3.

Carrier Modulation – Analog

Modulation is the process of using an information signal (such as voice or music) to alter
some property of a higher frequency waveform which can then be efficiently radiated by
reasonably small antenna. Waveforms at different “radio” frequencies can simultaneously
“carry” a plurality of information signals. The information signal amplitude is used to vary either
the carrier amplitude (Ac) or the carrier phase angle (ωct + θ). The unmodulated carrier is
normally a sinusoid described by:
c(t) = Accos(ωct + θ ) where: Ac = peak amplitude of the carrier
ωc = 2πfc = carrier frequency
θ = carrier phase at t = 0

3.1 AMPLITUDE MODULATION

Consider a carrier sinusoid c ( t) = Ac cosω c t that is multiplied by a factor which varies
between 0 and 1; a process that can be simply realized with a potentiometer. For rapidly
fluctuating information signals, the potentiometer is replaced with an electronic multiplier that
implements a gain coefficient (again constrained between 0 and 1). For this introduction, we
assume the gain coefficient (or modulation) to be always positive and of the form
k (t ) = A0 + Am cos ω m t where 0 ≤ k (t ) ≤ 1 . In broadcast AM radio, the modulation signal (or gain) is
always positive as it is in Figure 3-1. We will see that the broadcast signal has transmitted carrier
with double sideband (DSB-TC). Amplitude modulation is, in fact, a non-linear process and this
is evidenced by the generation of new frequencies. However, it is often called linear modulation
since the output carrier amplitude varies in one-to-one correspondence with the message signal.

Figure 3-1 Multiplication of a unit amplitude carrier by the factor k(t)

3.1.1 Sinusoidal modulation of a carrier

We now put aside the requirement for a positive gain coefficient and focus on the product
of two sinusoids. In this section, we consider modulating signals that have zero average value
and, as a result, there is no carrier component in the product.
Introduction to Communication Systems – A Multimedia workbook 35

The output product has new component frequencies (ωc - ωm) and (ωc + ωm) that are
different from either of the input frequencies. Signals in the modulation process are illustrated
with “double sided” frequency spectra, a representation consistent with complex exponential
representation of the signals. Using the Euler identity 2cosθ = e jθ + e− jθ , the product
s( t) = Am cosω m t × Ac cosω c t is illustrated below in terms of exponential components. We can
then restate the product s(t) in cosine form as 0.5 Ac Am [cos(ω c + ω m ) t + cos(ω c − ω m ) t] , a result
consistent with the trigonometric identity cos x cos y = 0.5[cos( x + y ) + cos( x − y )] .

Am Am
2 2 Modulation m(t) = A m cos ωmt
−ω m ωm ω 2
e (
Am jω m t − jω m t
+e )
Ac Ac
2 2 Carrier c(t) = s(t)
−ωc 0 ωc ω
2
e (
Ac jω c t − jω c t
+e ) A ccos ωct
Ac Am Ac Am
4 4

0 4
e [
Ac Am j (ω c +ω m ) t
+ e ( c m) + e ( c m) + e ( c m)
j ω −ω t − j ω −ω t − j ω +ω t
]
−(ωc+ω m) ωc+ωm
−(ωc−ω m) ωc−ωm

Figure 3-2 Multiplication of Amcosωmt and Accosωct

Example 3.1 – Product of Sinusoids – A 600 kHz cosine waveform with peak amplitude 10 volts is multiplied
by a 4 volt peak cosine waveform with frequency 3 kHz. Determine the frequency and amplitude of all product
components and determine their normalized powers. Illustrate the amplitude spectrum and normalized power
spectrum on a two-sided frequency axis.
10 V 10 V 10 V 10 V
100 W 100 W 100 W 100 W

(10 V cos 2π 600 × 103 t) × (4 V cos 2π 3000t) -603 -597 0 597 603 f (kHz)

= 20 V cos 2π 597 × 10 3 t + 20 V cos 2π 603 × 10 3 t

⇒ 597 kHz, V p = 20 V, PN = 200 W ⇒ 603 kHz, V p = 20 V, PN = 200 W

Drill Problem 3.1 - Amplitude Modulation - For a carrier signal c(t)=100Vcos2
20000t and the following
modulation signals, determine the sinusoidal component amplitudes (in volts) and component frequencies (in kHz).
Modulation Signal A1 F1 A2 F2 A3 F3 A4 F4
2cos 2π4000t
4cos 2π11000t
2 + 4cos2π23000t 200 3 200 20 200 43
cos 2π4000t + cos 2π8000t
Checksum 550 40 550 91 250 67 50 28

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Chapter 3: Carrier Modulation - Analog 36

3.1.2 On/Off modulation of a carrier

Double-sided spectral representations facilitate rapid understanding of the spectra
resulting from signal multiplication. The example below shows multiplication of a carrier
sinusoid by an on/off gating signal. (Note that on/off modulation is used in optical transmission
systems). The gating (or modulation) signal is represented by a low frequency “square”
waveform with levels 0 and 1 and its spectrum has a cluster of components near zero frequency.
Through the multiplication process, the “positive” frequency components of the squarewave
translate to an “upper sideband” (USB) with frequencies greater than that of the carrier while
“negative” frequency components translate to the “lower sideband” (LSB) with frequencies less
than the carrier.

Example 3.2 – On-Off Switched Sinusoid - A 16 kHz sinusoid 2Acosω ct is multiplied by a 1 kHz repetitive
on/off “square” waveform with 50% duty cycle. Illustrate the time waveform of this gated signal. Also illustrate
the Fourier series for the two input signals, W(f) and S(f), and the output signal, WS(f).
volts Aδ(f + fc ) W( f ) Aδ(f − f c)
w(t) = 2Acosω ct
2A volts
0 fc
t(ms) - fc 0 f (Hz)
-16 kHz 16 kHz
∞
 
unitless s(t) = ∑ ∏  t −T nT0  0.5
n = −∞  0 2 S(f) 0.319
1.0
0.064
3
0 01 5
0 t(ms) -0.106 f (kHz)
0.5 1.0
0.5 A Ws(f) 0.5 A
volts ws(t) = s(t)w(t) AS(f + fc ) 0.319 A AS(f − fc) 0.319 A
2A
0.064 A 0.064 A
0 volts
t(ms) - fc 0 fc f (Hz)
-0.106 A -0.106 A

Drill Problem 3.2 – On/Off Modulation - a) In the 1 kHz baseband on/off gating waveform of Example 3.2, what
positive frequency has exponential component amplitude -0.106, b) In the output signal, ws(t), what are the highest
positive component frequencies with amplitudes 0.064 A and 0.035 A, and c) if A = 40 V, what is the magnitude
of the output component at –13 kHz?
a) _______ kHz b1) ______ kHz b2) ______ kHz c) ___________ V Checksum = 55.2

3.1.3 Spectral Translation & Convolution

Amplitude modulation of a sinusoidal carrier can be viewed as translating the baseband
modulation signal to a higher frequency. In the output product spectrum, there is a copy of the
two-sided baseband spectrum centered about the carrier frequency thus we have “frequency
translated” the baseband signal. Each modulation frequency exponent has been increased by the
carrier frequency.

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When the carrier signal itself has several frequency components, translated copies of the
baseband spectrum may overlap. Several combinations of input frequencies can result in the
same output frequency. Upon multiplication, the frequency exponents add and thus the output
spectrum may be calculated by convolution of input signal spectra. Convolution has been
previously demonstrated in the calculation of PDF for the arithmetic sum of signal voltages.

3.2 RADIO BROADCAST AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM-DSB-TC)

In AM broadcast radio, the carrier amplitude increases and decreases in proportion to the
information signal voltage. The modulation voltage is always positive and thus there are no
polarity reversals in the modulated carrier. This format is known as amplitude modulation with
double sideband and transmitted carrier (AM-DSB-TC) or simply AM. A broadcast radio
system needs simple, low cost, receivers (since there are many of them). By transmitting a large
carrier component, low-cost envelope or diode detectors can be used in the receivers. So the extra
cost in transmitting carrier power is balanced by reduced receiver cost.
In North America, AM broadcast carrier frequencies are spaced at 10 kHz intervals
ranging from 540 kHz to 1700 kHz. Originally, modulation signals were restricted to less than 5
kHz resulting in 10 kHz transmission bandwidth in each channel. Recently adopted standards
now allow signal frequencies up to 10 kHz with 20 kHz transmission bandwidth. The obvious
interference between channels occupying the same or an adjacent frequency band is controlled by
geographic separation between transmitters. The maximum allowed unmodulated transmitter
power is 50 kW and the modulating waveform is constrained to be positive by limiting the
(negative) modulation index to µ = 0.9 (90%). The majority of AM radio stations are licensed for
10 kW or less and, in many cases, transmitter power is reduced at night.
Amplitude modulation is modeled by the multiplication of a constant carrier with a
positively biased baseband information signal (it never becomes negative). In the illustration
below, we assume an information signal of u cosωmt where the modulation index u = 0.5.

x(t) = 1 + 0.5 cosωmt s(t) = (1+ µcos ω m t)Ac cos ω c t

2 kHz 150V
x(t) = 1 + m(t) 100V
20 kHz c(t) = Accosωct 50V
1.5
0
1.0 100 V t
0.5
t t
-100 V

Figure 3-3 Amplitude modulation waveforms

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Chapter 3: Carrier Modulation - Analog 38

3.2.1 AM signal spectra

We assume an information signal m(t) with frequency, fm (smaller than carrier frequency,
fc ). The transmitted product waveform has amplitude variation proportional to modulating signal
amplitude. For a sinusoidal information signal, we have 1.0 + µ cos ωmt and the modulation
index, µ, must be less than unity. For other information signals, the index, µ, is defined in terms
of the most negative excursion of the baseband signal i.e. µ = m(t )min . Spectral analysis reveals
a large carrier component plus an upper sideband (USB) tone and a lower sideband (LSB) tone.
As µ is increased, sideband components increase while the carrier component remains constant.
This leads to the description: amplitude modulation with double sideband and transmitted carrier
(AM-DSB-TC). Sideband and carrier components are evident by expanding the product s(t) as

s( t) = (1 + µ cosω m t) Ac cosω c t
µAc µA
= Ac cosωc t + cos(ωc − ω m ) t + c cos(ωc + ω m ) t .
2 2
3.2.2 AM power efficiency
Only the sidebands carry information so the power efficiency of AM transmission is
calculated as the ratio of sideband power to total transmitted power. This is expressed below for
sinusoidal modulation and, at the upper limit, we have µ = 1 resulting in 33% efficiency.

A 2 ( uAc / 2) (uAc / 2)
2 2
Total Transmitter Power = PC + PUSB + PLSB = c + +
2 2 2
PUSB + PLSB u2 8 + u2 8 u2
Power Efficiency = = = .
PC + PUSB + PLSB 1 2 + u 2 8 + u 2 8 2 + u 2

Review “Virtual Laboratory” on amplitude modulation and observe 4 volt

added dc component. Modulation voltage range is then 4 V ± 2.5 V.
a) Determine the largest positive peak of the output. ____
b) Calculate the modulation index. ____
c) The spectrum analyzer shows output carrier at 2.8 Vrms.
Calculate rms sideband amplitude (compare with observation) ____
Checksum = 8.0

Drill Problem 3.3 – AM Power Efficiency - For a carrier signal c(t)= Vp cos2
600000t and sinusoidal
modulation, complete the following table. Refer to Example 3.3.
Carrier Vp Pc (kW) µ Vp s(t) Ptotal (kW) Vp/rms η(%) PEP (kW) Checksum
100 V 5 0.5 150 5.625 2.0 11.1 11.25 185.5
200 V 350 481.8
200 V 380 28.10 2.27 28.8 532.3
300 V 45 0.75 137.8 790.4 .
Checksum 90 2.90 1405 117.0 8.64 83.8 282.5 1989.9

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Example 3.3 – Average Power, Peak Power, and Peak Envelope Power (PEP) – A 100 V, 50 kHz carrier with
normalized power 5 kW is amplitude modulated by a 5 kHz sinusoid using modulation index µ = 0.6.
a) Illustrate the time waveform and, during the modulation cycle, illustrate the maximum carrier amplitude and
calculate the instantaneous peak power.
b) Determine the sideband amplitudes, the power in the sidebands and the total average power.
c) Calculate average normalized power when the envelope is at its maximum (this is known as peak-
envelope-power or PEP).

a)
160 V Instantaneous Ac = 100 V
single-sided
100 V peak power
A spectrum
25,600 watts (volts)
40 V
B
µAc/2 µAc/2 = 30 V
t
A
µ= B Peak Envelope LSB USB
µ = 0.6 Power (PEP) 0 45 50 55 f (kHz)
in this region

b) LSB Vp = (0.6)100/2 = 30 V PN = Vp2/2 = 450 watts

Carrier Vp = 100 V PN = Vp2/2 = 5,000 watts
USB Vp = (0.6)100/2 = 30 V PN = Vp2/2 = 450 watts Total power = 5,900 watts

c) PEP = (160 V)2/2 = 12,800 watts (normalized)

3.2.3 AM efficiency for realistic signals

Typical information signals contain many frequency components and the efficiency is
much less for these compound signals. For the compound modulation signal, m(t), the
transmitted AM signal is expressed as: s( t) = Ac cosω c t + m( t) Ac cosω c t . The time averaged
output power and sideband power efficiency are computed as follows

Pave = s 2 (t ) = Ac2 cos2 ω ct + 2 m(t ) Ac2 cos2 ω ct + m 2 (t ) Ac2 cos2 ω ct and

Pave =
Ac2
2
(1 + m 2 (t ) ) if ωc >> ωm and m( t ) = 0

2 2 2
sideband power m (t ) Ac / 2 m (t )
Power Efficiency = = =
( )
.
average total power 1 + m 2 (t ) A2 / 2
c 1 + m 2 (t )

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Chapter 3: Carrier Modulation - Analog 40

For the specific case of

sinusoidal modulation, m(t) = Example 3.4: calculate the power efficiency when transmitting a
compound signal using AM-DSB-TC with m(t)min = - 0.9 and the
µ cos ωmt and m 2 (t ) = µ 2 2 . For modulating signal peak/rms = 2.82.
a compound signal with peak/rms = 2
( 0.9) 0.81
2 = 8 = 0.81( 0.125)
2
m (t ) =
2.5, efficiency is less than 15% at
( 2.82 )
the loudest volume (µ = 1). With
2
normal AM broadcast modulation m (t ) 0.81(0.125)
Efficiency = = = 0.0919 = 9.2 %
µ < 1 and efficiency may be 2
1 + m (t ) 1 + 0 . 81( 0 .125)
considerably less than 10%.

3.2.4 AM Demodulators (Detectors)

Coherent Detector - Recovering the modulation signal m(t) directly from the A M
modulated signal, s(t), using a synchronized oscillator is called synchronous detection, coherent
detection, or homodyne (single frequency) detection. The receiver is known as a zero-IF or direct
conversion receiver. Coherent detection requires a receiver local oscillator that is synchronized in
frequency to the carrier used at the transmitter. The amplitude modulated signal, s(t) = [1 +
m(t)]Accos(ωct), is translated to baseband by multiplication with the local oscillator, 2cos(ωct +
θ), where θ is a small phase offset, ideally equal to zero. The multiplier output is
r1(t) = [1 + m(t)] Ac cos(ωct) 2cos(ωct + θ) = [1 + m( t)] Ac [cosθ + cos(2ω c t + θ )] .
The term with twice the carrier frequency is removed by the receiver output low-pass filter, and
the filtered output becomes rd(t) = [1 + m(t)] Ac cosθ .

[1+m(t)] s(t) = [1+m(t)]Accos(ωct)

S(f)

Accos(ωct) e-jωct e+jωct e+jωct

s(t)

r(t)
r1(t) = [1+m(t)]Accos(ω ct)2cos(ωct+ θ) -2fc 0 2fc f
= [1+m(t)]A ccos(θ ) +[1+m(t)]A ccos(2ω ct+θ)
Received
r1(t) baseband signal

rd(t) =[1+m(t)]Accosθ
2 cos(ωct+θ)
Figure 3-4 Coherent AM Detector

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Diode Detector (Rectifier) - Demodulation (or detection) of AM signals is most economically

accomplished by diode detectors or envelope detectors, however, these detectors require a large
carrier component in the transmitted AM signal. Both methods are an alternative to synchronous
(i.e. coherent) demodulation of the previous section. Diode and envelope detectors are
sometimes referred to as self-homodyne or self-coherent detectors since the received carrier
component is directly used in demodulation. If AM is applied to a diode and a resistor circuit
the negative part of the AM wave will be eliminated and the output across the resistor, r2(t), is a
rectified version of the AM signal. Rectification can be modeled as multiplication by a 1 and 0
“squarewave” signal, k(t), at the same frequency and phase as the carrier. The rectified output is:
r2 ( t) = {[1 + m( t)] Ac cosω c t} ⋅ k ( t)
1 2  1 1 
r2 ( t) = [1 + m( t)] Ac cosω c t ⋅  + cosω c t − cos 3ω c t + cos 5ω c t − ....
2 π  3 5 
1 1   1  1 1 1 1 
r2 ( t) = [1 + m( t)] Ac  cosω c t + 1 + 1 −  cos 2ω c t −  −  cos 4ω c t +  −  cos 6ω c t − ....
2 π   3  3 5  5 7 

When the rectified output

r2(t) is applied to a lowpass filter
with cutoff frequency fbw < ωc /2π ,
the filter output is [1 + m(t)]Ac/π,
and all the other components with
frequencies higher than fbw are
suppressed. The dc term is blocked
by a capacitor to give the desired
output m(t)Ac/π. Note that rectifier
Figure 3-5 Rectifier Detector (adapted from Stremler)
detection is, in effect, synchronous
detection performed without using a
local carrier. The large carrier
content in the received signal makes this possible. If a full-wave rectifier is used, the equivalent
multiplication is by +1 and –1 and the output amplitude is doubled as compared to a half wave
rectifier.

-3f c P( f ) 3fc
-fc 0 fc

r(t)
S( f )

e+ jωct e+jωct
r1(t)

2 cos(ωct+θ)

-2fc 0 2fc f

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Chapter 3: Carrier Modulation - Analog 42

Envelope Detector
The key point of interest in
an AM signal is that the positive
outer envelope of sAM(t) has the
exact shape of m(t). If we could
construct a receiver that follows the
envelope of the positive signal
peaks, then m(t) can be recovered.
An envelope detector as shown in
Figure 3-6 has higher output
amplitude than the previously
described diode detector. During a
positive cycle of the AM wave, the
diode is forward biased and
capacitor charges up to the peak
value. Ripple in the output occurs Figure 3-6 Envelope detector (adapted from Stremler)
when the capacitor discharges
through the resistor during the time period between peaks of the AM wave. The ripple can be
decreased by increasing the carrier frequency or by increasing the RC time constant. The output
lowpass filter can remove any remaining ripple. If the RC time constant is too large, the
capacitor voltage cannot follow the rate of decrease in the envelope and there will be distortion in
the shape of the demodulated waveform. If the modulating frequency is much less than the
carrier frequency, the time constant should be selected as follows:
1
fbw << << fc where fbw = fm(max) .
2πRC

Observe the diode detector in the “Virtual Experiments” CD.

a) What is the primary baseband output frequency when the
modulation has no dc component (suppressed carrier)?
b) What is the primary baseband output frequency when the
maximum dc component is applied at the transmitter?
c) Why are there only odd harmonics of the output baseband
frequency if there is no dc component (suppressed carrier)?

3.2.5 Superheterodyne receiver

To separate radio stations, receivers were initially equipped with a tunable highly
selective band-pass filter. In these tuned radio frequency (TRF) receivers, several resonant
circuits were used to realize a band-pass filter with “flat” gain over the signal bandwidth but
unfortunately it was difficult to proportionately tune all resonant circuits over the entire A M
frequency band.
This problem was overcome in the super-hetero-dyne (Latin & Greek for “above-
different-force/frequency”) receiver, where a higher frequency local oscillator (LO) is multiplied
with (mixed with or modulated by) the incoming desired signal. This produces an intermediate

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frequency (IF) signal that still contains the information signal and can be selected by a fixed
frequency “flat” filter. The following diagram illustrates the spectral amplitudes at several points
in a superheterodyne receiver (the vertical axis has units of V Hz ).

News Volts / Hz Country News

Country
650 kHz 600 kHz 650 kHz
600 kHz
Oldies Oldies
620 kHz RF filter 620 kHz
560 - 640 kHz

a)

f (kHz)
Local
-1055 +1055 -1055 +1055 Oscillator
kHz kHz kHz kHz 1055 kHz
b)

-1055 1055 f (kHz)

Country Country Country
Oldies Oldies 1655 kHz
Oldies -455 kHz -435 kHz 435 kHz 455 kHz
Country Oldies
-1655 kHz c) 1675 kHz

IF Filter f (kHz)
450 - 460 kHz

Country Country
d) -455 kHz 455 kHz

f (kHz)
-455 +455
kHz kHz
e) & f) Baseband Filter
0 - 5 kHz f (kHz)

Figure 3-7 Signal spectra in a superheterodyne receiver.

The desired frequency relationship in the mixer is fLO – fRF = fIF where fLO is the frequency
of the local oscillator, fIF is the intermediate frequency (IF), and fRF is the carrier frequency of the
desired incoming RF signal. By using a variable frequency LO, any desired RF signal can be
translated to the IF frequency. All frequency components are translated by the same amount so
the sidebands are not changed (except for reversal) by the translation. The advantage of this
method is that the highly selective accurate band-pass filtering can be done at the intermediate
frequency (IF). The accurate filter is fixed in frequency and there is no requirement to tune it.

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Chapter 3: Carrier Modulation - Analog 44

RF Amp. Modulator IF Amp. Diode

& Filter (Mixer) & Filter Detector Speaker
a) c) Audio Amp
d) e) & Filter
f)
coarse accurate
b) bandpass filter
bandpass filter
450 - 460 kHz
(Pre-selector)
Local
Oscillator
Figure 3-8 Superheterodyne receiver.

Example 3.5 – An envelope detector is used to demodulate a 455 kHz intermediate frequency DSB-TC signal to
a baseband signal that has bandwidth 5 kHz. The envelope detector resistance is 10,000 ohms. What is a
reasonable value for the capacitor?
Answer - To prevent excessive ripple in the output, the cut-off frequency (or bandwidth f b )
of the RC network should be much less than the IF frequency. To prevent excessive
distortion, the bandwidth should be much greater than the highest modulating frequency.
Select
f m (max) << fb << f IF ⇒ geometric fb = f m,max • f IF = 47.7 kHz
mean:
1
= 47.7 kHz ⇒ 1
2πRC C = = 334 pF
2π • 10 • 47.7 × 10 3
4

3.2.6 The problem of image frequency in superheterodyne receivers

In a superheterodyne receiver, the LO frequency is greater than the desired RF frequency

and the IF frequency is the difference between them. (i.e. fIF = fLO – fRF ) Unfortunately it is
possible for an “image” signal (with frequency greater than the LO) to also result in a mixer
output at the IF frequency. (i.e. fIF = fIMAGE – fLO ) The unwanted signal at the “image”
frequency, after down conversion to IF, will overlay the desired signal and result in interference.
It is therefore important to prevent image frequencies from reaching the mixer and this is the
reason for the RF pre-selector filter. It is used to remove signals at fIMAGE and allow signals at fRF.
The ratio of pre-selector filter gain at the two frequencies is known as the image rejection ratio.

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Local
Oscillator -1105 0 1105 f (kHz)
-650 650 News
RF filter 910 kHz
-1560 1560 Jazz
f (kHz)
Radio
Frequency 0
+ 1105
+ 1105 kHz - 1105
kHz kHz

Eliminated by Eliminated by
RF filter RF filter
Intermediate
Frequency - 455 0 455 f (kHz)

Figure 3-9 Removal of image frequency signals by the RF filter.

Example 3.6 – Image Frequency - a commercial AM radio station with carrier frequency 540 kHz is being
received by a superheterodyne receiver with 455 kHz intermediate frequency. What is the local oscillator (LO)
frequency and what is the image frequency? What is the significance of the image frequency?
Solution - f RF − f LO = − f IF ⇒ f LO = 540 + 455 = 995 kHz
f IM − f LO = f IF ⇒ f IM = 995 + 455 = 1450 kHz
Any signal at the image frequency would be translated to the IF frequency and would interfere with
reception of the desired signal. Image frequency signals must be removed by the RF filter before
reaching the mixer. Here, the image frequency is 910 kHz (2 x 455) higher than the desired RF signal.

3.3 DOUBLE SIDEBAND SUPPRESSED CARRIER (DSB-SC)

A double sideband suppressed carrier (DSB-SC) signal is essentially an AM signal that
has no discrete carrier component. When the baseband information signal with spectrum M(f) is
multiplied by a unit amplitude sinusoid at carrier frequency, fc, the following spectrum results.
SDSB ( f ) = c [ M ( f + fc ) + M ( f − fc )]
A
2
DSB-SC wastes no power on transmitting a carrier component thus the modulation efficiency is
100%. For a given peak transmitter voltage, the sideband amplitudes can be twice as large (and
sideband power 4 times larger) as for AM-DSB-TC. Despite this advantage, DSB-SC is not
generally suitable for broadcast transmission since the exact carrier frequency and phase is
required for demodulation and this presents a difficult problem.

3.3.1 Demodulation of DSB-SC

Direct demodulation of DSB-SC signals to recover m(t) requires coherent detection
(synchronous detection); the receiver local oscillator must be exactly the same frequency (and
phase) as the modulated carrier that would be received from the transmitter. This is not always
possible (especially if the baseband signal has periods of silence). A receiver using direct
coherent detection is also known as a “zero-IF” receiver.

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Chapter 3: Carrier Modulation - Analog 46

 
M( f ) V 
 Hz 

a) Baseband

-fb 0 fb f (kHz)
-fc +fc

b) DSB-SC USB LSB LSB USB

-fc fc fc + fb f (kHz)
-fc +fc -fc +fc

c) USB LSB LSB USB

-2fc -fb 0 fb 2fc f (kHz)

Figure 3-10 Spectra in modulation and coherent (“zero-IF”) demodulation of DSB-SC.

A homodyne, direct conversion, receiver has some advantages over the superheterodyne
receiver. It eliminates the IF filter, the image rejection filter and the need for additional
oscillators. It does, however, require the receiver to synthesize an accurate local oscillator with
small phase error θ (ideally zero).

s(t) =m(t)Accos(ωct) r1(t) =m(t)A ccos(ωct)2cos(ω ct+θ)

r1(t) =m(t)A c{cosθ + cos(2ωct+θ)}
m(t) assume r(t) r1(t)
unity gain
s(t) rd(t) =m(t)A ccosθ
channel
Accos(ωct) LO = 2 cos(ωct+θ)

Figure 3-11 Zero-IF (homodyne) receiver for DSB-SC signals.

As the phase error θ increases, the output amplitude diminishes and, if θ is 90 degrees,
the product demodulator output is zero! In order to ensure minimum phase error, the local
oscillator (LO) signal can be developed using a phase locked loop incorporating the square of the
received signal. This fails, however, during periods of silence when the sidebands become zero.
To permit the use of a low-cost diode detector, we can re-insert the locally generated
carrier signal to form DSB-TC. This method avoids the relatively costly multiplier/mixer
illustrated in Figure 3-11.

3.3.2 Application of DSB-SC within a FM stereo broadcast signal

An interesting application of DSB-SC is in commercial FM stereo broadcasting. Original

frequency modulation systems were monaural and they carried one 20 Hz - 15 kHz audio signal.

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Stereo broadcast in FM systems now uses a baseband signal with 20 Hz - 53 kHz frequency
range to carry two audio signals. To be compatible the previous monaural system, the sum of the
left and right (L+R) audio signals is broadcast in the 20 Hz – 15 kHz frequency range. The
difference of the left and right audio signals (L-R) is placed at a higher (inaudible) frequency range
in the baseband signal. The L-R signal amplitude modulates a 38 kHz sub-carrier producing a
lower sideband in the frequency range 23 – 37.980 kHz and an upper sideband in the frequency
range 38.020 – 53 kHz. The 38 kHz sub-carrier is not broadcast so that (almost) all of the
combined signal voltage relates to the audio signals.
In effect, the L-R audio signal is relocated in the frequency domain by multiplying its time
waveform by a pure sinusoid at fc = 38 kHz. This is expressed as SDSB(t) = mL-R(t)Accosωct. For
example, a pure sinusoidal L-R modulation would result in frequencies fc ± fm and no component
at the carrier frequency fc. To avoid spectral overlap with the L+R baseband signal, the 38 kHz
sub-carrier is selected such that fc > 2fm.
In addition to the main stereo program carried in the L+R and L-R signals, some broadcast
signals include a background music program in the frequency range 59-75 kHz. This is shown in
Figure 3-12 as subsidiary communications.

M(f)
Optional
M ( f-f c) Subsidiary
L+R L+R Communications
L-R LSB L-R USB

0 15 23 38 53 59 75 f (kHz)
19
Figure 3-12 Spectrum of sub-carrier DSB-SC stereo signal.

f (kHz)
m L(t) m L(t) + mR(t)
L
+ Σ L+R
0 15

0 - 15
+ 103.5 ±0.1 s(t)
kHz MHz
38 kHz
÷2 19 kHz
+
mR(t)
Σ
FM
R Cos ωct frequency
Transmitter
0 - 15 divider + mb(t)
kHz
+
0 - 75
- kHz
Σ
+ L-R
f (kHz)
0 38

Figure 3-13 DSB-SC modulator for stereo broadcast on FM.

The broadcast frequency allocation, or in other words, the allowed bandwidth for
commercial FM transmission is ± 100 kHz about the carrier. For example, a licensed transmitter
might have an allowed transmission bandwidth of 103.1±0.1 MHz. The combined audio signal
must not result in a frequency deviation that would cause this bandwidth to be exceeded. Since

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Chapter 3: Carrier Modulation - Analog 48

the receiver signal to noise ratio (SNR) improves with the degree of modulation, it is
advantageous to remove any non-information component such as a baseband subcarrier.
The receiver, however, requires a large 38 kHz local oscillator to perform coherent
demodulation. This is addressed by sending a small amplitude 19 kHz pilot tone that the receiver
uses to synthesize the required 38 kHz. The 19 kHz pilot signal represents only a small portion
of the baseband voltage used to modulate the FM transmitter so the SNR at the receiver is not
significantly reduced.
At the receiver, the FM broadcast signal is initially demodulated to a signal with 75 kHz
bandwidth. The 75 kHz signal is then separated by filters to form a L+R baseband signal and a
L-R signal in DSB-SC format. A 38 kHz local oscillator signal is used to demodulate the L-R
signal by synchronous demodulation as shown in Figure 3-14. Alternately the local oscillator
(LO) output can be added to the L-R signal to form DSB-TC that can be subsequently
demodulated by an envelope detector.

L+R +
Σ 2L
0 - 15
103.5 ±0.1 15 kHz LPF +
r(t) kHz
MHz

d b(t) 19 kHz
FM BPF 38 kHz
Receiver 0 - 75 & Doubler
0 - 15
kHz - kHz
Σ
23 - 53 kHz
+
15 kHz 2R

L-R

Figure 3-14 DSB-SC Demodulator for sub-carrier DSB-SC stereo signal

Using the “Virtual Experiments” CD, observe the spectrum analyzer

display showing the demodulated spectrum of a FM stereo broadcast
signal. This spectrum shows a baseband signal extending up to 15 kHz
plus a DSB-SC signal containing L-R information.
a) Observe the pilot frequency and determine the bandwidth of the
unused spectrum surrounding it.
b) Observe the receiver’s 38 kHz carrier reference and determine it’s
amplitude in dB relative to the received pilot at 19 kHz.
c) Pause the movie and observe the similarity of the baseband
spectrum to the sidebands about the 38 kHz carrier

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3.4 SINGLE SIDEBAND AMPLITUDE MODULATION (SSB)

The most power and bandwidth efficient linear modulation scheme is single sideband
amplitude modulation. Both sidebands in DSB-SC have equal amplitude and are symmetric in
frequency about the carrier; the information contained in one sideband is also in the other.
Transmitting only one sideband halves the transmission bandwidth and, when compared to AM-
DSB-TC, power is saved by not transmitting the carrier and the redundant sideband.

3.4.1 Filter method of generating SSB

One method of generating a SSB signal is to first generate a DSB-SC signal and then
remove one of the sidebands with a filter. Either the upper or lower sideband can be transmitted.
The following diagram implies an ideal bandpass filter with perfectly sharp cutoff at fc, however,
real filters have a transition frequency range between stopband and passband. Since this
transition is generally in proportion to the cutoff frequency, it is advantageous to filter at a
relatively low intermediate frequency. For the example of voice signals with 300 – 3400 Hz
bandwidth, the DSB-SC signal has 600 Hz separation between the sidebands and the SSB filter
transition must occur over less than 600 Hz.

M( f ) V Hz

a) Baseband
-fb 0 fb +fc f (kHz)
Modulate
-fc

b) DSB-SC USB LSB LSB USB

-fc fc - fb fc f (kHz)
Filter Filter
c) SSB-SC USB USB

-fc ~ fc fc+fb f (kHz)

Demodulate M(f)
-fLO +fLO -fLO +fLO

fLO = fc Baseband Filter

-2fc -fb 0 fb 2fc f (kHz)

Figure 3-15 Spectra in modulation and coherent demodulation of SSB-SC.

3.4.2 Demodulation of SSB using a mixer

Demodulation of SSB requires an “almost-coherent” local oscillator at the receiver. Phase
shift and even a small amount of frequency error can sometimes be tolerated. When the receiver’s
local oscillator has a small frequency offset relative to the transmitter frequency, the demodulated
information signal incurs a slight frequency shift. This would not be tolerable for television
signals, however a modest translation is acceptable in voice transmission systems such as in
amateur radio, citizen band radio and in telephony. The 28.8 and 33.6 kb/s voiceband modems

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Chapter 3: Carrier Modulation - Analog 50

can tolerate up to 7 Hz of frequency translation. Early telephone systems used SSB for
multichannel microwave transmission and a pilot tone enabled the receiver to synthesize a series
of almost synchronous demodulation carriers for each SSB voice channel.
SSB demodulation is accomplished with a mixer (multiplier) in the same way as for DSB
systems. Alternately, if replica of the transmitter carrier is inserted at the receiver, then an
envelope or diode detector may be used in the same way as for broadcast AM.
V Hz R(f)
SSB-SC USB USB f (kHz)
-f c fc
-(fLO -∆f ) fLO -∆f -(fLO -∆f ) fLO -∆f
Demodulate
~
M(f)
-(2fc - ∆f ) -∆f ∆f 2fc - ∆f

Figure 3-16 SSB demodulation with LO frequency error.

3.4.3 Envelope Detection of SSB

Resultant g1 (t) is the sum
The most economical method of detecting a
of carrier and USB tone g1 (t)
SSB-SC signal is to re-insert the missing carrier and
gr (t ) Upper
then use a diode or envelope detector. As illustrated ωm sidetone
in Figure 3-17, a large carrier component is required Added carrier Ar x(t)
to minimize the inherent distortion in g1 ( t) . If the
added carrier, represented by Ar , has large amplitude
relative to the sideband amplitude, then
g1 ( t) ≈ x ( t) = Re{gr ( t) + Ar } . Ar+x(t)
|g1 (t)|
It is also possible to have a single sideband
signal with transmitted carrier. Although this form
is not power efficient, it allows the direct use of a
self-homodyne diode detector while still conserving
transmission bandwidth. The reduced bandwidth has t
advantages for optical fiber transmission where Figure 3-17 Phasor diagram showing carrier
propagation delay varies with optical frequency. added to received upper sidetone

~ r1(t) ~
m(t) r(t) m(t)
Σ
r(t) r1(t)
SSB demodulation SSB demodulation +
with multiplier with diode detector +
LO = 2 cosωct A r cosωct

Figure 3-18 SSB demodulation with multiplier and with diode detection.

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Using the “Virtual Experiments” CD, observe the phasor diagrams, spectrum
analyzer and scope display for the SSB-SC demo as receiver carrier is added for
the purpose of diode or envelope detection.
a) What envelope change do you observe as one sideband is removed.
b) Is this compensated by doubling the transmitted sideband amplitude?
c) For equivalent mod. index, any difference between DSB & SSB envelope?

3.4.4 SSB generation using the Phase Shift Method

The “phase shift” SSB modulator illustrated below produces a single sideband output
without the use of filters to eliminate one sideband. The sine carrier c√(t ) is easily produced from
the cosine carrier source c(t ) since, for sinusoidal modulation, a similar simple phase shift can be
used. In the illustration, trigonometric identities verify the production of an upper sidetone at
ω c + ω m . (When both summation signs are positive, the lower sidetone is produced.) This
modulation concept is useful in microwave or optical systems to frequency shift a relatively
narrowband information signal.

m(t) = cosωmt cos(ωc-ωm)t + cos(ωc+ωm)t

DSB-SC
c(t) = 2cosωct +

-90º Σ
-90º - s(t) = 2cos(ωc+ωm)t
cˆ (t ) = 2sinωct
DSB-SC
mˆ (t ) = sinωmt cos(ωc-ωm)t - cos(ω c+ωm)t
Figure 3-19 Phase shift method of generating SSB.

3.4.5 Analytic Signals

When the information signal m(t ) is compound (i.e. has many component frequencies), a
Hilbert transform filter (shaded in Figure 3-19) is employed to phase-shift all frequency
components of the signal by 90 degrees without changing the amplitudes. The information signal
m(t ) and its Hilbert transform m√ (t ) , form the analytic signal g(t ) = m(t ) + jm√ (t ) . On a double-
sided frequency scale, this analytic signal has only positive frequency components. In digital
signal processing, both “in-phase” and “quadrature” signal components are retained and this
analytic form facilitates digital signal processing for phase rotation or frequency shift.
Analytic signals are have both real and imaginary components (i.e. two signal lines are
required). The analytic signal xp(t) is characterized by a spectrum that has only positive
frequency components and is zero valued for all negative frequencies. Similarly, the signal xn(t) is

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Chapter 3: Carrier Modulation - Analog 52

zero valued for positive frequencies. An analytic signal is defined in terms of the real signal and
its Hilbert transform.
x(t) Re
Horizontal Deflection
Im xp(t)
-90º ^x(t) xp(t) rotates CCW
Vertical xn(t) would rotate CW
^
xp(t) = x(t) + jx(t) Deflection

Figure 3-20 Components of an analytic signal and the X-Y oscilloscope display.

The analytic signal xp(t) can be viewed on an oscilloscope and, providing that the
frequency is low enough, the counter-clockwise rotation can be observed. Similarly, the signal
xn(t) which has only negative frequencies and will result in a clockwise rotation.

Example 3.7: Analytic signals – Given the real signal x (t ) = A cos ω r t and its Hilbert transform
x√(t ) = A sin ω r t (for positive frequencies transform shifts by –90º or –j ), write expressions for xp(t) and for xn(t).
Solution: x p (t ) = cos ω r t + j sin ω r t = e jω r t and xn (t ) = cos ω r t − j sin ω r t = e − jω r t

3.4.6 Implementation of the Hilbert Transform*

The single sideband modulator requires a 90-degree phase shift and this might be
implemented with an integrator or differentiator (with negative sign). Unfortunately, these
circuits do not maintain constant gain when the frequency is changed. The required function is
known as a Hilbert transform filter having the transfer function H ( f ) = − j sgn( f ) . Thus H(f) =
-j for positive frequency, H(f) = +j for negative frequency and H(f) = 0 for zero frequency. The
impulse response for the Hilbert transform filter is given by
h(t ) = ℑ−1[ H ( f )] = ℑ−1[ − j sgn( f )] = 1πt .

If we assume the time function x(t) with Fourier transform X(f), the corresponding Hilbert
transformed time function x√(t ) is given by:
x√(t ) = ℑ−1[ H ( f ) X ( f )] = ℑ−1[ − j sgn( f ) X ( f )]

or x√(t ) = x (t ) ∗ h(t ) = x (t ) ∗ 1πt

One approximation to a Hilbert transform filter uses a tapped delay line. It is reasonably
accurate over a range of frequencies but fails at low frequencies when the half period of the input
frequency exceeds the total time delay in the filter and it also fails at high frequencies when the
half period is less than the time delay between the taps (see sampling theory). A tapped delay
line Hilbert transform filter with 6 taps is illustrated below.

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The tapped delay line can be viewed as a distributed differentiator. The two central taps
contribute the difference − x (t©) + x (t©− Td ) where x(t’) is a delayed version of the input x(t). The
pair of taps outside the central pair, increase the gain for signals of long period and decrease the
filter gain for signals with short period. Thus the gain, which would increase with frequency for
the simple differentiator, becomes uniform over a wider range of frequencies as more taps are
added.
h(t)
Td Td Td Td Td
1/π
x(t) Td
1/3π
2πt 1/5π
-1/5 -1/3 -1 +1 +1/3 +1/5
T d 3T d 5T d t
S -1/5π
-1/3π 2 2 2
y(t)
Y(f) ≈ H(f)X(f) -1/π
1/π
when Td ≤ 1/(2f) ≤ 5Td

Figure 3-21 Approximation to Hilbert transform filter.

Another approximation to the Hilbert transform is the phase shift circuit illustrated below
and which is used for SSB transmission of voice signals. While it does not provide the Hilbert
transform of x(t), it does provide two (differential) output signals that have a 90 degree phase
relation over the voice frequency range 300 – 3300 Hz. The circuit contains 8 phase shifter
stages, each affecting a different band of frequencies and in total covering the voice frequency
range. Within the operating frequency range, the four outputs are equally spaced at 90 degree
intervals. Although m(t) is somewhat different than x(t), the resulting SSB signal is quite
satisfactory for transmission of voice and voiceband data.
A B C D E F G H

m(t)+
x(t) 12 kΩ
100 nF
12 kΩ
47 nF
12 kΩ
33 nF
12 kΩ
22 nF
12 kΩ
15 nF
12 kΩ
10 nF
12 kΩ
6.8nF
12 kΩ
3.3 nF
+1
m(t)+
12 kΩ 12 kΩ 12 kΩ 12 kΩ 12 kΩ 12 kΩ 12 kΩ 12 kΩ
100 nF 47 nF 33 nF 22 nF 15 nF 10 nF 6.8nF 3.3 nF
m(t)-
-x(t) 12 kΩ 12 kΩ 12 kΩ 12 kΩ 12 kΩ 12 kΩ 12 kΩ 12 kΩ
-1 100 nF 47 nF 33 nF 22 nF 15 nF 10 nF 6.8nF 3.3 nF
m(t)-
12 kΩ 12 kΩ 12 kΩ 12 kΩ 12 kΩ 12 kΩ 12 kΩ 12 kΩ
100 nF 47 nF 33 nF 22 nF 15 nF 10 nF 6.8nF 3.3 nF

A B C D E F G H
Figure 3-22 Phase Shifter with 90 degree outputs (Courtesy of Critical Telecom Inc.)

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Chapter 3: Carrier Modulation - Analog 54

3.4.7 Frequency Translation using Analytic Signals*

Multiplication of the analytic modulating signal m p ( t) = e jω m t by the analytic carrier
signal c p ( t) = e jω c t yields the output s p ( t) = e jω m t • e jω c t = e j (ω c +ω m ) t where all three signals
have only positive frequency components. Thus the positive frequencies of the modulating
signal are directly translated to a higher frequency as is required for SSB transmission.
In trigonometric form, we multiply m p ( t) = cosω m t + j sin ω m t by the carrier
c p ( t) = cosωc t + j sin ωc t to get the product which is also an analytic signal
s p ( t) = cosωc t cosω m t − sin ωc t sin ω m t + j sin ωc t cosω m t + j cosωc t sin ω m t . The first two terms
form the real part of the product (the part that would be transmitted by an antenna) and this
simplifies to s( t) = 2 cos(ωc + ω m ) t as illustrated in Figure 3-19.
With a multifrequency modulating signal, m( t), each frequency component must be
shifted by 90 degrees (this is where we need the Hilbert transform) to form m√ ( t) and permit the
“construction” of the analytic signal m p ( t) = m( t) + j m√ ( t) . The output s p ( t) = s( t) + j s√( t) ,
where s( t) = m( t)c ( t) − m√ ( t)c√( t) and s√( t) = m√ ( t)c ( t) + m( t)c√( t) , is calculated by 4 multipliers as
illustrated in Figure 3-23. The use of analytic signals is especially convenient in digital signal
processing (DSP) receivers. Signals are maintained in complex form during the processing and
filters are not required to eliminate image frequency, double frequency or sideband components.

x(t) Re x(t) x(t)

Im c(t)
+ s (t)
Σ
^x(t)
-90 º ^x(t) -
^
xp(t) = x(t) + jx(t)
^c(t)

c(t) Re c(t) x(t)

Im ^c(t) +
Σ
^c(t) ^s (t)
-90 º ^x(t) +
^
c p(t) = c(t) + jc(t)
c(t)

Figure 3-23 Two analytic signals and a complex multiplier

Drill Problem 3.4 – Placeholder - For a carrier signal c(t)= Vp cos2
600000t and sinusoidal modulation, complete
the following table. Refer to Example 3.3.
Carrier Vp Pc (kW) µ Vp s(t) Ptotal (kW) Vp/rms η(%) PEP (kW) Checksum
100 V 5 0.5 150 5.625 2.0 11.1 11.25 185.5
200 V 350 481.8
200 V 380 28.10 2.27 28.8 532.3
300 V 45 0.75 137.8 790.4 .
Checksum 90 2.90 1405 117.0 8.64 83.8 282.5 1989.9

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3.5 VESTIGIAL SIDEBAND MODULATION (VSB-TC)

Vestigial sideband transmission is a widely used standard for broadcast and cable
television (TV). It is a compromise that combines the benefits of DSB-TC with the bandwidth
conservation of SSB. Vestigial sideband (VSB) signals are relatively easy to generate and have
only slightly greater (5-15%) bandwidth than an equivalent SSB signal. The broadcast television
signal has one full sideband plus a small vestige of the other sideband. At low frequencies, where
components from both sidebands are received, transmission is equivalent to DSB with excellent
reproduction of the low frequency components that are essential for TV receiver
synchronization. As with other forms of DSB transmission, the receiver requires a coherent local
oscillator and thus broadcast television transmits a large carrier to allow envelope detection in the
receiver.

Picture
0 4.2 f (MHz)
-55.25 MHz +55.25 MHz
Sound (FM)
V
Picture (AM) Hz Picture (AM)
0 55.25 59.75
Filter Filter
Sound Sound
Broadcast Signal
Picture (VSB) Channel - 2 Picture (VSB)
54.0 60.0

55.25 59.75
Sound
Received & Filtered Signal
Picture Picture
+101 MHz -101 MHz 54.50 56.00 60.0
45.75
Sound 41.25
Picture Picture Receiver IF
Signal
41.0 45.00 46.50
+45.75 MHz -45.75 MHz
Sound Sound Diode
Picture Picture Demodulated
Signal
0 4.25 4.75
4.50
Received
Picture
Picture Signal
0

Figure 3-24 Modulation and demodulation in VSB broadcast television.

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Chapter 3: Carrier Modulation - Analog 56

In Figure 3-24, a 0 - 4.2 MHz baseband television picture signal is used to DSB-TC
modulate a channel 2 carrier of frequency 55.25 MHz. The lower sideband of the resulting signal
is “truncated” by removing components less than 54 MHz. The vestige of the lower sideband is
attenuated starting 0.75 MHz below the carrier and is completely attenuated at frequencies more
than 1.25 MHz below the carrier. The associated television sound signal, which frequency
modulates a carrier centered at 55.75 MHz, is added to the VSB picture signal prior to broadcast.
At the receiver, a filter is applied to spectrally shape the signal such that
M ( f − fc ) + M ( f + fc ) = MDSB ( f ) where the spectral density of the equivalent DSB signal is
represented by MDSB ( f ). With this shaping, the demodulated video signals overlap at baseband
to provide uniform transmission gain throughout the frequency range.

3.6 QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MODULATION (QAM)

By using quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM), two independent modulation signals
can be transmitted in the same bandwidth that would be used by a single DSB transmission. The
QAM scheme provides spectral efficiency equal to SSB but it does not require accurate filters or
the use of the Hilbert transform.. For the majority of recently developed systems, QAM has
been the choice. We assume unit amplitude information signals x(t) and y(t) and modulation
indicies µi and µq such that mi ( t) = µi x ( t) and mq ( t) = µq y ( t) . Two baseband signals are
separated at the receiver through synchronous detection using two quadrature phase carriers.
QAM modulation and demodulation are illustrated in Figure 3-25.

[1+ mi(t)](1+cos2ωc t) +mq(t)sin2ωct

1+m i(t) [1+ mi(t)]cosωct
DSB-TC
ri(t) = 1+mi(t)
c(t) = cosωct +
s(t) C.R. 2cosωct
Σ r(t)
-90º + -90º
sinωc t 2sinωct
rq(t) = mq(t)
DSB-SC
mq(t) mq(t)sinωct
mq(t)(1- cos2ωct) + [1+ mi(t)]sin2ωct

Figure 3-25 QAM Transmitter and Receiver.

At the receiver, a carrier recovery circuit develops a demodulator carrier that is ideally
equal to the transmitter carrier in frequency and in phase (i.e. coherent). Phase error (i.e. θ ≠ 0)
in the demodulator carrier (LO) will result in crosstalk between the two channels. We assume no
channel attenuation and that the received signal is identical to the transmitted signal.
r( t) = s( t) = (1 + mi ( t)) cosωc t + mq ( t)sin ωc t
In the upper (in-phase) portion of the receiver, the local oscillator (with phase error) is
2 cos(ω ct + θ ) = 2(cosθ cos ω ct − sin θ sin ω ct ) . The product demodulator output then becomes

[(1 + mi (t)) cosωc t + mq (t)sinωc t ] 2(cosθ cosωc t − sin θ sin ωc t) .

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This product has terms at twice the carrier frequency plus terms at baseband. After the
low-pass filter, only baseband terms remain in the in-phase output ri (t ).

[ ]
ri ( t) = [1 + mi ( t)] cosθ − mq ( t) sin θ

In the lower or quadrature portion of the receiver, the local oscillator (with phase shift) is
2 sin(ω ct + θ ) = 2(cosθ sin ω ct − sin θ cos ω ct ) and the product demodulator output becomes
[(1 + mi (t)) cosωc t + mq (t) Ac sinωc t ] 2(cosθ sin ωc t + sin θ cosωc t) After the low-pass filter,
this results in
[ ]
rq ( t) = mq ( t) cosθ + [1 + mi ( t)] sin θ .

When θ = 0 , the two signals can be transmitted independently over the same bandwidth. When
there is a phase error, the in-phase output includes some of the quadrature signal and vice versa.

Example 3.8: Assume a QAM system with receiver phase error φ = 0.1 rad = 5.7° Calculate the
[
crosstalk, X(dB), between channels. Note that ri ( t) = [1 + mi ( t)] cosθ − mq ( t) sin θ]
Solution: X ( dB) = 20 log10 ( sin θ / cosθ ) = 20 log10 ( 0.0993 / 0.995 ) = −20.0 dB

A widespread example of QAM transmission is found in stereo AM broadcast. The

block diagram of Figure 3-26 incorporates the same in-phase and quadrature modulators as in
Figure 3-25. At the receiver, the local oscillator is derived from a phase locked loop (PLL) that
extracts the carrier component from the received signal. To maintain compatibility with existing
AM receivers, broadcast QAM utilizes two automatic gain control (AGC) elements. At the
transmitter, the gain control loop scales back the resultant amplitude so that its envelope is equal
to the in-phase modulation signal 1+L+R. Existing AM receivers can demodulate the signal (as
usual) with an envelope detector. A stereo AM receiver envelope detects the AM signal then
uses a feedback control loop to scale up the QAM signal prior to demodulation. The amount of
downscaling and upscaling is dependent on the magnitude of the L-R signal and ideally the
product of the two operations (αβ) is unity.
1+L+R

(1 + L + R)

DSB-TC
1+L+R Envelope Envelope
Detector Detector

c
PLL
-90 AGC AGC
-90
L-R
DSB-SC (L - R)

Figure 3-26 Stereo AM system.

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Chapter 3: Carrier Modulation - Analog 58

3.7 PHASE MODULATION (PM)

Improved immunity to noise is the principle advantage of phase modulation (PM) or
frequency modulation (FM). We begin with a study of phase modulation since this can be
directly compared with noise immunity in AM. Phase modulation is widely used in digital
modulation (such as QPSK), however, it is rarely used in analog systems because FM is easier to
demodulate. A well-known example is broadcast FM which uses frequency modulation for signal
frequencies up to 2.1 kHz, however, phase modulation is used for remaining signal frequencies up
to 15 kHz since PM has superior performance. In PM and FM (together known as angle
modulations), we increase transmission bandwidth and gain the benefit of improved noise
performance - something that was not possible with AM.
With phase modulation, carrier phase varies directly with the baseband signal voltage
m(t); the carrier amplitude remains constant. We define a modulation coefficient kp in units of
radians/volt so carrier phase θ(t) = kpm(t) and the transmitted signal s(t) is then

s(t) = Accos [ωct + θ(t)] = Accos [ωct + kpm(t)] .

We also define a modulation index βp that indicates the peak phase deviation θp (in radians).

Phasor Diagram βp = 2 Time Waveforms βp = 6.28

(one radian)
114.6°
2π θ (t)
57.3°

20 V 0° -2π

-57.3°
-114.6° (- one radian)

Figure 3-27 Two examples of wideband phase modulation (second is adapted from Couch-6).

Drill Problem 3.4 - Phase Modulation – In the waveforms illustrated in the above right-hand figure, assume that
the carrier frequency is 1 MHz, the carrier amplitude is 25 volts and the peak modulation voltage is 1.5 volts.
Answer the following questions with a precision of 2 decimal places.
a) Determine kp, the gain coefficient of phase modulation. ________
b) Determine the phase advance (in radians) when the modulation voltage is +0.75 V. ________
c) What is the modulation frequency (in MHz)? ________
Checksum 7.39 .

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3.7.1 Narrowband Phase Modulation

When the modulation index β is small compared to one radian, we have narrowband
phase modulation. At these low levels of modulation, the PM spectrum is composed primarily
of carrier plus two first order sidebands. The spectrum resembles that of amplitude modulation
and, for small phase deviations, a good approximation to PM is obtained by summing an in-phase
carrier with components generated by DSB-SC modulation of a quadrature carrier. Figure 3-28
illustrates the case when sinusoidal modulation is applied; the small amount of incidental
amplitude variation in the output s(t) is neglected.

Narrowband Phasor Diagram

Phase Modulator
c(t) + β p = 0.1
20 V cos ωct (not to scale)
+ s(t)
Sum
θ = -90° ul tant
Res
Lower f m Upper
x side tone
5.7 ° max side tone f m (1 volt)
m(t) xy
0.1 cos ω mt y
Carrier (20 volts)

Figure 3-28 Narrowband phase modulation (β = 0.1).

In Figure 3-28 it is instructive to consider the alternate case where there is no phase shift
and the sideband components add in-phase with the carrier resulting in amplitude modulation. In
these two cases, the AM index µ is numerically equal to the PM index βp.
Early angle modulation systems used narrowband angle modulation as a base and
generated wideband modulation through frequency multiplication (i.e. using non-linear 3rd or 5th
harmonic generation followed by filters). In this indirect method, the modulation index increased
in proportion to the multiplication factor.

3.7.2 Wideband Phase Modulation

The appeal of phase modulation lies in its ability to improve SNR in noisy channels - but
this occurs only for large modulation indices (βp > 1) and this can greatly increase transmission
bandwidth. We initially digress from this noise reduction objective to study PM spectral
properties.
Phase modulation is a non-linear modulation process and the spectrum of a PM signal is
not a simple replica of the modulating signal spectrum - particularly at higher levels of
modulation. To study spectra of wideband phase modulation, we return to the mathematical
expression s(t) = Accos [ωct + kpm(t)]. This can also be expressed as s(t)= Re{Acejθ(t)ejωct} with
complex envelope g(t) = Acejθ(t) where θ(t) = kpm(t). As in amplitude modulation, the baseband
spectrum of the complex envelope centers about ωc and we can simply focus on spectral analysis

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Chapter 3: Carrier Modulation - Analog 60

of the complex envelope. The message signal directly varies the exponent in e jθ ( t ) and Taylor
series expansion shows many higher order spectral terms as θ(t) increases.

e jθ = ∑
( jθ )n = 1 + jθ −
θ2
−j
θ3 θ4 θ5
+ + −
θ6
+••• .
n! 2 6 24 120 720
Recall that sinusoidal modulation is useful for system analysis and testing (but of no
interest as an information signal). Accordingly, we study spectral properties by assuming θ(t) =
kp Am cosωmt and, after substituting into the above Taylor expansion, we have

(k p Am ) (k p Am ) (k p Am )
2 3 4
jθ ( t )
e = 1 + jk p Am cosω m t− cos ω m
2
t− j cos ω m
3
t+ cos4 ω m t + ••• .
2 6 24
It is clear that higher harmonics of the modulating frequency ωc become more significant as kpAm
increases. To evaluate, we expand trigonometrically and collect similar frequency components
from all terms. Assuming Ac = 1 and modulation index β = θmax = kp Am , the expansion becomes:
e jθ ( t ) = J 0 (β ) + j 2 J1 (β )cosω m t − 2 J 2 (β )cos 2ω m t − j 2 J 3 (β )cos 3ω m t + ••• .

Collecting terms with ω = 0 yields J0, where J0 is a Bessel function of the first kind of order zero
and this represents the dc term of the complex envelope

J 0 (β ) = 1 −
(β / 2) 2 (β / 2) 4 5(β / 2) 6 25(β / 2)8
+ − + − ••• .
1!×1! 2!×2! 3!×3! 4!×4!

Similar collecting of terms yields J1, the

amplitude of the fundamental frequency in
the complex envelope, J2 the amplitude of
the second harmonic and so on. Tabulated
values for J0, J1, J2, etc. are widely available
and the functions are known as Bessel
functions of the first kind of order n. A
series expansion for the Bessel function is
n+2k
∞ (−1)k  β 2 
Jn ( β ) = ∑ .
k =0 k!( k + n)!
The zero frequency component amplitude
J0 becomes zero when β = kpAm = 2.40.
The carrier vanishes leaving only sideband
components thus providing a convenient
observation for testing PM systems in the Figure 3-29 Bessel Functions
laboratory.

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Example 3.9 – Use the series expansion to calculate Bessel functions J0(β) and J1(β) for index β = 3.00.
Answer:

J 0 ( 3) = 1−
(β 2)
2
+
(β 2)
4
−
(β 2)
6
+
(β 2) (β 2)
8
−
10
+ .....
1 22 62 24 2 120 2
= 1.0 − 2.25 + 1.2656 − 0.3164 + 0.0445 − 0.0004 + ..... = − 0.2567

J1 ( 3) =
(β 2) − (β 2) 3 + (β 2) 5 − (β 2) 7 + (β 2) 9 −
(β 2)11 + .....
1 1(2) 2(6) 6(24 ) 24 (120) 120( 720)
= 1.5 − 1.6875 + 0.6328 − 0.1186 + 0.0133 − 0.0001 + ..... = 0.3399

Observe the phase modulation demonstration in the “Virtual Experiments”

CD. Here, a 30 kHz carrier is phase modulated by a 500 Hz signal.
a) Determine the demodulation coefficient in volts/rad.
b) Determine deviation (in degrees) when modulation index β = 2.4.
c) Roughly compare the spectral power for β = 0.5 and β = 2.4.

Drill Problem 3.5 – A 100 MHz carrier frequency is phase modulated by m( t) = 5 V cos 2π 10 t . The peak
7

phase deviation is 4 radians. Determine the modulation index β p and the gain coefficient k p of the modulator.
From the graph of Bessel functions, determine the modulation voltage Vm that will result in no spectral component
at 110 MHz. With 200 MHz carrier frequency, what Vm will result in no spectral component at 210 MHz?

β p = ______ k p = _________ Vm = ___________ Vm = ___________ Checksum = 14.3 .

Observe the phase modulation demonstration in the “Virtual Experiments”

CD. Here, a 30 kHz carrier is phase modulated by a 500 Hz signal.
a) Determine the demodulation coefficient in volts/rad.
b) Determine deviation (in degrees) when modulation index β = 2.4.
c) Roughly compare the spectral power for β = 0.5 and β = 2.4.

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Chapter 3: Carrier Modulation - Analog 62

3.7.3 Graphical Illustration of Modulation Index and Spectra

With sinusoidal modulation and low modulation index, β =0.5, the spectrum is principally
composed of the carrier and two first order sidebands. The imaginary portion of the complex
envelope has a large sinusoidal component (first order quadrature sidebands) while the real
portion has a large dc portion (carrier) with a very small double frequency component (second
order, in-phase, sidebands).
Phasor illustration of g(t) I-Q variation of g(t) One-sided spectrum of transmitted waveform

t=0 Im 2 J1 cos ω mt s(t) = Re{g(t)Ace jωt }

β = 0.5 0.48
= g(t)Accosωct
0 J0 = 0.938
t volts
J1 = 0.242
1.0
Ac= 1.0 volt J0Ac J2 = 0.031
Re β = 0.5
1.0
0.5
0.88 J1Ac
J0 - 2 J2 cos 2ω mt J2Ac
t 0.0
0 fc-2fm fc fc+2fm f

Figure 3-30 Complex envelope in PM with sinusoidal modulation (β = 0.5)

When the modulation index increases to β =1.5, the imaginary portion of the complex envelope is
clearly non-sinusoidal and contains a substantial third harmonic component. The real part of the
complex envelope contains a smaller dc component, larger second harmonic component and a
small amount of 4th harmonic. The transmitted carrier component decreases as the modulation
index increases. When the modulation index increases to β =2.4, the dc component of the
complex envelope reduces to zero and the carrier component of the transmitted waveform is
completely eliminated. Total power in the spectrum remains constant.
Im
0.99
t=0
2J1 cos ωmt - 2J3 cos 3ωmt
β = 1.5 J0 = 0.512
0 volts J1 = 0.558
t
1.0 J2 = 0.231
β = 1.5 J3 = 0.061
0.5 J4 = 0.012

Re 0.0
1.0 fc-3fm fc fc+3fm f
J0 - 2J2 cos 2ωmt + 2J4 cos 4ωmt

0.07
t

Figure 3-31 Complex envelope in PM with sinusoidal modulation (β = 1.5)

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3.7.4 Noise reduction in phase modulation systems*

We now return to the study of noise and signal to noise ratio (SNR) in phase modulation
systems. Typical noise resembles a continuum of equal amplitude sinusoids with infinitely small
frequency spacing. We use the term “white” since this parallels the case of visible radiation with
uniform spectral density. The sum of many sinusoidal voltages yields a Gaussian amplitude
density with standard deviation equal to the rms voltage. Since noise voltage adds to the signal
voltage, we use the term additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN). A portion of this noise is in-
phase with the carrier while an equal portion is in quadrature to the carrier which results in a two-
dimensional “fuzzy ball” in the phasor diagram.
PSD
W/Hz Vector { }
s( t) = Re Ac e jω c t
Ac2/4 Ac2/4 jω c t Unmodulated carrier
Ac e
Ac
fc
-fc 0 fc f Ac t
- Ac
1/ fc
PSD Vector
W/Hz
Ac2 /4 Ac2/4 [ Ac + n(t)]e jω t c
Noisy carrier σ
n(t)
N0 /2 fc
-fc 0 f Ac t
BT

Figure 3-32 Bandlimited noise added to an unmodulated carrier.

We assume a receiver that accepts a limited transmission bandwidth, BT, centered about
the signal carrier. Channel noise is assumed to have white spectral density quantified as N0/2
watts/Hz (two-sided density) thus the noise power entering the receiver equal to N0BT. The
carrier power to noise power ratio is denoted CNR and is
2
C = SNRIN = Ps = Ac / 2
N Pn N 0 BT

where Pn = N 0 BT = n 2 ( t) = σ n2 and where the transmission bandwidth BT ≈ 2(βp+2)Bm where Bm

is the bandwidth of the message signal.
The phase modulated carrier is described with a complex envelope gS ( t) as illustrated in
the phasor diagram of Figure 3-33 where the amplitude Ac is constant and the phase θ m ( t) is
modulated. When noise is added to the signal, we have gT ( t) = gS ( t) + gn ( t) and the demodulated
carrier phase has two portions, θ m ( t) = k p m( t) and θ n ( t) ≈ n p ( t) Ac where n p ( t) is the phase
noise as measured along the circumference in the phasor diagram. We now have three
components of interest: a) carrier power, b) message signal sideband power and c) noise power.
After demodulation with a phase detector, noise spectral components are translated to
baseband where the spectral density becomes N0 on a two-sided spectrum (twice the density
when compared to RF). We assume a phase detector with unity gain ( kd = 1 volt/radian) to

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Chapter 3: Carrier Modulation - Analog 64

avoid complicating the following expression. The ratio of demodulated message signal power
divided by the average noise power at the detector output is then

θ m 2 ( t) k p 2 m 2 ( t) Ac 2 k p 2 m 2 ( t)
SNRD = = =
θ n 2 ( t) n p 2 ( t) Ac 2 2 N 0 BT

BT
2σn (radians)
PSD n(t)
W/Hz 1.0 θm(t)max N0
θn(t) Demod.
0 f Spectrum
N0 /2 Ac -Bm B m
-fc 0 f
BT
Rx Spectrum θm(t) θm(t) + θn(t)

2σn t
β = 1.0 2σnθ =
Phasor Ac
Demodulated
Diagram Phase
-57.3° -1.0

Figure 3-33 Phase demodulation with noise

The message signal spectrum, after detection, is collapsed to its original bandwidth and
we can then limit the output signal to the bandwidth Bm. This eliminates excess noise received in
the wider transmission bandwidth BT and improves the SNR.
Ac 2 k p 2 m 2 ( t)
SNRO = .
2 N 0 Bm
Signal to noise ratio can be improved by increasing the modulation index β. For example,
doubling the phase deviation, quadruples the modulation signal power and, since the demodulated
noise voltage remains constant, this results in 6 dB increase in SNR.

Example 3.10: A phase modulation system with carrier 100 MHz and sinusoidal modulation at 1 kHz has
modulation index βp = 5, received carrier amplitude A c = 10 volts and carrier to noise power ratio = 20 (13 dB).
Receiver bandwidth is 100 MHz ±7 kHz so as to accommodate extended sidebands caused by the high modulation
index. Determine the received noise power, the angular variance of the noise, and the demodulated SNR.

Solution:
P (10 V) / 2 (5 rad)
2 2
Pn = σ n = c =
2
= 2.5 V 2 Pmθ = σ m
2
θ =< (β cosω m t) 2
>= = 12.5 rad 2
20 20 2
 σ  2 2.5 W Pm σ m 2
12.5
σ n2θ =  n  = = 0.025 rad 2 SNRd = = 2θ = = 500 (27 dB)*
 10  100 V 2 Pn σ nθ 0.025
* this calculation does not include any improvement gained by post detection filtering.

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Example 3.11: Consider the phase modulation system of the previous example. Determine the output SNR if the
demodulated signal is lowpass filtered to remove noise power at frequencies greater than 1 kHz.
B   7 kHz 
Solution: SNRo = SNRd  T  = 500   = 3500 ( 35.4 dB)
 Bm   1 kHz 

Observe phase modulation of a 30 kHz carrier in the “Virtual Experiments”

CD. The carrier is modulated by a 500 Hz sinusoid. The received carrier
amplitude is approximately 0.9 volts. Click buttons for pop-ups
a) At the receiver, estimate σn in volts, Pc/Pn, and σnθ in rad.
b) Using the pop-up for β = 1.0, determine receiver sensitivity kθ in V/rad.
c) Estimate demodulated Pm/Pn at β = 0.5, β = 1.5 and β = 5.0

3.7.5 Comparison with Noise performance in AM Systems

In phase modulation, the modulation index β has no limit and this allows for a substantial
improvement in SNR. In AM-DSB-TC systems, the modulation index µ must be limited so the
carrier phase will never reverse. The gain coefficient ka in the amplitude modulator is chosen
such that µ = |kam(t)min| < 1. In AM-DSB-TC systems, the transmitted power is
0.5 Ac 2 [1 + ka 2 < m 2 ( t) >] , the transmission bandwidth is 2Bm and the noise at the receiver input is
N0BT where BT = 2Bm. Assuming a lossless channel, the ratio of received signal power to noise
power is

SNRIN =
[1 + k a
2
]
m 2 ( t) Ac 2 2
.
N 0 BT
The additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) has in-phase and quatrature components
n ( t) = ni ( t) + jnq ( t) and, after coherent product demodulation (see Figure 3-4), the output is
m√ ( t) = Ac [1 + ka m( t)] + ni ( t) . Noise power spectral density after demodulation is N0 on a two-
sided spectrum, the output bandwidth is Bm , the message signal power is Ac 2 ka 2 m 2 ( t) and the
output SNR is then
Ac 2 ka 2 m 2 ( t)
SNRO = .
2 N 0 Bm
The figure of merit for AM-DSB-TC is then the ratio of the output SNR to the input SNR.

SNRO k a 2 m 2 ( t)
= where: ka m( t) min > −1.0
SNRIN 1 + ka 2 m 2 ( t)

In DSB-SC (and for SSB), no carrier component is transmitted and figure of merit equals 1.0. For
SSB, one initially expects 3 dB better performance since all signal power is transmitted in one

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Chapter 3: Carrier Modulation - Analog 66

sideband and only half the noise power is received. However, the two systems have the same
figure of merit since, on demodulation, DSB uncorrelated noise sidebands add on a power basis
(+3 dB) but the correlated signal sidebands add on a voltage basis (+6 dB).
In the case of PM, the transmission bandwidth is larger than for AM and a factor will be added to
the figure-of-merit calculation to give all systems an equivalent bandwidth at radio frequency.

Example 3.11 – SNR Figure of Merit – Consider a transmission system with 250 mW unmodulated carrier power
and 10 mW noise power at the receiver. Assume modulation by a unit amplitude sinusoid so that µ = kA and β = kp.
Calculate the SNR figure of merit for DSB-TC and PM assuming sinusoidal modulation and µ = 0.25, 0.5, 1.0
and β = 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0.
Solution:
10
Demod. Power Tx Power Merit
SNR Figure of Merit
(normalized) (norm.) σ A2
Index σ A 2 = k A 2σ m 2 1 + σ A 2 1+ σ A 2
PM
DSB-SC
µ =.25 (.25)2(0.5) = 0.031 1.031 0.030 1
µ =.5 (0.5)2(0.5) = 0.125 1.125 0.111
µ =1.0 (1.0)2(0.5) = 0.500 1.500 0.333

σθ 2 = kθ 2σ m 2 σ θ 2 1.0 AM
0.1
β =.25 (.25)2(0.5) = 0.031 1.00 0.031
β =.5 (0.5)2(0.5) = 0.125 1.00 0.125
β =1.0 (1.0)2(0.5) = 0.500 1.00 0.500
β =2.0 (2.0)2(0.5) = 2.00 1.00 2.00
β =4.0 (4.0)2(0.5) = 8.00 1.00 8.00 0.01
A 2 0.25 0.5 1 2 4
PPM = Ac 2 2 = 250 mW ( )
PAM = 1 + σ A 2  c 
 2 
Modulation Index

Note: for sinusoidal modulation σ A 2 = kA 2σ m 2 = kA 2 m 2 ( t) = kA 2 (0.5)

3.7.6 Implementation of phase modulation

Electronic implementation of a phase modulator is generally difficult with the exception
of optical systems where refractive index can be varied with an applied electrical field. Optical
modulators can deviate phase by as much as 10 radians. Detection of PM is also difficult since a
reference local oscillator must be synthesized in the receiver and available phase detectors cannot
detect large phase deviations. Unfortunately, the SNR benefits of phase modulation are only
realized at large phase shifts (β > 2).
In the next section, we introduce frequency modulation (FM) to easily generate large
phase shifts and, at the receiver, frequency detection (differential detection of phase) is easily
performed with frequency discriminators or phase locked loops. Through the use of pre-
emphasis and de-emphasis circuits, FM systems emulate the good performance of a PM system.

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In both PM and FM systems, information is carried in the carrier phase and not in its
amplitude. In the receiver, after filters have selected the desired signal, it is therefore
advantageous to “hard limit” the signal prior to demodulation. Limiting the signal amplitude
largely eliminates impulsive noise introduced by lightning or electrical switching transients. It
also mitigates the effect of non-linearity in the transmission system and variations in the received
signal strength.

3.8 FREQUENCY MODULATION (FM)

Frequency modulation provides the benefits of phase modulation and has advantages
where there is need for inexpensive receivers. The message signal varies the instantaneous
frequency which is expressed as fi(t) = fc + ∆f (t) where: ∆f (t) = kf m’(t), the modulation signal is
m’(t), and kf is the modulation coefficient in units of hertz/volt. Since carrier angle is the time
integral of instantaneous frequency, the relationship to phase modulation is simply
t
s( t) = Ac cos[ω c t + θ ( t)] = Ac cos[ω c t + ∫ ∆ω (t)dt] .
0
From the equation we see that placing an integrator at the modulation input of a P M
modulator results in a FM transmitter. Similarly, a differentiator at the output of a P M
demodulator results in a FM demodulator. Today’s FM transmitters can directly modulate a
voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) and receivers economically perform FM demodulation by
sensing the control voltage of a VCO within a phase locked loop (PLL).

m′(t ) s(t) r(t) Demod m

√ (t ) d m√ ′(t )
∫ m(t )
kp
PM PM dt

m ′( t ) s(t) r(t) Demod m√ ′( t )

FM FM
kω , kf

Figure 3-34 Relationship between PM and FM.

In the top part of Figure 3-34 we consider the specific case of sinusoidal modulation
m′( t) = Am cosω m t which integrates to m( t) = ( Am ω m ) sin ω m t (volts) and results in carrier
( )
phase deviation θ ( t) = k p Am ω m sin ω m t (radians). The peak phase deviation is
∆θ p = k p Am ω m and the modulation index β = ∆θ p is defined in terms of this peak phase
( )
deviation (in radians). We differentiate θ ( t) = k p Am ω m sin ω m t to find the carrier frequency
deviation
dθ ( t )
∆ω ( t) = = kω Am cosω m t
dt

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Chapter 3: Carrier Modulation - Analog 68

where kω is numerically equal to k p but with units (radians/second/volt). We now define a

frequency modulation index βf for the specific case of modulation by a single sinusoid.
kω Am ∆ω p ∆f p
β f = ∆θ p = = or βf = . (single sinusoid only)
ωm ωm fm

Observe the frequency modulation demonstration in the “Virtual

Experiments” CD. Here, a 25 kHz carrier is frequency modulated by a 5
kHz signal with variable amplitude. Note that for sinusoidal
modulation, phase modulation and frequency modulation are equivalent
and that the modulation indices are numerically equal.
a) Determine the modulation coefficient in kHz/volt.
b) Determine the peak frequency deviation and phase deviation when
the modulation index β = 2.4.
c) Calculate and observe the Carson bandwidth when β = 1.6.

3.8.1 Carson’s bandwidth rule

The bandwidth of an angle modulated signal depends both on β and on the highest
frequency B of the information signal. For sinusoidal modulation, the spectrum can be exactly
determined using the above Bessel
functions. In Figure 3-35, a M1(f) Single Sided Spectra
narrowband modulating signal is used to
fc J0(1.0)
demonstrate the spectral spreading that f
B J1(1.0)M1 (f)
occurs at higher harmonics. For useful
β=1 J2(1.0)M2(f)
modulating signals, the spectrum is very
complex and we resort to a “rule-of- 0
BT = 2B(β+1)
f
thumb” expression known as Carson’s J1(2.0)M1(f)
rule to evaluate the transmission β=2 fc J2(2.0)M2(f)
bandwidth. It has been shown that J3(2.0)M3(f)
98% of the transmitted power is f
contained in the bandwidth BT where B T ≈ 2B( β+1)

BT = 2 B( β + 1) β≤2 J2(4.0)M2(f)
and BT = 2 B( β + 2) β >2 . β=4 fc J4(4.0)M4(f)
J6(4.0)M6 (f)
To show the spectral effects of
an increasing modulation index, we BT ≈ 2B(β+2)
f
select a relatively narrowband
information signal with highest Figure 3-35 PM and FM Carson’s Rule Bandwidth
frequency equal to B. At very low
modulation index, the spectrum is very similar to AM where the information signal appears as 2
sidebands about the carrier. At modulation index β =1.0, the spectrum has a carrier component
with relative weight 0.77, a pair of first order sidebands each with relative weight 0.44 and a
second order sideband pair (with two times the baseband bandwidth) each with relative weight
0.11. The Carson bandwidth contains more than 98% of the transmitted power and encompasses

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the second order sidebands. For modulation index β =4.0, the rule is changed to include the 5th
and 6th order sidebands. The spectrum becomes more continuous as the modulation index is
increased.

Example 3.12 – Frequency Modulation - In monaural FM broadcast, the carrier frequency is varied in the
range fc ± 75 kHz (i.e. ∆f = 75 kHz) and the audio program signal was limited to the frequency range 20Hz–15
kHz. What is the modulation index if the program signal is a 15 kHz sinusoid with amplitude such that ∆f = 75
kHz?
∆f 75kHz
Solution: β = = =5
fm 15kHz
Note that this is an extreme case. Typical audio signals have most of their energy at frequencies near 1 kHz and
thus the effective modulation index is much higher.

3.8.2 Noise in FM systems*

In PM and FM systems, the message signal s(t) is transmitted by variations in the angle
of the sinusoidal carrier wave. Transmission noise is considered to have zero average value and to
be composed of a continuum of uniform amplitude frequency components with power spectral
density denoted N0/2 on a two-sided spectrum. The received signal includes the carrier frequency
fc, the information bearing sidebands and also the noise within the required receiver bandwidth BT
(which can be approximated by Carson’s rule). When considered alone, the bandlimited noise,
denoted n(t), has a Rayleigh magnitude distribution and a random phase φ(t) uniformly distributed
over 2π radians relative to the angle of s(t). The bandlimited received signal r1(t) is the sum of the
transmitted signal s(t) and the narrowband noise n(t) and it has a Rician magnitude distribution.
An angle modulation receiver is sensitive to received signal phase and is ideally insensitive
to any variation in the amplitude. In this case, the detected noise has a Gaussian amplitude
distribution. The noise output of the angle detector is essentially determined by the amplitude Ac
of the “in-phase” unmodulated carrier and the quadrature component nq(t) of the narrowband
noise n(t). For a modulated carrier, we similarly define the phase noise np(t) as the component of
noise along the circumference in the phasor diagram of the complex envelope.
 n ( t)   n ( t) 
θ n p ( t) = sin−1 p  ≈  p  for n(t) << s(t) .
 Ac   Ac 
We now illustrate amplitude spectral density for sinusoidal angle modulation (at 15 kHz)
and develop the demodulated SNR for phase modulation and for frequency modulation.

Drill Problem 3.6 – Incomplete

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Chapter 3: Carrier Modulation - Analog 70

r(t) = g(t)[e jωt + e-jωt ]/2

J0/2 J0/2
R(f ) J2/2 J2/2
N 0 /2
-100 0 100 f (MHz)
J0
J1 J1 g(t) = J0 + 2J1cos(ωmt) - 2J 2cos(2ωmt) • • •
AM G(f ) J2
Demod. N0
-30 0 30 f (kHz)
~
M(f ) β /2 ~
PM m(t) = β cosω mt
Demod. N 0 Ac
-Bm 0 Bm f (kHz)

FM ~ ωmβ /2 ~
m’(t) = ωmβ cosωmt
M’(f )
Demod.
-Bm 0 Bm f (kHz)

Figure 3-36 Sinusoidal modulation with and noise in angle modulated transmission

Power spectral density of the noise in the received RF signal is N0/2 and, upon coherent
demodulation with 2cosωct, noise from the upper sideband adds to noise from the lower sideband
(on a power basis) and the resulting noise power spectral density is N0 (watts/Hz). To study
demodulation, it is convenient to illustrate amplitude spectral density and thus the noise density
in the RF signal is shown as N 0 / 2 (W / Hz ) . For coherent demodulation with 2cosωct, signal
components add on a voltage basis and we recover, for analytical purposes only, the complex
envelope g(t).
With phase demodulation, we recover the modulation signal β cosωmt together with noise
having spectral density N 0 Ac . Calculation of the demodulated SNR in phase modulation is
simply the signal power divided by the noise power and this can be compared with the
calculation of SNRO with m 2 ( t) = 0.5 as in Section 3.7.4.

PS β 2 (1 / 2)
SNR = = for phase demodulation.
PN 2 Bm N 0 Ac 2

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With frequency demodulation, we recover the modulation signal ωmβ cosωmt together
with noise having spectral density ω m N 0 Ac . Calculation of demodulated SNR requires
integration of the noise power density over the output bandwidth.
P ω m 2β 2 (1 / 2)
SNR = S = Bm
for frequency demodulation.
∫ (N 0 / Ac )(ω )
PN 2 2
df
− Bm

ω m 2β 2 (1 / 2) 3 f m 2β 2 (1 / 2)
SNR = =
(2π ) 2 (N 0 / Ac 2 )[ f 3 3 ]
Bm
− Bm
( )
2 N 0 / Ac 2 Bm 3

Drill Problem 3.7 - Frequency Modulation – PLACEHOLDER signal c(t)=100Vcos2
20000t and the
following modulation signals, determine the sinusoidal component amplitudes (in volts) and component frequenci

Xxxx Signal A1 F1 A2 F2 A3 F3 A4 F4
2V cos2π4000t
4V cos2π11000t
2V + 4V cos2π23000t 200 3 200 20 200 43
cos2π4000t + cos2π8000t _
Checksum 550 40 550 91 250 67 50 28

3.8.3 Broadcast FM (is Primarily Phase Modulation)*

Commercial FM broadcast systems use pre-emphasis and de-emphasis circuits to
effectively transmit PM for frequencies greater than 2.1 kHz and to transmit FM for low
frequencies. This combines the low cost detection afforded by FM plus the high performance of
PM for the frequency range 2.1 – 15.0 kHz.
M ( f)
Optional
M ( f-fc) Subsidiary
L+R L+R Communications
L-R LSB L-R USB

0 15 23 38 53 59 75 f (kHz)
19
Figure 3-37 Sinusoidal modulation with and noise in angle modulated TX - PLACEHOLDER

Most treatments of FM consider the most optimistic calculation of SNR which assumes
sinusoidal modulation at the highest possible frequency (giving the largest signal output after
differentiation). In this specific case, FM is 3 times (4.8 dB) better than PM.
3 f m 2β 2 (1 / 2) 3β 2 (1 / 2)
SNR = =
( )
for sinusoidal modulation and fm = Bm
2 N 0 / Ac 2 Bm 3 2 Bm N 0 / Ac 2

To the contrary, practical signals such as music, voice and television, have large signal
energies at low frequencies and this favors phase modulation.

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Chapter 3: Carrier Modulation - Analog 72

Problems:
*3.1 Two signals m1(t) and m2(t) are multiplied together to give the output y(t). The signals are: m1(t) = 2V +
5V Cos 2
2000t and m2(t) = 20V Cos 2
6000t. Determine the output voltages and frequencies. Use a
voltage vs frequency graph to illustrate the output spectrum.

*3.2 The modulation system shown includes a multiplier and an amplifier with
voltage gain of two. The biased modulation signal is m(t) = 1.0 + 0.5 m(t) s(t)
cos 2π1000t + 0.3 cos 2π2000t and the carrier c(t) = 10 cos 2π7000t.
Write an expression for the output product s(t) and provide a calibrated gain=2
c(t)
sketch of the two-sided spectrum.

*3.3 An analog multiplier forms the product s(t) = m(t) • c(t). a) Accurately sketch the output signal and b)
Sketch the double sided spectral components (magnitude and frequency) of the three periodic signals.
m(t) = 2.5 cos 2
2000t
2.5 2.5

M(f)
m(t)

-2.5 0
-16 0 16
c(t) = 4 V cos 2
104t
5V 5V
C(f)
c(t)

-5 V 0
0 0.25 0.5 -16 0 16
10 V 10 V
S(f)
s(t)

-10 V 0
0 0.25 0.5 -16 0 16
Time (ms) Frequency (kHz)
*3.3a An AM radio braodcast station has unmodulated transmitter power of 50,000 watts and uses an antenna with 10
ohm effecive resistance. Determine the transmitter carrier amplitude (in volts).

*3.4 Two signals are multiplied to form an AM-DSB-TC output waveform. The carrier signal is 12 V cos2π104t and
the modulation signal is 1+ 0.75 cos 2π103t. a) Sketch the first 1 ms of the output waveform making certain to
calibrate the voltage and time axes. b) Calculate (normalized) peak envelope power and the (sideband) power
efficiency.

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V 0.5 ms 1.0 ms

*3.5 Quadrature sinusoidal carriers differ by 90° and are used in several modern modulation methods. Complete
the following three-part question.
Select one Designate phasors Sketch first 12 ms
B(t) = A(t) & B(t)
A(t) = 2 cos 377t A(t)
-2 cos 377t 12 t (ms)
+90° 2 sin 377t
-2 sin 377t B(t)
754 sin 377t
B(t) -754 sin 377t 12 t (ms)

*3.6 Sketch the first 1ms of AM-DSB output waveform with 150% modulation index. The modulation signal is
cos2π103t and carrier signal is 10V cos2π104t . In other words, this question assumes an ideal multiplier with
modulation input as 1+ 1.5 cos2π103t. Calibrate the voltage and time axes in your solution.
*3.7 An amplitude modulated DSB-TC transmitter develops an unmodulated power output of 40 kW to a 50 ohm load.
A sinusoidal test tone is applied to the modulator input and the power output increases to 50 kW. Determine:
a) the average power in each sideband
b) the modulation index
*3.8 An AM modulator operates with message signal m(t) = 4cos(1000πt) and carrier c(t) = 10Vcos(20,000πt). A dc
value is added to the message such that x(t) = Adc + m(t).
a) Find the modulation index, µ, when Adc = 5.
b) Determine the power efficiency (sideband power vs. total power)
c) Describe the preferred demodulator to recover m(t).
d) Describe the preferred demodulator when Adc = 2.
*3.9 An AM broadcast transmitter with 20 kW carrier power is broadcasting a sinusoid with 60% modulation index.
Calculate a) the power in the sidebands and b) the power efficiency of the transmission.
*3.10 A compound signal with peak/rms ratio of 4.0 has a peak amplitude which switches from 0.1 to 1.0 volts with
equal probability. The compound signal has frequency range 300 - 3300 Hz. If this signal amplitude modulates a
600 kHz carrier with modulation index 1.0, what is the sideband power efficiency at the modulator output ?
*3.11 A double sideband transmitted carrier AM signal is generated by the product of the signals mI(t) and cI(t).
Determine the modulation index, the normalized power in the transmitted carrier and the normalized power in
each sideband.
mI(t) = 1.0 + 0.5 cos 2π 103 t cI(t) = 100 cos 2π 106 t

*3.12 AM transmitters must not exceed 100% modulation otherwise the clipping effect illustrated below may
result. When negative modulation voltage is applied, the modulator effectively multiplies by zero. The
distorted output waveform has harmonic components that increase the bandwidth of the transmitted signal
and cause interference in adjacent radio frequency bands. Illustrate the transmitted waveform and spectrum for
an extreme case where the transmitted signal resembles that of modulation of a 10 kHz carrier (with

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Chapter 3: Carrier Modulation - Analog 74

amplitude 20 volts) by a half-wave rectified unit amplitude 1 kHz sinusoid. The spectrum of the half-wave
sinusoid is reproduced for convenience.
0.318
0.250 0.250 Spectrum of half-wave
rectified 1 kHz sinusoid
0.106 0.106
with unit amplitude.

-0.021 -0.021
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 f (kHz)
Signal Clipping with
Slight Overmodulation .

*3.13 The DSB-SC modulation system shown below has an overall gain of 2 in each stage. The input signal m(t)
has power spectral density of 10 mW/Hz in the band 30 Hz to 150 Hz and zero elsewhere. Sketch the
spectral density of the output using a 2-sided frequency axis.
gain = 2 gain = 2
{

{
m(t)

cos 1000 t cos 2000 t

*3.14 The modulated waveform shown in Example 3.3 is demodulated using a) a synchronous detector and b) a
diode detector. Illustrate the resulting spectrum in each case using a 2-sided frequency axis extending up to
200 kHz. Include amplitudes and frequency on your illustration and indicate any assumptions.
*3.15 The following ramp waveform m(t) is to be transmitted over a bandpass channel. Sketch the resulting time
waveform if m(t) modulates a 10 MHz carrier using (a) DSB-TC Amplitude Modulation and (b) double
sideband suppressed carrier (AM-DSB-SC) modulation

+1

0 0.5 1 1.7 2 t (us)

-1

*3.16 A ring modulator is a cost-efficient circuit that provides, under specific conditions, the functtionality of a
multiplier. In the circuit shown, the local oscillator, while at positive potential, causes current to flow in
diodes D1 and D2. This effecively grounds the lower terminal on the center-tapped primary of transformer
T2. When the local oscillator (LO) voltage is negative, diodes D3 and D4 conduct and the upper terminal of
the primary winding is effectively grounded. If the transformer has turns ratio 1:1:1, this terminal switching
then multiplies the baseband signal (BB) by +1 and –1 at the the rate of the local oscillator. The filter
shown is a bandpass filter centered about the local oscillator frequency. Give an expression for the output RF
frequency spectrum just prior to the filter.

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ei(t) BB T2
D4 D3 Filter
eo (t)
T1 RF
D1 D2
LO

*3.17 The ring demodulator shown uses two 1:1:1 center tapped transformers and it demodulates a DSB-SC signal
with fc = 30 kHz and spectral density ±5 kHz about the carrier frequency. The radio frequency (RF) bandpass
filter has unity gain in the range fc ± fc/4. When the local oscillator voltage is positive, the lower primary
terminal of T2 is effectively grounded through the diodes. When the local oscillator voltage is negative, the
upper primary terminal is grounded. The baseband lowpass filter has unity gain in the range 0 to fc/4.
Illustrate the signal spectra after the RF filter and before the baseband filter.

*3.18 A 400 kHz sinusoid is input to a ring modulator that multiplies by ±1 with frequency 1 MHz and "square"
waveform. Recall the Fourier series of the "square" multiplying waveform and illustrate the output 2 sided
discrete spectrum up to 6 MHz.
*3.19 A commercial AM radio transmitter with carrier frequency 540 kHz is being received by a superheterodyne
receiver with 455 kHz intermediate frequency. What is the local oscillator (LO) frequency, what is the image
frequency and what is the significance of the image frequency ?
*3.20 Assume a superheterodyne receiver with 455 kHz intermediate frequency is tuned to a 600 kHz AM station.
a) what is the meaning of the word "superheterodyne"?
b) what is the required LO frequency and what is the "image frequency" for the above case?
c) with the aid of diagrams, show that the sidebands are inverted at the IF frequency.

*3.21 The superheterodyne receiver illustrated below has intermediate frequency 156 kHz and is intended to receive
the AM broadcast signals in the frequency range 535 - 1705 kHz.

Envelope
Mixer Detector Speaker
RF Amp. IF Amp. Audio Amp
& Filter & Filter & Filter

Local
Oscillator
(a) What is the required range of local oscillator frequency for this superheterodyne receiver?
(b) What is the image frequency when the desired signal frequency is 600 kHz?
(c) Sketch the IF filter frequency response required for “flat” baseband output in the range 0-10 kHz.
(d) Why might a designer select 156 kHz for IF rather than today’s 455 kHz? Would 156 kHz cost more?

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Chapter 3: Carrier Modulation - Analog 76

*3.22 An AM superheterodyne receiver is tuned to a strong local station with frequency 1560 kHz. The receiver
dial is set to 1560 kHz, the local oscillator (LO) frequency is 2015 kHz and the intermediate frequency
(IF) is 455 kHz. Assuming that the receiver’s coarse pre-selector filter (prior to the mixer) is not
functioning, the same 1560 kHz local station could be received at a different dial setting. (This could be
described as sub-heterodyne mode). Calculate the following:
Dial setting ______ kHz LO frequency _______ kHz IF frequency ______ kHz
*3.23 A heterodyne receiver is tuned to a station at 3.7 MHz. The local oscillator frequency is 7 MHz and the
IF is 10.7 MHz.
(a) What is the image frequency?
(b) make a sketch showing the spectral translation.
(c) If the LO has appreciable second-harmonic content, what two additional frequencies are received?
*3.24 A 4.02 GHz satellite television signal enters an Earth station receiver with IF frequency 70 MHz. What is
the LO frequency and the image frequency for the cases of:
(a) High-side injection (superheterodyne)?
(b) Low-side injection (“subheterodyne”)?
*3.25 A heterodyne receiver is tuned to a station at 20 MHz. The local oscillator frequency is 80 MHz and the
IF is 100 MHz.
(a) What is the image frequency?
(b) At the IF frequency, are the sidebands inverted? Yes or No
(c) If the LO has appreciable second-harmonic content, what two additional frequencies are received?

*3.26 A NTSC baseband television signal uses a FM modulated sound sub-carrier at 4.5 MHz, which, when
demodulated, provides an “audio” transmission bandwidth of 110 kHz. Multichannel television sound
(MTS) transmits L+R, L-R and SAP (second audio program) signals in a manner similar stereo sound in
FM broadcast radio. For pilot tone and sub-carrier frequencies, the MTS system uses multiples of the
video horizontal scan frequency fh = 15.734 kHz. System designers chose to center the SAP channel at 5
fh (although it might have been possible to center the secondary channel at 4 fh). Sketch the magnitude
spectrum of the demodulated FM signal showing the spectral bands used by the L+R, L-R and SAP
signals. Also illustrate the pilot tone and indicate what audio bandwidth can be supported for MTS
stereo transmission.

*3.27 Assume that two audio signals with constant amplitude spectral density from 20 Hz to 10 kHz are to be
multiplexed into one composite signal using a method similar to FM and TV stereo. One of the signals
remains at baseband while the other signal is sent with DSB-SC modulation using a sub-carrier at 28 kHz.
Note that a pilot tone (at one half the sub-carrier frequency) is transmitted and used to synthesize a receiver
sub-carrier for DSB-SC demodulation.
(a) Why is the pilot tone NOT sent at the DSB-SC sub-carrier frequency ?
(b) Assuming that the pilot frequency is 14 kHz, sketch the one sided composite signal spectrum and
indicate all important frequencies.
(c) What would be the disadvantage of using a pilot frequency of 11 kHz (i.e. 22 kHz DSB carrier) ?
(d) What is the result of demodulation with 60 degree receiver sub-carrier phase error.
(e) What is the result of demodulation with 90 degree receiver sub-carrier phase error.

*3.28 A double sideband suppressed carrier (AM-DSB-SC) signal is represented by the sum of the components 10
cos 2π 37000 t and 10 cos 2π 39000 t. The signal is demodulated by the locally generated carrier 2 cos
(2π 38000 t + π/6). Note that the receiver has established the correct frequency but there is a phase error.
Write an expression for the demodulated baseband signal.
*3.29 The following illustration shows LSB spectra in SSB-SC transmission. Illustrate the receiver baseband
spectrum when the receiver LO frequency is slightly less than the transmitter carrier.

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*3.30 Assume a Hilbert transform/phase shift modulator in a SSB-SC transmitter modulated with the sinusoid
m(t) = 5 cos ωmt. The carrier is Ac cos ωct (where Ac = 1).
(a) Evaluate mh(t) - the Hilbert transform of m(t).
(b) Find the expression for a lower SSB signal.
(c) Find the rms value of the SSB signal.
(d) Find the peak value of the SSB signal.
(e) Find the normalized average power of the SSB signal.
(f) Find the normalized PEP of the SSB signal.
*3.31 Modern communication receivers use complex signal processing with “analytic” signals. An analytic
signal designated m+(t) has only positive frequency components and can be expressed as
m + (t ) = m(t ) + jm√ (t ) . When implementing analytic signal processing, two wires (or two sample
streams) are required for each signal. This is illustrated below in the “phase shift” method of generating
single sideband.
(a) Identify the analytic signals.
(b) Discuss how the –90 degree phase shift can be implemented for a sinusoid and for a realistic
(wideband) signal such as voice.
(c) Expand the block diagram below so that it provides an analytic signal at the output.

m(t) = cosω mt cos(ωc-ωm )t + cos(ωc+ωm )t

DSB-SC
c(t) = 2cosω ct +

-90º Σ
-90º - s(t) = 2cos(ωc+ωm )t
cˆ (t) = 2sin ωct
DSB-SC
mˆ (t) = sinωmt cos(ωc-ω m)t - cos(ω c+ω m)t

*3.32 A single sideband transmitter transmits the carrier signal 5 cos 2π27000 t and the modulation signals 3 cos
2π27001 t and 1 cos 2π27003 t. Note that a carrier is transmitted. Sketch a phasor diagram of the
transmitted signal when t = 0.1 ms.
*3.33 A large added carrier (20cos 2π27000 t ) and a diode detector are used to demodulate a SSB signal with
single tone sinusoidal modulation (3 cos 2π27001 t). Describe the change in the demodulated signal if
the added carrier is shifted by –90 degrees (20sin 2π27000 t).
*3.34 A single sideband transmitter with carrier frequency 27.000 MHz is used to transmit the modulation signal
6 cos 2π1200 t + 2 cos 2π3600 t. Lower sideband transmission is used (SSB-L) and the carrier is not
transmitted.
i) Sketch the spectrum of the transmitted signal.
ii) Synchronous demodulation can be used to recover the baseband signal. If there is some frequency
offset in the receiver carrier, there will be distortion in the recovered baseband signal. Sketch the
baseband output spectrum if the receiver carrier is 27.001 MHz
iii) Discuss the use of an envelope detector in a SSB receiver when a LO signal is added to the received
signal

*3.35 In a vestigial sideband (VSB) transmitter, the carrier signal c(t) = 2 cos(2π2000t) is first amplitude
modulated by the message signal m(t) = 2 cos(2π100t) + 3 cos(2π300t). The vestigial sideband filter
illustrated below is applied before transmission. Write an expression for the transmitted VSB signal s(t).

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Chapter 3: Carrier Modulation - Analog 78

|H ( f )|
1.0

0.5
f (Hz)
1600 1800 2000 2200

*3.36 A television receiver uses the superheterodyne principle with video intermediate frequency (IF) at 45.75
MHz. If the receiver is tuned to Channel 2 (with RF carrierr at 55.25 MHz), what is the local oscillator
(LO) frequency and what is the image frequency?.
*3.37 A television receiver is tuned to channel 6 which has video carrier at 83.25 MHz and audio carrier at 87.75
MHz. The TV uses a superheterodyne receiver and produces video IF carrier at 45.75 MHz and sound IF
carrier at 41.25 MHz.
i) What is the local oscillator frequency when tuned to channel 6 ?
ii) What are the video and sound image frequencies ?
iii) Repeat i) for a sub-heterodyne receiver with the same IF frequencies. Do you see any problems ?

*3.38 Each commercial broadcast format has specific advantages.

(a) what is the advantage of DSB-TC used in the AM radio standard ?
(b) what advantages does AM have over FM ?
(c) why was VSB transmission chosen for television ?
(d) is a carrier transmitted with the television VSB signal ? Explain why.

*3.39 The load resistance in the envelope detector is 10 kilohm, select capacitor(s) and diode(s) appropriate for the
51 kHz IF amplifier output signal shown below.

3 Capacitor
IF Amplifier Voltage

2
10 pF, 30 pF, 100 pF
1 300 pF, 1 nF, 3 nF, 10 nF

0
Diode (& cutin voltage)
-1
Ge, Schottky, Si, GaAs
-2 0.3, 0.4, 0.7, 1.4

*3.40 A Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) signal is formed from the product of quadrature modulation,
my(t), and quadrature carrier, cy(t), plus the AM signal generated by the in-phase product mx(t) • cx(t).
a) Determine the normalized power in the carrier and all sidebands.
my(t) = 0.25 cos 4π 103 t m x(t) = 1.0 + 0.5 cos 2π 103 t
cy(t) = 100 sin 2π 106 t cx(t) = 100 cos 2π 106 t
b) Using the relation below for complex envelope representation, determine an expression for g(t). The
complex envelope g(t) is time varying phasor. Sketch it’s locus and identify some points in time.
v(t) = Re{g(t)ejωct} = x(t) cos ωct - y(t) sin ωct where: g(t) = x(t) + jy(t)

*3.41 Stereo AM broadcasts two signals in the same bandwidth as the traditional monaural AM broadcast
system. Circle answers.
a) What modulation scheme is used ? DSB, SSB, QAM, VSB, or FM

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b) What is the advantage of sending L+R and L-R information instead of L and R?
c) A diode detector can be used for which channel(s)? L+R, L-R, or Both
d) To be compatible with traditional AM, amplitude scaling is used in which channel ?
L+R, L-R, or Both

*3.42 Consider the illustration below where a resistor-capacitor load is supplied from phase A of a 3-phase
voltage source. The two wattmeters are configured to measure in-phase power (real power) and quadrature
power (VARs). The reference voltage Vi of the in-phase power meter has the same voltage and phase as
the phase A voltage while the out-of-phase (quadrature) reactive power meter is supplied with a voltage that
has the same magnitude as phase A but with 90 degree shift.
Consider the wattmeter circuit to be a QAM communication system where the variable resistor
modulates in-phase current and the variable capacitance modulates quadrature current. The two signal
currents are read independently on wattmeters in the receiver. Relate each element of the “standard” QAM
block diagram below to an element or point in the “wattmeter communication system”. For example:
a) how does the multiplication and summation take place in the “transmitter”?
b) where are the multipliers in the “receiver” and where is the 90 degree phase shift?
c) where are the “mechanical” lowpass filters in the receiver to remove the double frequency output?

Vq Vi VS
m q(t) m i(t)
1.0 1.0
Pq (t ) Pi (t )

Transmitter 3

Vq 1.0
Receiver

[1+ m i(t)](1+cos2ω ct) +mq(t)sin2ωct

1+m i(t) [1+ mi(t)]cosω ct
DSB-TC
ri(t) = 1+mi(t)
c(t) = cosω ct +
s(t) C.R. 2cos ωct
Σ r(t)
-90 º + -90º
sin ωct 2sin ωct
rq(t) = mq(t)
DSB-SC

m q(t) m q(t)sinωct
mq(t)(1- cos2ωct) + [1+ m i(t)]sin2ωct

*3.43 A QAM signal is generated by the modulator illustrated below. The carrier frequency is 600 kHz and the
sinusoidal input signals are: mx(t) = cos 2π125 t and my(t) = sin 2π125 t
a) Label the correct points on the diagram with DSB-SC and DSB-TC.
b) For the output QAM signal v(t), determine x(t), y(t) and g(t). Note the complex envelope relations.
ω t
v(t) = Re{g(t)ej c } = x(t) cos ωct - y(t) sin ωct where: g(t) = x(t) + jy(t)
c) Sketch the complex envelope "phasor" on real and imaginary axes and a locus to show its variation
with time. Identify points at t = 0, t = 1ms, t = 2ms, etc.

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Chapter 3: Carrier Modulation - Analog 80

1+0.7m i (t)

20 cos ω c t

v(t)
-90°

0.5m q(t)

*3.44 A carrier is angle modulated by m(t) and the result, s(t), is described by s(t) =20V cos (ωc t + θ (t)). If
the output is s(t) =20V cos (80000π t + 0.4(sin 4000π t)), find the following:
a) normalized power of the modulated signal. PN = (W)
b) peak-to-peak phase deviation. θ p-p = (rad)
c) maximum frequency deviation. f∆ max = (Hz)
d) The Carson bandwidth of the modulated waveform. f BW = (Hz)

*3.45 A carrier is angle modulated by m(t) and the result is described by s(t) =20 cos (ωc t + θ (t)). If the output
is s(t) =20 cos (80000π t + 0.4 sin (4000π t)), find the following:
a) phase modulation coefficient if m(t) = 2V sin 4000π t. kp = (rad/volt)
b) frequency modulation coefficient if m(t) = 2V cos 4000π t. kf = (Hz/volt)

*3.46 In the angle modulated waveform illustrated below, the modulating frequency is 2 kHz and the carrier
frequency is 32 kHz. The peak modulating voltage is Vp = 7 V and the peak carrier voltage is 100 V.
Estimate the gain coefficient in the modulator, the peak deviation and the modulation index.

*3.47 A 3 Vp-p 1 kHz sinusoidal signal is transmitted using phase modulation. The maximum phase deviation
is ±0.75 radians and the carrier phase (in radians) is expressed as θ ( t) = 0.75 sin 2π1000 t .
a) Determine the modulation index βp. (unitless)
b) Determine the sensitivity coefficient kp of the phase modulator. (radians/volt)
c) Determine the maximum rate of change in carrier phase during the 1 kHz cycle. (radians/second)
*3.48 The following ramp signal is to be transmitted over a bandpass channel with center frequency 50 kHz. Sketch
the resulting time waveform if (a) Phase Modulation (PM) is used with kp = 3.14 rad/volt and (b) if
Frequecy Modulation (FM) is used with kf = 10 kHz/volt.

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+2v

200 us
0v
100 us 300 us t
-2v

*3.49 An AM/FM/PM transmitter has an unmodulated carrier power equal to 50 watts (normalized).
a) Individually determine the power in the carrier and AM sidebands when the carrier is AM-DSB-TC
modulated with a 1 kHz sinusoid with modulation index µ = 0.20. (watts)
b) Determine the total transmitted signal power when the carrier is phase modulated (PM) with a 1 kHz
sinusoid with modulation index β = 0.20. (Note that in phase modulation, the transmitted signal
amplitude is constant)
c) Individually determine the power in the carrier and in the first order (i.e. fundamental) PM sidebands.
(It will be useful to recall Parseval’s theorem)

*3.50 The Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) is a first generation cellular telephony system. It uses FM
transmission with 30 kHz frequency allocation per channel. Which of the following attributes are false:
a) FM has fixed power consumption that does not depend on the message being sent.
b) FM suppresses interfering signals at the same frequency from users in other cells.
c) This FM system uses larger bandwidth than a comparable AM system.
d) FM signals are not degraded by nonlinear gain in the transmitter or receiver.
e) This system can communicate modulation signals up to 15 kHz.
f) Because there is transmitted carrier, the receiver can use an envelope or diode detector.

*3.51 Why is broadcast FM radio more like phase modulation than frequency modulation?

*3.52 Why can't we use the same modulator to generate WBFM as we use to generate NBFM?

*3.53 An angle-modulated signal with carrier frequency fc = 100 kHz is described by the equation:
s( t) = 20 cos (2πf c t + 3 cos 1000πt + 4 cos 2718πt)
a) What are the modulation frequencies (in Hz)?
b) Find the power of the modulated signal.
c) Find the phase deviation in radians.
d) Find the frequency deviation in hertz.
e) Estimate the bandwidth of the signal using Carson’s Rule.

*3.54 A cellular telephone handset receives a carrier signal from the local basestation at 840 MHz. It also
receives an unmodulated carrier from a distant basestation at the same frequency and 20 dB lower
amplitude. Assume that the handset is moving at highway speed toward the local basestation (Dopper
shift is +80 Hz) and away from the remote basestation (Doppler shift is –80 Hz). The received baseband
signal at the handset is thus corrupted by 160 Hz interference caused by the remote basestation signal.
a) Calculate the amplitude ratio of local carrier to remote carrier (not in dB).
b) Assuming 1 kHz sinusoidal amplitude modulation of the local carrier with modulation index
µ = 0.5, calculate the demodulated interference SNR in dB.
c) Assuming 1 kHz sinusoidal phase modulation of the local carrier with modulation index
β = 2.0, calculate the demodulated interference SNR in dB.
d) Assuming 1 kHz sinusoidal frequency modulation of the local carrier with modulation index
β = 2.0, calculate the demodulated interference SNR in dB.

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Chapter 3: Carrier Modulation - Analog 82

*3.60 Virtual Laboratory - Analysis of PM and FM systems is often done with sinusoidal modulation.
Access the web page http://www.engr.usask.ca/classes/EE/352/expindex/am_fm_pm/amplitude.htm, and
observe the spectrum when β = 2.0. Justify the component amplitudes with the Bessel function graph
shown on page 52 of the notes. How the observed spectra relate to the following expression?

e jθ ( t ) = J 0 (β ) + j 2 J1 (β )cosω m t − 2 J 2 (β )cos 2ω m t − j 2 J 3 (β )cos 3ω m t + •••

*3.61 Design Problem - It is required to check the emission spectrum of a local AM radio station.
Available to you is the HP3580 spectrum analyzer, however, its maximum measurement
frequency is only 50 kHz. Precise frequency signal generators are available. Design a
modulation system that will frequency translate the radio signal so it can be observed using
the spectrum analyzer. Standards relating to AM broadcast emission spectra are in Part
73.44 of the USA Code of Federal Regulations on telecommunications at
http://www.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/cfrassemble.cgi?title=200147. The regulation shows limits
on transmitted signals more than 10 kHz above and below the carrier frequency.

*3.62 A design team intends to increase their company’s AM portable radio market share by introducing a low
cost on/off gating circuit to replace the mixer/multiplier normally used to translate the radio frequency (RF)
signal to 455 kHz intermediate frequency (IF). For example, in a radio receiver tuned to 650 kHz, the local
oscillator (LO) would operate at 1105 kHz and it could drive an on/off gate circuit to effectively multiply
the RF signal by 0 and 1. We assume 50% on/off duty cycle so the multiplying waveform has dc and 3rd
harmonic components in addition to the fundamental (i.e. 0 Hz, 1105 kHz, and 3315 kHz).
a) Since the on/off gating circuit effectively multiplies by more frequency components that does a
mixer/multiplier, there are more image frequencies to consider. Assuming only the 0 Hz, 1105 kHz,
and 3315 kHz components listed above, determine all the image frequencies that must be eliminated
by the RF filter when the radio is tuned to receive 650 kHz.
b) The proposed cost reduction might be worthless if the RF filter is required to be more frequency
selective. In this regard, show that the dc component in the multiplication process becomes especially
problematic when the radio is tuned to 540 kHz. Suggest a modified gating circuit that can eliminate
the dc component in the effective multiplying waveform

*3.70 A 1.0 MHz cosine carrier and two sidebands (USB and LSB) form an AM-DSB-TC signal. The two-sided
spectrum is shown below along with a phasor diagram indicating the complex envelope at time t = 1 us.
8V 8V
fm = 125 kHz
t = 1 µs fm 4 V
2V 2V 2V 2V θ = 45° θ
16 V
-1.125 -0.875 0 0.875 1.125 f (MHz) -fm
-1.00 1.00 4V
a) Accurately sketch the voltage vs time waveform on the first grid below. Indicate voltage.
b) Illustrate the voltage waveform when the carrier is removed and both sidebands remain.
c) Illustrate the voltage waveform when only the LSB is removed.
d) Illustrate the waveform with all components present and the carrier shifted by +90°.

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a) b)

0 2 4 6 8 (µs) 0 2 4 6 8 (µs)

*3.xx The signal m(t) = sinc(10t) = sin(10πt)/10πt is to be multiplied by c(t) = Accos(ωct)

and transmitted (this is AM-DSB). Circle the properties of the transmitted signal,
m(t)c(t).
a) energy signal or a power signal
b) stochastic (random) or deterministic signal
c) bandwidth when transmitted 5Hz, 10Hz, 16Hz, 20Hz, 31.4Hz or 62.8Hz.

3a. AM-SSB – (4 pts) The “ripply” energy signal m(t) = 5 V sin(2πf c t) / 2πf c t has a rectangular baseband spectrum in
the frequency range ±fc with amplitude 1/ (2 fc). When this signal modulates a carrier, the resulting signal is s(t) = 5
V cos 2πf 0 t{sin(2πf c t) / 2πf c t}. Assuming f0 = 10000 Hz and fc = 1000 Hz, then
(a) Sketch the “rectangular” spectrum of the modulated signal.
(b) If the upper sideband (above 10000 Hz) is removed, mathematically describe the time waveform
resulting from the inverse Fourier transform.

3b. SNR in PM – A cellular telephone handset receives a phase modulated 840 MHz carrier signal from the local
basestation. The received signal is corrupted by a distant modulated carrier of the same frequency and received at
18.1 dB lower amplitude (one-eighth voltage). (this amplitude is consistent with theoretical calculations for a
sectored, seven-frequency cell pattern). The illustration shows an interference calculation when the modulation
index is β = 2.0 in both the local and interfering signals.

∆θ θm p− p = 2β
rm 2r /8
∆θ p− p = = 0.25
r r
SNRI = (2β /∆ θ p− p )
2

β = 2.0 SNRI = (4 /0.25) = 16 => 24.1 dB

2
2

a) When β = 5 for both signals, determine the power ratio of demodulated signal to interference. SNRI = ____ (dB)

b) When β = 0.5 for both signals, estimate the power ratio of demodulated signal to interference. SNRI = ____ (dB)

Ch3-AM-06d3.doc © D.E. Dodds, Univ. of Saskatchewan, Canada 2/3/06