar Pradesh
Rampur-Kathgodam Section from Km 0.000 (Km 190.000 of NH-24) to Km 88.000 of NH- 54.76+ 59.24
5 1 yr 10 mth 3 yrs 9 mth NA
87 in the States of Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand [*2]
Hospet - Chitradurga section of NH-13 from Km 299.000 to Km 418.600 in the State of
6 1 yr 7 mth 3 yrs 6 mth 53.6 NA
Karnataka
Hospet-Bellary-AP/KNT Border Section of NH-63 from Km.280.300 to Km.375.740 in
7 1 yr 9 mth 3 yrs 2 mth 12.9 NA
the State of Karnataka
MH-KNT Border to Sangareddy Section of NH-9 from Km.348.800 to Km.493.000 in the

8 1 yr 8 mth 2 yrs 7 mth 5.6+2.8 [*3] NA
State of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh
Shivpuri-Dewas Section of NH-3 from km.236.000 to km. 566.450 in the State of Madhya
9 1 yr 3 yrs 6 mth 39.63 NA
Pradesh
10 Sultanpur-Varanasi Section of NH-56 in the State of Uttar Pradesh 11 mth 11 mth 133.22 NA
Varanasi-Indo-Nepal border of NH-233 ( Varanasi-Indo-Nepal border, Pkg-II, Ghaghra

11 1 yr 8 mth 1 yr 7 mth 50.51 NA
bridge section)
Agra – Etawah Bypass Section of NH-2 from Km. 199.660 to Km. 323.525 in the State of
12 1 yr 1 mth 2 yrs 6 mth ## NA
Uttar Pradesh
2 Lane with paved shoulder of NH-231 (Raebareilly – Jaunpur Section) and NH-232
13 1 yr 2 mth 2 yrs 6 mth ## NA
(Ambedkar Nagar – Banda Section) in the state of Uttar Pradesh
14 Pratapgarh–Padi section of NH-113 FROM KM 80.00 TO KM 180.00 of NH-113 8 mth 2 yrs 6 mth 42.35 NA
2-lane with paved shoulders in Padhi –Dahod Section of NH-113 in the State of Rajasthan 4.42 + 1.5
15 1 yr 11 mth 1 yr 8 mth NA
& Gujarat (Length 87 Km): [*4]
For 4-laning of Amravati – Gujarat- Maharashtra District Border (in Km.167/000 to

16 1 yr 6 mth 3 yrs 2 mth 48.61 NA
Km.649.000) Section of NH-6 in the State of Maharashtra
Four Laning of ObedullaganjBetul Section of NH-69 From Km 2.800 to 8.300 and from
17 Km 20.700 to Km 137.000 (Excluding Wild Life Sanctuary from Km 8.300 to Km 20.700) 2 yrs 2 yrs 10 mth 153.54 NA
(Except 28+000 to Km 61+500 as Two Lane with Paved Shoulder) in the State Of MP
Four Laning of Rewa-Katni-Jabalpur Section of NH-7 From Km 242.3 to 465.5 in the State
18 1 yr 3 mth 3 yrs 5 mth 16.89 NA
Of MP as BOT (Toll) Project On DBFOT
19 Part-II (Panagar Bypass and existing Jabalpur Bypass) 1 yr 1 yr 4 mth 0.46
Four Laning of Gwalior-Shivpuri Section of NH-3 & 75 From Km 103 to 236 in the State
20 2 yrs 4 mth 3 yrs 4 mth ## 3 yrs 7 mth
of MP
Wild life clearance
Widening and improvement of existing 2- lane to 4 lane of Kiratpur - Bilaspur Section of
21 7 mth 2 yrs 3 mth ## involved but no
NH-21 in the State of Punjab and Himachal Pradesh(F.No.10-1228/2011.IA.III)
time data available
Wild life clearance
4 lane to 4 lane of Bilaspur- NerChowk Section of NH-21 from Km 134.500 to Km. 186.500
22 1 yr 4 mth 1 yrs 1 mth ## involved but no no
in the State of Himachal Pradesh
time data available
Four Laning of Solapur-MAH/KNT Border Section of NH 9 in Km. 249/000 to Km. 4.14 + 0.4
23 1 yr 11 mth 10 mth 2 yrs 2 mth
348/800 in the State of Maharashtra. [*5]
Four Laning of Solapur-Bijapur Section of NH-13 in Km. 0/000 to Km. 110/542 in the
24 1 yr 3 mth 7 mth 2.665 2 yrs 2 mth
State of Maharashtra and Karnataka
Sitar Ganj-Tanakpur Section from Km 0.000 to Km 52.200 of NH- 74 in the States of Uttar
25 2 mth 1 mth 36.47 NA
Pradesh and Uttarakhand
Kashipur-Sitar Ganj Section from Km 175.000 to Km 252.200 of NH- 74 in the States of
26 4 mth 4 mth 2.95 NA
Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand
## Data are not available
[*1] In the States of Rajasthan & Gujarat. [*2] In the States of Uttar Pradesh & Uttarakhand. [*3] In the States of Karnataka & Andhra Pradesh. [*4] In the States of
Rajasthan & Gujarat.[*5] 2 district in Maharashtra (Osmanabad & Solapur). Source :- http://www.nhai.org/Env.asp
Note: The time stated for EC, FC and wild life clearance in respect of the road in Table --- has been reckoned from the details of the concerned projects as available
in the “source “

POINT OF VIEW
measures shall be planned and designed in such a way so as A total of 23 Specific Conditions and 9 General Conditions
to ensure that “no net loss of biodiversity” is achieved (India were spelt out and appended to the two clearances for
Infrastructure Finance Company Limited; IIFCL). Extent compliance. It is important to note that Appeal can be filed
of projects’ impacts and risks on biodiversity shall form an against any EC granted within a period of 30 days in terms
integral part of the assessment process and the provisions of of section 16 of the National Green Tribunal Act, 2010. The
the documented EMP must contain measures for preventing
EC and CRZ clearances were accorded on January 1, 2014
degradation of: (i) modified habitats (where the natural
[4]. In other words it took simply one year to accord the EC
habitat has been altered on account of introduction of alien
and CRZ Clearance.
plants and animals) and (ii) natural and critical habitat.
6.0 TIME-LINES FOR ACTIONS BY 7.1.2 Development of Southern Dock Complex and Oil
CONCERNED AUTHORITIES FOR ACCORD OF jetty at Paradip Port, Project (State of Odisha) –
EC This project comprised development of multipurpose
Ministry of Environment & Forest, Government of India is terminal for handling ‘clean cargo’ viz. containers and
the regulatory authority at the Central Government level steel exports from the existing green field steel industries.
and the State Environment Impact Assessment Authority The EC and CRZ clearances were issued by the Ministry of
(SEIAA) at the state level for category ‘A’ and category ‘B’ Environment and Forests, Government of India on 13th July
projects described in the schedule. The time lines in regard 2012 and the clearances comprised of 14 Specific Conditions
to prior environmental clearance are shown in Table 4. The and 9 General Conditions to be complied with [5].
stage of “public consultation process” is normally the most
time consuming one. In case of many projects spanning 7.2 Roads/highway projects
more than one state, arranging and concluding the public
hearing with stakeholders required tremendous patience A total of 6 Road/Highway projects located in the State of
and continuous perusal. Uttar Pradesh & Madhya Pradesh each, were taken up for
detailed case studies. All these projects involved diversion
7.0 CASE STUDIES – EC AND FC REGARDING of forest land. Further, it also involved conducting public
A snapshot of the details pertaining to the port, road, and hearing in more than one district of the States. Similarly,
airport projects in India is given in the following paragraphs. 3 projects spanning the two States of Uttar Pradesh and
All the cardinal issues and time period taken in relation to Uttarakhand as well as 2 projects spanning the two States
grant of environmental clearance and forest clearance are Rajasthan and Gujarat were analysedvis-a-vis the time
spelt out. consumed for obtaining EC and FC. In all, 26 projects
were analysed and it was found that in nearly 14 of these
7.1 Port projects projects (53.85%), the time taken for grant of forest clearance
7.1.1 Dhamra Port Project (State of Odisha) – was either twice or more than two times the time taken for
The project entailed expansion of Dhamra Port project. granting EC. The input data for the case studies of the above
Environmental Clearances as well as clearances in terms roads/highways projects have been gathered and collated in
of the Coastal Regulatory Zone stipulations were required. the Table 5[10]. The Table also shows the time period taken
The process seeking the above two clearances was initiated for grant of EC and FC for other road projects also. From the
on 20.12.2012 by the Environment-cum-special Secretary Table 5 [only 26 road projects for which data in regard to EC
to the Government of Odisha starting with the sending of and FC is available], it is seen that an average of 16.04
the proposal to the Ministry of Environment and Forests, months’ time has been consumed for grant of EC with the
Government of India (IA Division). The EIA comprised
highest being 28 months and the three lowest being 2,4 and
addressing all issues pertaining to marine, terrestrial and
7 months. Similarly, in regard to forest clearance an average
socio-economic aspects of the project including a hydro-
of 25.74 months has been consumed for grant of the same
dynamic study of the effect of dredging. The said study
suggested that no significant impact on the shoreline with the highest being 45 months and the lowest three being
abutting the project shall take place. 1,4 and 7 months.

POINT OF VIEW
7.3 Airport projects 7.3.2 Greenfield International Airport at Mopa, Goa
7.3.1 Greenfield International Airport at Shamshabad, Ministry of Environment and Forests had constituted a High
near Hyderabad Level Working Group (HLWG) under the Chairmanship
of Dr. K. Kasturirangan, Member (Science), Planning
The environment clearance was based on the EIA study
Commission vide office order dated 17.08.2012 to study
comprising aspects covering environmental quality
the preservation of the ecology, environmental integrity
monitoring, waste water management, green house guest
and holistic development of the Western Ghats in view of
management and development of green belt, rain water
their rich and unique biodiversity. The HLWG submitted
harvesting and water treatment etc. In fact the EMP too for
its report to the MoEF on 15th April 2013. The HLWG
the above project covered the above aspects. The greenbelt
identified 37% of natural landscape having high biological
has been developed covering an area of 273 hectares and
richness, low forest fragmentation, low population density
971 hectares of natural greenery has been left undisturbed
and containing Protected Areas, World Heritage Sites and
as required in the details of the EMP [6]. This green cover
Tiger and Elephant corridors as an Ecologically Sensitive
facilitated in removal of 124 tonnes of carbon dioxide
Areas (ESA) [7].
annually from the environment comprising the airport
and its surrounding areas. The mechanism for carrying
out environmental monitoring analysis covered various 7.4 Worldwide projects – case study related
parameters of the ambient air as well as stack, water, soil, to environmental issues
wastewater and noise, in and around the airport site.
7.4.1 Mekong river basin projects
Six countries are located in the Mekong River Basin. The river
MoEF has granted environmental clearance for expansion starts from Tibet in the West and traverses through China,
of Hyderabad international airport at Shamshabad on 10th Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, and Vietnam. As
April, 2007, Letter no. 10- 14/2006-IA-III. such any water related project in the Basin area is certain to
Table 5. Time line for efficient and prompt action by authorities for speedy grant of EC
Sl.no. Activity Time line
Constitution of the State Environment Impact Assessment Authority within 30 days of the receipt of the names from the State Gov-
1
(SEIAA). ernment / Union Territory administration.
Scoping - This stage constitutes firming of “Terms of Reference”(ToR)
2 and while finalizing the ToR the ones proposed by the applicant is also within 60 days of receipt of the Form 1/Form 1A.
examined.
To be completed within a period of 45 days of a request to the
3 Public consultation-
effect from the applicant.
In case this does not get completed within the said period another au-
4 thority or agency can be engaged for the work for completing the public To be completed within a further period of 45 days.
hearing.
The appraisal of the application by the Expert Appraisal Committee To be completed within a period of 60 days from the receipt of
5
(EAC)/State Level Expert Appraisal Committee (SLEAC). the EIA report and other documents.
The EAC/SLEAC shall place their appraisal for final approval before the within a period of 15 days of completion of the appraisal by
6
competent authority. them.
within a period of 45 days from the date of receipt of the rec-

ommendations of the EAC/SLEAC or within 105 days of the
7 The regulatory authority shall convey its decision to the applicant.
receipt of the EIA report except in case of the regulatory author-
ity’s disagreement with the final EIA report.

POINT OF VIEW
have a trans boundary environmental, economic and social process. Complexity and quantum of problems faced by the
impacts on the populace, flora-fauna, and other inhabitants/ proposed project govern the cost involved in undertaking
species in the basin area [11]. Resultantly, it is very desirable the EIA. The cost normally is of the order of 0.1 to 2.0 % of
that the country specific laws, rules and policies related to the total investment [8].
the fallout from the environmental impacts are framed and
implemented in a well coherent and co-ordinated manner.
Use of traditional mechanisms for gathering input data, 8.2 Responsibility for EIA
often leads to misleading information particularly with The ultimate responsibility for design of the development
regard to expanse of affected area. This happened in many projects and their upkeep besides safeguarding the
of the transboundary EIAs also known as TIAs, conducted environment in the respective developing countries lies
for Mekong river basin water-related projects. Resultantly, with the governments. The OECD further underscores the
only “selective impact area” instead of the “potential impact need that the donors are to ensure that an EIA of the aid-
area” got reflected and factored in the EIA. As such use of assisted project takes into account the environmental laws
advanced technological methods viz. satellite imaging for and regulations of the recipient countries. Onus for EIAs to
mapping affected habitats as well as other geographical and be carried out and paid, lies with the developers, whereas, in
biological formations shall project a more realistic picture in Belgium [9] the EIA is carried out by the experts engaged by
this regard. While legislating laws and their implementation authorities responsible for environment matters.
and decision making should not allow short term benefits
to trump other more related concerns. Power asymmetry is
manifest in the Mekong basin countries resulting in muted 9.0 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
resistance to related undue activities by the countries located The Government of India’s concern for environmental
in the upstream. impacts started getting formalized with the setting up of
the Ministry of Environment and Forest in 1985. This was
followed by enactment of the Environment (Protection)
8.0 WORLD BANK, ADB AND OECD – Act, 1986 in turn framing and notifying the Environment
PERSPECTIVE ON AID AND ENVIRONMENT (Protection) Rules,1986. An important milestone in the course
The aid agencies shall assess the environmental impact of of enacting successive legislations by the Government of
development assistance projects which because of their India, is the Notification dated 14th September, 2006 wherein
nature, size and location could significantly affect the the MoEF, Government of India has mandated seeking
environment [8]. The World Bank’s detailed guidelines to be “prior environmental clearance” in case of construction of
adhered to for evaluating the environmental impacts have new projects and other activities appended as Schedule to
been published in Environmental Assessment Sourcebook (1991). the said notification entailing capacity addition or change in
Planning and implementation process of the projects by the process or technology etc.
WB hinges upon the central concepts of: (i) environmental
economics, (ii) sustainable development, and (iii) complete
project cycle. The Bank considers all these project specific The assessment process of impacts on the environment and
variables to be related. affected people is very complicated, vast and varied as well
as interdisciplinary in nature. Further, it is very difficult
for, even experts in the field, who attempt at estimating the
8.1 Time and cost requirements for EIA costs and benefits of these impacts. The difficulty starts with
establishing the baseline values of the existing environment
Determination/allocation of time for initial EIA is a difficult
as well as estimating the change in these values on account
process. The initial EIA is required to be carried out during
of the project/activity.
the planning phase of a project and as such, is a function
of the planning procedures and project characteristics. The
assessment is also contingent upon the availability of its From the Table 4 it is clear that EC for most of the roads/
baseline data for conclusion of the process. Simultaneous highways projects took lesser time (significantly lesser time
action during the EIA and planning process ensures use of in some of the projects) than the time taken for accord of
common data leading to a robust and much more efficient FC. However, as per the relevant rules and provisions, no
EIA and that is in synergy with other aspects of the planning activity can be started till Stage-II clearance is given by

POINT OF VIEW
the MoEF. This becomes very time consuming wherever 5. MoEF, (IA Division) GoI, letter bearing No. 11-117/2009-IA-III
diversion of Forest land is involved particularly if the project dated 13.07.2012.
is spread over more than one State geographically. Therefore, 6. h t t p : / / w w w . a d b . o r g / s i t e s / d e f a u l t / f i l e s / p r o j e c t -
appropriate level of co-ordination and cohesion between the document/80396/47083-002-sddr-02.pdf accessed at 4:45 pm on
concerned line Ministry, proposing the project and the MoEF 07.06.2016
is inevitably required. Though the regulator is the MoEF for 7. http://environmentclearance.nic.in/writereaddata/EIA/210
grant of EC there are numerous authorities/entities viz. 42015OVLC0QNFOnlyEIAReport.pdf accessed at 02:15 pm on
those associated with the (i) grant of Wild Life clearance 10.06.2016
(ii) Coastal Regulatory Authority (iii) Agriculture Ministry
8. OECD (1992) Guidelines on Environment and Aid: Good
(iv) State Governments (when political considerations start practices for Environmental Impact Assessment of Development
weighing upon the decision making process in India ). Still, Projects. OECD, Paris. http://www.oecd.org/dac/environment-
it’s on a healthy course in India, as the policies related to EC, development/1887592.pdf
has been nearly very dynamic in nature and has come a long 9. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/archives/eia/pdf/eia_study_
way since 1985. june_09.pdf
10. Environment/Forest/Wild/Life clearance (As on 29.09.2014)

http//www.Nhai.org/Env.asp accessed on 19.05.2015.
References
11. L i, Jennifer C. (2008) Environmental Impact Assessments
1. MoEF Notification dated 14.09.2006.-Environment (Protection)
in DevelopingCountries: An Opportunity for
Rules, 1986.
GreaterEnvironmentalSecurity.Working Paper No. 4.
2. Euro. Comm Directive 85/337/EEC(CEC 1985) http://www.
12. Wang, Ziuan and Dien Sue Liang, (2005) Public participation in
ecolex.org/ecolex/ledge/view/RecordDetails?index=docume
environmental impact assessment (EIA) Law of China- http//
nts&id=LEX-FAOC018644 accessed at 12:50 pm on 13.05.2016
www.riel.whu.edu.cn/show.asp- quoted by Jennifer C. Li-
3. NEPA-https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/summary- working paper No.4, (2008) EIA in Developing Countries: An
national-environmental-policy-actaccessed at 12:50 pm on opportunity for greater Environmental Security.
04.05.2016
13. Wenger, B.,Robert and Xiaoying, MA Huadong Wang (1990)
4. MoEF, (IA Division) GoI, letter bearing No. 11-117/2009-IA-III “Environmental Impact Assesment in the People’s Republic of
dated 01.01.2014. China”. Environment Management Vol.14 No.4 pp 429-439.
Ajit K. Sinha holds a B.Tech (Civil) from IIT BHU; M.Tech from IIT Delhi; pursuing his PhD with IIT Delhi.
He is a Superintending Surveyor of Works (Civil)-III. He has worked with the Civil Construction Wing,
All India Radio for nearly 30 years. His areas of interest are arbitration and issues related to public private
partnership projects. He has overseen many projects of All India Radio and Doordarshan executed in the
North East region of India.
Dr. Kumar Neeraj Jha is with the Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi. He started his career with
Larsen and Toubro Ltd and was instrumental in successful completion of a number of construction projects
of national importance. He has published more than 50 papers in a number of national /international
journals and conference proceedings. He has supervised three PhD students and more than 50 M.Tech.
students. His books on Construction Project Management published by Pearson Education and Formwork
for Concrete Structures published by Tata McGraw Hill are considered as one of the text books in different
universities.

TECHNICAL PAPER
Investigations on the effect of gradual cooling

on the properties of fly ash concrete subjected to
sustained elevated temperatures
Shweta Patil and K.B. Prakash
Fly ash is the waste from the coal industries and poses serious problems of disposing. This present study focuses on utilization
of fly ash which replaces cement in proportions of 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30% and subjected to elevated temperatures
o
like 200°C, 400°C, 600°C, 800°C and 1000 C followed by gradual cooling. The various strength parameters were studied as
per IS. Studies indicate that better strength characteristics in concrete were obtained at 25% replacement of cement by fly ash
o
and subjected to room temperature of 200°C, 400°C, 600°C, 800°C and 1000 C followed by gradual cooling. Therefore it is
feasible to adopt fly ash as a partial replacement of cement when it is exposed to elevated temperature with gradual cooling.
Keywords: Fly ash; sustained elevated temperature; gradual cooling; strength characteristics.
1. Introduction The fire resistance capacity of concrete is very complicated

In designing concrete structures subjected to high because not only is concrete a composite material with
temperature environments, for example cooling towers in components having different thermal characteristics, it also
power plants, furnaces and reactors, pre-stressed concrete has the properties that depend on moisture and porosity[1].
pressure vessels in nuclear industries and reinforced The studies have shown that the high strength concrete has
concrete skyscrapers, the information about fundamental a poor resistance to fire as compared to normal strength
properties of concrete such as strength, stiffness, toughness,
concrete [2,3].
and brittleness under highly elevated temperature is very
often required. The mechanical properties such as strength,
modulus of elasticity and volume stability of concrete are High temperature effect on concrete is one of the most
significantly reduced during these exposures. This may
important physical deterioration processes that affect the
result in undesirable structural failures. Therefore, the
durability of the structure. This effect may decrease the
properties of concrete retained after a fire are of importance
for determining the load carrying capacity and for reinstating expected service life of the structure due to permanent
fire-damaged constructions. damage. It is possible to minimize the effect of high
temperature by taking preventive measures such as choosing
The Indian Concrete Journal, May 2017, Vol. 91, Issue 5, pp. 47-53. the right material and proper insulation methods.

TECHNICAL PAPER
When exposed to high temperature, the chemical composition of concrete. Therefore the study of concrete subjected to
and physical structure of the concrete change considerably. different rates of cooling becomes an important parameter
The dehydration such as the release of chemically bound of study. In the present investigation concrete subjected to
water from the calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) becomes elevated temperatures and gradual cooling is studied.
significant above about 110OC. The dehydration of the
hydrated calcium silicate and the thermal expansion of the
aggregate increase internal stresses and from 300OC micro- 3. Materials and Methods
cracks are induced through the material[4]. Ordinary Portland cement of 43grade (IS 8112)[5] with
specific gravity 3.01 was used in making the concrete. Fine
aggregate used was of zone I and its specific gravity was
Calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2], which is one of the most
2.57 [6]. Coarse aggregates used in the experimentation were
important compounds in cement paste, dissociates at
around 530oC resulting in the shrinkage of concrete. The 20m and down size and their specific gravity was found to
fire is generally extinguished by water and CaO turns into be 3.1 [6]. Class F fly ash used in this experimentation was
[Ca(OH)2] causing cracking and crumbling of concrete. obtained from Raichur Thermal Power Plant Karnataka. The
Therefore, the effects of high temperatures are generally specific gravity of fly ash is found to be 2.1. To improve the
visible in the form of surface cracking and spalling. Some workability a reputed superplasticizer was used. The dosage
changes in colour may also occur during the exposure. of superplasticizer used was 0.2% by weight of cement. Mix
The alterations produced by high temperatures are more proportion used for M25 concrete (control concrete) was
evident when the temperature surpasses 400OC. Most 1:2.5:4.0 with w/c = 0.45 (IS 10262:2009)[7]. Slump test was
changes experienced by concrete at this temperature level carried out to assess the workability in fresh state. Specimens
are considered irreversible. CSH gel, which is the strength- were cast by replacing cement in proportions of 5%, 10%,
giving compound of cement paste, decomposes further 15%, 20%, 25%,30%.Cubes of size 150x150x150mm, cylinders
above 600OC. As a result, severe microstructural changes are of size 150 mm diameter and 300mm length, beams of size
induced and concrete loses its strength and durability [4]. 100mmx100mmx500mm , cylinders of size 150mm diameter
and 60mm length were cast. All the specimen were cured for
90 days. After 90 days of curing, the specimens were weighed
But literature is either scarce or silent in respect of fly ash as
accurately. The specimen were then transferred to an oven
an alternative material for replacement of cement in concrete
and subjected to temperatures of 200°C, 400°C, 600°C, 800°C
subjected to elevated temperature with varying methods of
and 1000°C for 4 hours. They were then allowed to cool in the
cooling. The present research attempts to study the behavior
of fly ash concrete at elevated temperature with gradual furnace and later taken out for testing. They were visually
cooling. observed for change in colour and cracks. After cooling they
were weighed again accurately for loss in weight. After this
they were tested for their respective strengths. The cubes
2. Research Significance were tested for compressive strength, the beams were tested
The rate of cooling plays an important role in the residual for flexural strength the cylinders of length 300mm were
strength characteristics of concrete when the concrete is tested for split tensile strength and cylinders of length 60mm
subjected to elevated temperatures. In real time situations, were tested for impact strength.[8], [9].
the concrete may be subjected to sudden cooling when fire-
fighting engine start impinging water on concrete structure
which is on fire. Sometimes, the concrete may be subjected to 4. Results And Discussions
gradual cooling as in case of chimneys etc. or even sometimes, The results of compressive strength, tensile strength, flexural
the concrete may be subjected to intermittent cooling as strength and impact strength are presented in Tables 1,2,3
in case of some fire fighting devices. In all such situations and 4. Variation of compressive strength, tensile strength,
the concrete is subjected to different rates of cooling and flexural strength and impact strength are shown in the form
this certainly affects the residual strength characteristics of graph in Figures 1,2,3 and 4 respectively.

TECHNICAL PAPER
Table 1. Comparative results of compressive strength when Table 2. Comparative results of tensile strength when
subjected to gradual cooling subjected to gradual cooling
Percentage Compressive strength (MPa) when subjected to Percentage Tensile strength (MPa) when subjected to
replacement replacement
of cement 35°C 200°C 400°C 600°C 800°C 1000°C of cement by
by fly ash (Room fly ash 35°C 200°C 400°C 600°C 800°C 1OOO°C
temp.) Room
0% 25.85 20.98 20.41 20 6.67 1.2 temp.
5% 27.07 21.04 20.62 20.27 7.11 1.5 0% 3.8 3.54 3.21 2.93 1.86 1.7
5% 3.94 3.63 3.28 3.2 2.24 1.9
10% 28.44 26.18 25.67 20.67 8.67 2.1
10% 4.15 3.7 3.66 3.42 2.77 2.1
15% 29.32 28.83 27.63 27.2 8.89 2.6
15% 4.27 3.92 3.71 3.59 2.85 2.8
20% 33.11 32.68 32.07 31.78 9.6 3.3 20% 5.02 4.15 3.93 3.69 3.31 2.8
25% 36.07 35.56 34 32.67 9.88 4 25% 5.37 4.27 4.19 3.93 3.59 3.1
30% 34.74 33.85 33.16 31.91 9.78 3.5 30% 5.23 3.54 3.13 2.85 2.8 2.6
The test results indicate that the compressive strength of It is observed that the concrete when subjected to 200oC
concrete increases as the percentage replacement of cement and with gradual cooling shows an increasing trend of
by fly ash goes on increasing upto 25% (Table 1). Beyond compressive strength as the percentage replacement of
25% replacement level the compressive strength shows a cement by fly ash goes on increasing upto 25%. Beyond
decreasing trend. Thus the higher value of compressive 25% replacement level the compressive strength shows
strength is obtained at 25% replacement level of cement a decreasing trend. At 25% replacement a compressive
by fly ash and its value is 36.07MPa (Table 1). A similar strength of 35.56MPa is observed which yields 70% increase
observation is made in tensile strength, flexural strength in the compressive strength with respect to reference mix.
and impact strength with their value as 5.37MPa, 6.87MPa, A similar trend is observed for tensile strength, flexural
and 947.48N-m respectively (Tables 2, 3 and 4 respectively). strength and impact strength where in the percentage
This is attributed for the higher pozzolanic reaction at 25% increase in the strength are 20%, 25% and 125% respectively.
replacement level. Therefore 25% replacement of cement by Also it is found that at 25% replacement level when subjected
fly ash can result in better strength characteristics of concrete. to 200oC and with gradual cooling the residual compressive
Table 3. Comparative results of flexural strength when Table 4. Comparative results of impact strength for final
subjected to gradual cooling failure when subjected to gradual cooling
Percentage Flexural strength (MPa) when subjected to Percentage Impact strength (N-m) for final
replacement replacement failure when subjected to
of cement of cement
by fly ash 35°C 200°C 400°C 600°C 800°C 1OOO°C by fly ash
Room 35°C 200°C 400°C 600°C 800°C 1000oC
temp. (Room
temp.)
0% 5.13 4.47 4.2 3.67 3 2.5
0% 435.7 414.96 290.47 228.23 186.73 166
5% 5.27 4.87 4.67 4.27 3.47 2.7 5% 712.34 684.68 435.7 373.46 311.22 290.5
10% 5.53 4.93 4.8 4.4 3.6 3.2 10% 740 726.17 497.95 394.21 352.71 332
15% 5.93 5.13 4.93 4.6 3.87 3.3 15% 781.5 767.67 746.92 518.7 394.21 352.7
20% 6.6 5.27 5.27 4.93 4.67 4.2 20% 885.24 871.41 829.91 601.69 414.96 394.2
25% 6.87 5.6 5.40 5.13 4.93 4.7 25% 947.48 933.65 892.16 726.17 663.93 643.2
30% 6.47 5.53 5 5 4.67 4.5 30% 864.49 850.66 622.43 580.94 456.45 421.9

TECHNICAL PAPER
35oC (Room temp.) 400oC 800oC

200oC 600oC 1000oC
6
5
Tensile strength, MPa
0
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30%
Percentage replacement of cement by fly ash
Figure 2. Variation of tensile strength of flyash concrete when

subjected
50 ThetoIndian
various temperatures
Concrete for 42017
Journal May hrs and with gradual
cooling
TECHNICAL PAPER
strength, residual tensile strength, residual flexural strength replacement level. Therefore 25% replacement of cement by
and residual impact strength are found to be 98.59%, 79.5%, fly ash can result in better strength characteristics in concrete
81.5% and 98.5% respectively .This is again attributed to the when subjected to 600oC and with gradual cooling.
fact that higher pozzolanic reaction can take place at 25%
replacement level. Therefore 25% replacement of cement by
fly ash can result in better strength characteristics in concrete It is observed that the concrete when subjected to 800oC
when subjected to 200oC and with gradual cooling. and with gradual cooling shows an increasing trend of
compressive strength as the percentage replacement of
It is observed that the concrete when subjected to 400oC cement by fly ash goes on increasing upto 25%. Beyond
and with gradual cooling shows an increasing trend of 25% replacement level the compressive strength shows
compressive strength as the percentage replacement of a decreasing trend. At 25% replacement a compressive
cement by fly ash goes on increasing upto 25%. Beyond strength of 9.88MPa is observed which yields 49% increase
25% replacement level the compressive strength shows in the compressive strength with respect to reference mix.
a decreasing trend. At 25% replacement a compressive A similar trend is observed for tensile strength, flexural
strength of 34MPa is observed which yields 67% increase strength and impact strength where in the percentage
in the compressive strength with respect to reference mix. increase in the strength are 93%, 64% and 256% respectively.
A similar trend is observed for tensile strength, flexural Also it is found that at 25% replacement level when subjected
strength and impact strength where in the percentage to 800oC and with gradual cooling the residual compressive
increase in the strength are 31%, 26% and 207% respectively. strength, residual tensile strength, residual flexural strength
Also it is found that at 25% replacement level when subjected and residual impact strength are found to be 27.39%, 66.9%,
to 400oC and with gradual cooling the residual compressive 71.8% and 70.1% respectively. This is again attributed to the
strength, residual tensile, residual flexural strength and fact that higher pozzolanic reaction can take place at 25%
residual impact strength are found to be 94.26%, 78.03%, replacement level. Therefore 25% replacement of cement by
78.6% and 94.2% respectively. This is again attributed to the fly ash can result in better strength characteristics in concrete
fact that higher pozzolanic reaction can take place at 25% when subjected to 800oC and with gradual cooling.
replacement level. Therefore 25% replacement of cement by
fly ash can result in better strength characteristics in concrete
It is observed that the concrete when subjected to 1000oC
when subjected to 400oC and with gradual cooling.
and with gradual cooling shows an increasing trend of
compressive strength as the percentage replacement of
It is observed that the concrete when subjected to 600oC cement by fly ash goes on increasing upto 25%. Beyond
and with gradual cooling shows an increasing trend of 25% replacement level the compressive strength shows
compressive strength as the percentage replacement of a decreasing trend. At 25% replacement a compressive
cement by fly ash goes on increasing upto 25%. Beyond strength of 4.0MPa is observed which yields 234% increase
25% replacement level the compressive strength shows in the compressive strength with respect to reference mix.
a decreasing trend. At 25% replacement a compressive A similar trend is observed for tensile strength, flexural
strength of 32.67MPa is observed which yields 64% increase strength and impact strength where in the percentage
in the compressive strength with respect to reference mix. increase in the strength are 82%, 88% and 288% respectively.
A similar trend is observed for tensile strength, flexural Also it is found that at 25% replacement level when subjected
strength and impact strength where in the percentage to 1000oC and with gradual cooling the residual compressive
increase in the strength are 34%, 40% and 218% respectively. strength, residual tensile strength, residual flexural strength
Also it is found that at 25% replacement level when subjected and residual impact strength are found to be 11.09%, 57.7%,
to 600oC and with gradual cooling the residual compressive 68.4% and 67.9% respectively. This is again attributed to the
strength, residual tensile strength, residual flexural strength fact that higher pozzolanic reaction can take place at 25%
and residual impact strength are found to be 90.57%, 73.2%, replacement level. Therefore 25% replacement of cement by
74.7% and 76.6% respectively. This is again attributed to the fly ash can result in better strength characteristics in concrete
fact that higher pozzolanic reaction can take place at 25% when subjected to 1000oC and with gradual cooling.

TECHNICAL PAPER
The test results clearly indicate that as the sustained 1. 25% replacement of cement by fly ash can result
elevated temperature is increased there is a decrease in all in better strength characteristics in concrete when
the strength properties. The drastic reduction in the strength subjected to 200oC and with gradual cooling. The
characteristics occurs when the temperature reaches 800oC. residual compressive strength, tensile strength,
The concrete looses most of its strength when it reaches an flexural strength and impact strength are found to be
elevated temperature of 1000oC. At a temperature of 400oC 98.59%, 79.5%, 81.5% and 98.5% respectively.
the interlayer calcium silicate hydrate, water and some of the
combined water from calcium silicate hydrate and sulpho
alumino hydrate will evaporate. At 400oC the first visible 2. 25% replacement of cement by fly ash can result
crack start occurring. As the temperature increases to 600oC in better strength characteristics in concrete when
a series of reactions in the hardened cement paste will start subjected to 400oC and with gradual cooling. The
occurring resulting in decomposition of hydration products residual compressive strength, tensile strength,
and destruction of C-S-H gels. The decomposition of calcium flexural strength and impact strength are found to be
hydroxide Ca (OH)2 may start occurring at 400oC. A slight 94.26%, 78.03%, 78.6% and 94.2% respectively.
colour change and hairy cracks are observed at 400oC. At
600oC the colour turns to reddish and spalling of concrete in 3. 25% replacement of cement by fly ash can result
small quantities is observed. At 800oC and 1000oC the colour in better strength characteristics in concrete when
turns to blackish with lot of spalling characteristics. Drastic subjected to 600oC and with gradual cooling. The
deteriorating changes in fly ash concrete start occurring at residual compressive strength, tensile strength,
600oC. flexural strength and impact strength are found to be
90.57%, 73.2%, 74.7% and 76.6% respectively.
The concrete with different percentage replacement of
cement by fly ash has shown some resistive properties to high 4. 25% replacement of cement by fly ash can result
temperature as compared to concrete without fly ash. It was in better strength characteristics in concrete when
clearly observed that either the colour change or the cracks subjected to 800oC and with gradual cooling. The
or spalling characteristics were less in concrete containing residual compressive strength, tensile strength,
fly ash when subjected to sustained elevated temperatures flexural strength and impact strength are found to be
with gradual cooling. 27.39%, 66.9%, 71.8% and 70.1% respectively.
Higher resistive properties to sustained elevated 5. 25% replacement of cement by fly ash can result
temperatures are observed when 25% of cement is replaced in better strength characteristics in concrete when
by fly ash. This is probably due to the fact that the detrimental subjected to 1000oC and with gradual cooling. The
effect of Ca(OH)2 can be eliminated by pozzolanic rection residual compressive strength, tensile strength,
of fly ash thereby reducing the amount of Ca(OH)2. Thus flexural strength and impact strength are found to be
it can be concluded that the use of fly ash in concrete have 11.09%, 57.7%, 68.4% and 67.9% respectively.
a beneficiary results with respect to sustained elevated
temperatures. Better strength characteristics, normal colour
change properties, less spalling characteristics and less 6. Drastic deteriorating changes in fly ash concrete start
surface cracks are some of the characteristics of fly ash occurring at 600oC.
concrete, when subjected to sustained elevated temperatures
and with gradual cooling.
7. Use of fly ash in concrete have a beneficiary effect
with respect to sustained elevated temperatures.
Better strength characteristics, normal colour change
5. Conclusions properties, less spalling characteristics and less
Following conclusions may be drawn based on the surface cracks are some of the characteristics of fly
observations made on the behavior of fly ash concrete ash concrete, when subjected to sustained elevated
subjected to sustained elevated temperatures with gradual temperatures and with gradual cooling.
cooling.

TECHNICAL PAPER
Acknowledgements 8. ______Method of test for strength of concrete, IS 516:1959, Bureau
of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
The authors are immensely grateful to the Principal, Gogte
Institute of Technology, Belgaum, and to the authorities of 9. ______Splitting tensile strength of concrete method of test, IS 5816:1999,
J.N.T.U, Hyderabad for all the amenities provided and for Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
all the encouragements.
Bibliography
References 1. Malhotra H. L.“ Effect of temperature on the compressive strength
1. Min li, Chung Xiang Qian, Wei Sun “ Mechanical properties of of concrete” Magazine of Concrete Research, 1956, 8 No. 23,pp.
high strength concrete after fire”, Cement and Concrete Research, 85-94.
Vol.34, 2004, pp. 1001-1005.
2. Potha Raju M., Shobha M., Rambabu K.,“Flexural strength of fly
2. Sanjayan .G., Stocks..L.J, “ Spalling of high strength silica fume ash concrete under elevated temperatures” Magazine of Concrete
concrete in fire”, ACI Material Journal, Vol. 90(2), 1993, pp. 170- Research, 2004, 56 No. 2, March, pp. 83-88.
173.
3. Mohamedhbai G.T., G., “ The residual compressive strength of
3. Ali. F.A, O’Connor. Abu-Tair “ Explosive spalling of high strength concrete subjected to elevated temperatures” Concrete, 1983,
concrete columns in fire”, Magazine of Concrete Research, Vol. December, pp. 22 to 27.
53(3), 2000, pp. 197-204.
4. Siddique R. “ Effect of fine aggregate replacement with class f fly
4. Demirel B. and Keleştemur O., ‘Effect of elevated temperature
ash on mechanical properties of concrete” Cement and Concrete
on the mechanical properties of concrete produced with finely
Research, vol.33, 2003, pp. 539-547.
ground pumice and silica fume’, Fire Safety Journal, vol. 45, no.
6–8, pp. 385–391, 2010. 5. Rajamane N.P, Annie Peter, Ambily P.S, “ Prediction of compressive
5. ______Specification for 43 grade ordinary portland cement, IS strength of concrete with fly ash as sand replacement material”
8112:1989, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi. Cement and Concrete Composite, Vol.29, 2007, pp. 218-223.
6. ______Specification for coarse and fine aggregates from natural sources 6. Bairagi N.K Modhera C.D, “Shear strength of fiber reinforced
for concrete, IS 383:1970, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi. concrete.” ICI Journal, January -March 2001, pp. 47-53.
7. ______ Recommended guide lines for concrete mix design, IS 10262: 7. ______Method of tests for aggregates for concrete, IS: 2386 (Part-I,
2009, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi. II, III and IV) -1963, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
Prof Shweta Patil received her B.E. (civil) and M.Tech Structural from Gogte Institute of Technology,
Belgaum, Karanataka; She is an Assistant Professor in Gogte Institute of Technology College, Belgaum. Her
research interests include study of properties of fly ash concrete at elevated temperatures
Dr. K.B. Prakash, B.E., M.Tech, PhD, is the Principal of Government Engineering College, Haveri,
Karnataka He has 27 years of teaching experience and two years of industrial experience. He has worked in
K.L.E Societies College of Engineering and Technology Belgaum, S.T.J Institute of Technology Ranebennur
and T.K Institute of Engineering and Tech, Warananagar in various capacities. His areas of interest are
concrete shrinkage, secondary and tertiary blended concrete, fibre reinforced concrete, ferrocement.

TECHNICAL PAPER
Durable concrete by packing density method

S.K. Dhawan, Itihas Dhareppagol and B. Bhattacharjee
Concrete is a widely used construction material. There has been phenomenal growth in research and development activities
to develop high performance concrete. However, high standards of durability are not being achieved in practice. We have a
witnessed large number of existing structures which after a few years of construction have started showing signs of distress.
This remains a big challenge for the engineers and technicians to ensure proper quality control of the raw material. This
paper suggests a few measures to make the concrete durable thereby to ensure improvement of the service life of Reinforced
Concrete Structures. This paper also gives an overview of the factors that make the concrete durable starting from the mix
design process to the selection of suitable materials, mixing, transporting, placing, compaction and efficient curing. Emphasis
needs to be given during process of concreting to obtain desired fresh and hardened properties of concrete by way of
conducting proper checks and trials.
Keywords: Durability; service life; mix design; packing density.
Introduction and workers or poor quality of design, construction and

maintenance carried out. Sometimes causes are of these
The normal economic life of a RCC structure in India is 75
individual factors or of the combination of two or more
years (CPWD Works Manual 2014). If the structure last for this
factors. Unawareness, lack of knowledge or lack of resources
lifespan or more it helps in reducing the depletion of natural
cannot be considered excuses for the durability distress.
resources and wastes. This reduces the environmental impact
and the cost of repairs and replacement. Hence durability
It is really alarming that some of the RCC structures which
has to be ensured in an RCC structure. Since environmental
were constructed 35-40 years ago are in very bad conditions
factors differ from place to place, durability is site specific.
and even at many places had to be pulled down due to safety
The ingredients of concrete, their mix proportion, interaction
requirements and large rehabilitation costs. Corrosion has
between the material, placing, compaction, curing and
been noticed in many structures. Reasons of corrosion due
external environment determine the durability and life of
to bad quality of construction without quality assurance
concrete.
and quality construction such as w/c ratio, quality cement,
chlorides in water, quality of reinforcement, cement content,
In construction of project if good practice is not adopted that
impurities in concrete and other factors related to the
would affect the durability. This would need regular repair
external environment such as moisture, oxygen, humidity,
and rehabilitation work and would also reduce the design
temperature, etc.
service life. Therefore such extra cost due to lack of quality
would consume more resources. Though cases of distress
Maintenance of structures is not given due importance in
may be many, broadly they are either the outcome of poor
the country whether buildings, flyovers, bridges or dams.
quality of education, research and training of engineers
Poor maintenance exposes RCC to the adverse atmospheric
The Indian Concrete Journal, May 2017, Vol. 91, Issue 5, pp. 54-59.
conditions and durability distress starts in such members.

TECHNICAL PAPER
Even in private buildings, occupants are very sensitive Durability Distress
to interiors and maintain interiors in good conditions but It has been observed that some RCC structures have
external members which are more vulnerable to durability even shown distress within short period of say 15 years.
considerations are not taken due care. Leakage and seepage External symptoms of distress include cracking to spalling
on RCC members and alternative drying and wetting make of concrete mostly involving corrosion of reinforcement.
such members less durable. Such conditions normally are result of penetration of water
and aggressive chemical. Natural causes of deterioration of
concrete are said to be carbonation, leaching, sulphate attack,
Concrete durability
alkali silica reaction and freezing thawing, though damages
Concrete durability has been defined by the American may also occur due to fire or natural hazards, these are not
Concrete Institute as its resistance to weathering action, included here.
chemical attack, abrasion and other degradation processes.
Thus durability is the ability of concrete to last for a For deterioration process, various models are available. In two
service life without significant deterioration. Durability stages model describing deterioration from environmental
is also defined as the continued ability of the structure to effects, during the first stage of loading and weathering,
the voids and micro cracks in the interfacial zone between
withstand the expected wear and deterioration, performing
the cement paste and coarse aggregate or reinforcing steel
satisfactorily in the normal operating conditions throughout
become interlinked. When interlinked network of micro
its intended life without the need for undue maintenance.
cracks gets connected to any crack present in the concrete, it
Thus it is implied that certain degree of deterioration is built provides the passage for fluid to the interior of concrete. In
in during the design but materials, process and placement the second stage water, oxygen, carbon dioxide and acidic
have to correspond to the design requirements for the ions penetrate easily into the concrete due to availability of
durability. To include the durability in the design, codes passage into the concrete leading to cracking, spalling and
specify the provisions for addressing factors affecting the loss of mass, resulting into loss of durability of concrete.
durability such as carbonation, chloride ingress, leaching,
sulphate attack, alkali silica reaction, freezing and thawing. From another model loss of durability is from three stages.
During the first stage, protective barrier breaks down such
Durability of concrete gets affected due to following reasons: as de-passivation of the reinforcement steel, or chloride
penetration. In second stage damage is initiated and during
a. Engineers or designers not possessing required third stage damage gets propagated. From yet another model
knowledge of design, specifications and construction deterioration of concrete is described through water cement
techniques. ratio. Three principle elements included in the concept
are: interconnected porosity of cement paste, exposure to
b. Not following specified design criterion during aggressive chemicals and intermittent presence of water. All
structural design. three elements are essential for the damage of RCC.
c. Not following specified criterion of the design during

its execution i.e selection of materials, their mixing, Symptoms and causes of durability
placement, compaction and curing. distress
Cracking and spalling are easy symptoms of durability
d. Not following specified criterion of maintenance
distress in an RCC structure. Concrete spalling occurs due to
required to maintain conditions of the construction.
one or more of the following reasons:
e. Change of specified conditions and assumptions of
a. Poor quality of concrete leading to porosity and
the design criterion either during its construction or
ingress of water/ moisture leading to corrosion in
maintenance period.
RCC
b. Insufficient cover to the reinforcement

A well designed, well executed construction and well
maintained concrete would be substantially water tight and c. High w/c ratio used in concrete mix producing
durable for the intended life of the structure. porous concrete and less durable

TECHNICAL PAPER
d. Finishing works done when concrete is green, and The cement paste has to fill up the voids between aggregate
cladding preventing water evaporation from the particles and the “excess” paste will then disperse the
concrete aggregate particles to produce a thin coating of paste
surrounding each aggregate for lubricating the concrete mix.
e. In cold climates, non-provision of air entrained In general, the higher the packing density of the aggregate,
materials in concrete subjected to freezing and the smaller will be the volume of voids to be filled and larger
thawing will be the amount of paste in excess of void for lubrication.
f. Providing corroded steel in RCC
In IS code method of mix design we have curves to decide
g. Alternate wetting and drying of concrete surface the water cement ratio whereas in packing density method
continuously we don’t have such type of correlation curves available.
Very less information is available regarding co-relation
h. Poor maintenance of RCC structure like no painting
between grade of concrete and water cementitious ratio,
on exposed RCC surfaces paste content, in case of packing density.
i. Poor compaction of concrete leading to porosity
j. Damaging RCC components for installation of coolers, Mix Proportioning

providing false ceiling, providing service installation First we determined the void ratio of aggregates (20 mm,
like electrical, telephone, dish TV antenna etc , in 10 mm, fine aggregates) as per IS 2386 part (3), from which
case concrete cover is damaged or reinforcement is packing density was determined.
exposed, water ingress starts and corrosion starts
k. Poor installation of service pipes, sewer lines etc in

concrete surfaces where water leakage starts
Proportioning was done by packing model only as a binary

Concrete Mix Design by Packing Density mixture, so each time only two mixtures were taken to
Method determine the proportion. Trial and error method of varying
the proportion would help determine the proportion for
Packing density is new kind of mix design method used to
maximum packing.
design different types of concrete. To optimize the particle ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
packing density of concrete, the particles should be selected
to fill up the voids between large particles with smaller Proportioning 20 mm and 10 mm
particles and soon, in order to obtain a dense and stiff aggregates
particle structure. Higher degree of particle packing leads The void ratio measured experimentally for 20 mm aggregate
to minimum voids, maximum density and requirement of is 61.9% and for 10 mm aggregate is 69.1%.The calculation
cement and water will be less. Total paste = c + w = from the empirical equation gave a value of 73.2% of 20 mm
= 0.767 c
aggregate and 26.8% 10 mm aggregate as the proportion at
There are various methods of proportioning for various which maximum packing could be achieved.
Cement (c) = kg/m3
types of concrete. Packing density method of mix design
is the only mix design method used for proportioning
Water (w) = 0.45*400 =180 kg/m3
normal concrete, high strength concrete, no-fines concrete
and self-compacting concrete. Volume
No adequate literature
of aggregates = 1 is
– 0.30547 = 0.69453 cc
available on this method. The subject of optimizing the
concrete composition by selectingRatiothe right amounts
of aggregates of
at maximum Proportioning of coarse aggregates
packing,
various particles has already aroused interest for more than and fine ⁄
aggregates
⁄ ⁄ ⁄
a century. ⁄ ⁄
Applying model of binary mixes, now ⁄ as⁄ coarse aggregate
is proportioned between 20 mm and 10 mm aggregates, we
Most of the early researchers, working on the packing of take this as a first mix and the fine aggregates as the second
aggregates, proposed methods to design an ideal particle mix. The void ratio of CA is 60.59% and FA is 52.22%.
size distribution. Geometrically based particle packing Calculation gives the proportion at which best packing is
models can help to predict the water demand of concrete, obtained as 67.4% CA and 32.6% FA.
Total paste = c + w = = 0.767 c
and thus the material properties.
=
Cement (c) = kg/m3
= 0.3649
Water (w) = 0.45*400 =180 kg/m3
⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
TECHNICAL PAPER
⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
Best packing of 72.23%was obtained. Total paste = c + w = = 0.767 c
Total paste = c + w = Total=paste
0.767=cc + w = = 0.767 c
Cement (c) = kg/m3
Total paste = c + w = = 0.767 c
Cement (c) = Cementkg/m 3
(w)(c)= =0.45*400 =180 kg/m3kg/m
3
Water
⁄Total
Hence we get the ratio ⁄= all
pasteof c + three
⁄
w = size of aggregates
⁄
= 0.767 c (c)as,=
Cement kg/m3kg/m
Water (w) = 0.45*400 =180 Water
3
Volume (w)
of = 0.45*400 =180
aggregates = 1 – kg/m 3
0.30547 = 0.69453 cc
⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
Cement (c) = kg/m
Water
3
Volume
(w)of= aggregates = 1 –Volume
0.45*400 =180 0.30547
kg/m 3 = 0.69453 cc
Ratio of aggregates
of aggregates = 1 – 0.30547
at maximum = 0.69453 cc
packing,
3
Packing Density, P.D. = 0.7223 g/cm
Ratio of
3 Ratio of aggregates at maximum
Water (w) = 0.45*400 =180 kg/mVolume aggregates
packing, at maximum packing,
of aggregates = 1 –Ratio
0.30547
of = 0.69453atccmaximum packing,
aggregates ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
Calculation of optimum = 1 –amount of cc ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄

+w= = 0.767Volume
c of aggregates 0.30547 = 0.69453
Ratio of aggregates at maximum packing, ⁄ ⁄
w= different
= 0.767 c materials
Ratio of aggregates at maximum packing,
Packingkg/m
Density,
3 P.D. = 0.7223 g/cm3 ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
kg/m3 ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
5*400 =180 kg/m
Void content
3 = 1 - 0.7223 = 0.2777 =
*400 =180 kg/m 3
regates = These
1 – 0.30547 =
voids= 0.69453
are to becc filled by the paste, take 10 % extra ==0.3649
gates = 1 paste,
– 0.30547 = 0.69453 cc
ates at maximum packing, = 0.3649 = 0.3649
⁄ ⁄ ⁄
tes at maximum packing, =
Hence, Paste⁄content = ⁄ 1.1 x 0.2777 = =
0.30547 ⁄ ⁄ Coarse aggregate (20 mm) = (795 kg/m3)
⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
= 0.3649Coarse aggregate (20 mm)==0.3649
Coarse aggregate (20 mm) (795
= kg/m )
3
(795 kg/m3)
7c Coarse aggregate (10 mm) = (340 kg/m3)

Coarse aggregate (20 mm) = Coarse
Coarseaggregate
aggregate(20 mm)
mm) ==
(795
(10 kg/m3) (795(340
kg/m 3) 3
kg/m )
Coarse aggregate (10 mm) = (340 kg/m3)
m3
=
=
Table 1. Finalised mix proportions designed by packing density method Fine aggregate
[1] (4.75 mm) = (756 kg/m3)
= 0.3649
Grade of CoarseExcess
W/C aggregate (10 mm)
Water =3
content
(4.75 mm)(340
Cement content
Fine aggregate == kg/m
Wt. of )
fine aggregate
3 Wt. of 12 mm
(756 kg/m 3) Wt. of 20 mm
(kg/m ) Coarse aggregate
(kg/m3) (10 mm) Fine (340 kg/m
=Concrete
0.3649 3)
ratio paste aggregate
(kg/m3) (4.75 mm) = aggregate
Coarse Coarse aggregate(756 kg/m3)
0.69453 cc content 3
(kg/m ) (kg/m3)
(%)
ing, Admixture:0.25 % of cement content was added after mixture inspection.
Fine aggregate (4.75 194.9522
mm) 348.1289 772.2352
was added after 347.5058 810.8469
3= (756content
kg/m 3)
ate (20mm)
e (20 mm)= = (795 kg/m ) )
3 Admixture:0.25 % of cement mixture inspection.
⁄ M20 0.56 10⁄ (795⁄
kg/m
Fine aggregate (4.75 mm) =Admixture:0.25 % of cement content (756
was added 3after mixture inspection.
kg/m )
0.56 1 2.2182 0.9982 2.3292
201.1187 372.4420 756.7967 340.5585 794.6366

M25 0.54 15
Admixture:0.25 % of cement content was added after mixture inspection.
ate (10mm)
e (10 mm)= = (340
(3400.54 kg/m
kg/m 3) 3) 1 2.0320 0.9144 2.1336
Admixture:0.25 % of cement content was added after mixture inspection.
203.8259 407.6518 741.3583 333.6112 778.4262
M30 0.50 20
0.50 1 1.8186 0.8184 1.9095
(4.75mm)
4.75 mm)= = (756
(756 kg/m
kg/m
208.9378 3) 3) 435.2871 725.9199 326.6639 762.2159
M35 0.48 25
0.48 1 1.6677 0.7505 1.7511
209.7061 476.6047 710.4815 319.7167 746.0055

M40 0.44added 30
5%%ofofcement
cementcontent
contentwas
was3 addedafter mixture
after inspection.
mixture inspection.
0.44 1 1.4907 0.6708 1.5653
(795 kg/m )
(340 kg/m3)
⁄
⁄ ⁄
⁄ ⁄
⁄ ⁄
⁄
⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
⁄⁄ ⁄⁄ ⁄⁄ ⁄⁄
TECHNICAL
⁄ PAPER
⁄ ⁄ ⁄
Table 2. Finalised mix proportions designed by IS code method [1]

Grade of W/C Water content Cement content Wt. of fine aggregate Wt. of 12 mm coarse Wt. of 20 mm coarse
Total
Total paste
paste =
concrete = cc + w
w=
+ratio = =
= 0.767
0.767) cc
(kg/m
3
(kg/m3) (kg/m3) aggregate aggregate
Total paste = c + w = = 0.767 c 3
(kg/m ) (kg/m3)
c c++ww== Cement==(c) 0.767
0.767
= c c kg/m 3
= c + w = Cement (c) =
= 0.767 c kg/m3
Cement (c) = kg/m
192 3 349 669 609.7 609.7
WaterM20 kg/m
(w) =
kg/m 3 3 0.55
0.45*400 =180 kg/m 3
Water (w)kg/m = 0.45*400
3 =180 kg/m 0.55
3
1 1.9169 1.7470 1.7470
Water (w) = 0.45*400 =180 kg/m3
45*400 =180
0.45*400 Volume
=180 kg/m3of
kg/m
Volume 3 aggregates = 1 – 0.30547
of aggregates = 1 – 0.30547 192=
= 0.69453
0.69453 cc
cc 369.23 662.786 633.70 633.70
0.45*400 =180 kg/m
Volume
3
M25 of aggregates 0.52 = 1 – 0.30547 = 0.69453 cc
gregates ==1Ratio
ggregates of
of aggregates
1––0.30547
Ratio 0.30547 ==0.69453
0.69453
aggregates at maximum
atcccc packing,
maximum 0.52
packing, 1 1.7950 1.7162 1.7162
ggregates =Ratio
1 – 0.30547 = 0.69453
of aggregates cc
at maximum packing,
197 ⁄ ⁄ 410 ⁄ ⁄646 617 617
gates
egatesatatmaximum
maximum packing,0.48
M30 packing, ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
regates at maximum packing, ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄1.5756
0.48 1 1.5048 1.5048
⁄⁄ ⁄⁄ ⁄⁄ ⁄⁄
⁄ ⁄ 197 ⁄ ⁄ 428 638 610.5 610.5
M35 0.46
0.46 1 1.4907 1.4264 1.4264
197 469 625 598 598

M40 0.42 =
=
= 0.42 1 1.3326 1.2750 1.2750
== =
= 0.3649
0.3649
=
= 0.3649
==0.3649
0.3649
= 0.3649
Coarse
Coarse aggregate
aggregate (20
(20 mm)
mm) =
= (795
(795 kg/m
kg/m3))
3
then control of cracking and various methods of corrosion
protection would prevent damage and deterioration
gate
gate(20
(20mm)
mm)== (795
(795kg/m
kg/m3)3)
egate (20 mm) = (795 kg/m3) process. The good structure with durable concrete would
have longer service life. This would reduce waste and the
Coarse
Coarse aggregate
aggregate (10
(10 mm)
mm) == (340
(340 kg/m
kg/m3)) environmental impacts of its repair during replacement.
3

Construction and removal waste would also reduce. In case
gate (10 mm) =
gate (10 mm) = (340 kg/m 3)3
(340 kg/m 3)
egate (10 mm) = (340 kg/m ) the RCC structure do not last for its design life, this would
further pose a problem on environment, ecology, economy
Fine
Fine aggregate
aggregate (4.75
(4.75 mm)
mm) == (756
(756 kg/m
kg/m3)) and inconvenient to the citizens. Hence durability has to be
3
Fine aggregate (4.75 mm) = (756 kg/m3)

ensured in an RCC structure for the welfare of the society.
ete(4.75 mm) =
(4.75 mm) = (756 kg/m 3)3
(756 kg/m 3)
ate (4.75 mm) = (756 kg/m ) For the durability of RCC structure, concrete should be able
to resist weather action, chemical attack and abrasion while
Admixture:0.25
Admixture:0.25 %
Admixture:0.25 %%of cement
of of
cement content
content
cement was
was added
content was after
added after
addedmixture
afterinspection.
mixture inspection.maintaining its desired engineering properties.
Admixture:0.25
mixture % of cement content was added after mixture inspection.
inspection.
25
.25%%ofofcement
cementcontent
contentwas
wasadded
addedafter
aftermixture
mixtureinspection.
inspection.
.25 % of cement content was added after mixture inspection. Durability of concrete need major consideration while
Result designing, construction and maintenance of RCC structure.
Factors deteriorating durability include poor design,
For the above mix design 6 cubes of dimension 150 mm x
poor construction in terms of high w/c ratio, inadequate
150 mm were cast and tested for 28 days strength. Average
compaction, inadequate curing, inadequate cover, wrong
compressive strength noted was 33 MPa. Calculations are
placement of reinforcement, inadequate precaution of
shown in Tables 1 and 2.
chlorides, sulphates, use of reactive aggregate, use of poor
graded aggregate, use of hard water, not taking adequate
Conclusion precaution for shrinkage, thermal movements, deflection
Focus on producing durable concrete with proper and environmental factors. Engineering material required to
ingredients, mixing, placing, compacting, curing and be used should conform to the codal specification. We need

TECHNICAL PAPER
to take timely action during maintenance to prevent seepage and Civil Engineering (IOSR-JMCE), Volume 11, Issue 2 Ver. I
and leakage affecting RCC. An integrated approach to good (Mar- Apr. 2014), PP 34-46.
quality in design, construction and maintenance would
make concrete durable and in turn would make structure
Bibliography
durable. IS 1026 (Concrete Mix Proportioning Guidelines)
enables to achieve good design of concrete mix through 1. Prof. B. Bhattacharjee, Construction Engineering Practices,
empirical methods. Lecture notes IIT Delhi.
2. Dr. K.M. Soni, Concrete and its Durability, International

The results were similar to when worked out based on
Congress on Durability of Concrete.
packing density method.
3. Glavind M. and Peterson, Packing calculations applied for
The results obtained from the packing density method were concrete mix design, University of Dundee, 1999.
in good agreement with values given in code IS 1026.
4. Fennis, S. A. A. M. and Walraven, J. C, Measuring the packing
density to lower the cement content in concrete, 2008.
Reference
5. ______Indian standard code of practice for Concrete mix proportioning,
1. Narasimha Raj, Suresh G Patiland B. Bhattacharjee, Concrete Mix
Design By Packing Density Method, IOSR Journal of Mechanical IS 10262: 2009, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
Sushil K. Dhawan holds a BE Civil Engineering from Institution of Engineers; M.Tech in Structural
Engineering from Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi; pursuing his Doctoral Research in Structures from
IIT-Delhi. He is former Chief Engineer of the Central Public Works Department and has worked in planning,
design, and construction of roads, buildings and bridges in different parts of the country including North-
East and Southern India. His research interest includes advances in structural engineering, construction
and contract management. Currently he is engaged as an arbitrator and court commissioner appointed by
Delhi High Court.
Itihas Dhareppagol graduated in Civil Engineering from Vishveshwariya Technical University, Belgaum,
Karnataka; M.Tech in Construction Technology & Management from IIT-Delhi. His research interests
include advances in construction materials, fiber reinforcement in concrete, project management. He is a Sr.
Engineer in L&T Construction and engaged in planning and design of western dedicated freight corridor
(Railway Project).
Professor Bishwajit Bhattacharjee is working with the Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of
Technology Delhi, New Delhi (India). His research interests pertain to the domains of cement and concrete
technology, building science, sustainable construction, and health monitoring of structures. His publications
in these areas are well cited. He is also a recipient of the Indian Concrete Institute’s Life Time Achievement
Award.

POINT OF VIEW
Effect of different aspect ratio of steel fiber on mechanical

properties of high strength concrete
S.S. Kadam and V.V. Karjinni
In this paper, the effect of different aspect ratio (65 and This paper presents the effect of different aspect ratio of
80) of steel fiber on mechanical properties of high strength steel fiber and position of steel fiber on rigid pavement
concrete are addressed. Mechanical properties of high construction. Various experimental tests are carried out
strength concrete investigated by varying positions of on concrete specimens to obtain compressive strength,
steel fiber in concrete cubes and beams. Percentage of steel flexural strength, maximum deflection of beam under the
fiber by volume was 0.5%, 1.0% and 1.5%. A series of 78 applied loads. Fly ash enhances the strength and shrinkage
specimens (39 cubes and 39 beams) of different aspect ratio of the concrete and reduces the heat of permeability and
and varying positions of steel fibers were cast. Experimental porosity [3, 4]. Compressive strength and flexural strength
findings addressed that as volume of fiber increases, there of concrete increases for HPSFRC compared to HPC [5].
will be increase in flexural strength. More flexural strength Steel fiber enhances post cracking behavior, ductility,
was observed at aspect ratio 80. In flexural strength test load bearing capacity after cracking of concrete [6-11].
more displacement was observed at one third depth than Abrasive resistance, impact strength, flexural strength of
randomly reinforced fibers. Steel fiber reinforced concrete rigid pavement is increased due to addition of steel scrap
can be used for construction of pavement, industrial floors, fiber [12]. In the concluding section validation of strength
bridge deck slabs satisfactorily. For aspect ratio 80 it was results were carried out with regression technique.
found that compressive strength increases in both positions
of steel fiber. Empirical equations for predicting basic 2. Materials and mix design
strength properties of concrete were presented based on Sand passing through IS sieve 4.75 mm and retaining on IS
regression analysis. sieve 150 micron is used in the investigation. The sample
shall be brought to an air dry condition before weighting
1. INTRODUCTION and sieving. This may be achieved either by drying at room
As compared to conventional flexible pavement, rigid temperature or by heating at a temperature of 100 to 110oC.
pavements were found to be more sustainable and durable. The air dried sample was weighed. It was sieved with a
It was well designed that steel fibers in concrete are effective sieves arranged in descending order of the openings of the
in bridging the cracks [1]. Fibers in a concrete helps to reduce sieve. Sieve should clean before use (IS 2386: Part-I 1963)
propagation of cracks. It was found that performance of CRCP [13]. In this experimental programme crushed aggregates
with steel reinforcement suggests the best performance has were used. For this study 12.5 mm coarse aggregates were
resulted when the reinforcement is placed at about one third used. The physical properties of coarse aggregate like
the depth of slab measured from pavement surface. At this specific gravity, impact value, bulk density, gradation and
location reinforcement is most effective in holding the cracks fineness modulus are tested in accordance with IS 2386. Steel
together [2].

POINT OF VIEW
Table 1. Steel fiber properties
Type Length Diameter Aspect Tensile Young’s
(mm) (mm) ratio strength modulus
(MPa) (GPa)
Dramix 35 0.55 65 1000 210

Dramix 60 0.75 80 1000 210
Ordinary portland cement of 53 grade confirming IS 4031:1988 used

for experimental work.
Figure 1. Steel fibers
fibres with properties as shown in Table 1 used for steel

fibre reinforced concrete having aspect ratio 65 and 80. It is
hooked end in shape and circular in cross section as shown
in Figure 1. without loss of homogeneity, for compacting with the
amount of efforts forth-coming and to finish easily. The
A high strength concrete was prepared to obtain cube results of workability test as shown in Table 3.
compressive strength higher than 60 N/mm2 after 28 days.
ACI method was used to prepare high strength concrete It was observed that as percentage of fiber increases
mixture [14]. The mixture were prepared with proper workability reduces. The reduction in workability is due
selection of cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate, W/C to more water required to lubricate more amount of fiber.
ratio and admixture [15, 16]. Ordinary Portland cement of 53 As amount of fiber increases less space is available for
grade confirming IS 4031:1988 used for experimental work. movement of fiber.
The proportion of different ingredients are shown in Table 2.
3.2 Test for compressive strength of concrete
3. Test Procedure (IS 516:1959)
3.1 Workability In this investigation plain cement concrete cubes and fiber
reinforced concrete cubes (with randomly reinforced and
Workability is the measure of lubrication required for
1/3rd reinforced from top of the surface) were tested on
handling the concrete without segregation, for placing
compression testing machine of capacity 3000 KN. The load
Table 2. Mix design

Components Mixtures
65SF0.5 65SF1.0 65SF1.5 80SF0.5 80SF1.0 80SF1.5
3
Cement (Kg/M ) 588 588 588 588 588 588
Fly ash (Kg/M3) 65 65 65 65 65 65
Coarse aggregate (Kg/M3) 1159 1159 1159 1159 1159 1159
Fine aggregate (Kg/M3) 527 527 527 527 527 527
Steel fiber (Kg/M3) 39 78 118 39 78 118
Water (Lit/M3) 183 183 183 183 183 183
Superplasticizer (Lit/M3) 5.23 5.23 5.23 5.23 5.23 5.23
W/C ratio 0.31 0.31 0.31 0.31 0.31 0.31
Table 3. Workability test

Mixtures Controlled 65SF0.5 65SF1.0 65SF1.5 80SF0.5 80SF1.0 80SF1.5
concrete
Slump in mm 55 50 40 35 35 33 30

POINT OF VIEW
Table 4. Compressive strength test
Type Test Position Mixture Average
compressive
strength
(N/mm2 )
Controlled
Cube Compressive -- 64.89
concrete
Cube Compressive Random 65SF0.5 63.77
Cube Compressive One third 65SF0.5 63.55
 Cube Compressive Random 80SF0.5 71.92
Cube Compressive Random

 80SF1.0 74.29

Cube 
Compressive Random 80SF1.5 71.33
     

       
Cube Compressive
   One third
 80SF1.5
 74.22           
 

number of specimen strength is calculated and it was taken
is
applied
 to opposite
 sides of specimen.
 The load 
  at which
 ascompressive strength
 of
 one set [14] as shown
 in 
Table
4.
concrete cube was failed, considered as ultimate load and
 

3.3 Test for flexural strength of concrete
noted as shown in Figure 2. The compressive strength was

obtained by formula
(IS 516:1959)

This test is carried out for finding out flexural strength

Compressive strength = of concrete. The number of beams tested for different

percentage of fiber content. The specimens were tested by

Here, P = Cube compressive load causing failure in N, using universal testing machine and results were obtained
A
= Cross sectional area of cube in mm. The average of as shown in Table 5. The load at which control specimen
 ultimately fails is noted. The displacement at maximum


Table 5. Flexural strength test

Type Test Position Mixture Average displacement Average maximum Average flexural

at failure (mm) displacement (mm) strength (N/mm2 )

Controlled
Beam   Flexural   ---       1.15
concrete  1.26 6.71
    

Beam  
Flexural  
Random  
65SF0.5   1.75   
6.70   
4.64

Beam     
Flexural Random  65SF1.0
  1.05     
8.75   7.15  

Beam Flexural Random 65SF1.5 2.80 12.35 7.79
                  
Beam Flexural One third 65SF0.5 1.15 13.75 5.40





 Beam Flexural One third 80SF0.5 1.20 25.35 5.43

62  The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017
                 

POINT OF VIEW



load and maximum displacement at ultimate failure was 4. Experimental results and discussion

measured with the help of computer connected to UTM.
The experimental results and discussions are given in

Displacement was measured on electronic universal testing
Figures 2 to 13 and Tables 4 to 7.

machine of capacity 1000 KN with straining speed at no

load is 0-150 mm per minute. This UTM can be hooked 5. Regression Technique

to any PC using communication port. Load is applied by
It is statistical technique used to explore linear relationship

hydrostatically lubricated ram. Main cylinder pressure is
between predictor and criterion variable. The equations
transmitted to the pressure transducer housed in the control

obtained from linear regression technique for compressive
panel. The transducer gives the signal to the electronic display

strength test and flexural strength test are as shown in
unit corresponding to the load exerted by the main ram.

Table 6 and 7 respectively.
Simultaneously
    the digital electronic
 fitted on the straining
            
unit gives mechanical
  displacement
  to theelectronic display
           
unit. Both signals are processed by microprocessor
         and load  Table 6. Linear
  regression
 equations for compressive
   
and displacement are displayed on the digital readouts strength

simultaneously
as shownin Figure 3. The flexural
 strength   
 
Sr. Figure

Linear regression

Explanation
      
is calculated by formula no. no. equation

 The curves as shown in
flexural strength = y = 6.312x+61.93, Figure 4, 5, 6 and 7 follows
01 4 2
 
 R =0.524 linear regression type

Here, P = maximum load in N, l = Length between the equation in the form
y = 1.172x+63.92, y = ax+b.

support in mm, d = Depth of specimen in mm, b = Width of 02 5
R2=0.311 where,
specimen
 in mm [17]. y = compressive strength
as dependent variable,
 03 6
y = 4.310x+67.37, x = percentage of fiber as a
R2=0.482 independent variable,
 a and b are constants.
 y = 6.886x+64.77,
The above equations holds
good for steel fiber range
04 7
 2
R =0.913 from 0.5% to 1.5%.



 80

70
 y= 6.312x + 61.93
 60
R² = 0.524
2
Compressive strength in N/mm

50

 40

30
    

20
3 10
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
% of steel fiber
Figure 4. Compressive strength-% of steel fiber randomly

Figure 3. Flexural strength test reinforced (AR65)

POINT OF VIEW
67 76
66.5
74
2
66 y = 6.886x + 64.778
R² = 0.9138
2
65.5 72
65 y = 1.172x + 63.921
R² = 0.311 70
64.5
64 68
63.5
66
63
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
64
% of steel fiber
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
% of steel fiber
rd
Figure 5. Compressive strength-% of steel fiber 1/3 reinforced
(AR65) rd
Figure 7. Compressive strength-% of steel fiber 1/3 reinforced
(AR80)
76
74 Table 7. Linear regression equations for flexural strength

Sr. Figure Linear regression Explanation
y = 4.31x + 67.375 no. no. equation
2
72 R² = 0.482
The curves as shown
y=1.654x+5.122, in Figure 8, 9, 10 and
01 8 2
R =0.582 11 follows linear
70 regression type
y=0.780x+5.560, equation in the form y
02 9 = ax+b.
R2=0.637
68 Where,
y = flexural strength
y=1.786x+5.103, as a dependent
03 10 variable,
R2=0.622
66
x = percentage of
fiber as a independent
variable,
64 a and b are constants.
0 1 2 y=1.350x+5.325, The above equation
04 11 2
R =0.667 holds good for steel
% of steel fiber
fiber range from 0.5%
to 1.5%.
Figure 6. Compressive strength-% of steel fiber randomly
reinforced (AR80)

POINT OF VIEW
10 9
8 8
2
Flexural strength in N/mm
7
6
y = 1.654x + 5.122
R² = 0.5828
6
2
4
y = 1.786x + 5.103
5 R² = 0.6223
2
4
0
3
0 1 2
% of steel fiber 2
Figure 8. Flexural strength-% of steel fiber randomly reinforced 1

(AR65)
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
% of steel fiber
Figure 10. Flexural strength-% of steel fiber randomly reinforced

(AR80)
8 7
7 6
2
Flexural strength N/mm
6 5
y = 0.78x + 5.56 y = 1.35x + 5.325
2
R² = 0.6375
Flexural strength N/mm
R² = 0.667
5
4
4
3
3
2
2
1
1
0
0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
0 1 2
% of steel fiber
% of steel fiber
rd
Figure 11. Flexural strength-% of steel fiber 1/3rd reinforced
Figure 9. Flexural strength-% of steel fiber 1/3 reinforced (AR65) (AR80)

POINT OF VIEW
Table 8. Comparison between experimental results and
regression technique result for compressive strength
Aspect ratio 65 Aspect ratio 80
Mixture Position Experimental Regression Experimental
results technique results / At randomly mixed
(N/mm2) (N/mm2 ) Regression 80.00
technique
70.00
2
65SF0.5 Random 63.77 65.086 0.979
60.00
65SF1.0 Random 64.00 68.240 0.937
65SF1.5 Random 75.55 71.390 1.058 50.00
65SF0.5 One third 63.55 64.506 0.985

40.00
65SF1.0 One third 64.10 65.092 0.984
30.00
65SF1.5 One third 66.66 65.678 1.014
80SF0.5 Random 71.99 69.525 1.035 20.00
80SF1.0 Random 74.22 71.680 1.035
10.00
80SF1.5 Random 71.33 73.835 0.966
80SF0.5 One third 67.11 68.213 0.983 0.00
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50
80SF1.0 One third 73.55 71.656 1.026
% Steel fibre
80SF1.5 One third 74.22 75.099 0.988
At 1/3 rd position
80.00
Table 9. Comparison between experimental results and
70.00
regression technique result for flexural strength
2
Mixture Position Experimental Regression Experimental 60.00

results technique results /
(N/mm2) (N/mm2) Regression
50.00
technique
65SF0.5 Random 4.64 5.949 0.779 40.00
65SF1.0 Random 7.15 6.776 1.055
30.00
65SF1.5 Random 7.79 7.603 1.024
65SF0.5 One third 5.40 5.950 0.907 20.00
65SF1.0 One third 6.51 6.340 1.026
65SF1.5 One third 6.80 6.730 1.010 10.00
80SF0.5 Random 5.25 5.996 0.875

0.00
80SF1.0 Random 6.08 6.889 0.882 0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50
80SF1.5 Random 8.57 7.782 1.101 % Steel fibre
80SF0.5 One third 5.43 6.000 0.905
80SF1.0 One third 6.18 6.675 0.925
Figure 12. Comparison of compressive strength between different
80SF1.5 One third 7.87 7.350 1.070
aspect ratio of steel fiber with varying position
6. CONCLUSION
Comparison made between experimentally obtained results
1. Increase in compressive strength for steel fiber
and regression technique results are presented in Tables 8
and 9 respectively. reinforced concrete with aspect ratio 80 in both
position than with aspect ratio 65 and controlled
concrete as shown in Figure 12 except 1.5 % steel
fiber randomly reinforced case.

POINT OF VIEW
fibers are available for bridging the crack. There is
delaying in crack formation which helps to increase
the strength of concrete.
At randomly mixed
10.00 3. In flexural strength test maximum displacement
was observed for mixture 80SF1.5 with fibers placed
8.00 at 1/3rd position.
2
6.00 4. As percentage of fiber increases flexural strength

also increases in both the position that is at randomly
4.00 reinforced fiber concrete and fibers reinforced at
1/3rd depth from top of the surface.
2.00
5. Maximum displacement without fiber was 1.26 mm

0.00 and with fiber having aspect ratio 80 maximum
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50
displacement was 25.40 mm at 1/3rd depth condition.
% of Steel fiber
It indicate that post cracking behavior was affected by
fiber length. Therefore an increment in ductility was
observed.
At 1/3 rd position
8.00
References
7.00
1. R.S. Olivito, F.A. Zuccarello, An experimental study on the tensile
2
6.00 strength of steel fiber Reinforced concrete. Cement & Concrete

Composites journal, 2010, Vol. 41, pp 246–255.
5.00
2. Roger M. Larson, P. E., and Kurt D. Smith, P.E., Evaluating the Use
of Fiber Reinforced Polymer bars in Continuously Reinforced
4.00
Concrete Pavement, 2009 , Federal Highway Administration.
3.00 3. M. Madhkhan, R. Azizkhani, M.E. Torki Harchegani, Effects of
pozzolans together with steel and polypropylene fibers on
2.00 mechanical properties of RCC pavements, 2012, Construction and
building materials journal, Vol.26, pp102-112.
1.00 4. Ilker Bekir Topcu, Mehmet Canbaz, Effect of different fibers on the
mechanical Properties of Concrete containing fly ash, Construction
0.00
and Building Materials journal, 2007, Vol.21, pp 1486–1491
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50
5. Chih-Ta Tsai, Grodon Tung- Chin Kung a, Chao-Lung Hwang, Use
% of steel fibre of high performance concrete on rigid pavement construction
for exclusive bus lanes, 2010, Construction and building materials
journal, Vol. 24, pp 432-442.
Figure 13. Comparison of flexural strength between different 6. Nicola Buratti, Claudio Mazzotti, Marco Savoia, Post- cracking
aspect ratio of steel fiber with varying position behaviour of steel and macro-synthetic fibre-reinforced concretes,
2011, construction and building materials journal, Vol. 25, pp 2713–2722.
7. S. Eswari P.N., Raghunath, Ductility Performance of Concrete with
Dramix Steel micro reinforcement, 2008, A journal of Advances in
Natural and Applied Sciences, 2 (3), pp 243-248.
8. Farnoud Rahimi Mansour, Sasan Parniani, and Izni Syahrizal Ibrahim,
Experimental Study on effects of Steel Fiber Volume on Mechanical
2. Increase in flexural strength of concrete for 80 Properties of SFRC, 2011, Advanced Materials Research journal, Vol.
214, pp 144-148.
aspect ratio steel fiber concrete than 65 aspect ratio
9. Abid A. Shah , Y. Ribakov, Recent trends in steel fibered high-
steel fiber concrete and controlled concrete was strength concrete, Materials and Design journal, 2011, Vol.32, pp
observed as shown in Figure 13 except 1 % steel fiber 4122-4151.
in randomly reinforced case. For mixture 80SF1.5 10. Ravindra V. Solanki, Prof. C. B. Mishra, Dr. F. S. Umrigar,
Prof. D. A. Sinha, Use of Steel fiber in concrete pavement: A
flexural strength was increased by 27.71% and review, 2011,National Conference on Recent Trends in Engineering
16.09% than the controlled concrete and mixture & Technology, B.V.M. Engineering College, V.V. Nagar, Gujarat,
India13th and 14th May 2011.
65SF1.5 respectively in randomly reinforced steel
11. M.N. Sustsos, T.T. Le, A. P. Lampropopulos, Flexural performance
fiber case. As compare to fibers with aspect ratio of fiber reinforced Concrete made with steel and synthetic fibers,
65, fibers with aspect ratio 80 are longer, so more 2012, Construction and Building Materials journal, Vol.36, pp 704-710.

POINT OF VIEW
12. G. Niranjana, Dr. Samson Mathew, Dr. P. Jayabalan, Structural 15. Karjinni Vilas V. and Shrishail B. Anadinni, Mixture proportion
strength enhancement of rigid pavement using scrap steel fiber procedure for self compacting concrete, 2009, The Indian Concrete
reinforcement, May 2008, NBM construction portal. Journal, June 2009, Vol. 83, No. 6, pp 35-41.
13. ______Indian standard code on methods of test for aggregates for 16. Karjinni Vilas V., Shrishail B. Anadinni and Dada S. Patil, An
concrete IS 2368 part I-1963, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi. investigation on the characteristic properties of high performance
14. ACI 211.4R:1993 method for mix design of high strength concrete. self compacting concrete with mineral admixtures, The Indian Concrete
Journal, September 2009, Vol. 83, No. 9, pp 14-19.
17. ______Indian standard code on methods of tests for strength of concrete,
IS 516:1959, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
Shriganesh S. Kadam holds an M. Tech. (structures); pursuing his PhD at at Shivaji university, Kolhapur.
He is presently an Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering at SKN Sinhgad College of Engineering,
Pandharpur, Maharashtra, India. He is in teaching profession for last 10 years. His research interest are
design of high strength concrete, rigid pavement. He is a member of IEI.
Dr. Vilas V. Karjinni holds a PhD in Civil Engineering. He is presently the Principal and Professor at KIT’s
College of Engineering, Kolhapur, Maharashtra, India. He is in teaching profession for last 32 years. His
area of interest includes transportation system, self compacting concrete. He has published eight papers
in international journals, 12 papers in national journals and over 50 papers presented in international and
national conferences. He is Fellow of IEI, Member of ACI, IUT (India), IRC and ATDI.

Image source: Tom Klemens - www.concreteconstruction.net
A CD on Repair and Rehabilitation

An Icj Compilation
• Everything you want to know in repair and rehabilitation
• 45 selected papers published in ICJ during the recent past
• Indian case studies from those who were associated
• Contributions from world-renowned experts like
P. Emmons, D. Kaminetsky, Dr. G. M. Sabnis,
A. Vaysburd, N.P. Mailvaganam, etc.
• Complete list of papers available at www.icjonline.com
Price: 600 only browse pages in

Flipbook format
To purchase this CD, please pay online at www.icjonline.com or send a cheque / DD of Rs. 600 in favour of 'ACC Limited' to:
The Publication Manager, The Indian Concrete Journal, ACC Limited, L.B.S. Marg, Next to Eternity Mall,
Near Teen Haath Naka, Thane (W) 400 604. Tel: +91(22) 3302 7646 E-mail: [email protected] Website: www.icjonline.com
Online payment facility available at www.icjonline.com
Cost of CD is Rs. 600 inclusive of postage and handling. All Cheques / Demand Drafts should be drawn in favour of 'ACC Limited' and payable at Mumbai.
Postal Registration No.: THC/125/2015-2017. RNI No. 13986/57.
Published on 1st of every month. Posted on 1st of every month at Patrika Channel Sorting Office, Mumbai 400 001
Total number of pages including covers are 72
Printed, published and edited by Ashish Patil, on behalf of ACC Limited.

Printed at Jayant Printery LLP, 352/54, Girgaum Road, Murlidhar Temple Compound, Near Thakurdwar P.O., Mumbai 400 002
Published at ACC Limited L.B. Shastri Marg, Near Teen Haath Naka, Thane (W) 400604.

Indian Concrete Journal On Environmental Clearance in India

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Indian Concrete Journal On Environmental Clearance in India

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Indian Concrete Journal On Environmental Clearance in India

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

May 2017, Vol. 91, No. 5, Rs. 100. 72 pages.

THE INDIAN CONCRETE JOURNAL

Price Rs. 600

Online payment facility available at www.icjonline.com

Published by ACC Limited, L.B. Shastri Road, Near

Editor: Ashish Patil

May 2017, Vol. 91, No. 5, Rs. 100. 72 pages.

THE INDIAN CONCRETE JOURNAL

The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017 3

From the Editor’s Desk...

NATIONAL CONVENTION ON trade show focusing on construction, architecture, planning

Good Governance India Foundation / Fairfest Media Ltd

• T echnical Lecture on “Design & Execution of

• “ Basics of RCC Design & Concept” workshop - 04th

6 The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017

Construction Chemicals Manufacturers Association

The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017 7

Structural Engineers World ILCC 2017

The main objective of ILCC 2017 Conference is to provide

The conference will comprise International and Indian keynote

The keynote speakers are:

8 The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017

The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017 9

An architect’s, urban planner’s and visionary’s preference Concrete 2017

Besides the conference, it will also host the RILEM Week at

The keynote speakers are:

• Chandra Sekhar, NUS, Singapore

10 The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017

In recent years, the safety of concrete floors has been an

The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017 11

Correlation between rapid visual survey score

INTRODUCTION The most commonly observed damage to RC structures was

12 The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017

Table 1. Major earthquake in India [2]

1 1818 Jun 16 (23.60, 68.60) Kutch,Gujarat 8.0 2000

The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017 13

5. 22 June 1945 6.5 Chamba 2. Mandi 97.4 2.6 53

The seismic vulnerability assessment of buildings has been

intensity[16,17,18]. In 2005, the intensity has been changed 0

14 The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017

General building information

Location Mandi Mandi Hamirpur

Latitude 31˚32’02’’ N 31˚32’4’’ N 31˚40’80’’ N

Longitude 76˚54’13’’ E 76˚53’23’’ E 76˚31’473’’ E

Year of construction - - 2005

Storeys G+1 G+1 G+1

RVS score 61 95 125

Length (m) 10.05 12.85 13.5

Width (m) 6.6 8.7 10.7

Location Shimla Shimla Hamirpur

700 Storeys G+1 G+1 G+1

RVS score 135 115 115

200 Storey height (m) 3.6 3.0 3.0

100 Column dimension (m2) 0.40x0.45 0.30x0.30 0.30x0.30

Internal wall thickness (m) 0.1 0.1 0.1

The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017 15

Figure 4. General view of selected RC buildings

Building-I Building-II Building-III

Building-IV Building-V Building-VI