Introduction

Irrigation is the application of controlled amounts of water to plants at needed intervals. Irrigation
helps to grow agricultural crops, maintain landscapes, and revegetate disturbed soils in dry areas
and during periods of less than average rainfall. Irrigation also has other uses in crop production,
including frost protection,[1] suppressing weed growth in grain fields[2] and preventing soil
consolidation.[3] In contrast, agriculture that relies only on direct rainfall is referred to as rain-fed or
dry land farming.Irrigation systems are also used for cooling livestock, dust suppression, disposal of
sewage, and in mining. Irrigation is often studied together with drainage, which is the removal of
surface and sub-surface water from a given area.Irrigation canal in Osmaniye, Turkey.Sprinkler
irrigation of blueberries in Plainville, New York, United States.Irrigation has been a central feature of
agriculture for over 5,000 years and is the product of many cultures. Historically, it was the basis for
economies and societies across the globe, from Asia to the Southwestern United States.

Types of irrigation

There are several methods of irrigation. They vary in how the water is supplied to the plants. The
goal is to apply the water to the plants as uniformly as possible, so that each plant has the amount of
water it needs, neither too much nor too little.

Surface irrigation

Surface irrigation is the oldest form of irrigation and has been in use for thousands of years. In
surface ( flood, or level basin) irrigation systems, water moves across the surface of an agricultural
lands, in order to wet it and infiltrate into the soil. Surface irrigation can be subdivided into furrow,
border strip or basin irrigation. It is often called flood irrigation when the irrigation results in flooding
or near flooding of the cultivated land. Historically, this has been the most common method of
irrigating agricultural land and is still used in most parts of the world.Where water levels from the
irrigation source permit, the levels are controlled by dikes, usually plugged by soil. This is often seen
in terraced rice fields (rice paddies), where the method is used to flood or control the level of water
in each distinct field. In some cases, the water is pumped, or lifted by human or animal power to the
level of the land. The water application efficiency of surface irrigation is typically lower than other
forms of irrigation.

Micro-irrigation

Micro-irrigation, sometimes called localized irrigation, low volume irrigation, or trickle irrigation is a
system where water is distributed under low pressure through a piped network, in a pre-determined
pattern, and applied as a small discharge to each plant or adjacent to it. Traditional drip irrigation
using individual emitters, subsurface drip irrigation (SDI), micro-spray or micro-sprinkler irrigation,
and mini-bubbler irrigation all belong to this category of irrigation methods.[32]

Drip irrigation

Drip (or micro) irrigation, also known as trickle irrigation, functions as its name suggests. In this
system water falls drop by drop just at the position of roots. Water is delivered at or near the root
zone of plants, drop by drop. This method can be the most water-efficient method of irrigation,[33]
if managed properly, evaporation and runoff are minimized. The field water efficiency of drip
irrigation is typically in the range of 80 to 90 percent when managed correctly.In modern agriculture,
drip irrigation is often combined with plastic mulch, further reducing evaporation, and is also the
means of delivery of fertilizer. The process is known as fertigation.Deep percolation, where water
moves below the root zone, can occur if a drip system is operated for too long or if the delivery rate
is too high. Drip irrigation methods range from very high-tech and computerized to low-tech and
labor-intensive. Lower water pressures are usually needed than for most other types of systems,
with the exception of low energy center pivot systems and surface irrigation systems, and the
system can be designed for uniformity throughout a field or for precise water delivery to individual
plants in a landscape containing a mix of plant species. Although it is difficult to regulate pressure on
steep slopes, pressure compensating emitters are available, so the field does not have to be level.
High-tech solutions involve precisely calibrated emitters located along lines of tubing that extend
from a computerized set of valves.

Sprinkler irrigation

In sprinkler or overhead irrigation, water is piped to one or more central locations within the field
and distributed by overhead high-pressure sprinklers or guns. A system using sprinklers, sprays, or
guns mounted overhead on permanently installed risers is often referred to as a solid-set irrigation
system. Higher pressure sprinklers that rotate are called rotors and are driven by a ball drive, gear
drive, or impact mechanism. Rotors can be designed to rotate in a full or partial circle. Guns are
similar to rotors, except that they generally operate at very high pressures of 275 to 900 kPa (40 to
130 psi) and flows of 3 to 76 L/s (50 to 1200 US gal/min), usually with nozzle diameters in the range
of 10 to 50 mm (0.5 to 1.9 in). Guns are used not only for irrigation, but also for industrial
applications such as dust suppression and logging.Sprinklers can also be mounted on moving
platforms connected to the water source by a hose. Automatically moving wheeled systems known
as traveling sprinklers may irrigate areas such as small farms, sports fields, parks, pastures, and
cemeteries unattended. Most of these use a length of polyethylene tubing wound on a steel drum.
As the tubing is wound on the drum powered by the irrigation water or a small gas engine, the
sprinkler is pulled across the field. When the sprinkler arrives back at the reel the system shuts off.
This type of system is known to most people as a "water reel" traveling irrigation sprinkler and they
are used extensively for dust suppression, irrigation, and land application of waste water.Other
travelers use a flat rubber hose that is dragged along behind while the sprinkler platform is pulled by
a cable.

Center pivot

Center pivot irrigation is a form of sprinkler irrigation utilising several segments of pipe (usually
galvanized steel or aluminium) joined together and supported by trusses, mounted on wheeled
towers with sprinklers positioned along its length.[34] The system moves in a circular pattern and is
fed with water from the pivot point at the center of the arc. These systems are found and used in all
parts of the world and allow irrigation of all types of terrain. Newer systems have drop sprinkler
heads as shown in the image that follows.As of 2017 most center pivot systems have drops hanging
from a U-shaped pipe attached at the top of the pipe with sprinkler heads that are positioned a few
feet (at most) above the crop, thus limiting evaporative losses. Drops can also be used with drag
hoses or bubblers that deposit the water directly on the ground between crops. Crops are often
planted in a circle to conform to the center pivot. This type of system is known as LEPA (Low Energy
Precision Application). Originally, most center pivots were water-powered. These were replaced by
hydraulic systems (T-L Irrigation) and electric-motor-driven systems (Reinke, Valley, Zimmatic). Many
modern pivots feature GPS devices.Irrigation by lateral move (side roll, wheel line,
wheelmove)[36][37].A series of pipes, each with a wheel of about 1.5 m diameter permanently
affixed to its midpoint, and sprinklers along its length, are coupled together. Water is supplied at one
end using a large hose. After sufficient irrigation has been applied to one strip of the field, the hose
is removed, the water drained from the system, and the assembly rolled either by hand or with a
purpose-built mechanism, so that the sprinklers are moved to a different position across the field.
The hose is reconnected. The process is repeated in a pattern until the whole field has been
irrigated.This system is less expensive to install than a centre pivot, but much more labour-intensive
to operate – it does not travel automatically across the field: it applies water in a stationary strip,
must be drained, and then rolled to a new strip. Most systems use 100 or 130 mm (4 or 5 inch)
diameter aluminium pipe. The pipe doubles both as water transport and as an axle for rotating all
the wheels. A drive system (often found near the centre of the wheel line) rotates the clamped-
together pipe sections as a single axle, rolling the whole wheel line. Manual adjustment of individual
wheel positions may be necessary if the system becomes misaligned. Wheel line systems are limited
in the amount of water they can carry, and limited in the height of crops that can be irrigated. One
useful feature of a lateral move system is that it consists of sections that can be easily disconnected,
adapting to field shape as the line is moved. They are most often used for small, rectilinear, or oddly-
shaped fields, hilly or mountainous regions, or in regions where labor is inexpensive.

Lawn sprinkler systems

A lawn sprinkler system is permanently installed, as opposed to a hose-end sprinkler, which is

portable. Sprinkler systems are installed in residential lawns, in commercial landscapes, for churches
and schools, in public parks and cemeteries, and on golf courses. Most of the components of these
irrigation systems are hidden under ground, since aesthetics are important in a landscape. A typical
lawn sprinkler system will consist of one or more zones, limited in size by the capacity of the water
source. Each zone will cover a designated portion of the landscape. Sections of the landscape will
usually be divided by microclimate, type of plant material, and type of irrigation equipment. A
landscape irrigation system may also include zones containing drip irrigation, bubblers, or other
types of equipment besides sprinklers.

Although manual systems are still used, most lawn sprinkler systems may be operated automatically
using an irrigation controller, sometimes called a clock or timer. Most automatic systems employ
electric solenoid valves. Each zone has one or more of these valves that are wired to the controller.
When the controller sends power to the valve, the valve opens, allowing water to flow to the
sprinklers in that zone.There are two main types of sprinklers used in lawn irrigation, pop-up spray
heads and rotors. Spray heads have a fixed spray pattern, while rotors have one or more streams
that rotate. Spray heads are used to cover smaller areas, while rotors are used for larger areas. Golf
course rotors are sometimes so large that a single sprinkler is combined with a valve and called a
'valve in head'. When used in a turf area, the sprinklers are installed with the top of the head flush
with the ground surface. When the system is pressurized, the head will pop up out of the ground
and water the desired area until the valve closes and shuts off that zone. Once there is no more
pressure in the lateral line, the sprinkler head will retract back into the ground. In flower beds or
shrub areas, sprinklers may be mounted on above ground risers or even taller pop-up sprinklers may
be used and installed flush as in a lawn area .An impact sprinkler watering a lawn, an example of a
hose-end sprinkler.Hose-end sprinklers:There are many types of hose-end sprinklers. Many of them
are smaller versions of larger agricultural and landscape sprinklers, sized to work with a typical
garden hose. Some have a spiked base allowing them to be temporarily stuck in the ground, while
others have a sled base designed to be dragged while attached to the hose.

Sub irrigation

Sub irrigation has been used for many years in field crops in areas with high water tables. It is a
method of artificially raising the water table to allow the soil to be moistened from below the plants'
root zone. Often those systems are located on permanent grasslands in lowlands or river valleys and
combined with drainage infrastructure. A system of pumping stations, canals, weirs and gates allows
it to increase or decrease the water level in a network of ditches and thereby control the water
table. Sub irrigation is also used in the commercial greenhouse production, usually for potted plants.
Water is delivered from below, absorbed by upwards, and the excess collected for recycling.
Typically, a solution of water and nutrients floods a container or flows through a trough for a short
period of time, 10–20 minutes, and is then pumped back into a holding tank for reuse. Sub-irrigation
in greenhouses requires fairly sophisticated, expensive equipment and management. Advantages
are water and nutrient conservation, and labor savings through reduced system maintenance and
automation. It is similar in principle and action to subsurface basin irrigation. Another type of sub
irrigation is the self-watering container, also known as a sub-irrigated planter. This consists of a
planter suspended over a reservoir with some type of wicking material such as a polyester rope. The
water is drawn up the wick through capillary action.[38][39] A similar technique is the wicking bed;
this too uses capillary action .Subsurface Textile Irrigation (SSTI) is a technology designed specifically
for sub irrigation in all soil textures from desert sands to heavy clays. A typical subsurface textile
irrigation system has an impermeable base layer (usually polyethylene or polypropylene), a drip line
running along that base, a layer of geotextile on top of the drip line and, finally, a narrow
impermeable layer on top of the geotextile (see diagram). Unlike standard drip irrigation, the
spacing of emitters in the drip pipe is not critical as the geotextile moves the water along the fabric
up to 2 m from the dripper. The impermeable layer effectively creates an artificial water table.

Advantages of irrigation

Increase in food production: Increase in crop yield leads to an increase in food production, thus
developing people as well as society

Protection against drought: The provision of adequate watering facilities in any region ensures
protection against failure of crops from famines and droughts.

Revenue generation: When the regular supply of water is assured, the farmers can grow certain
superior or high priced crops in place of inferior or low priced crops. As a result, revenue is
generated.

Mixed Cropping: Means growing two or more crops together in the same field. This practice is
followed so that if weather conditions are not favourable for one crop, it may be suitable for other
crops. But if enough water facilities are made available, the need for mixed cropping is eliminated.[
Efficiency

Modern irrigation methods are efficient enough to supply the entire field uniformly with water, so
that each plant has the amount of water it needs, neither too much nor too little.[42] Water use
efficiency in the field can be determined as follows:

Field Water Efficiency (%) = (Water Transpired by Crop ÷ Water Applied to Field) x 100

Until 1960s, the common perception was that water was an infinite resource. At that time, there
were fewer than half the current numbers of people on the planet. People were not as wealthy as
today, consumed fewer calories and ate less meat, so less water was needed to produce their food.
They required a third of the volume of water we presently take from rivers. Today, the competition
for water resources is much more intense. This is because there are now more than seven billion
people on the planet, their consumption of water-thirsty meat and vegetables is rising, and there is
increasing competition for water from industry, urbanisation and biofuel crops. To avoid a global
water crisis, farmers will have to strive to increase productivity to meet growing demands for food,
while industry and cities find ways to use water more efficiently.[43]Successful agriculture is
dependent upon farmers having sufficient access to water. However, water scarcity is already a
critical constraint to farming in many parts of the world. With regards to agriculture, the World Bank
targets food production and water management as an increasingly global issue that is fostering a
growing debate.[44] Physical water scarcity is where there is not enough water to meet all demands,
including that needed for ecosystems to function effectively. Arid regions frequently suffer from
physical water scarcity. It also occurs where water seems abundant but where resources are over-
committed. This can happen where there is overdevelopment of hydraulic infrastructure, usually for
irrigation. Symptoms of physical water scarcity include environmental degradation and declining
groundwater. Economic scarcity, meanwhile, is caused by a lack of investment in water or
insufficient human capacity to satisfy the demand for water. Symptoms of economic water scarcity
include a lack of infrastructure, with people often having to fetch water from rivers for domestic and
agricultural uses. Some 2.8 billion people currently live in water-scarce areas.[45]

Water sources: Irrigation is underway by pump-enabled extraction directly from the Gumti,
seen in the background, in Comilla, Bangladesh. Irrigation water can come from groundwater
(extracted from springs or by using wells), from surface water (withdrawn from rivers, lakes or
reservoirs) or from non-conventional sources like treated wastewater, desalinated water, drainage
water, or fog collection. A special form of irrigation using surface water is spate irrigation, also called
floodwater harvesting. In case of a flood (spate), water is diverted to normally dry river beds (wadis)
using a network of dams, gates and channels and spread over large areas. The moisture stored in the
soil will be used thereafter to grow crops. Spate irrigation areas are in particular located in semi-arid
or arid, mountainous regions. While floodwater harvesting belongs to the accepted irrigation
methods, rainwater harvesting is usually not considered as a form of irrigation. Rainwater harvesting
is the collection of runoff water from roofs or unused land and the concentration of this. Around
90% of wastewater produced globally remains untreated, causing widespread water pollution,
especially in low-income countries. Increasingly, agriculture uses untreated wastewater as a source
of irrigation water. Cities provide lucrative markets for fresh produce, so are attractive to farmers.
However, because agriculture has to compete for increasingly scarce water resources with industry
and municipal users (see Water scarcity below), there is often no alternative for farmers but to use
water polluted with urban waste, including sewage, directly to water their crops. Significant health
hazards can result from using water loaded with pathogens in this way, especially if people eat raw
vegetables that have been irrigated with the polluted water. The International Water Management
Institute has worked in India, Pakistan, Vietnam, Ghana, Ethiopia, Mexico and other countries on
various projects aimed at assessing and reducing risks of wastewater irrigation. They advocate a
'multiple-barrier' approach to wastewater use, where farmers are encouraged to adopt various risk-
reducing behaviours. These include ceasing irrigation a few days before harvesting to allow
pathogens to die off in the sunlight, applying water carefully so it does not contaminate leaves likely
to be eaten raw, cleaning vegetables with disinfectant or allowing faecal sludge used in farming to
dry before being used as a human manure.[40] The World Health Organization has developed
guidelines for safe water use.There are numerous benefits of using recycled water for irrigation,
including the low cost (when compared to other sources, particularly in an urban area), consistency
of supply (regardless of season, climatic conditions and associated water restrictions), and general
consistency of quality. Irrigation of recycled wastewater is also considered as a means for plant
fertilization and particularly nutrient supplementation. This approach carries with it a risk of soil and
water pollution through excessive wastewater application. Hence, a detailed understanding of soil
water conditions is essential for effective utilization of wastewater for irrigation.[41]In countries
where humid air sweeps through at night, water can be obtained by condensation onto cold
surfaces. This is practiced in the vineyards at Linarite using stones to condense water. Fog collectors
are also made of canvas or foil sheets. Using condensate from air conditioning units as a water
source is also becoming more popular in large urban areas.

Technical challenges

Irrigation schemes involve solving numerous engineering and economic problems while minimizing
negative environmental impact.Overdrafting (depletion) of underground aquifers. In the mid-20th
century, the advent of diesel and electric motors led to systems that could pump groundwater out of
major aquifers faster than drainage basins could refill them. This can lead to permanent loss of
aquifer capacity, decreased water quality, ground subsidence, and other problems. The future of
food production in such areas as the North China Plain, the Punjab, and the Great Plains of the US is
threatened by this phenomenon.

Underirrigation or irrigation giving only just enough water for the plant (e.g. in drip line irrigation)
gives poor soil salinity control which leads to increased soil salinity with consequent build-up of toxic
salts on soil surface in areas with high evaporation. This requires either leaching to remove these
salts and a method of drainage to carry the salts away. When using drip lines, the leaching is best
done regularly at certain intervals (with only a slight excess of water), so that the salt is flushed back
under the plant's roots.

Overirrigation because of poor distribution uniformity or management wastes water, chemicals, and
may lead to water pollution